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THE 


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EDINBURGH ENCYCLOPZDIA; 


CONDUCTED BY 


DAVID BREWSTER, LL.D. 


F.R. S. LOND. AND EDIN. AND M.R.T. A. 


CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS, AND OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF 
PRUSSIA; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES; OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SCIENCES OF DENMARK; OF 
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF GOTTINGEN, AND OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF MODENA; HONORARY ASSOCIATE OF THE 
ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF LYONS; ASSOCIATE OF THE SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ; MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF THE AN- 
TIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND; OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, AND OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON; OF THE 
AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF NEW YORK, OF THE 
HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF NEW YORK; OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF UTRECHT; OF THE PHILOSPHICAL 
SOCIETY OF CAMBRIDGE; OF THE LITERARY AND ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY OF PERTH; OF THE NORTHERN INSTITUTION, AND OF 
THE ROYAL MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL SOCIETIES OF EDINBURGH ; OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA; OF 
_ THE SOCIETY OF THE FRIENDS OF NATURAL HISTORY OF BERLIN ; OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF FRANKFORT; OF THE 


PHILOSOPHICAL AND LITERARY SOCIETY OF LEEDS, OF THE ROYAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF CORNWALL, AND OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL 
SOCIETY OF YORK, 


WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF 


GENTLEMEN EMINENT IN SCIENCE AND LITERATURE. 


’ 


IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES, 


VOLUME IX. 


EDINBURGH: 


. PRINTED FOR WILLIAM BLACKWOOD ; 
AND JOHN WAUGH, EDINBURGH ; JOHN MURRAY; BALDWIN & CRADOCK; 
J. M. RICHARDSON, LONDON ;; AND THE OTHER PROPRIETORS. 


M.DCCC.XXX. 


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THE 


EDINBURGH ENCYCLOPADIA. 


ENGLAND. ; 


PART Il. STATISTICS.—Conrinvep. 


CHAP. IX. 
Manufactures. —Continued. 


Sect. I11.—Manufactures Silk, Linen, Stockings, 
Leather, Iron, Steel, pk , Brass, 


Toys, &c. 5 
Earthen and China Ware, Paper, Hi be 


eee a ' 
and splendour of this article of dress seems to have ex- 


VOL. IX. PART L. 


fieulty of procuring ae ae 
4 nued ti 
importation of raw silk from India, it is 


year 1719 forms a 
the silk trade in 
ed at thi 


E 
i 
Ht 


dispensibly necessary a 

An act of Parliament was ‘ore passed in the year 
1779, to permit the importation of it in the most free 
and unrestricted manner; and this act was reinforced 
in 1783. Rhee. Avede 06 thie corte pier Ue? tre 


of the cotton trade at this time--only L.960,000; How 


A 


= i 1 


1793. 


State at 


2 ENGLAND. 


Statistics. different are the two manufactures at 


! So rapid 
and was the of fashion, which substi- 
tuted cotton for silk, that in the year 1793, in the neigh- 
bourhood of Spitalfields alone, 4500 looms were shut 
up: these looms, when in full work, gave employment 
te 10,000 of whom more than a half were wo- 
men and child A short time before this, the East 
India Company, in order to encourage the British ma- 
nufacture of silk, introduced into Bengal the Italian 
method of winding it ; and they were able to render 
this country in a great measure independent of Italy, 
&c. for raw and thrown silk ; besides, it was ascertained, 
that the throw mills in England, on the whole, threw 
only about 50,000 pounds of silk in the year, which 
was not to an.eighth part of the thrown silk im- 
ported. t, unfortunately, revolution in fashion 
took place just about the time when the East India 
Company had matured their plans. 

The following is the state of the silk manufacture of 
this country at present, in the principal places where 
it is carried on:—At Derby, there are 12 twist mills,on 
the model of those brought over by Sir Thomas Lombe, 
which give employment to about 1000 people, mostly 
women and children. At Macclesfield, between 20 and 
30 silk mills are generally at work for the throwing of 
silk, ad making of sewing silk, most of which are 
tury a water; waste silk is also spun for the making 
of s.ockings and silk handkerchiefs, ribbons, tape, &c. 
manufactured. At Leek, ribbons, sewing:silk, silk twist, 
and buttons: this place and Coventry have taken away 
a considerable part of the silk trade from Spittalfields, 
in consequence, it is sup) , of the effects of the act 
of Parliament for regulating wages at the latter place. 
Coventry and Atherstone in the same county, are the 
principal places for the manufacture of ribbons. At 
St Albans and Watford, in Hertfordshire, there are 
alk mills on a new and improved’ construction, which 

ive employment -to a considerable number of people: 
are likewise silk mills at Sheffield’; Bruton,’ ini 
Somersetshire ; Sherbourne and Stalbridge’ in Dorset- 
shire ; Nottingham, Chesterfield, Congleton, where silk 
is spun for the ribbon manufacture at Coventry, and 
several other places. Silk goods, of various descrip- 
tions, are manufactared at Oakingham and Colchester ; 
silk handkerchiefs at Marichester, &e. ; and at Tow- 
cester in Northamptonshire; the’ chief manufacture is 
silk wrought by machinery. We have already men- 
tioned, that part of the Spitalfields manufactures have 
been transferred to Coventry and Leek, in uence 
of the act for regulating wages: this act has net in- 
duced some master manufacturers of gauze, who used 
to make that article in Spittalfields, to’ remove their 
trade to Reading, in Berkshire, where it is rather in a 
flourishing state. i ds, however, must still be 
regarded as the principal seat ‘of the silk trade of this 
¢ountty : in that district, there ‘are upwards of 20,000 
looms employed, principally in the manufacture of light 
silks, which afte exported to America when the trade 
is . As there is less of the raw material in them, 
the English silk manufacturer can compete, ithe Ame- 
rican market, with the French manufacturer ; but it is 
otherwike ‘with heavy silks, in which the ortion of 
the raw material is greater. Besides America, the West 
Indies take considerable part of their goods ; and 
it is caleulated that one third are used for home con- 


: 


ly by women and There are three persons 
to two looms, besides windsters and ; from 
this, and from the circumstance mentioned , that 


when the trade was so bad in the year 1793, that 4500 Statistics. 
e@ were thrown out ““\—— 


looms were shut up, 10,000 
of employ, we may —— reckon the total number of 
people employed in the silk manufacture in Spittalfields 
at between 25,000 and 30,000. 


Mr Grellier has — to estimate the value of Mr Grel- 


this manufacture in the 
rage quantity of raw and thrown silk im 

ears preceding the 5th of January 1797, was 883,438 
b. the value of which when manufactured is about 
L..2,700,000. The cost of silk to the manufacturer, if 
raw and thrown are taken together at only ‘28s. per 
pound, amounts to L. 1,260,000 ; and the profits of the 
manufacturer L, 245,454, at the rate of 10 per cent, on 


the cost when manu ee o! 
ber of persons 
stated at 200,000, but th to be- 
lieve that it exceeds 65,000 all descriptions. This 
estimate seems to be manifestly wrong in one important 
is saa Mr Grellier takes the profit of the manu- 

at the rate of 10 per cent on the cost of the ar- 
ticle when manufactured ; but the value ing to 
him is L.2,700,000: ten per cent. on this is evident] 
L. 270,000, and not L,245,454. The imports of sil 
from Italy in 20 years, from 1781 to 1800 inclusive, 
were on the average per annum about 4200 bales. The 
imports from 1800 to 1805 were rather greater, amount- 
ing to 672,409 pounds. The average annual imports 
of silk from Bengal, from: 1775 to 1794, amounted to 
$240 bales ; from 1795 to 1804, the average im- 
port from Bengal was about 2128 bales. From this it 
will appear, that the annual consumption of silk is about 
6328 bales, or nearly 950,000 pounds. Assuming the 
price to be 30s, the value of the raw mate- 
rial will be L. 1,425,000; and yr ee that th 

ods when 


ollowing manner: “ The ave- 


ducting from this the sum of L.1,; $5008, . 
e. 
capital, manufacturing profit, and labourers wages % 


to be taken. If wereckon 20 per cent. on this sum fi 


the two former, it will give 641,000, and the: i 

1. 2,609,000, will be the amount of the labourers wages. 
Asa Med 8 0 ee of these live in London, we. 
cannot reckon wages‘on an average of town and 
country, and men, women, and children, at less than) 
15s. a week, or about L:40 ayear. If, therefore; we di-) 
vide the sum of L.2,609,000 by 40, we shall 

come near the number of syed in this ma- 
nufacture: this will give us 65,250, and this namber 
of le seems much more: e than the number 
stated by Mr Grellier, when we:consider that in Spi 
fields there are about 25,000 or’ 30,000, and. in, 
Coventry the ribbon trade occupies'a consit «rable pro-. 
portion of the inhabitants, © ya 


small im ce, though formerly it 
been oP geod enbent iallcaabo T was 
made in this country so early as the year 1189, but at. 
that time by far the. quantity used, as well as: 
that of the finest quality, was imported from: ; 
About the middle of the 16th century, Norfolk en; 


Manchester ; and itis: rether- singular, 
that notwithstanding the almost overwhelming influ- 


lier'’s state- 


. ment. 
in three 


if 
mye 


~ 


to have nufacture. 


Tell ee 
The linen manufacture ti appe. very Linen ma- 
dad 
e 


Effect of 
bounty on 
it. 


ed from England drawing 


increase of this manufacture in England. ~ In Lanca- | 


Scotland to the amount of L.100,000, from Holland to 
the amount of upwards of L.200,000, and from Germany 
to the amount of upwards of half a million. The an- 
nual consumption of linen he rates at L. 1,750,000, of 
which he'says that the English manufacturer supplied 
L.746,561, Os. 1d. - Such,. ing to him, was the 
state of this manufacture in E 1 at the beginning 
of the ei century. Parli t seems to, have 
been anxious to encourage and extend this manu- 
facture. By the act of and 
in the 12th of Charles II.. duties were imposed on fo- 
i piston: ‘ntoie aenenmaenre: of thes, Dat heme 
ddptomipietined Suita ied, and of the decrease in the 
value of the money duty, as well as the improvements 


in the fabric of German linens, they were not so bene- 
ficial as'was and intended.. In the year.1743, 
a bounty was first granted on the exportation of British 


linens ; and in 1745, this; bounty was augmented. It 
‘appears ‘by the custom-house books, that, prior to the 
year 1746, British linen was. so small an article of ex- 
| ee aan whole quantity exported from Eng- 

never amounted in any one to 200,000 yards ; 
and it ap. agregar as forming a striking contrast 
between state of this manufacture in England and 
Scotland at that time and at this, that the whole ex 


( of the manufacture in. England w ‘p- 
-pear from the following facts, In the year 1743, the 
year when the bounty, to parks, HME READEY. expert 

ty was 52,779 yards ; 


in 1753, 641,510 yards; in 1763, 2,308,310 yards; in 
1778; 5,868,238 yards ; and, in 1783, 8,867,915 yards. 
On an average of 10 years, from the 5th January 1776 
tothe 5th January 1786, the linen drawing bounty ex- 

from England was 5,315,354 yards ; and the to- 


tab averlige quantity of what was exported and what 


Irish linen -_ 


imported. 


or perhaps 
. “sumed by the people 


Wea 


was consumed in England, was in 1786 to be 30,000,000 
yards 4 y# value’ nearly L.1,600,000 per annum, and 
emploj’’g and supporting about 200,000 people. It 
ought alsa to:be remarked, that the increase in the ex- 

ion of the fmer linens not entitled to bounty, be- 
tween 1743 and 1783, was nearly as great in value, 


though not in quantity. 
Yet notwitl ing this increase in the linen manu- 
facture of Eng i ion of linen from Ire- 


land continued to increase ; and it is worthy of remark, 
that at this period, from a comparison of the English 
i , exports of Irish linen, it a that four- 
map ths of the whole, were con- 

of England, and those mostly of 


; 


Ww 


port of Silesia, between 60,000 and 70,000 yards ; of 
‘from the latter country did not, reach 90,000 yards. _ re 4 : > 
The increase 


8 


the finest quality. . The Lords of Trade, in investiga- Statistics. 


ting this subject, reckoned the home consumption as at 
least four-fifths; but while the importation from Ireland 
increased, that from foreign countries diminished, as 
will appear from: the following statement : 


‘ 


Tmported. © ~ Exported. 
18,584,503 ells in. 1748 . .. 9,894,837 ells 
8,954,649... 1T7S .. s 4,385,276 
9,629,854 decrease .. .. . 5,509,561 


This. manufacture, as well as that of silk, suffered 
from the rivalship ‘of the cotton manufacture about the 
year 1790, but not nearly to so great.a degree. There are 
very few data respecting this manufacture about this pe- 
riod. . It ap 5, however, that the quantity of linens 
printed in England and Wales in the year 1796, was 
considerably less than the quantity printed in 1800, 
though the exact difference cannot be stated, as the re- 
turns laid before parliament did not distinguish between | 
printed linens and stuffs. Besides the substitution of 
printed cottons for printed linens in dress, the latter 
trade must have suffered by the very general adoption 
of cotton stockings instead of thread ones, while the 

eat increase in the importation of Irish linens must 
er discouraged another branch. of the trade. 

That the princi 
must at this time 

from the following facts, ascertained from. official 
documents: On an average from the union with Ire- 
land to the 5th of January 1813, there have been an- 
nually retained, for home consumption in this’ country, 
'$2,758,958. yards of Irish linen, The annual average 
quantity of plain linen imported from Germany, and 
retained for home consumption, between 1801 and 
1812, was upwards of two million F bid from Russia 
nearly the same ye ity ; from Holland and France 
as trifling. A do not immediately connected 
ith this part of the linen trade, we may add from the 
same documents, that, from 1801 to 1813, the annual 
average quantity of Hessen’s canvass retained for home 
consumption, was upwards of 700,000 yards ; of pac- 
king upwards of 300,000 yards; of damask and diaper 
cam- 
brie and French Jawns upwards of 17,000 whole pie- 
ces. . All the Silesia lawns were exported again, Of 
sail cloth, upwards of 47,000 ells were retained for home 
consumption ; and of chequered and striped linen up- 
wards of 12,000 ells. The average total of all sorts re- 
tained for home consumption during this period, was 
14,559 pieces, 5,836,621 ells, and 64,706 yards. Al- 
though this statement includes Scotland, yet as little 
foreign linen (except Irish) is used there, it may be ta- 
ken *: sufficiently accurate sy apa re the consump- 
tion of foreign articles made of flax and hemp in Eng- 
land; and in conjunction with the Pe RR the - 
rage quantity of krish linen retained, it at least serves 
to prove, that the linen manufacture in England cannot 
be of much importance or value, It may, however, be 
proper to point out the pepcipes pao in this country, 
‘where articles are manufactured from flax or hemp, 

Canvass for sailcloth is manufactured at Warrington, 
though not nearly to.so great an extent as formerly, 
as at.one time it was calculated that half of the heavy 
eailcloth used in the navy was manufactured here ; at 
Kirkham, in the Filde district of Lancashire, where a 
large quantity is made for the navy, 6000 bolts of can- 
vass having been supplied by two houses in the space 
of six months; at caster, . Whitehaven, Working- 


branch of the linen mar 


_) ture Present 
at a low ebb in England, 4! ap- state. 


Fe r 


4 ENGLAND. 


Statistics. ton, Stockton, Whitby, Hull, Retford in N. - 
—— chi 4 + her 


in Leices- 
Lershire, 


shire, Oxford, Bridport, and all the district 
between that and Beaminster in Dorsetshire, as well as 


in the adjoinin of Somersetshire. At Bridport,there 
is also an extenstve manufacture of nets of all sorts, lines, — 
and small At one period during the late war, 


the number of contractors S Oe eT 
were in England 23, each having 20 looms, and 
loom producing two pieces of canvass in the week ; but 
England was so little able to supply the demand, that 
by far the largest proportion was obtained from Scot- 
land, where the sailcloth manufactures were increasing, 
while those in England were Lane wh 

In Suffolk, a considerable quantity of hemp is grown, 
which is manufactured into strong and coarse linen, 
and also into sacking and . The latter are made 
chiefly in the vicinity of Stowmarket. Linen for sheet- 
ing is made at Bromsgrove in Worcestershire ; and 
sacking for hops, &c. is manufactured in Berkshire, 
where 4000 people are employed, principally at A- 
Dingdion, and in most of the hop counties. These, 
with some other linen manufactures in different 
of Westmoreland, Lancashire, Dorsetshire, Du > 
&c. of very inconsiderable extent or importance, may 
be considered as the principal in England. Linen 
thread is made in considerable quantity, by the poor 
people in cottages, in the neighbourhood of Working- 
ton, and exchanged with es people for goods, Mills 
for spittning flax were first invented at pony 
where they are still used. At this place, there is also a 
manufacture of hutkabacks, diapers, and sheeting. It 
will be evident from this account of them, that, with 
the exception of the sailcloth manufacture, the value of 
the goods made, and uently the value of the raw 
material, and the amount of the manufacturer's profit, 
and the workmen’s wages, must be very trifling ; and 
asin time of this principal branch must necessa- 

fall off very much, there seems no necessity, even 
if there were data, to endeavour to ascertain these par- 
ticulars, It may, however, just be mentioned, that, in 
the opitiion of Mr Grellier, the linen trade of England 
amounts to about one million annually. 

As stockings are made of worsted, silk, and cotton, 
‘we shall consider the manufacture of'them in this place. 
The art of knitting stockings was introdticed about the 
middle of the 16th century ; ‘and within 27 years after 
needles had been applied to this purpose, the’ steel 
frame was invented, ot introduced by one Lee of Cal- 
verton, in Nottinghamshire. This county, and the ad- 
joining counties of Derby and Leicester, still continue 
the seat of the stocking manufacture. The i ah 
Knitters Company were ye in 1664; but 
during the first after the invention, few im- 
provements were made in the frames, as in 1660 two 
men were employed to work one frame. Latterly, 
however, great improvements have taken place in this 
machine, and it has been applied té various purposes 
besides the making of stockings. 

The species of stockings matle at present in Leices- 
tershite, Nottinghamshire, and Derbyshire, in some Te- 
spects vary from one another. In the first meéritioned 
county. the stockings are principally or wholly of worst- 
ed of of cotton ; very few, if any, silk i 


made in the county. The worsted and cotton forma. ~ 


i de neighbour is prepared a8 in the count Rd 
in neighbouring county of Warwick, pafticular 

in Warwick itself, where one house is very extenisivaly 
concerned in this trade. ‘The articles made in Leices- 


tershire are principally light, consisting of sandals, 


being borne i Dorsetshire, considerable 


is calculated, that there are employed about 20,000 peo- 
= In Hinckley alone, 3000 are 

he whole hosiery anifually made 
value of L.1,500,000. ; 


In Nottinghamshire, the stocking-trade is still «more in Notting: 
extensive, as well as valuable, than in Leicestershire, bowehire; 


Besides stockings, stocking-pieces for ‘pantaloons, &c. 
fre made ; and of stockings themselves'a great 

tion are silk. Thread dochtagy'vne MAAN abate 
here in , but, as we before mentioned, 
since the advancenient of the cotton trade, they = 
been ‘entirely superseded by cotton ‘stockings. ‘T 
trade of Noteinghamahire has undergone great fluctua- 
tions, and is by no means at present in a settled stute. 


In the year 1807, which was a “year, it was 
very great in all its branches. Besides stoc and 
pieces, ‘cotton el gi As rape ‘this 


a 
county for some years. are | in great 
quantities to the Mediterranean, 60,000 dozen having 
been sent in one year. Formerly the cotinties border- 
ing on this sea, were supplied from Germany ; but'the 
manufacturers of Nottinghamshire gained — 
of the market, by stipérior industry and attention, ‘and 
smaller profits, Pieeés are also made in ‘the frame, 
which are afterwards cut up into gloves, and exported 
‘to the United States and Canada. All kinds of fleecy 
hosiery are likewise made; but ‘what pri dis. 
tinguishes Nottinghamshire, is its manufacture of lace on 
the stocking-frame. Warp lace was invented in 1804; 
and, in the year 1805, cotton-yarn (for this lace is 
made of cotton) bh ee fine enough to be made 
‘into donble press lace, ‘so much approved, ‘that in - 
‘1807 there were 1200 frames employed ; and in 1808, 
1500. About this time an inferior kind of lace was 


Within these pl hem p has been | for 
‘net silk lace, for veils, &¢. in the making of 
which @ great inany women ate ‘ at 
Castle Do and its'1 in 
tershire, d ant on Nol 
nufactare of De ire is chit 
parts of the county that border on Nottinghamshire, 
and to Litton, near Tideswell. The number of’ frames 
employed, including those on which’ silk and cotton 
stockings are wrought, has been calculated about 1950. 
In all counties, <a aa aan, 
facturers’ are men of” ‘ca <a ron 
of cotton ‘gloves are madé in and Not- 
tinghamishire: woollen are prinel in 
Wales and the north of I Te ey 
Knit stockings are now 


made; though, in the ,.;, 


more hilly or retired ‘of En; A in 
, PRorthr Ridite of Vouusuine 46 


Richmondshire, in the North Ridin ) 
Cumberland, and in the isle of ‘Pu ‘and ‘at Wim- 
ities are made. 
Linen-lace, made by bobbins, is the chief 

ment of the women im the small towns of ’ ' 
hamshire, Bedfordshire, Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire, 
wid in some of Devonshire. Tt is stipposed that 
more lace of this’ kind is ‘made at port ‘Pagnell, 
in the first mentiotred county, than in’ all the rest of 


Lace. 


~ om - 


7 . ENGLAND. ; 5 


England. At Honiton, in Devonshire, the broadest drawer under him, to examine if there be any flaws, Statistic. 
lace i ; but, the introduction of the Not- and fine-draw them. ih 
tinghamshire cotton lace, that made of linen thread has The leather trade of England is one of considerable Leather 
fallen much into disuse; nor is the decline of the trade extent and importance; but there are no materials manufec- 
to be lamented, since, from the sedentary habits which which can supply even a sketch of its history. In the “™™ 
were r to carry it on, and from the practice of ee re cee Cee oe, eee 
in it, crowding together ed in the year 1772, by J. Campbell, (though without 
in small, ill ventilated rooms, in the winter time, for his name), he gives the following estimate of the value 
the of coping themselves warm, it produced of this manufacture in Great Britain. Although it com- 
much ill health in districts in which it was the Scotland, and it does not appear on ‘what 
. it is grounded, yet, as this author seems to be ac- 
Shirt but- somewhat with this subject, thee 4 curate well informed on other points r ing © 
tons. ‘mention the manufacture of shirt-buttons. This trif- the state of our manufactures at this period, we shall, 
ling article is made toa considerable amount, in many in the absence of more satisfactory statements, subjoin 
“towns in Dorsetshire, particularly about Blandford and it. «S$ ing that there are nine millions of people 
‘Shi ;.and a practice ails here, which we im Great Britain and Ireland, and that three-fourths of 
haye noticed as ing with tothe them wear leather shoes, (which cannot be beyond the 
wmaking of linen ‘thread at Worki he shirt- reality), each person upon a medium five pairs ina year, 
ete ace tin Cha tank and the price, on a medium, 6s. a pair, (boots inclu- 
men, who in their turn to force them off, ded), this consumption amounts to 10,125,000 
in exchange for what commodities may want. Supposing the consumption of leather by 
This practice of paying for one species « manufacture coaches, chaises, &e. = - - 100,000 


another, or er of compelling the labouring ma- By harness, saddles, and bridles = - 500,000 
i. Brn Aa siege in for his work, By leather breeches, 200,000 pair 
seems to have prevailed at an early period; sincea _to be worn annually, at 103. on an ave- 
law was against it in the time of Edward IV. rage - - - - - 1,000,000 
law in the time of If.: but the 


practice still prevails, as we have seen in Dorsetshire ; Total L.11,725,000: 
in 


The reader will not fail to remark the large sum al-~ 
= io te. ee bene Reet Ante rest tthe pared xi 
stance of @i- “may oy erate bee connected, with among the lower classes, (with whom it was then 

to lk me Uriel oo te candice hota, 
produce are applied, we shall subjoin hienkp of Great Bri mas Nepeh heaiy no 
are |, we in to account ion it Britain too low, 
‘of them a curious and ing instance of the division but probably it does not the value of the leather 
‘of labour, as related to them, wepr tothe manufacture (if we calculation to apply on- 


foe 
if 
i 
Ens 
a1 
zz 
i 
§ 
: 
g 
i 
ey 
5 
i 


set of ‘men denominated pack- on the Pere, ecetak ata 


: 
i 
: 


: 
| 
| 
: 
: 
| 
5 
| 


He 
: 
: 
Hi 
zie 
i 
Te 
AF 
SEF 
Fine 
a 
HF 
lA 
25% 
abs 
B58 


this :—When 2 merchant receives orders from ject, which they gave, we shall lay before our readers, 

for superfine cloths, kerseymeres, &c. or cot- along with information on other points on which they 

linen goods, he applies to the packer, who, were not called upon to give their evidence. “he first 

experience, knows exactly the kind of goods polit tiditie te Fe’ sigptity of Bie naw” sabe, This 
are 


ae 


to be procu- of course we get in large quantities at home ; though 

the foreign are estimated at three-sevenths of the 

purchases them what he decms necessary and pro- whole 5 gam Renal and of the skins of calves, sheep, 
: coh a an ont eeaead ; 

nished » undyed, et eee, e importation of raw hides appears to have been 
ker sees to js Were ing, pressing, dress- ~most considerable from the continent of Europe, till the 
&e. Even this, feenr more pecn- _ year 1807, when it fell off nearly one-half. In 1608 

toornament and 1809, it was not one-tenth of what it had been prior 

et for which to 1807; in 1810 it rose higher than im any in 


i 
: 
i 
i 


: 
33 
: 
F 
2 
; 


' ; since, if goods were taken out to the year, (from 1803) ex 1805; in #811 1812, it 
Indies, for exa:nple, without the iate or- ell very re not Taincaiile on the average of 
: , ta they sete ese two years, to one-tenth of the i ion of 1807, 
of British manufacture, and would consequently re- From 1803 to 1807, the importation of hides from Ame- 

‘ fase to purchase them. The packer employs the fine- Tica was next in amount to the importation from Eu- 


t 


Tanneries. 


cesar 


6 ENGLAND. . 

rope; but in 1808, the ion from America was of the year. In this manufacture, a considerable num- Statistics. 
tripled ; and in 1811 it was agai ed. For some ber of women and children were employed; and it 

time after we began to trade with Buenos Ayres, hides 8 Me oe adiee teen) ee 

were the principal remittance in return for the goods in Norwich and other hg hy aa 

sent out. The of raw hides from , Ireland sewing soles to the list shoes made by the French 

and the West I has continued, regres _ Leather slippers, are made in great quan- 

skins, ty 


tion of tanned 


2E 
i 
ia 


thesehtincnt of Eurdpet eS ee 
con tof in time sometimes 
from the East Indies. 

According to the opinion of ' the leather manufacturers, 
examined "before the Committee, the leather tanned 
within the limits of the chief office in London, bears 
about the enamine Carn of oli: She, lesser 
tanned in. and Wales. Proceeding on this sup- 
position, we have, from the return of leather tanned 
Vrithin the limits’ of chief office between the 5th 


the 
January 1812 and 5th, Jan 1818, calculated the 
tity of all the leather tanned within that time in 
England and Wales, as fallow. r 


Hides tanned in E ngland. 
and Wales, number 8,851,352 weight 89,829,080 
Goat's skins tanned in do. "363,32 4 dozen, 
Roans tanned in do. , - 273,800 800 do. 
Pieces of goat and deer skins 396,836 weight 334,744 


Ibe. 


icularly the middle of the Peace, 
Ay Berkshire, at Wantage inthis, county one 
of the 


SE ee ee elt os toed kt are 


used for blacksmiths aprons.. But "y far the 
tanperios aro in Bevmapnevey fan titans 
nufacture of what is called Morocco 

entirely confined to this mea The Phas! ge 

for this purpose are pene * in Me. 
palace argent Ga ops att ut they are of 


an inferior quality. The capital for the tan- 
ning business is very considerable, since, besides what 
is laid out in buildings, &c. there must be weaned » 

Ww t 


er now 
eee adele to the rapid man- 
ner in which cattle are fattened. 


The principal leather manufacture, is, of course, that 


of shoes, either for home , or for exporta- 
tion ; and the counties in which sl are on the 
largest scale, are N and Staffordshire. 
In the former ,N and more particu- 
larly Wellingboron 1 and pen ace in Staffordshire, 


the rp es town and Newcastle-under-Lyne are the 


places ; in most of which, the 
Feather ie del delivered out y the master manufacturers to 
the small makers. Shoes are also made at Nantwich, 


and Sandbach in Cheshire, by the small 
makers, and sent to the London ware-houses. . While 
, the demand for shoes for the army was 


om caeaiaeeabe <r I: ards 
contractor su upw 

oe eens Pee. annually whe plyins Eyaeet 

entirely Prtthomoteahin cet Staffordshire. In 

pat lh was one house which employed 1000 

workmen, and made about L.75,000 worth in the course 


Goal oly 10h aro cn engennee at a = 


It is impossible to conjecture the probable quantit 
of leather sed in ie iy 4 ys fe Head Wagener Giieeaptier: 4 
in this coun e 

throw some Nett on th on this subject. The "pis 
consumption of leather for one pair of a 

coach harness, is about 10 ; for a common ike ge 
ing saddle and bridle, about Slbs.; for cart 
about the same quantity ; for boots, Gib 
ing shoes, 71bs, ; for dress shoes, 8i lbs ; for. 
shoes, 7} Ibs. ; and for soldiers shoes, 8}1bs. 
.. Shoes are principally exported to "East Indies, 
Batavia, the West , and Canada; while we tra- 
ded with the United States, a great quantity of women’s 
shoes were sent thither, and, many were, e- 
ployed + in binding § them. 


dies are m ade in. almost every town,. but Sher- Saddle. 


borne and Lyn are particularly remarkable for this 
manufacture ; Fics rh rook tore as well as in London, 


for exportation. The hog-skins which, when tanned, 


are used for the seat of the saddle, are principally im- 


ported from Russia. We shall afterwards have occasion 
to notice this manufacture, when we come to treat of 
the manufactures in the hardware line about Binning 


ham: + 
Clan ical ase at Woodstock, Of Glove: 
cester, where the manufacture is : ' bY 
em nearly 500 women, besides men and eturn 
are about L.100,000 ; Stourbridge, gy Hreird York, 
Swindon in Wiltshire, Yeovil in Somersetshire, 


ham, &e. foe tgs 
most employed in this trade ; pee 


‘by mills at Darli 


Frappe, ogee ken Soe inal Value of th 


its bar pense it is impossible dy glo with any de- 
accuracy, it must 

aged article of shoes alone, the i soe 

must be great; if we suppose that it costs each indiyi- 


pact to above L.5,000,000.. The value. 
articles made of leather, such as harness, x 
and what is consumed in coaches, must, at 
the same sum ; so that, on a moderate 
at value of this eae may be rived yea at 
10,000,000 ; es e value we 
at the usual perm as equal pe aap 
value of the manufactured bw “this hie, will give’ us 
L.3,333,333, leaving L.6,666,667. ‘As in many branches 
of this manufacture, especially in the most extensive, 
the shoe trade, there is little outlay of capital, except 
for the purchase of the raw material, pager a 
mecstlR, at ram of 16,905,007 wil be nesey ‘be 
amount of manufacturing it; this, 
L.1,000,000, and the pi Ps ny divi were 


probable average amount of the annual | s of the 

who work at this manufacture,) give.us 
about 227,000 as the number of persons in 
the leather manuficture, 


In treating of the mines of England, we incidentally yfanus 
anes 2 Se sie a ee aie 


was brought into the si of what is called pig and bar 


ture of iros 


Statistics. iron, partly because this process could scarcely be called 
—— 


© -» that was made-in the kingdom 


a manufacture, and-partly because we wished to form 
an estimate of the Peptable produce of. the English | 
mines, by ascertaining the quantity of pig and: bar iron - 
2 i © But) now'that we are 
about to enter on a view of ce hardware pecnpc Fe 
which, in‘point of extent and importance, ‘is. lye 
next Bothicwoblbelk and cotton manufactures, and certain- 
ly has contributed, along with them, to raise the national 
character in the estimation of foreigners, very high, on 
the score of ingenuity and industry ; it will be proper’ 
to:commence this branch of our subject, by a notice of | 


the most i tant iron founderies. 
Per the most extensive are those at Colebrook | 
Dale,in ire, and at Mossbrough, near Rotheram,' 


in Yorkshire, in which iron in all its forms is manufac- 
tured, from the ponderous iron bridge to small culinary 
utensils. At Bersham, near Wrexham, there are not 


oy ee ere but furnaces for smelting the 
ig iron, casting it into various articles, such as 
Padre for fire-engines, water pipes, boilers, pots and 
pans of all sizes; box and flat irons, and cannon and! 
ball of all dimensions. Here also are forges for malle- 
able iron, and wire works, as well as a brass foundery. 
At Walton, near Chesterfield, there are a furnace and 
— in which nearly the same articles are manu- 
-as at the works near Wrexham. ‘There are 
Trent, Neath, Merthy ‘Tydvil, Swanson, Tavistock, 
‘rent, 7 i wansea, Tavi 

amd many other places, particularly in the ‘counties! 
of Lancashire, on the northern near Ulverstone, 
Durham, ‘parti ly at Swalwell, Winlaton, Lum- 
Pha » Bridge; Derwent Coat, and Blackhall 
; at three latter places are manufactories of 


Cobham, (at these. two 
laces there are also iron works, indeed are often 


was carried on, while the Angl 

uctive ) likewise in the district of 
ire. Great Marlow, where brass and 
steel thimbles are also made. Holywell, where copper 


sheets for the bottoms of shi -nails, bolts, brass, . 
hips, copper: 


and 0 Mac- 


brass 
. But these and other works of the like na- 
ture, some of the iron-works, may astonish 
us by thei et, on reflection, they proba- 
bly will not such wonder and admiration, as the 
manufactures of. and Sheffield, and. the 
ecti ig of these towns. 
tho nany of the manufactures carried on in 
Birmingham under the description of hardware, 


' casting potsy spring latchets, gold- 


ENGLAND: 7 


tools, rim loeksmmth, lock and latch. maker, swords, 
bits, buttons, snuflers, bone and ivory toys, cut sprigs, 
die sinker, mage lamps, harness er, steel-chains, 
cast nails, thimbles, braces, cabinet cases; inkstands, 
ferrules, compasses; ivory combs, gun-polisher, specta- " 
cles; steel toys, pearl buttons, stamper and piercer, stir- 
rups, packing-boxes, japan wares, planes, sword’ hilts, 
i Y i d manufacturer, - 
paper toys, chaser, saddlers brassfounder, round bolt and 
chafting dish maker, scale-beam,  steel-yard and scréw-' 
plate maker, bridle-citter, brass. nails, and: curtain- 
rings, needles, vice-maker, clock dial painter, curty- 
combs, rule-maker,  link-buttons, wire-drawer, dab 
bards, iron spoons, spade tree: maker, fork-maker, look- 
ing-glass, toy and army button-maker, ‘paper-box tur- 
ner, mouse-traps, sand-paper, gun-stocker, parchment- 
maker, last and boot-tree: maker, glass-gtinder, anvils, 
brazier’s tools, gun furniture filer, pendant-maker, ring- 
turner, bellows, gun-finislier, saddle-tree maker} ‘ham- 
mers, carpenters and shoemaker’s, tools, brasscock 
founder, hand-whip: mounter,: pearl and hair-worker, 
coach-harness forger, button-shank maker, patton-tyes, 
gimblets, tea urns, medals and coins, copying-machines,, 
pneumatic apparatus, ram+road and chain-maker, gun." 
case maker, smith’s bellows pipe-maker, coffin nails, 
curtain-rings, beads, engine-cutter,; scale beams, 
wood-screw » bright-engraver, :putty-maker and’ 
enamel box maker,—horse, dog, and. negro collar, fet- 
ter, and, dog-lock .maker,—pencil-case maker; glass~ 
stainer, paper-stainer, bone mould turner, tortoise shell 
box and tooth-pick case maker, warming~pans, a 
tackle, cruet-frames, picture-frames, | bayonets, 
mills, hinges, leather and horn’ powderflasks; cork- 
screws, gun-flints, steel keys and combs, glass buttons, 
bed and even o—— peor ete furniture maker, 
per-mould maker, button solderer, pa spectacles 
pms maker, tin-nail and rivet maker, borninhide of toys, 
- and apse oO case aes seal manufacturer’, 
rn-spoons and buttons, tine-maker, ladies’ slippers) 
stirrup-maker, curb-maker, spur and simelgudbat howe 
der flasks, sticks and rods, for angling, sleeve/ buttons, 
clock hands, brass mouldings, augers, cock-heel ma- 
ker, candle-moulds, teapots, case-plate: maker; :filligree- 
worker, coach-spring manufacturer, watch-key: and 
= maker, pattern rings, thong-maker, varnish-ma- 
» dog and cart chain-maker, printing — presses, 
pins, buckle-chaser, jacks, mili feathers, baro- 
meters, morocco decanters and cruét. stands, pack~ 
ing needles, horn lanterns, buckle-ring forger, toy~_ 
watch-maker, glass eyes for dolls, mortice and rim 
locksmith, button-card) cutter, iron, drawer, gridiron 
and round bolt maker, spades, dials, gilt-ring maker, 


steel-box, e-case and gun-charger maker, ;poc- 
ket-lock maker, lamp manufacturer, lead-toy, . stock- 
sinker, glass-house mould maker, casting-mi maker, 


snuff-boxes, &e.) 
Tedious or unnece 


though it may not be complete, it will serve to give a 
striking and curious picture of the wonderful industry 
and ingenuity of a town, which does not contain 100,000 
inhabitants ; for the trades which we have enumerated 
are all carried on in Birmingham alone. No person is 


ssary as’ this, lis may appear top ke 
some,, we have deemed it right pon Mee it ;sinee, a? EN 


Capital. 


Mode of 
onducting. 


unacquainted with some, probably with many, of the 
articles of Birmi manufacture ; their 

q and must have been noticed, as well 
as adaptation to the purposes of almost 


of 

phy and science, and the almost infinite caprices 
fashion ; but perhaps few know that the articles with 
which they are acquainted, and which they admire, are 
but a very few of those manufactured in this town, or 
susp that the memory, or even the imagination, 
moat be taxed, without being able to recall, or to con- 
sae nearly all the articles which the workmen of 

irmi ce. Our woollen and cotton 

are found over most of the continent of Europe ; they 
contribute to the health or the comforts of the inhabi- 
tants of America, Asia, and Africa ; but the demand for 
most of them so evidently from their being 
articles of necessity, of the best ity, and at “ew 
cheapest price, that we are not much surprised at their 
wide = 3 but it is very different ‘with many of 
the arti of Birmingham manufacture, which are 
mere toys, constructed indeed with most exquisite skill 
and untired industry ; but still mere toys ; and yet they 
are more generally dispersed than any other of our ma- 
nufactures ; so that perhaps it would be impossible to 
go rap pale most remote, uninformed, incurious 
nation of savages, that had ever been visited by Euro- 


peans, without discovering some proof of the workman-. 


of Bi 
wedi, ovat RD uate idea of this 


place, and consequently of the state of the manufactures 
of E , (for when they are the subject, to omit, or 
ially to notice Birmi , would be to do great 
injustice to it,) if we permitted the reader to suppose, 
from our silence, that all the manufactures carried on 
here ee the oe kind, which a that we have 
ven might im to : object in givi 
list, as we have Siedaily pebieitinds ee es Sally 
to exhibit a picture of the curious, minute, and almost 
endless variety of the articles which this place pro- 
duced. But, besides these, all the more ponderous pro- 
dadigiid el Wiatheidinds hemes, aut cling jaltcace 
here seen on the largest scale, and of the most perfect 
workmanship. We need only mention Messrs Boul- 
ton and Watts manufactory at Soho, in which the most 
stupenduous steam engines that ever lent their aid to 
the labour of man, as well as an infinite variety of toys, 
in every species of metal and composition, are made. 
The capital employed in the manufactures. of Bir- 
mingham, is not very lar There are, indeed, in its 
immediate neigh , ten sets of iron works, which 
are su to have cost L. 50,000 each ; but in the 
town itself, most of the manufacturers are men of small 
capital ; some not possessing more than L.400 or 500; 
and many not more than L. 2000 or L. 3000, employing 
from five to thirty hands. The whole amount of capi- 
tal in Birmingham, (exclusive of the very large works,) 
is supposed not to exceed half a million. 
The work is partly carried on in work-shops, and 
partly in the houses of the workmen. Women are prin- 
( cipally employed in polishing the goods, in the glass- 
toy branch, and in making of braces. Boys are chief- 
ly ae by the out-workers as apprentices, and 
receive the first about one shilling a week, and the 
last year from five to ten, besides their clothing: but 
they receive their food at home. The wages of the 
men varies very much, both as to the particular branch- 
#s in which they are engaged, and according to the 


ENGLAND. 


state of trade. In some branches, where very superior Statistics. 
skill, and great experience and attention, are requisite, ““v¥—~" 


are got, as can be obtained b 
perhaps as great wages are got, as y 


w in 

"“ is impossible to state the number of men engaged, Number of 
i ma- people em- 

nufactures, or the exact value of the articles manufac. Ployed- 


even in the most considerable of the Birmingham 


tured. The ion of the town itself, and of the 
manufacturing district, which extends about 15 miles, 
is estimated at 400,000 ; and it is supposed that nearly 
100,000 are employed in the production of coals and 
minerals, and in the rou ion of iron, for the 
manufactures of Birmin In the brass foundery 
branch, which is almost confined to the town, about 
10,000 men are ed. In the button trade, from 


labour renee in manufacturing it; thus a watch- 


key, which, tw 
after all, sell Se a ae se 
in the 


mingham, employs a considerable number of persons. 
Nor must the manufacture of muskets be forgotten, 
though that now, it is to be hoped, will be almost at an 
end. In time of war, muskets of the value of L. 400,000 
were manufactured in Birmingham. Some years ago, 
when the trade with America was open, between 200 and 
300 tons of steel were annually sent thither from this 
place. The total yalue of all the articles made in the 
town itself, is estimated at L. 2,000,000, of which one 
half are sold for home consumption. By far a 
proportion of the other half was sent to the United States 
when the commercial intercourse was open, and the re- 
mainder to South America, Spain, Portugal, Malta, &c. 
Hitherto we have chiefly 
the manufactures of Birmi itself; but the neigh- 
bourhood, including several ere towns, also de- 
mands our attention: some ese towns participate 
in the manufactures of Birmin ; others on 
manufactures little if at all followed in Birmingham, 
Ponty-pool, in Monmouthshire, was formerly famous 
for its manufacture of japan-ware ; but it is now conti-« 
nued there only on a very small scale, by the descendants 
of the family that first established it. At a 
Bilston, and Wolverhampton, however, it is on 
with great spirit and success, and to a considerable ex- 
tent. Wolverhampton also very ly with 
Birmingham inthe manufacture of screws ; but it is 
eu 
m constructing locks, which are exceedingly curious ; 
some of them partaking of the nature a ceri 
and being of very minute size. A —e 
meongey is made by the farmers of j 
country, (who, as well as the females, are regularly 
brought up to the business,) and sold by them to the 
great manufacturers. Saddlers iron-mongers are a class 
of manufacturers, some of whom are found in i 
ham, but who chiefly reside in Wolv and 
Walsall ; they cut out bridles and stirrups, also ma- 
nufacture and fasten on the iron work belonging to 
them, But the most extensive, as well as the most cu- 
rious branch of the hard-ware manufacture, carried on 
in the vicinity of Birmingham, is the nail trade. Very 


confined our notices to Japan ware 


y noted for the skilfulness of its locksmiths, mo 


ENGL 

Statistics. few nails are made in the town itself; but in Dudley, 
=~" Westbromwich, and idge, and in all the country 
Naile, mesipe these places, thes ing of nails is the chief em- 
i tis su in the nailery district, 

at 30,000 are This manufac- 


— 
week. Nails used to be exported to the United States, 
None are sent to the Continent. This trade, which 


formerly used to be very extensively diffused over most 
parts of England, is now almost entirely confined to 
- the nei of Birmi There are, how- 


ever, manufactures of them at Ps le Dean, in Glouces- 

tershire, Halesowen in Shr ire, and some other 
places. They were also made at Chowbent, in Lanca~ 
shire, till the cotton trade superseded them. 

‘ Fe ae at which manufactures were established 
at Birmingham, is comparatively recent; but Sheffield 
has been the for iron manufactures since the 
year 1297, at which time fulchion-heads, arrow-piles, 
and an r sort of knives called whittles, mention- 
ed by Chaucer, and still known by that name in the 

of England, were made. But it was not till to- 
wards the middle of the 17th century, that the articles 
of razors, knives, and files, for which it is at present so 
deserv: famous, were manufactured. It has been 
that for near a century succeeding, the 

Sheffield manufacturers discovered more tee 2 than 
ingenuity or enterprise ; and it was not till the middle 
of the last century, that they ed an immediate 

trade with the continent. About this time also, buttons 


Sheffield. 


of plated tea-urns, and candlesticks, 
were first Since this period, the manufact 
of Sheffield have been progressively advancing. * 


(Iii hamdovare? tnatufactate le ‘iot' confined to the 
town of Sheffield, but is over a district called 
Hallamshire, which extends six or seven miles to the 
west of it. ee i — are under the 

management @ corporation, 

the Company of Cutlers of Hallamshire. This 
corporation was established in 1625, and an amend- 
ment was made to it in 1791. It is governed by a 
master, two wardens, six searchers, and twenty-four 
assistants: The master is elected annually, on the last 


T in A having previously through 
eaten prions ea tei 


Tn the neighbourhood of the town, a number of 
works are erected on the river Don, for forging, slitting, 
and Lape ey the iron and steel for the manufactures, 
These in several from the manufactures of 
mingham. Birmingham. In the first place, and brass, as 

well as iron and steel, are wrought in the latter place ; 

whereas, at Sheffield, very little of the former metals are 

used. Secondly, Phe articles made at Sheffield are more 

generally articles of real utility ; some undoubtedly are 

toys, Lastly, Its ar- 

are much larger than those of Birming- 

following list of the principal trades in Shef- 
field, if compared with the list we gave of the trades of _ 

, will point out in what they agree, and in 

VoL. IX. PART 1. 


Difference 
between 


AND. 9 


what they differ: Knives, scissars, anvils, silver and plat- Statistics. 
ed goods, skaits, joiners tools, saws, fenders, fire-irons, 
horn-buttons, horn ink-stands, bit-maker, razor straps, List of ma- 
files, stove-grates, candlesticks, steel-refiners,wool-shears, "factures. 
haft-presser, silver-smiths, braziers, and _ tin-smiths 
tools, cut-nails, es, shovels, scythes, sickles, table- 
fork-blades, snuffers, cork-screws, nut-crackers, steel 
cats and dogs, lancets, desk-knives, tea-pot handle and 
knob manufacturer, buttons, coach-harness, weighing 


_ machines, brass ink-pots, powder flasks, shot bolts, bayo- 


nets, wafer-seals, saw-files, shoe, cooks, and butchers | 
knives, combs, &c. &c. ; 

The plated ware made at Sheffield, (with the excep- Remarks. 
tion of plated saddlery,) is deemed much superior to 
that site at Birmingham : their files also have long 
been in the highest te ; of the scythes and sickles, 
which form an extensive branch, the coarsest are sent 
to Russia; and a finer sort were |-to America. 
The conversion of iron into steel, forms a very consi- 
derable branch of the manufactures of this town ; and 
the mechanics who are expert at this process, receive 
as large wages aw any that are given. Great of 
the mantfactures are carried on by men of capi- 
tal; and not so generally in wor! or factories as 
is the case in Birmingham. 

The population of Sheffield, and the manufacturing 
district round it, is estimated at 60,000 ; and it is com- 

uted that 18,000 are directly employedin the different 
lraaches: the rtion of men to women is nearly 
as two to one. Ay he gress value of the manufactures is 
supposed to be upwards of L,1,000,000, probably 
L.1,200,000 ; of these about one half are for home con- 
sumption ; one-third used to be exported to America, 
of these, knives, forks, and saws, formed a large pro- 
portion ; and the remainder were principally exported 
to the continent. Prior to the introduction of machi- 
nery, this place was observed to abound in cripples, 
but it is by no means the case at present. 

Files have been mentioned as an article, in the ma- Files. 
nufacture of which Sheffield excels: they are also made 
of a superior quality, and in great numbers, in Lanca- 
shire, particularly at Prescot : cutlery and steel goods 
are manufactured at Salisbury. Cirencester is noted 
for its curriers knives, which are highly valued through- 
out Europe and America, At A ord in Yorkshire, 
formerly the seat of an extensive pin manufactory, the 
wire-drawing business is now carried on with consider- 
able success; this trade is also followed at various other 


laces. Pins are manufactured at Gloucester, Reading, 
Enetfield, Warrington, Waltham Abbey, Bristol, Lon. 
don, &c. Needles at Redditch and Feckenham in Wor- 


cestershire, Alcester in Warwickshire, &c. Fish-hooks 
at Carlisle. Iron hoops at Crayford in Kent, &c. Tin- 

lates at Caerleon, en, and Kidwelly ; the 
fast place is particularly noted for this manufacture, the 
tinned iron plates which are made there, being sent not 
only to every part of the kingdom, but to every trading 
port in Europe. 

The av: amount of the real value of the different 
articles, e of iron and steel, annuall , is 
between L.3,000,000 and L.4,000,000 ; the value of ar- 
ticles manufactured of copper and brass ex , seems 
rather to be on the decline; in the years 1799 and 1800, 
the official value was between L.800,000 and L.900,000; 
whereas for three or four years past, it has varied be- 
tween L.200,000 and L.300,000. The value of all the 
articles made of iron may safely be rated at L.10,000,000; 
and the number of persons employed at 200,000. The 

- 


Value. 


ware. 


i 


10 


value of all the articles made of brass and copper is 
the number of per- 
the value of the*steel 


wheels, locking-springs; hour, minute, and second hands. 
in springs, chains for movements, and watch-cases, 
part of the original manufacture, but are now 
made here. All the branches of this curious and inge- 
nious trade are, however, gradually removing to Liver- 
pool, in the same manner as the fustian trade, which 
a in Bolton, has centered in Manchester. The 
and watch-movement makers occupy small farms 
in conjunction with their man ing business: in 
this circumstance accep | the weavers about 
. A manufactory of watch-spring chains 
has been established, within these few years, at Christ- 
church in Hampshire, in which many are em= 
ed. 


factures of considerable im It is made with 
the greatest taste, and in the greatest vari , at the 
towns and that 


the a igh that it 


se tees 
he for is manuracture, ie hroaght principal ipally 
the isle of Purbeck in Dorsetshire, and from De- 
i ; the flint from Greenhithe in Kent, whence 
thousand tons are shi annually: these, and 
w materials, are also ht from Cornwall, 
re, Sussex, and Wales. It is computed that 
of shipping are annually employed 
ials to Liverpool. When the 
was , about 30,000 tons were em- 
eee orring manufactured articles to the 
Jnited States ; nearly as many tons in carrying 
them. cosstwise, besides what is sent by the 
‘The number of ‘exported from Liverpool, be- 
tween 1803 1811, varied from 25,000 to 47,000. 
The ion of the district is from 38,000 
to 40, of which about 15,000 or 20,000 are em- 
ployed in this manufacture. Women and children are 


uy 


F 
iE 


s 
: 
f 


4 


ENGLAND. 


will probably not be over-rated at L.2,000,000 ; nor 
the number of persons employed at between 35,000 
and 40,000. 

The manufacture of glass is of very 
this country, having been introduced, it is said, about 
the end of the 7th century ; but it was not till 900 


importance 

t in the year 1670, manufacturers 
from Venice ; and within 15 years af- 
terwards, the French refugees, to whom we are in~ 


monopolies. The 


1773 forms an important era in the hi 
i manufacture. perenne 


een but 
did it with more exactness and ition. Cast plate- 
glass, with concave and convex mirrors, are now made 
superior to any imported from the Continent. The 
works cover about 20 acres of ground ; and nearly 300 


persons are usually employed.in ey i of 
melting, casti lowing, polishing, &c. Plate-glass is 
also made seni pen age Liverpool, the. Plate« 
Glass Company having been incorporated only for 24 


ears. 
: Manufactories of glass of all the other kinds are nu- 


underland, and Hartley-pans, are a great many 
houses for making crown, common w Sa flint 
glass, and_ green bottles, Stourbridge, Warrington, 


and several other places, have also their manufactures 
of glass of various kinds, Near Darlington, there is a 


date in Glass. 


—Y~" so scattered, 


Paper. 


Hat. 


Various 


ENGLAND. 


optical lasses. This manufacture is 
to form an estimate of 


that it is 


init. The former, however, amount to upwards 
of L.1,000,000 ; and the latter to between 30,000 and 
40,000. p 


whi first made ; 
te, blue, and 


of persons employed about 30,000. 


. There are paper mills on almost every stream, the wa- 


ter of which is sufficiently pure for the ; but 
perhaps they are most numerous and extensive in the 


this last county, the for the Bank of 
notes has been ever since the reign of 
George I. 


11 


snuff-mills at Chester, Bristol, Live 
ter. S refineries at London, Bristol, Liverpool, 
and Newcastle. Soap manufactories are established in 
many parts of the country ; but London, Bristol, New- 
castle, and Hull have them, perhaps, on a more exten- 
sive scale than other places. are also manufac. 
tures of turpentine, linseed, rape, and other oils, The 
preparation of horse hair, furs, and feathers, employ a 
good many people. Brick-making is extensively car- 
ried on in the vicinity of Lon and near those 
towns where stone is scarce and dear. But it would 
be endless, we perceive, even to attempt an enumera- 
tion of all the various kinds of manufactures of Eng- 
land. We shall, therefore, conclude this branch of our 
subject, mentioning those manufactures, which are 
either to London, or carried on there to the 


shing, than the extent and mag- 
nitude of the whole through the kingdom at large. By 
as this part of our subject, we shall also 
ve an opportunity of mentioning i 
nufactures which af may have overlooked. 
The manufactures of Lond 
eet and articles of elegant use, brought to more than 
ordinary degree of perfection ; such as cutlery, 
assay ice of gold and silver, japan ware, cut 
glass, (dri king glastes, cut in perce Prete nnn 
as guineas : inet and u 
work, and uate sD . The pote 
, and number of men employed in the manu- 
two articles, are not less surprising, 
ance of taste and high perfection which 
ed in the articles themselves ; both of which, 
carriages, are exported to a great amount. 
ved that the trade of a coach currier is car- 
here but in London, That of a gold-beater, 
ither exclusively confined to the metropolis, or 
elsewhere. Clocks and watches, icu- 
, are a very considerable article of manu- 
ish of Clerkenwell containing, it is said, 
7000 watch-makers. The value of the 
pags crea Seog amen pp made in London and 
its neighbourhood, is e £1,000,000, in t of 
sucks the watch-makers of the a ation, 
watches, not only for all the British dominions, but also 
for all the civilised world. London is likewise celebra- 
ted for the exquisite skill in the construction of its opti- 
cal and other ical instruments. Besides these 
kinds of manufactures, and others which have been in- 
cidentally mentioned before, such as hats, &c. 
breweries, vi works, copperas works, calico-print- 


vinegar 
ing, distilleries, glue manufactories, iron founderies, oil 


ie 


L 
4 


svi 
ner ae 


: 


u 


ther all, in order that an adequate idea may be formed 

on this subject. i 

mee here hats ; bee dae pore at dressed in 
3 , W. ite ‘] der, 

hard white tap of de best quality in grea abundance, 


i, and Glouces- Statistics. 


on consist chiefly of fine jy London. 


In Newcas- 
ue. 


In Hull. 


In Liverpool and its vicinity are salt refineries, 


houses, a vast number of manufactories for tobacco- . 


pipes and pottery, iron founderies, breweries, a steam- 
engine for cutting and ing iron, vitriol and white- 
pty 

t works. 

Thus have we endeavoured to give as accurate and 
complete an account of the nature and state of the va- 
rious manufactures of England, as our information and 
our limits would permit, We are sensible it must ne- 
cessarily be imperfect or-erroneous in some particulars; 
but we trust in none of considerable im ce. As 
an for at least some of the omissions or errors 
with which we may be chargeable, we must, in justice 
to ourselves, remind our readers, that several of the 
most extensive and valuable of the manufactures of this 
country have been for several years past in such a state 
of fluctuation, from the i character and ef- 
fects of the war, out of which we have just rescued 
an 


give such 

ir t 
state, and serve for a general description, We have 
therefore 


for cutting dye-woods, snuff-mills, 


ENGLAND. 


i 
i 
Fs 
iif 
4 
a 


pee 


Zz 

: 

g 

Ef 

id 
sSErEE 
Hee 


; 


In the following Table is given the number of fami 
manufactures, i 


in trade, 
pa pimps nye ne derived from 
sources, as returned to the House of Commons. 


TABLE VII. 


Amount of annual pro- 
fits, from professions, 
trades, &c. 


£94,720 13 3 
272,582. 7 8 
218,406 8 8 
217,088. 411 
276,279 19 64 
277. 8.9 


SOREPALODHESO 


433,850 15 
1,623,131 16 
890,659 15. 
601,498 18 8 
54,659 19 10 | 
322,670 14 1 


1,840,421 2.10» 
Lf salu, +s We 


Pi | 


BARCODE HDORS 


$1,867,120 7 


ENGLAND. : ‘I3 


a Wey ert ee ‘ted by statute. The Mediterranean market for this Statistics, 
— = Families fish, however, bo apchewhe ane! to have been opened, 
| chiefly em- t ‘or at least to have been of much im ce, before the 


ployed in | Amount of annual pro- ‘beginning of the 17th century ; and while it continued 
wee an Ser) Aen ee ree ‘uninterrupted, the fishery off the coasts of England 
rus _Were extensive and lucrative, notwithstanding the 
E Dutch greatly partici inthem. In the year 1760, 
205 vessels were employed on the Yarmouth coast, of 
from 30 to 100 tons ; regi computed reat 
6000 men, women, 8, Ss, were su 
this fishery. Ai US cise tins torwand Waa © 


-_ 
~ 
Li 


aswooceo-1 


~ 
_ 


pe 
In 1782, it had declined ly, only 94 vessels being 
employed on the Norfolk coast. In the year 1812, 
there were at Yarmouth, not on tonnage bounty, only 
burden of 267 tons, with 80 men. 
cured ; 


— 


oor Oe 
GAont-orococeo 
>| 
g 
* ge 
a & 
$ 
: 
3 
3 


s 
i 
7 


: 
‘al 
2g 
HA 
i 
cart 
ef 
eee E 
zs 
fe 
: 
ue 
Enea 


ul 
: 
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Li 
7 


shore ; 347 barrels branded ; 
The cause of the great decline in 

sufficiently obvious. The demand for cu- 
s in the principal market for them, the Ro- 


Z 
: 


| 
i 
i 
" 
a 
: 


i 


man countries in the south of Europe, was in- 

Of the latter description, are the Newfoundland terrupted, and nearly destroyed, in consequence of the 
fishery, the Greenland and Davis’ Straits fishery, and war ; while the other market, the West Indies, where 
the South Sea Se aa ee they are used as food for the slaves, is supplied more 
most important are the salmon fishery, and the fishery ly from Scotland. Besides, from the increase of 
for herrings, mackarel, pilchards, oysters, turbot, &c. -w and luxury, the home consumption, notwith- 
rey comme eh hy mee standing all the attempts that have been made to ex- 
panes See ae ee ere ta whic tay tend the se ofthis fish, has also diminished . 

abundant, source of considerable mackarel fishery is entirely confined to the sup- Mackarel. 

except the T weed. lad Gda'viver,hvebe kre 41. fctoras ly of the home market. They éré principally cache 


of considerable besides smaller ones. i Bo Gtndiiee ie be Gane 
u ire on the south and west, being seldom 
oA pn = mre The rent found in any abundance to the north of Yarmouth, and 
of the whole is nearly L.16,000. “The expence attend- to the west of the Hampshire coast, being in a great 
boats, &c. amounts to measure neglected for the pilchard fishery, The prin- 
umber of ploy- cipal market for mackarel is London, where, on an ave- 
‘he he chiet pilchasd Saher dong be eee iis 
4 ief pi is coasts - Pilchard, 
Tweed nerly sent up to th market setshire, Devonshire, and Cornwall’ e: ially the last. 
pickled ; but within these 20 years it has been sent up Fow: g Eeeaeny, emeenet, anid St Lp - ing the 
3 flourishing state of this Bihery, having exported’, fe 
THe herring fishery on the coasts of England is not greater quantity than all the other ports of these coun. 
usiv on the coast of ties. But this trade depending for its rosperity on 


coastof Scotland to the entrance of Chan- average of 10 years, from 1747 to 1756, was about 
nel, on the east and south-east side ; armouth is 30,000:hogsheadls from the four rts just mentioned ; 
generally as the centre of it. Herrings are also whereas, in the year 1782, it had fallen to about 12,000 
caught on Soreudaaglarnee n= herder a TRO as ne ee 
wambers, T commerce in herrings is of very an- ment to 30,000 fishermen, besides the seamen em- 
eient date: Madox, in his of the Exchequer, in ing the fish to foreign markets, and 


to deliver 24,000 herrings to the'king; and, in of the, fishery... At one period eS Cornwall pilchards 
Soreige of Edward 111. the h fais of anna were so much in request in the Italian States, that the 
(which had existed for some time’ ) was regula. orders from them for lead, tin, copper, &c. were often. 


5 
g | FPSESZSIAS ESM SR AAETS ie 
a2 vice by saugsies 
[ Te" jest Sta ane ali THA 239955 
\oeaeesmnat ll PH lceiee Hand HEH 
re aed Pregee ogee ore jae A at ihe Le HH 
We ttcetc dba a = waht He feingt gies Hi age: 
Seeetaeeeeee ices “janecepe bes ieee ie ope 333) aL. 
is ‘ils Toe Aes TOF Pat Te i 
Medlonlid) Ge mln alee 
ou i 3 ue A idead 7 ait eed ih 
a peel eid enti ie Hl quraaes sae Hut ae 
® i wie tt if aye Lrg etd be : = tae 
et ee Tata iene 
aigiateiaadl ice a ee na 
7 si eee fee Seren car 
poate oie Lie crack yeihtay 3 PP sesgssss” —— a 
(ilies a ae a 
28222 : EE, ite aiadi ss 
( aS" as8 dine ane ys ail Hire adda | 
a nd Hi [aes Hiphulia: 
f Pitre ees HE 


t 


ENGLAN®. 


‘barrels of dry fish, of which 209,995 went to 
of Europe ; and in 1799, 313,756 barrels, of 
Eu took off 238,953. The ex- 


BLES 
HE 
a, 
8 
& 
5 
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& 
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f 


1799, the number of barrels of wet fish 
ed only to 3548, of which the south of Europe took 990. 

The tonnage, an g bone oon of course, fell off 
in a similar pr i In the year 1790, the tonnage 
was 31,644, the men 2608; in 1791, the former 
was 34,166, and the latter 2639 ; whereas, in 1798, the 
tonnage was only 15,838, and the men 1268 ; and in 
1799, the tonnage was 14,322, and the men 1145. It 
is however, | pt ober pipreny fishery, 
which, at present, is as as it was in 1799, 
will revive, now that we are at peace with the south of 


E é age) rag ost paar rag eee 
Fy Red nglish Channel, of which Pool is 
by far the most considerable. 

The English seem to have commenced their fishery 
for whales in the North Seas, about the year 1598, but 


the first voyage, expressly undertaken by them, for this 


' purpose, was in the year 1611. At this time the Rus. 


sian sent two ships into the Greenland seas ; 
pert Veep mg Tasmopedioge ingised 
to thi > ', however, soon reli it. 
The asks, of this, seems to have been 


eommencing, the number again fell off; and in 1762. 
there were only 28. In the year 1770, they had in- 
creased to 50, which, on an average, were about 300 
tons burden, and navigated each by 54 men, of whom 


six were ; 
From the year 1770, till the commencement of the 

American war, the Greenland whale fishery from 

land ively improved, there having been, in 


progressi 
1775, the year before hostilities began, ie con- 
rom 


again there having been, in the 
year of the war, only 38 ships, of about 20,000 
As soon as peace was restored, however, the fishery re- 
vived very rapidly ; in 1785, there were 136 vessels ; 
in 1786, 162 ; in 1787, 219; and in 1788, 216. The 


20 and 30,000 tons, and navi 
The ports from which th 
Scarborough, 


don. 


15 


The South Sea whale fishery was not followed in this Statistics 


country till about the year 1776, where there were 


equipped 15 vessels of about 170 tons each. As the go. sex, 


s had carried’ on this fishery before this period, 
four American harpooners were sent out in each vessel. 
The first voyage was not very successful, as they got 
only Sekpmcn duty and fifty tons of oil a-piece, yet the 
superior quality, and the price of it, advanced by the 
war from L.35 to L.70 per ton, were sufficient to en 

the merchants to persevere in the business. - In. 
1778, 19 vessels were sent oy gtr» Seas ; but 
from some cause, ‘not explained, in the following year, 
1779, the number was reduced to four; and it Rit, 
nued under 10 till the year 1785, when 11 vessels were 
sent out: in 1788, the number of vessels were 42, and’ 
their burden 8637 tons; till the year 1781, all the ves- 
sels to London ; after that, Liverpool, and 
some other of the out-ports, began to participate in the 


In 1798, the first year of the war, the number of 
vessels was 38 ; the war, however, seems to have af= 
fected this fishery ; for, in 1797, the number was re« 
duced to 23; and it continued nearly the same till the 
conclusion of the war. At present, the number is'again 
raised, there being usually between 35 and 40 vessels,_ 
die. ksinage af: whieh ds een 12,000 and 14,000, 
and the number of men employed between 800 and 
1000. 

From this brief sketch of the fisheries of England, 
both domestic and foreign, it is sufficiently obvious that 
they are not carried on with nearl: arp aariig ute 
enterprize and spirit which is displayed by the English 
in almost all the other branches of their trade. Yet 
frequent attempts have been made to extend and im- 

ve them: companies have been formed by indivi- 

uals, and bounties granted by government. Whence 
then does it happen, that the fisheries of this country, 
especially those on the coasts of the island, are so im- 
ly and idly pursued? Probably, because 

in other branches of trade and commerce, we have 
made such great advances, and can secure, .or at least 
render probable, such large profits, that the compara« 
tively small profits which the fisheries offer to our com~ 
mercial ambition, are not sufficient to turn the adequate 

ital aside into that channel. 

n considering the trade of any maritime country, it 
—- divides itself into three 3 the coasting 
trade, the inland trade, and the foreign trade: the last,, 
strictly and properly speaking, constitutes its commerce. 
The two first are versant either about the ly of the: 
inhabitants of the country, or they indivety consti« 
tute part of its foreign commerce. They must be con-« 
sidered in the latter light, when they merely bring 
goods to the ports of shipment ; and in'the former light, 
when they contribute towards the interchange of ar« 
bic of estic eonsum — : ‘a 

The. coasting and inlan le of England, tho 
of great i ce and value, even ‘ehen considered 
as confined to ase 8 of domestic consumption, cannot 
abe te ariew in an estimate at all approaching to the 
truth, the details being much too pve sore and scatter- 
ed, and many of them too minute. 

The coal trade comprises 
able branches of the coasting trade of this country ; 
the coal ships on the east coast alone, belonging to 
Newcastle, Shields, Blyth, Hartley, Whitby, ‘Sun er 
land, Scarborough, &c. amounting to about 1500 sail, 
of from 150 to 400 tons ; the number of men employ 
ed in these vessels cannot be fewer than 12,000. 


Coasting: 
trade, 


one of the most considers Coal trade. 


Statistics. 

—_—— 
Coasting 
vessels in 
1785. 


In 1796. 


16 


According to the account drawn up by the Custom- 
house in the year 1785, already referred to, the number 
of ing vessels at that period was 3445; their 
256,648 ; and the number of men employed in navi- 

ing them 17,107: but this account seems to include 


of 
coasting : 358 ; Sunderland, 258; 
Beaumaris, 249 ; Cardi 190; St Ives, 173; Hull, 
165; Yarmouth, 104; Scarborough, 
75. i i 


In the year 1796, a committee of the House of Com- 


w 
tend dh kandah iccotzacted, wikeh iaap chewy toot 
out the great increasein this branch of trade, so far as 
relates to the ; and we may safely infer a si- 
* In for Sets 
rent incial ports. 1700, coasti 
which arrived in the 


ir repea' 
jae London, were only 5562; their tonnage, 218,100. 

the -year 1750, 6396, i 511,680: 
in 1790, the number of vessels 9278, and their ton- 


career on teaches. “2 race gy etined mele 
of London, in 1799, it appears, in the year 1797, 
the number of vessels, (including their repeated voy- 
ages), which entered Thames from the provincial 
ports, was 10,781, and their tonnage 1,360,823 ; and 
in 1798, the number of vessels was 10,133, and their 
tonnage 1,250,449. Considering, with respect to their 


BEE 
&8,5 
cree 


i 
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3 


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i 
it 


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2 
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i 


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: 
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tf 
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i 
: 


It is still more difficult to form an estimate of the in- 


2 crrredme tgs. ee person i 

gine its extent, w has-mot: considered the wonderfil 
and numerous facilities of conveyance, which, springi 

at first from the cominatdas cgldepine’ abd Seilahot 
the country, have in their turn served to increase and 
extend it. The state of the roads in almost every part 
ef England ; the almost infinite number of carriages, 


ENGLAND. 


entertain any thing like an uate idea on this sub- 
ect. Nor 2 onan dea mae tf mae 
if we do not recollect that all 


II. many streams had been rendered navigable: a sti 
greater number, however, have been rendered com< 
modious to internal commerce, during the present reign, 
besides the more valuable improvement of canals; nine- 
teen acts during the first fourteen sessions of this reign 
having been passed for ing artificial navigations ; 
and subsequent sessions have witnessed nearly an equal 
attention to this mode of facilitating internal com 
merce, 

It would carry us far beyond our limits, even to enu- 
merate all the canals which now exist in England. On 
this subject, we must refer our readers to the article 
Intanp ot — content ourselves with re« 
marking, that nearly all the great manufacturing towns 
are ya cme with one another by means of canals ; 
that by them they can receive most of the raw mate~ 
rials, which they respectively work up; and that by 
far the largest proportion of the man articles 
are dispersed over the kingdom, or sent to the 
ener Se ee ee 
inland navigation. 


gation. . 
The fore trade of this is con~ Value of t! 
ign ° country is generally n 0 


sidered of much more importance than its 


trade ; but this idea appears to us to be erroneous: the te. 


foreign trade is undou ly much more imposing in its 
aspect, and the extent of it is more easily ascertained ; 
but the real value of the domestic trade, if properly in- 
vestigated, will be found to: be much — Let us 
ovly reflect on the ulation of E and Wales, 
which is. upwards of ten millions ; and on the industry 
and wealth of that population: our foreign customers 
are undoubtedly more numerous, but they are far be- 
hind what may be called the domestic customers in in- 
dustry and wealth. Even on the very moderate com- 
oe that the av: annual expence of each in« 

vidual of the ten million inhabitants, amounts only 
to L.20, the annual domestic consumption will amount 
to the enormous sum of L. 200,000,000, 


We come now to the consideration of the foreign Commerc 


trade of England ; and in describing it, we shall enu« 

merate the most important and material articles which 

England imports from each particular foreign country, 
4 


To Russia. 


To Poland. 


To Ger- 


ENGLAND: | 
_ of the ‘war ; and the average value of éach, during the 


ports from Denmark, are hides, bar 


ae 


“ 
: 
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: 
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. 


The number of vessels employed 
Denmark, in tim peace, was ge-) 
(including their repeated voyages) of English 
foreign vessels 800. 
articles of im from Russia are, 
Seine ccleo’ fan hemp, iron, 
tar, tallow, timber, &c. ; the principal 
are, coals, salt, sal ammoniac, lead, 


oe al ee 
; ussia is t 
: of the ee eur oe 
wee Sareea pee nemppyed i the trate 
to this country in times of peace, was ly (in- 
GURNEY air tepeated voyonts) of English yoouals aint 


as 
& 

e 
Ss 


rat 


; P 
t 


uA 
ar 
i 


33 
{ 
BREE 
: 
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i 


SrA? 
if 

Fe 

i 


Hit 


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ES 


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5 


HH 


p 
F 


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a3 
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- 


. ged; 


. ver and other seeds, corn, 


. en-ware, broad-cloths, leather, hats, baizes, &c. 


17 


war, was much than before its commencement, 
as much of the trade between E: and the continent 
was carried on through Germany. This will be suffi- 
ciently a t from the following statement: In the 
year 1791, the official value of the im from Ger- 
many was about L.600,000 ; of the exports, rather un- 
der 1.2,000,000 ; whereas, in the year 1800, the imports 
were upwards of L.2,000,000, and the exports rather 
more L.12,000,000. From this instance, which, 
however, it must be confessed, is an extraordinary one, 
the extreme difficulty may be conceived of giving any 
thing like an accurate statement of the average value 
of the exports and imports of England to and from any 
particular country, as they existed during the strange 
and unparalleled war from which we have just emer- 
there is no difficulty in giving an average 
statement of the whole amount of the imports and ex- 
ports, from and to all of the world, during that 
war. The number of 
trade to Germany is generally about 200, and of fo- 

ign vessels rather more, 


he principal articles of 
geneva, i butter, rags, » hemp, madder, clo- 
, &e.; of export, cot- 
ton and woollen goods, hardware, sugar, coffee, and 
other articles of colonial and East India produce, fre- 
quently to a very large amount: the value of the im- 
is generally er L.1,000,000 ; of the exports, 
L 1,500,000 to L,.3,000,000. Before the commence- 
ment of the war, the number of English vessels en- 
gaged in this trade (including their repeated voyages), 
was nearly 900, of foreign vessels about 400. 

The principal articles of import from France used 
to be articles of luxury, such as wines, brandy, lace, 
cambrics, lawns; silks, trinkets, &¢. ; of exports, cot- 
ton goods, hardware, cutlery, lead, tin, copper, be- 
sides a vast deal of East and 
official value of the im from France during the 
year 1789, when the Revolution commenced, was re- 

more than L.500,000; and of the exports about 
L.1,200,000, of which about L.800,000 consisted of 
English manufactures, and the remainder of foreign 
uce. In the same year, the number of English 
eee employed in er traffic Yeast their re- 
vo was nearly 1400 ; and of foreign ves- 

Sela about 260.) : sib 

The chief articles imported from Spain are, barilla, 
oil, cochineal, fruits, wool, cork, dyewoods, wines, 
brandy, silk, &c,; of exports, hardware, earth- 
In 
time of peace, the official value of the imports was 
usually about L. 790,000, and the exports nearly the 
same; and the number of English vessels engaged in 
the trade about 200, and of foreign vessels about 50. 

The principal articles ‘of import from Portugal 


Statistics. 


English vessels employed in the _ 


import from Holland are, To Hel 


To France 


est India produce. The. 


To Spain. 


are, To Portu- 


brimstone, cork, drugs, and gums ; wines, fruit, dye- s4l- 


stuffs, hides and skins, &c.; of exports, hardware, coals, 
éarthen-ware, woollen, cotton and silk manufac- 


’ tures, hats, and East and West India produce ; the va- 


lue of the imports is usually about L. 800,000; of the 
, rather more than L,. 1,000,000: the number 
ig ag vessels employed, about 250; of foreign, 
about 50, 


The usual articles of import from Italy, are barilla, To Italy. 


brimstone, cork, oil, fruits, silk, &c. ; of export, hard- 
ware, -ware, earthen-ware,’ woollen 8, cot- 


ton goods, pilchards, herrings, leather, and East and 
€ 


To Ireland. 


To North 


To South 
America, 


To the 
East In- 
des 


yn —- ws or eaey 20. 

from Ireland to England: are nu- 
merous ; consist chiefly of corn, jyrovisionn) Wake! 
hides, &c. The principal articles of export are coals, 


dashery; earthenware, salt, glass, and. East and West 
India: pr The value of the imports vary from 
142,000,000 to 1:3,000,000; and the from 


leather, linen, shoes, paper, &c.. The value of the éx- 


ports, ially those to the United States, has varied 
much latterly, according to the state of’ political rela 
tions between the two countries. It has as high 


are sugars, rum, coffee, pepper, ginger, indigo, drags; 


the oan 
and of the exports from L.6,000,000 to L.12,000,000. 


The shi are about 600; the about 
180,000; and the seamen shout 16,000, 
The pri 


pare mg 


op’ 
icksilver, ¢ gume, rice, sal &c. The 
S are pteor~ arte tin, aa 


copper, bullion, clocks, watches, hats, mil- 

linery, coaches, cabinet and upholstery goods, &c, 
From the year 1708 to 1811, there was to 

India bullion to the value of L.29,588,210; and mer- 

chandise to the value of L.35,528,886 ; making the to- 

tal ex to India, during ip weange- L..65,112,096; 

anil during the same period, was exported to 

5 


‘ thrown open, under certain 


ENGLAND 
China, bulliow of the value of 118,295,098; andmere Stadt 


chanilise:to the value of to- 
tal value of the to China L..37,807, and the 
totul-value of the both to India and: a, from 
seiebends 3; » anon incapaeiaan Ste omc Chan, 
1812, 1818; to ; 
amounted to L.1,900,000 ; and on an: of the 


same years, the total: produce of the articles: sold at 
the East India» Company's sales amounted to about 


L.6,000;000. : 
In the 1771, the ; mF mon 

trade was 61,000; an act passed in year 1772, 

the company. was x been! from building, till their 


will: still continue. the monopoly ofthe | iy. 

Such is'a brief, and an imperfect, abstract 
of the principal branches of English cotmmeree:: ‘In con- 
sequence of the political relations in: which? this:coun. 
try has stood for the lust twenty years withthe conti-- 
nent of ‘Europe, and for the last: eight! years with the 
United) States of America, it is not pdssible-to present’ 
a fair average statement edioayemnbiomanay 
Europe or'America, The foll ial statements, 
however, will serve to give us a-clearer insight into the 
real value of ‘the exports. 

Real value of exports, onan’ of three: years: 
ending 1807, tothe continentof Europe; L.17,801,232: 
to Ireland, , &e, 16,415,428; to Asia, 
L.3,308,991.; to Africa, L.1,278,248 ; to the United 
States: of Ameriea, L.12,136,811; to other of 
America, and the: West Indies L.10,599,514; making 
a total, on the annual average of three years ending 
1807, of 1L.51,540,224; if from this sum we deduct 
L.4,000,000! as the value of the from Scotland, 
it will leave about “L.47,000,000 as the value of the 


pe eget amen on an annual average of 


four years, ending 1811, to the continent of E ‘ 
L.3,222,575; to Africa, L.725,013; to the United 
States, Ix ; and to the other parts of Ame~ 
rica and the West Indies, L.17,133,553; a total 
of L.55,657,372 ; from bry aby erm = 872, 
as the probable amount of the exports Scotland, 
eet ee the amount of the 
exports England. i ‘comparative statement of 
the of two series of years, will be sufficient to 
shew how. much the value of our varied both to 
the continent of Europe and to the United States, par= 
ticularly to’ the latter. : 

The following statement shews the real value of the 


a England alone, (exclusive of those from 
India and China,) and of the from England, 
distinguishing foreign from English: ce export- 
ed. In the year ending 10th October 1806, there were 
imported articles to: value of L.98,$98,645; and 

of foreign goods, L.9,005,120; and of Eng- 
lish goods, L.$9,368,218. In the year ending the 10th 
of October 1807, there was , L.40,947,300; 
ex of foreign goods, L.9,679,052; ‘and of Eng- 


lish goods, L.39,041,854, And in the year ending 


Exports. 


Imports. 


Statisti 
. 5 


<A 


Cireulating 


ENGLAND. 


10th of October 1810, the imports were L.34,448,620; 


alone possesses nearly two-thirds, Liverpool, Bristol, 
Hull, New * 


castle, Sunderland, and Whitehaven, rank 
next to London in commerce. 

The following statement may also be given, as exhi- 
as eee er gees 
land, during the last 100 years : 

Years. Imports. Exports. 

1719. .... « L.5,367,499 | 116,834,716 
RYRO a8 5 7,540,620 8,239,924 
1789... e 7,829,373 8,843,624 
1749.2... +.» 7,917,804 12,678,758 
1759... 8,922,976 13,947,788 
1769 ... .».+ 11,908,560 13,438,236 
1779 “ee eee 10,762,240 12,352,052 
W789) 2-0 2 16,408,040 17,989,395 
W799). so 24,483,841 $1,723,727 


1809...... 45,918,663 


Ree an ee re 
Liart, ofthe button of LS0Con ond coveted hy 


Bank.of and the tem 


au 
é 

Hy 
zs 
‘ 

ie 


nese 
5 
a 
3 
3 
= 
E 


ay 
i 
% 
f 


circulation, inthe of ais ne oe 
» in.the year.1 was L.1,829,930; 
of 1,138,520 ; in the year 1 fey 


. 


e 


eu 


5 


they were reduced to"L:8,640,000 ; in 1802, they were 


aL. 


ses meet for the 


_were rendered pe: 


19 
L.17,054,450; and, at 
29,000,000. ‘ 
‘The natural and. obvious. con of, the with- 
drawing of the metallic currency of the kingdom, was 
not only an increase in the amount of Bank of Eng- 
land notes, but.also an-inerease.in the number of pro~< 
vincial banks, and in the amount of the value of their 
notes. Inthe year 1797, the number of country banks, 
‘issuing notes in England, did not reach 200 ; in 1808, 
they were nearly 600; in 1811, 649; in 1812, 625; 
in 1813, 643 ; and in 1814, 689. The average circu- 
lation of each of which cannot possibly be rated at less 
than L.30,000, which will make the total amount of 
the circulation of the provincial notes upwards. of 
L.20,000,000 ; but it is probably much greater. 

Even this circulating medium, great as it is, would 
be totally inadequate of itself to carry on the immense 
trade of this kingdom. In London, the great seat of 
mercantile transactions, exchanges to a very large 
amount are effected, without the intervention of any cir- 
culating medium, by means of brokers, who buy and 
sell for different merchants, and set off the various ar- 
ticles aren each other. Asa proof how small a sum 
of cireulating medium is ahienprerpect en 
toa large amount in metropolis, it may 
nest that in the clearing house, in Lombard 
Street, where the clerks of the different banking hou- 

purpose of exchanging drafts, drafts 
to the amount of upwards of L.4,000,000 are frequent 
ly presented in the course of the day, while bank notes 


-only to the amount of about L.200,000 are required to 
a te ce, 
he pe sources of the revenue of England are finance, 


the duties of customs and excise; the stamp-duties ; 
the land-tax, and assessed taxes ; the post-office duties; 
and the income tax. The reyenue is divided into the 
nic taxes, and the war taxes ; the latter, laid on 

uring the revolutionary wars:with France, consist of 
the income-tax, and of additional duties of customs and 
excise. 


About the commencement of the 17th century, the Customs. 


produce of the customs amounted to nearly L.150,000, 
of which upwards. of L.100,000 was_ col in the 
of London. In the act of union, the customs of 
are reckoned at L.30,000, and those of Eng 
land at L.1,341;559. In the year/1800, the gross pro« 
duce of the customs of England was L.8,551,668 ; in 
the year 1804, L.10,189,238; in the year 1810, the 
permanent revenue of the customs was L.9,952,835 ; 
, or War custom duties, amounted to 
ing a total of L.13,552,050; and in 
the year 1813, the gross produee of the permanent du- 
ties of customs was, L,9,367,542 ; and the war duties, 
L.3,523,205 ; making a total of L.12,890,747. The 
revenue of the customs is collected in England at the 
rate of L.5, 1s, 2d. onthe gross amount. * 

The Excise, which consists of inland duties, or taxes 
on articles manufactured or consumed, originated in 
the year 1626 ; but was not actually established till the 
yeat1643. In the reign of George'l. the, excise duties 

rpetual, In the year,1800, the gross 
uce ‘of this branch of the revenue amounted to 
.11,994,199; in the year 1804, to L.20,985,644; in 


L.3,599,215 ; 


the year 1810, the permanent duties of excise amount- 


etl to L.18,925,954 ; and the war duties to L.6,488,870; 


shad. reach- . making a total of 11.25,414,824. ‘For the year 1813, 
ed the of J. ,.000, at, Seieteet sat the tdtveiny Healers « 


owing ‘Table exhibits the. particulars of the ex- 
cise duties: 


: * The Pies of she cosine wettints for 1818, could-not-bemade-ont, in consequence of the fire-at the Customn-house, which der 


t, are upwards of Statistics. 
present, they p fe , 


20 ENGLAND. 


Statistics. Account of the gross actual receipt in Money, and net produce o the Excise Consolidated Duties, Uncon- statisties. 
—\~— — solidated Duties, Temporary War Taxes, and Tobacco and ahs; axnull, Ya Enatasl fr the Yes 
ending 5th January 1814. 


Articles. Gross actual receipt in money.| Net produce of each 


Apthions, ‘sis sutucthices & a= « L. $43,530 16 84 L. 335,184, 4 1 
Bak. t'. iss. slate cecal 2 2,888,298 13 10 _ 2,569,272 3 
Bricks and Tiles ....... 300,184 8 10 293,249 9 2) | 
CaM oi cns0 it inte 41 ¢ 0080.5 811,305 15 250,687 61 ! 
Cocoa Nuts and Coffee .... 124,019 7 2 115,655 12 1 
Cider, Perry, and Verjuice . . 25,197 17 8 20,996 4 1 
UO Sater ss a teas a he oes 614,054 14 8 $83,531 6 
Hides and Skins. ......- 674,751 3 af 592.669 0 8 
i Bes adi Se 53,587 2 1 36,061 19 2 
Bieeabes Ss .:5s aza.ca te ot 439,892 15 04 433,750 5 
eS RA re car 1,120,558 12 10 1,119,461 11 
RR ARC OT ar 419,570 17 $4 ‘$72,976 10 11 
Printed Goods . .....-+-+ 947,029 1 $ $22,145 19 0 
es a eck 1,548,092 14 5 1,394,253 10 10 
fag. ye abe AS octet 643,089 16 7 551,468 12 9} 
Ae British .......- 1,636,523 17. 1 1,620,883 6 38 
Spirits -} Foreign... +» : 1,499,110 8 8 1,423,359 11 54 
ee Bee Fe a $7,422 6 29,178 8 5 
Stone Bottles... . . 2 eA 2,538 3 5 2,279 18 24 
Sweets and Mead.......-- 25,453 6 9 25,3387 10 3 
Ey Se ee ee 2,048,096 0 O3 1,914,739 17 7 
Tobacco and Snuff . ia $83,870 9 6 882,001 5 5 
Vinegar . 0. 0 ee es os 42,593 16 2 42,155 2 6 
Wits Soca. os eae ee 1,100,583 12 980,652 17 11 
Wire ..i..%. Pe Re 12,887 18 11,587 10. 
Total Consolidated Duties. . . L.17,242,1538 16 383 L,15,223,429 5 7} 
Spirit bE Tag! Ne ae L. 5,202 3 8 L. 5,129 4 9 
Foreign, Da. a 28,182 7 0} 28,17f 14 72 
Total unconsolidated Duties . L.33,384 10 3} _ L. 83,808 19 43 
TEMPORARY WAR TAXES. i 
Malt, per 48 Geo. III. ch. 81. L. 2,205,229 10 7 L. 2,187,270 1 23 |. 
Sweets....Do........- 4,220 2 43 4,219 11 
Spit British, Do. .... 580,612 6 4 580,465 11 10 
Puts 4 Foreign Do. ..... 742,262 2 $2 742,111 10 1 
a ae, TR eee 2,055,263 18 8 _ 1,960,299 17 11 
aie pot Snuff, per 46 Geo, $12,534 8 6 310,566 17 63. 
per 47 Geo IIL. ear. 53,166 14 2 58,050 16 11 
ay, be. $2 Geo Ill. ch. 8. « 7,821 7 8 7,820 1 
Total Temporary War Taxes . L. 5,966,110 5 8 


L, 5,850,804 8 6 


ANNUAL DUTIES. 


Tobwece& Sou, commision} raagoe 9 1 | Lassecr 6 9 | 
Malt, Additional, Do. . | 893,592 8 9 . $93,158 16 7h Ff 
Malt, Old, commis. 24th June 552,951 11 425,808 15 


Total Annual Duties...... | L. 1,929,625 9 13 | L.1,770,229 18 7} 


TOTALS COLLECTED. 7 
Consolidated Duties ...... L.17,242,153 16 L.15,223,429 5 7 
Unconsolidated Do... .. 0... , 33,884 10 83,303 19 
Temporary War Taxes .... 5,966,110 5 3 = 5,850,804 8 6 
Annual Duties... .. tas 1,929,625 9 14 1,770,229 18 
Grand Total ....... euaee L.25,171,274 0 114 L.22,877,767 12 1 


ENGLAND. al 


The expence of collecting the excise duties is at the 1800, amounted to L.2,698,365; in 1804, toL..3,429,697; Statistics. 
ries L.2: 11:10 per et on the gross amount. ~ and, in 1810, to L.5,31 1,269. The following Table =“ 


| Statistics. 
aang gross produce of the stamp duties, in the year exhibits the particulars of the Stamp Duties for 1813: © 


Duties. Gross Produce. Net Produce, 
Deeds, Law Proceedings, and other written in- 3 n 
struments, pig Legacy Receipts, ae), L.2,010,598 13 52 |L.1,901,235 9 0 
and Licences to Pawnbrokers, nities 
BORN, ste o MINES INSEE. 1B) Sid SRE yee 3 545,115 6 3 §25,1384 17 2 
Probates and Administrations ............ 417,263 5 2 Peete 5 ot 
Bills of Exchange and Promissory Notes ..... 624,353 17 5 9 
SDMTAS . 4 gtoancaCaaIe) 6 Awiend Dt. BNSes: 161,080 9 8 148,827 0 22 
Newspapers and Almanacks ........5..-- 394,041. 0 4 * $29,069 17. 1 
Medicine and Medicine Licenses ..........-. 41,578 11 33 86,188 11 it 
Wie POereNtG cee ek ee we ewes ’ 437,380 18 6 405,844 2 1 
en WI fe eee PA Dae Oot See, 24,462 5 O 23,788 9 1 
Gold and Silver Plateit! ica otis siciieiee.. oy 66,198 9 43 60,080 15 62 
ECE ele das bedi ete. o Bte 0.6 & we 6, wise a9 723 0 0 712 8 6 
both Sea . cnt e ome te 415 i3 8 410 010 
hy. SR Ge oe Sea. 314,111 12 10 110,348 9 93 
COMME Myre stele one sco bo taltt crag 167,239 17 OL 163,010 6 113 
Post Horses ......... sib Toe whe Me 247,467 10 0 244,822 12 2 . 
Race Harees. fitiew) baie ochre Geieialade 5 6 ; 868 7.0 786 16 104 
L.5,252,898 16 74 L.4,954,828 8 53 
_ The rate at which the gross revenue of the Stamps is collected, is L. 3:1: 9 per cent. 
Letom The land-tax, which at first was an annual tax, was to L. 159,000. In the year 1800, the gross produce 
; made perpetual in the year 1799, and offered for sale of the Post Office was L.999,354: in 1804, L.1,178,408 : 


of the land, or to any other 

it. In the course of first 
of L. 13,000,000 was pur- 

of February 1513, rather more 

ird was redeemed. In 1815, the gross 


tax was L.1,272,256: the net 
27,07, 
taxes consist principally of the house 


and in 1810, L.1,574,343. In the year 1813, the gross 
produce of the inland post was L.1,532,980: of the fo- 
reign post, L..128,647,; and of the twopenn 
L.-93,299 ; making a total of L. 1,754,926: the net 
produce was L. 1,236,148: the revenue is collected at 
the rate of L. 25:9: 4 per cent. on the gross receipts. 

The income or property tax is 10_ per cent. on all Property 
incomes, (with some exceptions and modifications) ; t®%- 


¢ 
Hl 


after thi 


mT 
a 
a 


i] 


Post Office. 


and window taxes. In the year 1800, these together, 
with the land-tax, amounted to L. 4,451,900: in 1804, 
to L.5,747,374: and in the year 1810, to L.7,210,384. 
n the year 1813, the assessed taxes, i ly of 

land-tax, amounted to L.6,155,867 gross; and to 
L. 5,903,818 net: the rate at which the revenue 
of the land and assessed taxes is coll is L.4: 5:8 
per cent. 

The present establishment of the Post Office was 
in outline in 1642; but there was no regular 
till 1654. In the year 1724, the revenue 
from this source amounted only to the sum of L.96,382: 
of conveyi 
begun in 1784, 


in the year 1800, when it was only 5. per cent. it 
amounted to L.4,677,766: in 1804, to L. 3,572,556: 
in 1810, when it was wh cent, it.amounted to the 
sum of L.12,514,369: and in 1813, the produce of 
it was L.13,016,041. Of the following Tables, the first 
exhibits the amount of the income. of England and 
Wales, in the years 1806, 1808, and 1810, derived from 
all the different sources, except the public funds, pub- 
lic offices, &c, on which the income tax was levied; and 
the second, the amount of income in 1810, derived from - 
trades and professions, shewing the particular sums de- 
rived from every rate of income, from L.50 to L. 5000 
and upwards. 


1808. 1810. 


. |L.25,908,206 16 


11,201,950 9 3 


L.27,368,469 14 8} 
12,029,799 8 1 


13,010,546 18 4 


Ry a 2,012,064 4 4 2,139,942 5 114 2,353,249 18 74 
sete -48,521..6 11 53,959 11 1 64,372 13. 4 
hte 70,165 14 O41 109,761 6 11 154,841 4 38 
Deny 18,646 0 9 24,642 17 4 29,160 6 11 
a 316,483 16 11 428,288 18 11 483,490 19 8 
biaks 77,434.17 1 129,910 17 6 222,672 16 11 
se 248,967 11 12 182,390 15 6 55,040 17 4 


L.29,503,073 18 11} 


89;897,440 17 3k 
$2,763,640 5 52 


42,467,165 15 114 
31,389,789 7 9 


45,876,449 9 8 
32,210,599 11 1 


Revenue in 
1813. 


22 ENGLAND. 


L. 50-and under ..« L.2;315,870 15 10 
above50 ...... 100... 6,295,760 1 11 
Boo *S) ", sts 8 150. $,012,507 5 1 
SD Pe 200 . 1,704,409 10 O 
300 ../... 800. 2,166,129 10 8 
OOP wan te oe 400. 1,567,886 2 0 
400 .. ° BOO -i0.6 1,157,616 6 1 
ee 600 . 1,087,126 411 
RAT Pil 700 . 745,595 7 1 
900: .. a0 Se 800 . 518,988 14 11 
800 «++ 900. 565,614 15 7 
900 ° +3000 2's 295,575 10 4 
1000)... 't 50s 1500 . 1,732,025 18 10 
19008 *. S/F 2000 . 1,057,076 4 2 
3000) . te 8000 . 1,407,242 19 10 
S3000'..... 5000 . 2,017,147 16 6 
5000 and upwards. _ 4,614,576 13 14 


Total assessed . . . L.32,210,599 11 104 


The followi iculars, strictly speaking, relate 
to the feadncot OF Sicet Britain ; but as she fevenne 


“derived from Scotland is comparatively very trifling, 


ible to ascertain what proportion of 

expenditure belongs to that country, and what to 

eee aT under the 
t article. 

Total revenue of Great Britain for the year 1813, 
L.79,448,111: Loans paid into the Exchequer, inclu- 
ding six millions for d, L.35,050,574. --Exche- 

uer bills issued between 5th January 1813, and 5th 
January 1814, and not redeemed within ‘that period, 
L. 41,854,000: Navy, ‘victualling, and ‘transport bills 
issued, ‘L.3,699;740. ‘Total income:of the consolidated 
fund, (which consists ‘principally of the eustoms, ex- 
cise, stamps, assessed taxes, &c.) as it stood 5th Janu- 
1814, Ls 41,827,304: Total ‘charge upon it, 
L. 41,555,752. Net produce of the permanent ‘taxes 
of Great’ Britain, in the year 1813, L.37,597,835 ; in 
— 1814, L. baer en wa $i, SE 

ing statement s i 

icone’ of Ones Britain for nets, ‘anid also the 
state of the -national debt in February 1814. For fur- 


ther particulars-respeeting the national-debt, see Dest, 


and as it is im 


National. ; 
Expenditure, 1813. 

Interest on debt ....... . L.24,055,665 16 03 
Charges of management Se estate 2383827 ‘17 7 
Reduction of national debt . . . . 15;521;862 15 4: 
Interest on exchequer bills 2,081,529 10 6 
CHORE BE OES PAD Sie os 1,628,000 0°0 
Courts of justice, mint, ’&c. . .. . 13595,850 6 11 
Civil government of Scotland -+. 119,176 4 8 
Bounties for fisheries, manufac- 228,741 18 7 

tures, and commerce .... z 
Pensions on the hereditary reven 27,700 0 0 
Militia-and-deserters-warrants .. 134,614 3 49 
Navy PAL Siler ees 11,372,518 4 11 
Victualling service......... ss 11 64 
T ee eee Je gk 790 12 11 
aclabies oR. fs 490,000 0 0 
Onindincs steers. GA 8 5,368,108 12 6 
Army . ee ae ar 18,500,985 11 0 

sidies ......4.% art 22,262,951 0 0 
Miscellaneous services. ...... 4,005,824 18 44 
Loamto-freland .......... “4,700; 13 4 
Expence on exchequer'bills . 0 0 


Funded Debt. . 

: ebruary 1814. 
Telenor ef dbnet rath cera aet 811 
Total amount of debit EAUOAL eatanaay 16% 0 
Total amount of debt of Germa- 

ny payable in-Great Britain ¢ 7002633 6 8 
Total amount of debt of Portu- 895 722 

gal payable in Great Britain i St Ad 


In the hands of commiesign ssi 6080.007 (0 43 
n the bands of . commussioners 
foe tedaceion:ut danslehe tt 94,298,504 )0 0 


. Lv719,871,223 0. 43 
‘Transferred to commissioners by 2,861,667 0 0 


. purchase of life annuities . . 


L.717,609,666 0 43 


Total .charge for debt. payable in -Great Britain, 
L. $9,337,216 : 3:81. 

Unfunded debt and .demands ing, 5th Ja- 
nuary 1814, L. 60,968,966: 11: 114. 


Ways and means voted 1813 .. L,.G8,106,308 0 0 
RCRVIOGD. c's casa atehs HACE. 71,976,641 8 8 


Deficiency of ways and means L. 3,870,383 8 $3 


The Navy of Great Britain forms ‘its “principal ‘bul- yay. 


wark and pride ; and its increase and ‘present strength 
amount of the wealth of the kin: which we have 
just exhibited. At the death ‘of ‘Elizabeth, the 
total number of ships belonging’'to the navy was 42; the 
largest mounting 40 guns; and‘the whole navi ‘by 
8376 men. At the death of King William, the total 
number of ships was 1256,-of -wittely-AS8-were of the 
line. ‘At the death of IH. it-had-not increased 
much, ‘there being only 186-ships‘of -the Tine. -At‘the 
commencement of the war in 1798; there -were 156 
sail‘of the'line: in January “?801,'195 sail of the line: 
and ‘in the month of April’191, there were ‘in-com- 

beget ee Pye Bor ie sda OM ris = 

ine, '24-from 50-to guns; ‘I frig ates, 124 sloops . 
war, 8 bombs and fire ships, 184 armed brigs, $9 cut- 

ters, and 49 ‘schooners ;' besides-whieh; there were in 


ordinary,’ ing, and 'buikting, a number, ‘making 
the totel 1092, and the. ships of theline 250. “Theses 
‘men.and marines employed at ‘this time -amounted “to 
140,00. : 


‘Fill the war whieh has‘ just‘terminated;-the generals 4.,.y, 


and _ soldiers .of .Great i inly .did not bear 
so high a character as her seamen, but their exploits 
during that war has ‘raised “them ‘to an equality ; and 
the exertions ofthis country im: increasing‘ her ‘troops, 
far surpassed those she had put'forth at any former pe- 


riod. In the year 1775, the: whole Be 
amounted only to'$8;190 ;in 1783,’to' 90,395 yin 1793, 
to’ 38,945 ; and in F801, to 149,865 +/all these, however, 
except the last, were periods of* ere “At the ‘termi- 


nation ‘of the present-war, Great up- 
wards of 28,000 cavalry; 7500 foot .T91,000-in- 
fantry, and 71,000 militia. The E tia amount~ 


ed to upwards of 51,000: besides these, there were the 
Ipeak eit rolentoes ia foreign troops, artillery, 
C. ity 


Statistics, 


; 7 


ENGLAND. 


23 

of: “and Wales was long a Families engaged*in othet occupations in] . Statintion. 

jill it-was at lastidetermi- Wales... es. eee cess “ae 
by the result of an act of parliament in Decem- Males in Ee Rhee SS) 2 4,575,768 
ber 1800, which directed a general enumeration of ....in Wales... -...-4. 0: . 295,633 
houses; families; and persons. From this enumeration Females:in Eng Bekele: ot deste al 4,963,064 
it appeared; that there. were. in England 1,472;870\in- ..... in Wi Lana ans 3950 - $20,155 
habited! houses, occupied. by 1,787,520 families; and Totalimhabitants of England. ..-..-- 9;538,;827 
that the total number of persons was 8,331,484:/While .......... in Wales 2... ee eee 611,788 

in Wales there were 108,053. inhabited houses, occupied $ : : 

by 118,303-families ;. and that the total numberof per- — From a comparison of the population of ' d in 
sons was 541 » In the year 1811, a similarenumera- the years 1801 and 1811, it appears that it had mcreas- 
tion took place, of which the following are the-results: ed a cent. during that period ; while the popula- 
: es ROA yy reece z tion Wales hed increased 13 per cent. ‘The popula- 


Inhabited housesin England .......... 1,678,106 tion of the manufacturing districts had increased in 
Zieies eats ete, ee 119,898 much the. ion ; in 1801, the population: 
Number of families: in Eng bk ts 3 2,012,391 of Lancashire was 672,731; in 1811, it was 856,000. 
sca sae in W: 2 tae 129,756 In 1801, the population of the west riding of Yorkshire 
Houses: building in Brengts. Ses 15,188 was 563,953; in 1811, it was 675,100. There is also 
eveeeve ss vin Wi eter een Sre 1,019 reason to believe, that the population of England and. 
Uninhabited:houses:in-England ......-. 47,925 Wales, between 1785 and 1795, increased nearly in the 
Familics engage smameaincasier oe seraes same proporti werd hi Nog be Sa ashi The 
iv A [oh agian sexes was mu same in as in 
Pe reeds. Se iic ut. 5, - 86046 1 1,:thatisyabout 10 males to.11 females of the resi- 
Families engaged in'trade'in England’... 923,578 ‘dent ion. The following Table exhibits the in- 
AR aie oy wees AB in Wales 2... . 044 crease between 1801 and 1811, in a more particular 
Families engaged in other ions in? point of view : 
ee *e ee ® _— ae @ oe FS. 391,450 
Poputation, 1801. Popuration, 1811. 
Ss eT Males. Females. Total. Increase. Males. * Females. Total. 
. «+. | 3,987,985 | 4,343,499 | 8,331,484 || 1,207, 4,575,763' | 4,963,064 | 9,538,827 
win Sok cybee 257,178 | 284, 541,546 make 291,633'|' $20,155 | 611,788 
Army and Navy .| 470,598|...... 470,598 169;902 | 640,500'|"......., 640,500 
Totals |. . | 4,715,711 | 4,627,967 | 9,343,578 || 1,447,537 | 5,507,893 |'5,283,219 | 10,791,107 
Till the enumerations of 1801 and 1911, it was ge. 
nerally naka seen brie aie 54 Yee ry Baptiene Burials, Page 
sons toa in London. other towns’; 
baistaera st maee bomen morons aes [liar unrest tea ||. 
me . , i abane 
of inhabitants to #/house is about 54; while inthe towns» | 1720 | 159,906 |" 165,956 gs 
it varies very considerably, from 44 to 92. 1730 166,514 182,579, +558 
which the population of England and Wales can be ac an We sadons oa gal eee 
ious to the enumeration. of 1770 Prin oh 161,004, rps 
1801, yet the following Table, constructed on the best | 1770 | 218427 | 180,806. | 68,698 
info this subject, tis presumed, exx | i709 | Ss6ee8 | Tehegn | 706% 
Seen Gul piaases t4oise ofithe-population, at dif | 189 | soue7o | 208,063. | 69,851 
c . 1801 237,029 | 204,454 67,228 
+ Yeus Population. 1802 | 273,887 | 199,889. | 90,396 
WUE A ald andi hele uae. c=) ste 5,475,000 1803 294,108 203,728 94,379 
| 9 AT Ee ee rae §,240,000 1804 294,592 181,177 85,738 
TEE td hg b sedeoysas, 0 «+ 5,565,000 1805 | 292,201 181,240 79,856 
1740's, 2 ctme ~otie “8 Sit 5,796,000 1806 | 291,929 183,452 80,754 
L740. « «5 wiomae Su Fm ¢ jeys 064,000 1807. $00,294 195,851 83,923 
1750 . Ris 0 File. « bs Bias 6,467,000 1808 | 296,074 200,763 82,248 
1760 . #4 wee a tee» 6,736,000 1809 299,989 191,471 83,369 
ots diene els , «* +++ 7,428,000 1810 298,853 208,184 84,470 
iD Lede 5, oD ie MENS e hese tbe 4, - 
p72.) ee eee a « «)«+ 8,016,000 33,! 
1 af pra 3 Sone J 5,000 The number of regigtered burials was sta- Burials, 
ieee ° 7 rier con tionary for 21 years, from 1780 to 1800 ; the average 
. . : . number being about 192,000 per annum. I'rom 1800 
The following Table exhibits the baptisms, burials, to 1805, the average was 194,000; and from 1805. to 
and marriages at different periods, from 1700 to 1810: 1810, the average number was.196,000..| 


24 ENGLAND. 
Stasistica In 1780, 1 in 40 died annually, In the following Table, the number of baptisms to 
we In 1790, 1 in 45. 100 marriages, at different periods, from 1760 to 1810, 
« . In 1800, 1 in 47. is given: 
wa oe cre beste geen <3 ene | 
om > next shews the number of marriages, on . _Years. Baptisms, Marriages. 
a medium average of 5 years, and also onamedium | In 1760.....+4.+4+0+ 366 to 100, 
average of 10 years, from the passing of the marriage 177O 0's Vedas aie le ie) «have [or i AO 
act to the year 1810: 1780).) bie Ma deels > 6 sy SER ROMO 
lee : eee et ae UBB Mea eldveiee 00: 9866S tae 
1745 1760 incisive, “SSidos] MTA QO veers 859 to 100 
1760 to 1765 do. 59,883 eee 1800... Tei coh ow cote ae 
1765 to 1770 do. 59,043 ee -* = ete rte 2 6 S'S 
. . . 59,892 WOE fcc 6is eeustetoie oRliinSita «D0 
1770 to 1775... do. 60,741 1810 360 to 100 
1775 to 1780 do. 64,238 65 479 eoe¢ ops 42S Fe 
ig a J am a DE The last. Table we shall give on this subject exhibits 
1790 to 1795 2 al one - . « 71,784 the population of each county ; the area of each 
1795 to 1800 do. 74,998 in square miles ; the number of people in each coun 
1800 to 1805 do. as a6e «+ + 79,231 to a square mile ; and the annual proportions in 
1805 to 1810 do. 82,953 county, of baptisms, burials, and marriages : 
Population in |Area in ened neo ial] One 
“3 le | One ne oo ae ee 
Leer 1811, calle ang tim to'| to. - | lage to 
pe mile, persons. | persons. | persons. | 
Bedford. ..... 72,600 430 171 32 56 126 
Berks x 122,300 744 164 34 53 144 
Bucks ...... 121,600 748 162 33 49 129 
Cambridgeshire . 104,500 686 152 30 44 127 
Chester. .... = 234,600 1,017. | 230 $3 .| 50 131 
Cornwall... .. 233 900 1,407 158 $2 62 141 
Cumberland ... 138,300 1,497 92 35 54: 138 
Derby ...... 191,700 1,077 | 178 | 33 56 | 137 
Devon ...... 396,100 2,488 159 33 52 118 
Dorset .. 2... 128.900 1,129 114 35 57 135 ° 
Durham ..... 183,600 1,040 176 33 50 128 
eS 260,900 1,525 171 33 4h 128 
Gloucester .... 295,100 1,122 263 36 61 120 
Hereford . . 97,300 971 100 36 58 150 
Hertford ..... 115,400 602 190 84 "| 55 1638 
Huntingdon . . 43,700 845 126 31 48 129 
Raeeia.. ... oo 385,600 1,462 | 263 30 41 118 
Lancashire... . 856,000. 1,806 473 29 48 108 
Leicester ..... 155,000 816 190 36 57 130 
Lincoln. ..... 245,900 2,787 88 82 51 126 
Middlesex .... 985,100 297 | 3316 40 36 94 
Monmouth ... . 64.200 516 124 AT 64 153 
Norfolk. ..... 301,800 2,013 150 30 50 128 
Northam we 146,100 965 150 35 52 133 
Northumberland . 177,900 1,809 98 | 37 53 |. 187 
mere ow ae 168,400 71% 217. | « 82 52 119 
Oxf Gere: ee 125,200 742 168 34 55 138 
Rutland ,.... 17,000 200 85 $2 53 147 
Sdloy so ta 200,800 1,403 148 36 57 143 
Somerset . . 313,300 1,549 200 85 52 129 
Southampton. . . 253,300 1,533 165 | °31 49 106 
Stafford. 2... : 804,000 1,196 | 254 $2 52 121 
Suffolk . . 242,900 1,566. | 155 $1 58 128 
Surrey ..... ; 834,700 811 412 36 45 130 
Sussex ..... : 196,500 1,461 | 134 | 30 55 | 129. 
Warwick ..... 236,400 984 | 240 85 42 116 
Westmoreland . . 47,500 722 65 31 54 135 
Wilts SP. 200,300 1,283 156 35 54 186 
Worcester . . 165,900 674 244 $2 52 132 
York, East . . 173,000 1,268 136 30 47 105 
North . 157,600 2.112 74 30 §1 125 
West . 675.100 2,633 | 256 31 51 123 
ge py: 9,855,400 50,210 196 33 49 120 
Wales,...... 632,600 8,125 17 $7 60 136 
10,488,000 58,335 179 34 50 122 


“ENGLAND. 25 


"Statistics. “In treating of the population of Eng it would andthe lordsspiritual and temporal sitin onehouse, which Statistics. 
—\— be i not to notice the state of the poor, and the is called the House of Lords; and the representatives 
_ Sate oe mode by" hich they are supported ; and yet dur limits of the people in another, which is called the House of 


‘lt 


i 


was L,1,530,804 ; 


yet 
us to be brief on this By the 43d 
of hag. 2. every aries to boa to provide 


authority justices 

of the Pe. to rate every parish at such 4 weekly 

money, as they should think necessary for this 

In 1776, a return was made to parliament 

rule palit eapiiedlitard fie ocie year; om sccoont Uf thie 
poor, from which it , that the sum 

that there were 1970 work- 

capable of ing 89,775 In 

1786, another return was made, from which it appear- 

iture for the poor had increased to 


956,248, besides 194,052, who were not parishioners ; 
the expence incurred for them was L.3,061,446. The 
number of persons relieved in and out of work-houses 
was 1,039,716, which se tee 12 per cent. of the 


3 


iste 


HH 


if 


F 


or 

by commissioners aj him. He al- 

so has the power to prorogue or dissolve it. Besides 

t prerogatives, as they respect Parliament, 

the “ee 3 epee the privilege of rejecting any bill 

that may have passed both Houses, and consequently 
ing it from being enacted into a law. 

The lords spiritual, as a constituent of Parlia- 
ment, consist of the two archbish 24 bi 
England, and four bi of Ireland. The English 
rose and bishops sit in the U House, from 
their i a being supposed to hold, certain baro- . 
nies under the king. 

The lords temporal consist of all the peers of the 
in their 
The duke is so styled from the 
or general. The title of mar- 
Gothic, and signifies the com- 
a march or frontier. The titles 
also the Gothic, and signify 
Viscount is derived from the 


2, 
Ss 


GFE 
if 
4 
d; 
: 


ae 


Scotch and Irish 
House of Commons consists of knights, citizens, 
and burgesses, os ha by counties, cities, 
and boroughs. The number of representatives sent to 
Parliament, for England, Wales, and the town of Ber- 

i The Scotch and Irish representatives in- 
number to 658 members. No person can 
for a knight of the shire, unless he a free- 
of the annual 
term of years, nor copyhold estates, 


ficial 
ive the of voting. A how 
a eos 


, however, with no trade, and some 
entitled to vote, return members 


every county, for the election of all members to 

serve for that county, and for every city and borougl) 

in it, which possesses the privilege of returning mem- 
B 


Lords spiri- 


of tual. 


Lords tem- 


several degrees of duke, marquis, earl, poral. 


House of 
Commons. 


Power of 


afl 
[itt 
Hit 
Hl 


i 
: 
E 


5 
i eT! 
g . 
oe 
ie 


sitting members, mmmons, up- 
on petition, shall adjudge the return to be illegal. All 
petitions against si members are referred to a select 
committee of 15 members of the House of Commons. 
new Parlia- 


for prizes, ts for regiments, officers of the excise 
po ems of abe , &e. and every 

who holds any office under crown, created 
since 1705, or any pension during the pleasure of the 
ee ee ee ae le to sit in 
Parliament. 


ert Ag OY t and salutary. It 
pan ing dengumnedey aie 


Togs; bet tn Gack, ation te easily obtained. When, 


ENGLAND. 


i the 
where he loses, for the time, his character of speaker. 
the upper House is always at liberty to 


re torec ta opamp a 
an , 

the s enapk theta setdoat den es and be 
equal, and then his casting vote decides the ity. 
But in the House of , the speaker votes with the 


count the votes on each side. 
After the second reading the bill is committed, that 
is, referred to a committee, either select, or of the whole 


House. In the latter case, the leaves the chair, 
and another person is i chairman of the com- 
mittee. Ina committee, each member may on 


When the bills have passed both Houses, 
ways deposited in the House of Lords, to wait the royal 


ry barr ra ees oe 


. The Commons cannot proceed Of proceed- 


27 


shall consider of i to the state. The Statisties. 


qi 


dg 
3 
& 
if 


nots. 


| 


: 


Hy 
: 


¢ 
bE 
7 


This is done by the ki 
expressed by the Lord Chancellor in his Majesty’s pre- 
. - 


dissolution, which is the ci- 
e parliament, is effected by the king's will. 
With respect to the executive er, and the rights 
of succession to the throne of E the fundamental 
maxim is, that the crown is, “ by common law and con- 
stitutional custom, heredi‘ary ; but that the rights of in- 
heritance — time to time be changsd or limited 
by act of parliament, the crown still continuing here- 
ditary these limitations.” The right of primo- 
’ the males, and of the males in prefe- 
rence to the females, is a constitutional rule in the de- 
scent of the crown. Upon fuilure of the male line, the 
crown descends to the eldest of the female issue, and 
the heirs of her body lawfully begotten, and not jointly 


chap. 2. the descent is limited to such heirs only of the 
Princess Sophia, grand-daughter of King James I. as 
are Protestant members of the church pf England, and 
are married to none but Protestants. 


consort has many prerogatives different 
from wives. She is a public person distinct from 
the king, and is able to purchase 


well as er an ee aman ents 
late her person, and in likewise if she be consenting. 
1 and in a similar manner, the 
Prince of Wales, his consort, and the Princess Royal. 
fer sean fy brothers, uncles, grandsons, and nephews, 


of all the other nobility. They, as well 


IIT. ¢ no descendants of George II. (except the 
issue of princesses married into foreign families,) can 
Say unkiony balupatamene urea “te 
> 25 i twel 
sauliinsuatiotSE. Gaaiibnitetion oe-thertey cove, 


indies also, are the king’s counsellors in matters of law. ar 


the principal council of the sovereign ie 


~ council, the members of which are chosen by 
_ on changes of administration, are seldom erased, though 


those in opposition seldom attend. They are styled 
ight honourable, and are sworn to observe secrecy. 

lowest at the board pronounces his opinion first, 
and the king, if present, concludes with declaring his 


pr ere 
: he cabinet council, as it is called, consists of those Cabinet 
ministers of state, who hold the highest rank and digni- council 


~ The members are generally 9 or 11 ; consisting of © 
res lord chancellor, the lord ru te seal, the lord presi- 
dent of the council, the three principal secretaries of 
state, the first lord of the treasury, the chancellor of 
the exchequer, and the first lord of the admiralty. The 
first lord of the treasury is considered the premier, or 
prime minister of the country. It sometimes S$; 
that the offices of’ first lord of the treasury, and the 
chancellor of the exchequer, are held by the same per- 
son. No part of the executive authority of the rhe 
vested in his privy council, the constant style of the law 
being the king in council, and not the king and coun- 
cil. The constitution does not ise the cabinet 
council. The king can remove his confidential servants, 
or “ the administration,” as it is usually termed, at his 


pleasure. 
The principal officers, who have the m 
the political, military, naval, and financial 


sioners of the treasury ; the principal secretaries of 
state ; the secretary at war ; the commander in chief ; 
the lord high admiral, or lords commissioners of the 
admiralty. ' 


The business of the treasury, is to determine on all Treasury. 


matters relative to the civil list, or the other revenues of 
the nation; to give directions ae conduct of all 
boards, and ms entrusted wi e receipt, m 

pin oi i tctadarenenetaen 70 ign all 
warrants for payments out of them, and generally to 
superintend every branch of the revenue belonging to 
his Majesty, me public. Formerly, there was alia 
high treasurer ; but for upwards of one hunglred years, 
the management of the has been put in com- 
mission ; the commissioners being the first lord of the 
treasury, the chancellor of the exchequer, (to whom is 
entrusted, in an ial manner, the revenue and ex- 
—_ of the nation, and who pene takes the 
ead on the ministerial side of the House of Commons, 
and three other commissioners. Since the union wi 
Ireland, the chancellor of the exchequer of that part of 
the united kingdom, is, ex officio, nominated one of the 
lords commissioners of the treasury. 


There are three principal secretaries of state: the secretaries 
ent, who has of state. 


secretary of state for the home “7 aoe 
management of, and controul over, the internal affairs 
of the kin , and from whom all directions and 
commands to the lord lieutenants, angen — other 
magistrates, issue ; the secretary of state for foreign af- 
faite, who, as the name implies, has the management 
of all nay ores and transactions with foreign na- 
tions ; and the secretary’ of state for war and colonies, ~ 
who has the ent of the affairs of the colonies, 
and’ to whom also is entrusted the supreme direction of 
all warlike expeditions. 

The commander in chief is at the head of the army 
The at war, when there is no commander 
chief, agg is, when the king retains actually, as well as 


ent of Principat 
irs of the officers of 
kingdom, are the lord high treasurer, or lords commis- **** 


2° Seerctary 
MM at war. 


Admiralty. 


Royal pre- 


in many more cases; thou origina’ 
with the commander in chief, much of the execu’ 
rests with the war office. 
considerable branches of 


§ 
F 
H 
PE 


Z 
J 
= 


now entrusted to a lord high admiral ; 

admiralty is appointed, consisting of a 
, is not a naval officer,) and si i 
among whom are admirals of known skill and 


which was instituted in 1794, has the charge of the 
ee aes of sick and wounded seamen, and of 
war. 


. ws and customs of 
See penenrien aed petite , to be 
in all his judgments ; and to maintain the Pro- 


testant reformed on. 


The constitution of this country ascribes to the Sove- 
reign the political attribute of absolute ection. It 
is an ancient and maxim, « the king 


i deriving their power and 
authority from him ; he has also the exclusive power of 


the ki ie considered the prosecutor in all cri- 
proces he.is invested, by the constitution, 


8 

nal 
ive of pardoning offences. Another 
branch of the prerogative, is yo wer of issuing pro- 
clamations, by which laws already made are enforced. 
The other te sang of the king, are the power of 
conferring and dignities, either by ‘writ and 
letters patent, as in the creation of peers and baronets ; 
or by corporeal investiture, as in the creation of a knight, 


ENGLAND. 


the ist of George III. ; £100,000 aeim 
of George III, ; £60,000 by the of TIL; 
ee the oro yea III. ; and £35,000 the 


a 23d of George 
11, tt which Auctantes ite cened 


the king’s 


illness, they were increased 
£390,000. 


In the second class, 
ing’s Bench 
uer, and justices of the 
: in all about £25,000. 
salaries to foreign mi- 


oo 


In the third class, are compri 
nisters: these of course vary to the extent 
our relations with other powers. Under the fourth 
class, are compri ec the epee nee gc ge 


class, salaries in the above departments about £75,000. 
The sixth class, ds pensions and compensa- 
tions to old servants, and late ministers at foreign courts: 
about £120,000. The seventh class com small 
fees and salaries to the amount of about And 


has already béen mentioned, that the king is the Different 


chief magistrate in the country. The principal subor- magistrates. 
tices of the peace, constables, sury of highways, 
and overseers of the The hi, ee, High she 


ty, 
parece ge . 
peers) to atten: , on 

pam for disobedience. in'his judicial capacity, he 
may hear and determine all causes of 40s. value. In 
intl daues, fhe late serve the writ, to arrest, and take 
bail; to summon the jury in all cases, and to see jud 
ment executed. - He under him, the under cheriff, 
bailiffs, and gaolers. 


In every count there are usually four coroners, and Coroners, 


sometimes six. . are chosen by the freeholders. 
Their duty is to inquire into the manner and cause of 
the death of every person who ig supposed to have died 
by violence, suddenly, or in prison. The inquiry is 
to be made, on view of the body of the deceased, by 
a jury, over whom the coroner presides. If, by the 
coroner’s inquest, any one is found guilty of murder 
or manslaughter, he is to commit the offender for fur- 
ther trial. The next denomination of i 
justices of the peace, the principal 


are Justices of 
of whom is the cus- the peace. 
tos rotulorum, or keeper of the records of the county. 


ENGLAND. 29 
Statistics. Justices are appointed by the king’s special commission. quer, which manages the royal revenue, and i which Statistics... 
—_r— In this i aati i justices are direct- Culses ctlatitas tnit-are detgnnined ; ‘one. tie oot, eV 
ed to be always i without whom no business or judicial part of it, which is again subdivided into a 


Municipal . 
law. 


Courts of 
justtoe, 


in 
to keep the peace 
of surveyors of the highways con- 


to execution the statutes for the re- 


Fa EE 
25 
& 
a 
if 
a = 
ri 
g 
& 
3 


The municipal law of England is divided into the 
i or common law, and the written or sta- 
The common law consists of general cus- 
particular customs of certain of the 
i , and those particular laws which are observed 
only in certain courts and jurisdictions. 
proceedings and inations in the ordinary 
-spangctacnpayl A yyiny wecpeneed 
pace rid so . Of these customs 
are the itories, the judicial de- 
cisions ing their guides. The 
written laws of the kingdom consist of those statutes 
which made by the king’s majesty, by and with 
consent of the lords / igess and tem- 
poral in parliament assembled. If common law 
and statute differ, the former gives place to the latter ; 
and an old statute is superseded by a new one ; but if a 


gies 


EF 
a 


: 
= 
E 


court of equity and a court of common law. From the 
equity side of this court, none lie immediately to the 
House of Peers. The whole num! 
to all of whom, intricate and important points of law, 
that occur in any trial, are referred. . They also sit 
in ihn Limes of Lords, in order that may assist: 
them with their opinion and advice, when that House 
acts in its judicial capacity. Formerly the judges were 
dependent on the crown ; but his present Majesty be- 
gan his reign with ing, “that he looked upon 
the independence and uprightness of the judges as es- 
sential to the imparti inistration of justice—as 
one of the best securities of the rights and liberties of 
the subjects—and as most conducive to the honour of 
the crown.” Upon this an act was by which 
the judges are to be continued in office notwithstand- 
ing the demise of the crown; nor can they be remo- 
ved, but by a joint address of both Houses of Parlia- 
ment to the king. The High Court of Chancery is the 
most im t of all the king’s civil courts of justice. 
It has its name from the judge presiding in it, who is ' 
styled Lord High C lor, because the highest point 
in his jurisdiction consists in cancelling the king’s let- 
ters patent, when they are granted contrary to law. 
The Lord Chancellor takes precedency of every tem- 
lord. By his office he is speaker of the House of 
s. To him belongs the appointment of all the 
justices of the peace thro lions ty mre and he 
is patron of all the king’s livings under the fouly va- 
lue of £20 in the king’s books. He is also the general 
guardian of all infants, idiots, and lunatics. The Court 
of Chancery, in which the Lord High Chancellor alone 
sits, and determines without a jury, ju causes in 
equity, in order to moderate the rigour of the law, to 
defend the helpless from oppression, and i 


extend relief in cases of accident, fraud, a teen of 


trust.’ From this court om Seeehney seeaeraser: 


statute that another be itself ed, the the House of Peers, which is the supreme court of ju- 
first statute is revived without any words for dicature in the ki . From its decision there can 
that purpose. be no farther appeal. 


common law and ety. 
the ecclesiastical courts, the courts military, e 
courts maritime. The court of King’s Bench is the 


was understood to 


The courts of assize act as auxiliaries to the courts 
already mentioned : They are composed of two or three 
commissioners, who are sent round the kingdom twice 
every year, except in the four northern counties of 
Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, and West- 
moreland; in which the assizes are held only once a 


ber of judges is twelve; Judges. 


year. 

The trial by jury, handed down from our Saxon an- Trial by 
cestors, is the most noble feature in English juris- jury. 
prudence, and is justly regarded as the safeguard of 
the lives, liberties, and property of the nation, In ci- Jn civil. 
vil cases there are two kin juries, special and com- cases. 
mon ; special juries were ly introduced, when 
the causes were too intricate for the discussion of or- 
dinary freeholders. In forming a special jury, the 
sheriff attends with his freeholders book, on the 
per officer takes indiscriminately 48 of the freeholders, 

12 of. whom are struck off by each of the attornies on 
both sides, A common jury is returned by the sheriff, 
who gives in a list containing not less than 48, nor 
more than 72 jurors, whose names are put into a box, 
and the 12 first drawn out are sworn on the jury. The 
jurors may be challenged by either party. Bach of the 
12 men me epee, Hepa is sworn separately, well 
and to try the issue een the parties, and a 
true verdict to give according to the evidence. The 
3 


because the Sovereign 


pa ocoring by ata ad a. tN it is so 
u 
in San fe. Jotnlicind extease & the whee 


are three puisne judges, The authori 
Teenie he cekaronel ot wall so ciel aa the latter is 
called the crown side, the former the plea side, of the 
court. It is a court of appeal, into which may be re- 
moved all determinations of the court of Common Pleas 
and of the inferior courts ; but from it an appeal lies to 
the House of Lords, or to the Court of Exchequer. The 
court of Common Pleas determines all civil actions be- 
tween man and man, as distingui from “ the pleas 
of the crown;” which term comprehends all crimes and 
F eidgesiry ours. Cae “_—- Paar Ay "or haenad and 
i ju Ex uer, sO 
Semen Tage the encitel vada ch ceiling apon's che- 
quered board, is a court of law and equity also. It 
consists of two divisions. The receipt of the exche« 


Courts of 


ENGL 
qvabatrs t pote thrceshrtl sp 


aaF 
he 


: 


E 


f 


- 


f 


PS 
5 


} 


i upon the evidence. 
k it ry, retire to consider 
y are without meat, drink, 
(unless ssion of the judge,) till 
unanimously agreed. When ms 8 are agreed, 
back to the bar, and deliver their verdict ; 


SPREE 


tion must be sued out within a year and a day after 
> seemefiacaemar any Such are the proceedings in ci- 


pardon, under the great seal, is pleadable to an impeach- 
ment by tlieCommons. In et of pre monger after 
evidence is gone , and counsel heard, each peer 
declares; on his honour, whether the accused is guilty 
or not guilty of the crimes laid to his charge, and he is 
acquitted or condemned, according as the majority of 
the peers are for or against him. It has already been 
mentioned, that the Court of King’s Bench, on the crown 
side, takes cognisance of all criminal causes. The High 
Court of at takes cognizance of all crimes and 
offences committed either upon the sea, or upon the 
coasts. The criminal courts of local jurisdiction, are 
the courts of oyer and terminer, or courts of assize, héld 
ly the judges on the circuit, attended by the justices 
of the of the county wherein the assizes are hold- 
en; el cage quarter sessions of the peace, Which 
must be holden in every county, orice in every quarter 
of a year, It is holden before two or more justices of 
the peace, one of whom must be of the quorum. The 
jurisdiction of this court extends to all féloniés and tres- 
passes ; but murders, and other capital felonies, ‘are 
referred aeons of in er 
a criminal, is, in the thks (tees, toy beret The sual 
mode of ing an arrest, or of ending a person, 
¢ hand and seal of a 
nn it making oath concern- 


b against persons 

thay fn Vie wor of eeeamnititng’a Wench of the ponte. 
fia phoebe yy Serbo hema a ma- 
distryte, Who dismisses hi ie charge ; ' 
groundless ; but if otherwise, the is either ‘coimmutted 
to prison, or admitted to bail, that is, he must give 


AND. 


i 
wa RS 


grand jury is sw 
delivers to them his charge, 


2 
4 
5 
: 
5 
: 


é 


, they ! 
“not a true bill,” or “ not found,” and the 
charged of course; but a new indietment may 


tisfied of the tru’ 
it, “a true bill.” 


pel wag an ing, in criminal cases, at the suit of the 
ithout a previous presentment to a grand jury, 
is by way of information ; “at 


the king, and partly of the 

the dite ahaie’ 
If the offender, on the bill of indictment found, 

does not appear after bei quired to si er him. 

self at five co; courts, he is judged to be outlawed, 


or is rendered incapable of taking any of the benefits of 
the law, either by bringing actions or otherwise. When 
the offender appears in court, the indictment is‘distinet- _ 


Any cause whatever; whereas the king can challenge 

juror, without igning @ reason, to be allowed by the 
court. In cases treason, treason, and mis- 
ni rh Sm re bed toad ery ae tom 
necessary to convict a prisoner ; in almost every 
other case, one witness is sufficient. ayer age one 4 
soner 


i 


for the pi ion is gone through, the N 

called upon for his defence ; and when this is finished, _ 
the judge sums up the evidence, pointing out the law to 
the jury, and chien instructing them, that if any 


doubt of the prisoner's guilt rest upon their minds, they 


are bound to acquit him, The jury then retire to con- Verdict of 
given in open court. the jury. 


sider their verdict, which must 
The unanimity of all the twelve persons is 


the peculiar 
characteristic of the English jury. Ifthe poner i 
found not guilty, he is for ever discharged of the accu- 
pre nh Leeda Mo an 
court immediately follows, and he ean only -be on- 
ed by an exercise of the royal 
don Taust be under the great seal of 


ve. This par- Royal par- 
gland ; the ne- 400. 


Character 


il 


the Englisk 
laws. 


ENGLAND. 3 
the provoking of another to break the peace; and this Statistics. 


It is beyond our and limits to enumerate the 
ere er penn 0) Sts Seema 
i however, be briefly to men- 

is affixed in the sta- 

i in an 


‘ 


a 


spay ho wv easily Seeepiey-gab behing a truth as a false- 


_ By the constitution, the king is considered as the su- Church of 


__preme head, on earth, of the church of England. By this England, 
aul 


thority he convenes, rorogues, restrains, regulates, 
and dissolves all pein he ecclesiastical conyocations. 
The conyocation of the clergy in land, however, 
have never been allowed to transact any business since 
ign of Queen Anne. The ministers of the esta~ 
which me Bee al ae seen hein teen 
which com) ms either in orders, 
or in ecclesiastical offices. The different anes of the 
clergy of the church of England, essential to the consti- 
tution of episcopal government, are those of bishops, 
priests, ko sheep but there are other officers, which, 
though not essentially necessary, have been gradually 
i juced, as cag deans, daries, minor 


deemed to be sanguinary. in Saga Siasatate bak pi ph pc et 
aoe ge ea hd crimes, e. ‘The episcopacy nd consists ° 
many of which are by no means deserving of it, yet archbishops of Canterbury and York, and 24 bishops, 
there are. as few crimes i with who, spon confirmation, may sit in Parliament ; there | 
death in this as in any other country. High treason, is also the Bishop of Soder and Man, who has no seat 
murder, and forgery, are generally thus punished, in the House af Lorde. The archbis is the chief of 
Transportation for life, or for a period of years, isthe the rest of the bishops, and all the inferior clergy in 


livines in the digpocal of his bishops, 
in 

filled six months, The Archbishop of Canterbury 
enjoys some privileges above the Archbishop of York; 
to him belongs the privilege of crowning the kings and 
queens of England ; and of granting special licences to 
marry at any time or place, to hold two livings, &c. 
He is styled the primate of all England, and precedes 


all penna.en the royal family. 
he rn te Contarbuey piace ome Ist, The Ecclesiastis 


bishopric of London, containing Essex, Middlesex, and “! geo 
part of Hertfordshire : ad, The bishopric of Winches. &™P*Y- 


MT 


aon, within six to , 
commitment, to prevent a recommitment for 
the same offence. Circumstances, however, sometimes 


without his consent, expremed by his 
ight of petitioni the kin 
righ Pontoning ie Kips 


ter, containing Surry, Hampshire, Jersey, Guernsey, 
and Alderney: ad The Bebopsic of Litebfield and 
Coventry, containing Stafford, Derby, and part of War- 
wick and Shropshire: 4th, The bishopric of Lincoln, 
containing Lincoln, Leicester, Hunti , Bedford, 
Buckingham, and part of Hertford: 5th, Ely, contain- 
ing Cambridgeshire: 6th, Salisbury, containing Wilts 
and Berkshire: 7th, Exeter, containing Cornwall and 
Devon: 8th, Bath and Wells, containing Somersetshire: 
9th, Chichester, containing Sussex: 10th, Norwich, | 
containing Norfolk, Suffolk, and a small part of Cam- | 
bridgeshire: 11th, Worcester, containing Worcester 

and a part of Warwick: 12th, Hereford, containing 
Hereford and a part of Shropshire: 13th, Rochester, 
containing Kent: 14th, Oxford, containing Oxfordshire: 


points, Pf, whieh the English constitution is distin- 15th, Peterborough, containing Northampton and Rut- 
i it would be unpardonable to pass over the li- land: 16th, Gloucester, containing Gloucestershire : 

y of the : itmay be idered as consisting 17th, Bristol, containing the city of Bristol, oh of 

ly in this, neither the courts of justice, nor Gloucestershire, and Dorsetshire: 18th, Landaff, con- 

er j taining Glamorgan, Monmouth, Brecon, and Radnor : 


or not. Itis, 
subject, that 
whether the matter of the libels 


be true or as the guilt of the persons consists in 
4 - 


part of Cumberland 


19th, St David's, containing Pembroke, Cardigan, and 
Caermarthen; 20th, St Asaph, containing the pcre 
part af Flint, Denbigh, Montgomery, and part of Shrop- 
shire: and, 21st, Bangor, containing Anglesey, Caer- 
narvon, Merioneth, and part of Denbigh End Wasntgo- 
mery. 
In the province of the se eyree A of York, (who 
is termed the Primate of England), there is, 1st, The 
bishopric of Durham, whi — Durham and 
Northumberland : 2d, isle, which contains at 
ae : 8d, Chaster, 


gPEe 


5 
te & 


z3 


z 
ui 
i 
H 
t 


i 
re 
ihe 
Bl 
ns 
a 
& <8 
if 
rg 


i 
z 
F 
j 
FEE 
& 
a 
= 
g 
: 
: 
3 


are the vicarii, or deputies of the rector ; 
but if the tithes be entire, the priest is styled rector. 


lt 
2537 
i 
Hi 
= es 
ie 
ide 
bad ist 
LE 
z 
es 
: 
} 
= = 
# 


HAL 
: 

Hi 
? 


f 
F 
i 


j 

E 

5 

Eg 

iH 
Tle 
aa 

Gl 

z 


The next order is that of ; their num- _ tithe-free, titheable, tithe-free in part, and tithe-free on 
ber is about 60 ; their office is to inspect the moveables payment of a modus, which is a very small and inade« 
the churches, to reform slight abuses, and to induct quate compensation. 
benefices. y 
Counties. Tithe-free. Titheable. Tithe-free in part. payment of Modus.) 
Bedfurd....... -| £186,589 6 3 85,031 13 9 £524 5 0 £475 15 0 
OURS mah s:9< 0 chs. 08 88,441 3 0 316,709 10 9 - --— _- -—- 
OGRE shade, «07 2 -on0 $03,920 8 8 182,202 14 11 12,554 15 O -- = 
Cambridge ...... 107.045 19 10 842.719 12 9 2,515 0 0 935 0 0 
Chestef..... 4... 28,412 9 4 646,865 6 8 1,236 15 0 3849 4 
Cornwall. ...... 2,153 10 O 561,846 3 0 510 0 0 1,963 3 0 
Cumberland ..... 69,094 0 6 $12,645 10 8 71,759 7 6 15,751 10 0 
DN kid on 0078, 6 230,528 15 $ 810,149 7 3 78,739 138 0 2,275 17. 0 
DIVO S s\n je 2.38 28,917 17 11 1,181,142 2 5 4,967 0 0 2,520 0 0 
BOON «ai wid oie 48,853 17 4 436,642 11 10 545 0 0 2,984 0 0 
oo re 143,073 9 0 358,441 7 $3 3,269 10 9 1278 15 4 
IU s, dudin.¢ a sy 1,424,883 11 7 1,410.020, 5 3 170,849 17 4 105,364 15 11 
Fa ats ess 40-0 72,796 19 O 826,784 12 § 1,798 0 0 3,236 0 0 
Gloucester . i. 254, 7 4 8 7 —- —_ = 5,124 11 O 
Hereford ....... 21,340 3 4 4382. 0 -- = - = 
Hertford ere ee 76,150 10 0 264,616 16 7 1,483 13 4 100 0 0 
Huntingdon ..... 119,176 14 10 56,367 8 10 16,895 4 0 11,637 0 6 
Es: 2 5 &, 9 Was ae 11,290 5 6 849,040 19 8 7,857 6 0 _—_ ——|. 
Lancaster ...... 129,813 17. 2 1,131,425 15 10 2,643 5 0 6,962 0°0f 
Carry forward. . . - |£ 8,946,429 6 10 |£10,250,481 17 5 |£378,148 11 11 |£161,457 15 1 


ENGLAND. 83 
Counties. Ni os Tithe-free. — Titheable. . || Tithe-free in part. /On payment of Modus.} 
_ Brought forward |.£3,846,429 610 |£10,250,481 17° 5"| £378,148 11 11 | £161,457 15 1 | 
| Leicester ...-.-- ees, | 173,598 15 1 | + 18,514 510 | 922,989 18 2 
Lincoln .......+}. 938,003 11,6 |... 499,009 1.7 | 107,729 7 3 87,108 10 6 
Norfolk}... ---+{. 108,9i@.7 6 |. 823-218 3,8 |) 4,270 0 6 |... 410 0.0 
N a+ see} $60,556 17, 9 -|. . 114,097 1511 13,070 17. 9 |, 8,911 9 7 
N nd...}. 293,057 .2 5 433,087 13-7 | 129,897 15 4 50,797 0 0 
Notti AR $40,163 2 |, 183,548 0 0 4,036 0 0 7,245 0 0 
eer ee 275.140 .6 1 219,105 14.7 2,057 0 0 1,322 0 0 
Rutland. ..... +). + 63,316 1 1 15,148 16 8 20,149 17 4 560 0 0 
Below i vacors. ne ie':\}0 4 - 92,827 12 9 639,150 9 6 4,200 0-0 2,317 6 0 
Somerset... . + s+ 9 oR cas ce 4,214 5 0 a ae 
Southampton... oe . 25, 2 9 3 r 8,437 il 0 —_— oe \ aes — —_—_— 
Staffordi.+.... | 189,442 16. 4 BEL 0) Bc Ooblvsinks: ining a et dk 
Suffolledicgage)» aie @ 60,425 14 0 624,253 16 0 6,486 2 0 2,912 10 0 
a icles abo Say 55,530 18 11 800,564 6 23 3,746 5 0 10,000 0 0 
dreads poke 54,109 8 5 410,256 7 1 13,506 14 11 72,077 16 8 
Warwick .......- 280,103 6. 94 208,214. 9 103) 112,097 7 11.] 44,724 5 10 
Westmoreland ....-..|- -107,185- 3 10 81,724 4 3 10,658 8 0 21,988 10 3 
Did 218,674 12 2 562,160 15 6 21,004 1 5 8,788 6 11 
wey 149,277 8. 8. $63,728 1 1 1,276 12 0 1,921 8 0 
aie» « 45,354 11° 2 19,767 0 0 — _—— —: _—_— 
andes 738 0°0 107,708 7 2 oe — FS gee 
vee. 288 0 0 101,262 2 8 -—--— —_- —- = 
SR nah (151 °6°0 224,001 7 2 Reb i or eet ON tae 4 
paaltlg 88,075 17 1 2,772 9 10 = fg 5 
ati) _ ap) <a, 182,674 0 5 —_—_— —|— — — 
pat AY adi t2h MP 118,615 0 4 EL ee ta — ag 
eg 1,637 13° 4 165,689 14 9 aot Eee 43;433° 14 
yews Abie cS We 83,179 10 9 was aratY tS SEES Th 
Rife. $0,131 0 0 173,445 1.0 a Oe wots 
bY: 2.745 -0 0 149,258 8 O a ie 5 0 0° 
Tee 4,370 15 4 156,246 11 5 _- —- a’ oS fe 
dnor GSS 2,235 6 6 86,015 12 4 ee ae we a 
estminster . . * 2,082 0 0 1,023 0 0 _ _— Sd 
ED 80,594 14 8 264,872 17. 8 | +1,120 :0 oO a po ae 
£7,904,878 17 44 |£20,217,466 17. 7 | £856,183 12 2 | £498,823 3 4 


Thenext Table exhibits, according to the last diocesan chapels ; the number of persons which they will con- 
return; the number of parishes in each diocese; the po- tain ; and the number of dissenting places ‘of worship 
pulation of each diocese ; the number of churches and _ in each diocese. ; 


“ sr Populitene ree ae poe Number of 
jure: sons the Dissenti: 
; Pigmet Parishes. and gontaie. Places off 
ginbdess 1S ’ Chapels. Worship. 
: t St Asaph oo Toes “WEL 41 104,708 49 45,280 96 
; > Bd ee 40 52,886 52 27,141 100 
aK ‘ vee pn rand Wells . uy 2. 55 129,965 78 57,809) 103 
(ihrwead Bristely;. 0) 5% hig. 41 83,766 |. 58 40,216 71 
(Canterbury 6... 67 175,625 83 705 | * 1138 
: Carlisle) 0's ys 29 58,459 » |. 49 25,108 89° 
. Chester eI. pBINR 257 568,826. |. 351 220,542 439 
Shore areas) 41 73,3138 47 34,690 58 
St Davids, no returns. ‘ ‘. 
Durham. oe ew ew we wee : 5 J 298,755 : 118). 63,259 173. 
y Ely CPOE ME Ie. oho 14 32,425. yy) OR 14,810 83 
a Ss: Exeter: tig SAT Dupe 159 $62,551 176 152,019 234 
re Tau ! Gloucester ... eee 36 87,934 46 46,931 76 
Hereford .. 2. yr 33 82,567 51 39,483 |) 42 
sepa Sith ett a ns ; : re © 
Carry over 888.) 2;111;780 1175} 834,984 1577 


VOL. IX, PART . gE 


a ENGLAND. 
e Statisties, 
Number Number of Nam ber of Per- Number of SS 
Dioceses. of Population, | Churches | sony will ~ 
Parishes. |) and Places of 
P Chapels. Worship. | 
Brought forward 888 | 2,111,780 | 1175 834,984 || 1877"| "" 
BAR RE 11 | 28,200 21 12,350 | * °42° ‘a 
Lichfield and Coventry, | 429 |" 480,291 |" 199 |" 199,750 on vie 2 
Lincoln... 2. 129 215,033 165 104,644 eng” | ne ; 
London ......... 132 | 661,39+ | 186 162,962 | °265 Jo" °F 4 
Norwich . 70 135,900 78 64,668 [°° 114° Hh) 4 
AAS. wack) 30 36,251 50 35,520 ‘| °38° mms, 
Peterborough. ..... 17 $4,825 20 19,450 |°* 87 : 
Rochester. ....... 24 105,142 86 25,280 44° , 
Salisbury -. 0. 2. 83 142,609 134 72,243 |° 142° us 
Winchester. 2... . 120 $71,206 193 115,711 1° °165~} 
Worcester; ....... 40 75,239 66 36,263 ‘59° 
Sega Re i! 108 591,972 220 149,277' | °892° 
OIA At Ree: 1,881 | 4,937,782 | 2,533 | 1,856,108 |°3,438 - ; 
A i to the last diocesan return, the total num- ties in which they are most numerous after these, are 
ber of in England and Wales (including 133 Durham, Cheshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, et sod Wate 


The total number. in all these counties is 
be 200,000; in London, Surry, 
supposed there are 50,000; 


» and 
in Bristol, via on eae 
thampton, Exeter, ‘oan fea 


dignities), was 10,582; the number of non-resident 
was 5037, of which, however, 986 
did duty ; and the number of residents 5397 ; the num- 


ber of curates en livings where the incumbents were mouth, Plymouth, Sow 


not resident, was 3926. The following Table exhibits and in a few other places, 50,000 more ; 
the respective number of curates who had salaries from 300,000. There are 900. Roman ‘Catholie chapeles of 
£10 per annum to above 270. _ which 100 are in Pence etd ce seal £ 
a9 from £10 to £20- 5. of « . £140 sare apo. Care we re ead aig lod soak 70 about 70 Meodne 
217 a ee eS nh 
os as ite 160 lowers of Whitfield, who are Calvinists ; these are 
org are tes. Cbs.) Gath ee top not numerous, bomhanthes. 3 increasing : and the follow. 
“ Se Hepes . . 190 crontab whose creed is Arminia, These have 
. . 2 ss in number 
347 ~-. = : ts x ores an in England and Wales s being ame Fay 1 a 
= 7 Ms a Fay a The soerety 108 Sonera Friends as th style Quakers 
ec o + Si D . 270 themselves, in England ; but_ 
9a5" AIO! “32° cae | 0 not numerous, oars B probably not increasing, not 
. Se sayeth or pl being anxious to make converts. The greatest number 
oF ogy SS of them is in London, and in the northern 


perucolarm Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Westmore« _ 
d. The followers of Sweden are far from nu~ 
merous. The modern Unitarians, 
ley may be considered the founder a oe 
numerous, being rincipall ound in N and 
West of England, Fad in the metropolis, 

The civil and religious freedom -which Englishmen 
enjoy, and Pil wor are Arye. I ily dis- the civil and 

all the pe ought religious ii- 

not, esadeing to be emobery de Fo, constitu. berty of 
tion and laws under. which they'live. » The same con- ~ 
stitution and laws would fail. to Berger wary 


The convocation, the highest of the ecclesiastical 
courts, has already been mentioned: the next in dig- 
nity is the court ot deh legates, then the court of arches: 
there are also courts of F widieace: of prerogative,"and 


of iars. 

he special tenets of the church of England are given 
in the 39 articles ; but some sre aot learned and 
conscientious of her divines have doubted whether they 
are Calvinistic or Lutheran. 

The law considers all as dissenters, who do 
not conform to the churc! vaisp, Bpglene a ga establish- 
ed mode of religious wo to the statutes. 
1 Elizabeth, poe oh and 13 Charles it. chap. 4. eal- 
led the Acts of niformity. Latterly, however, and 
especially ly during the present reign, eration has been 


tly extend 
find. The principal classes of dissenters are the Pres- 


a 
pifege 
te 
Bese 
putin 
pull 
i 


Swedenborgians, and Unitarians. Presbyterians 
“—_ ts are scattered: over all England and 
2 Papists, ¢ Roman Coben ee Seer 

mt confined to Lancashire, Yorkshire, Stafford- 
arwickshixe, and Northumberland... The coun- 


security 

wold Paeiblgent, er Een attem) 

Seen eae 4 
they as rulers, as well as the people. over 
rule, are much more secure and , whi 
religious liberty is entire, en ot ait to be broken. 
in upon.. 


Ph Me 


| CHAP. XIt. 
tion, Manners and Customs, Antiquities. 


Tue language of England is radically Gothic, there 
beligs Seca: Gat. cats Ve traced to the 


Celtic, there is no doubt that the original po- 
pulation country was Celtic. From the Euro- 
languages of Latin origin and etymology, the 


PTE 
> , 
ai 

oB® 


F 
: 
u 
: 
e 


Fy 
ft 
z 


: 
g 


7 
af 


i 
: 
z 
: 


i 
£25 
eF 
a 
ef 
a 
ie 
a 


i 
Hi 


the nobility 
ge te imo grat 


and 
France, the of Edward IIT. 
cectd,m the Ith century, change in ain nem 
ed the Norman Conqueror. haucer in » 

John Mandeville in prose, are su 
hibit the first specimens of what may be termed the 


advances of the language towards regular con- 
eet aettate oe ear were very great ; 
fro of Edward VI. to the reign of 


tis : impos Seeaa-wien ts 
a vapid and very brief sketch of English 
fis shed from the of most of the 


ENGLAND. 


and architecture, England has not made great 


“versities, at Oxford 


$5 
life, Another grand 
is, original 
in the writings of Shakespeare, Milton, Newton, and 
Locke. As istinguished from Scotch literature, 
the literature of E may be characterised as more 
learned, but less metaphysical. 


feature of the English titerature, Statistics 
ius, which shines forth so conspicuously ““y~"" 


Since the days of Newton, England has not been S:ence. 


eminently distinguished for mathematical science ; but 
towards the wonderful discoveries which the present 

has witnessed in chemistry and the physical sciences, she 
has contributed an ample portion. The sciences con- 
nected with the healing art, have made great advances 
in England. © Perhaps our surgeons are not superior to 
those of France, but our physicians are decidedly superi- 
or to the physicians of the continent, in their education, 


manners, professional knowledge, general respectabili- 
ty, rank and wealth. 1 


~ Till'the 18th century, this country had scarcely any Painting. 


native painters of merit ; and it may be added, that it 
has been only during the reign of George III. that this 
art has met with much encouragement, or displayed 
much improvement. Even yet, in painting, ving, 
vances. 
In music, she is still more deficient ; for while almost 

‘nation on the continent, and her sister nations 


every 
' of Ireland and Scotland, have their respective national’ 


music, England is without it. 


Phe higher and middle ranks of English give their paucatioa 


children an expensive; ‘and, in some 
lent education ; ‘but till the institution of Sunday and_ 


the public 
of Eton, Westminster, St Paul’s, Har- 
Winchester. There are only two uni- 

and Cambridge; at chs former, 
classical learning is the favourite pursuit ; at the latter, 


tured with austerity and pride ; great fondness for do- 
mestic life ; a disregard of, and contempt for, show and 
theatrical effect in what they say and do ; anda decided 
preference of comfort to extravagance 
they are distinguished from most other nations, by the 

ion of animal food» which they con- 
sume } favourite liquors are’ale, 


ishing features of the English character, English 
are independence of mind and conduct ; a reserve, tinc- ‘har 


acter, 


In their diet, Food. 


2 and Drink, 
wine ; for lighter wines, even the iNest ranks tines " 


little relish. ‘Tea, which is rately met with on the con- 
tinent, is drank herein iinmense quantities by all ranks 
and classes of people. Their cookery 
particularlysimple: with respect to the latter, it is im- 
ans by their dress, to distinguish the sons of the 
ing from the plainest tradesnien Tlie houses in Eng- 
land. ‘as well'as the persons of the people, bear une- 
i testimony. to their minute and scrupulous re- 


and” dress are press, 


gard. to cleanliness. The prevalent disorders are, con- Diseases. 


sumption, fevers, apoplexy, palsy, and lunacy : towards 
some of those, the An cgedapmig oe the cfintatt evidently 
contributes ; | towar ers, the quantity of. animal 
food and of strong liquors which are consumed. The 

_ of persons, houses,, and. streets, however, 
which.are ev met with,-as well asthe im- 


in‘draining land, which’ have taken place 
ring the lst century, have rendered England a much 
more 


thy country than it formerly. 
‘The Enghsh nobility =a eniiry 6 \ eg im 
tion of their time on their estates in\the'country ; and 


many of them instruct and amuse themselves, as weil 


86 ENGLAND. 
Statistics. as benefit their fellow-subjects, by their attention to manufactures, &e. of different towns and clistriets, Statisties 


cent i of architecture ; but,.in general, they of the Resources of Great Britain) Aikin's Manchester, Works con- 
t, than noble and ex- Aikin’s (A.) Jour in North Wales. sate Politi. sulted in 
tensive. The grounds mos —s however, are al- a Pag  peommcen es etpee of rer tg 
mig J eye xo ogy ¥ Sate 0 : 
orwell oe ike British Enpire, 1772. The different county hists- 
Antiquities. _ The antiquities of E are ries that been i Beauties of nd 
under six laser 1. Celtic; '& Belgie; Homan; and Wales, Skeene’s Wives of Great Briain, Younes 


wanes siters, & i 5 on On Todinn o ionalt peo en , Geology — 
scripti c. have ron- ¢ rence. c s MO» 4 
tier-wall from the Western Sea to the Tyne; and traces Becke the Income Tax. ee Wool. * 

of Roman roads are visible, from Richborough in Kent, servations on the Collon Trade of Great Brilainn, » 
through London, to Chester; from London to Lin- _ Much information was also derived from different Re+ 
coln; and from Norwich into Dorsetshire... The Saxon gh ae 8 acc House of Commons, jparti 

antiquities are chiefly sacred or, secular edifices ; the ly ng: | wt ‘the Manu facs_ 
Danish are camps, and some castles, to the north of the aregt England 80K, _ Evidence on the: Petitions of 
Humber ; and Norman are castles.and cathedrals, the i infers, 1803, 1804, and 1806. Report.on 


of which latter, those of Durham and Winchester may the Colton Weaver J men’s Pela . URe- 
be icularly noticed, : ports on the Distillation of Sugar, 1808.. Re-~ 
Works con- In drawing wp.the greseding article, a great variety porls.. Population Reports, 1801, 1811. \Returns)re~ 
sulted in of books have been, consulted for particular points, the, spretingate Hivos AVC. Bullion t. Evidence on 
énving “P titles of which it is not necessary to give here, since, the East India| Company's Affairs, 1812, 1813. Evi») _ 
unless pm. Fanee pois, they afford little or no informa- dence respecting the rs ins 1808 and 1812. 
tion respecting the statistics of England... Heport.cnnite ies! on Leather, 1812, 1818i05 : fo 
A plawicgh x ally consulted were, the agricul. __ Much valuable information was also derived respect~: 
tural the different counties; the various tra- ing the principal manufactures, from. personsyresident, 
vels in naleed the Monthly Magazine, the early vo- in the respective districts where. they are carried: ony 
lumes of which contain many yalaable papers on the and well acquainted with their presentistate. (wi. s.) 
basis —_—. ; xt) fare 
aff) ef udtireomsd fs f P Sioned § sdeigntU crore ed i 
at ip : . ere Si .SRO TE Tt vahoasM atrle'. i Ge 
oui T N. D Ex xX. b ; “ Tacnioage teri, allt shee 
« *,” The numbers of the pages between p. 589 and p. 761, refer to Vol. VILL, and-those from p. 1-to p. 36, refer. to Vols IX. | 
' . : . . : wer fie bret 
Index. A lows su ed, ro- Agriculture, number of sheep in. _Corn- 
_—— tations, wheat, 720. and quantity of wool , part nel Somers ‘Byatt 
Agriculture, introductory re- Agriculture,‘ Produce,—wheat | ' jn Lincolnshire, — in A i ‘ 
marks,—state and ma- counties; quality) of! - | © Noftfolky in’ Cams |‘ ‘shire, in Hereford-\ 
nagement of landed wheatyiryey: barley 5 - obridgesbire, in Huns). - ‘shire, in» Monmonth+ 
property, &c. 716. counties. __ tingdonshire ;_ ee ee 
freehold, fee farmhold, barley is principally ‘ley breed; number of re, in, Shropshires, 
copyhold, leasehold, grown, produce, oats, Bi and quantity of ip Balipenlenranves, 
singular tenures, size 721. in in districts of short wool- 
of estates, kinds of oats, beans, sin War- | led sheep, 728. 
ment and size of » tares, buck. . wickshire, in Stafford- Agriculture, sheep in Wales; 
tythes, a Pacmgreren inereir se ebe~ = in Devon- . ane as. to. longs 
rent, rates, ify ‘ as. f z 
&e.; psn df entry 22. thite, long - woolled moclieh she, 729. , 
and payment of rent, carrots, &c.; sheep in Devonshire, number long and 
canary seed, &c.; flax total number of long- short woolled 
ments, northern agri- and ‘hops, or= ‘and 5 slaughtered; total 
cultural district, wes- chards, cider counties, weight of wool, short- number of sheep and 
earner einh te 723. Y _ooltcnin 2 ap german oe eal pipet en mo 
ing _— r rioly { wool, 2 
cautern, the wend CCominee colle sheep, Of cattey 130, > 
western, tural zing la 1 gent ‘Suffolk, in Cambridge-, : . 
districts ; principal a- ral sane ee: tle; 
rable counties, dairy marks, live” i. i in moar breeds ¢ 4 
counties, - breeding sheep, varieties de- Down sheep in probable number 
counties, 719. scribed, 724 065) ¢ ’ sate hai ass cone rie ae and 
= ; ; shire breed ; * asses; breeds swine, 
ploughs, number of ag Sang ve th — ; pg re, in Ber! _ goats, rabbits, poul- 
horses in a plough, rc shoyu lire, in Oxfordshire, . try, 732. 
ib. . nurhber in. .. “ine timber; woodland coun- 
waggons, thrashing ma- number in York- ') fn Herts, 727 _ ties; royal forests ; 
chine, old mode of shire, Lineolm yyeed: |. ») Hampshire breed, in) \ oak, elms, ash, &e. 
arable husbandry, fal- of sheep, 725. Middlesex, in Dorset, 733. 
5 


¥ 


—- wv 


ENGLAND, 387 


_ Index, ‘Apptpeieieer setletiony pent os a at Coquet; Vale of, 674. us a, es arms ition of the Index. 
- es of,"numbervof culti-  « Liverpool and Manches- Country, genceal Eppsaienesse of ws, 618 ——! 
-») ©... vated farms, their ap- oie a pa) we x. sets ao award. conguestof Wales by, 
«-9 “plication, distribution n ties palatine, cruel icy 5 
o& © ofvarable Tand, acres * st oh eeidieediicmeedads, 6D corporate, ib,‘ af dapeetsreasvthusects 
~~) sof wheat; &e.§ value in the ndrth western part, | origin of the'present divi- ©. tish» affairs; war 
of the produceof the (0 «gibi of Ho > © into, 668 -2i3 - with France; he 
scovdl? dandpqs40 Vo oad near the:metropolis, ib. : in Alfred’s time, ib. ; : _new models parlia- 
rental of the land, 735 > average in England, ib. formed by $4Henry VIII. ‘ment, 619 
‘> -¢apitalemployedin; pro- tabular comparison of the ib. ~ he subdues Scotland ; 
~") © fits of farming, gross ©. quantity in the midland divisions into trithings or f his dispute with the 
‘ value of landed pro- ‘and maritime counties, ridings, and into laths elergy 3 his arbi- 
‘perty, numberof peo- ib. i and rapes, 668— into trary measures ; he 
» »upleemployed, histori. of dew that falls, 695 _ hundreds and tithings in - makes peace with 
e-em calmétices'of-agricul- «© of water that is discharged © the time of Alfred; France 3) confirms 
doin | ppereyiT Seip: ’ “from the principal rivers, wards and wapenstakes, | -the great charter ; 
proofs of its advance- « © ‘ib,; Bot OT) : 669" dies, 620 
wo ment, TBs” barometer, state of the, at number of, at present, 670 Edward IL comés tothe throne; 
Alfred the Great, 590 | Liverpool, 698 in the northern district, recals his favourite 
-. is compelled to submit to © at Dover, 699 ib. )- Gaveston ; hismar- — 
= the’ Danes, and’ retires in Cheshire, ib. bordering on Wales, ib. riage 5° discontents 
©} imedisguise s enters the at York, ib. in the midland district, ° of the batons; Ga- 
_ ©) «Danish camp; recovers . at London, ib. ib. : yeston put to death; 
his' throne; his death, » at Sidmouth, ib. in the eastern district, 671 ‘invasion of Scot- 
peers) eae Tv ' Church of England, ecelesiasti- in the south eastern dis- land; the new fa- 
Area* of England, different o- © cal geography of; archbishops trict, 672 ; vourite ; civil com~ 
»pinions respecting, tradition- and bishops; parochial cler- in the southern district, motions, 621 
vab-opinion, "opinion of Mo- © gy 3 annual: income of the ib. his success} his queen 
“lines, of Sir) Wm. Petty, of | church, 32— Number of in the south-western dis- forms the design of 
ary King, of Dr Halley; churches and chapels; num- trict, ib. dethroning him; 
“source of error on the sub- © ber of dissenting places of ° she invades Eng- 
roy rier le ar worship, 33—Doctrines of D land ; death of the 
‘mistakes; Temple- the church; dissenters; re- Danes, England invaded by, favourite ; Edward 
man’s $Me. Arthur marks on the civil ‘and reli- 590 deposed by Parlia- 
. Young's 3 errors in gious liberty of Englishmen, Danish massacre, 594 °' ment; is murder- 
_ maps as'to, 666 BH wi invlen revenged by Sweyn, ed, 622 
Army, 220 bes Clergy, celibacy introduced a- King of Denmark, Edward III. sticceeds his fa- 
Athelstan ascends the throne, mong them by Dunstan, 592 595 ther ; war with Scot- 
were”) meray Ciwyd, Vale of, 675 land, ib. 
the defeats the Seots and Coasts described, 679—of Es- E his narrow escape; ty- 
‘Welsh at Brunsbury, sex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Lin- Edmund and Canute divide the ranny of Mortimer ; 
oun AQQR ret cr uth colnshire, Yorkshire, 680— kingdom between them ; : execution of the Karl 
Aylesbury, vale of, 675 Durham, Northumberland, Edmund dies, and Ca- of Kent ; execution of 
1 wh 4 ) Cumberland, | © Lancashire, nute seizes the ‘whole ; Mortimer ; Edward 
gedoeth 5 Lp ; - Cheshire, North Wales, Me- conquers Norway, and interferes’ in the af- 
‘Bing Henry Il: quar- —_—_nai Straits, Bay of Cardigan, dies, 595° ‘fairs of Scotland ; 
»--9 vels with him, arid pro- | 681—Milford Haven, Bay of ascends the throne, and claims the crown of 
'  geeutes him, 607 ‘Swansea, ire, removes the Danes from France; fruitless ex- 
” flies to the continent; com- Somersetshire, Devonshire, the heart of the king- pedition to France; 
aang with the King, Cornwall, the Lizard, Ply- dom, 592 the French fleet de- 
ot’ arrives in England, mouth Harbour, | is murdered by Leolf, a feated; 623 
, MAGQG Ie elooe Rocks, mo 682—Dor- . his arbitrary - 
| ‘is*nmurdered, 609°” setshire, the Isle of Wight, Edred ascends the throne, and ings; he confirms the 
Belvoir, Valeof, 675 ; Pton- subdues’ the Northumbrian great charter ; renew- 
Berkeley, Vale of, 96 _ water, Sussex, | 683—Kent, Danes, 592 al of the war with 
spon Tweed, 673 -the Downs, Goodwin Sands, Edwy, his accession; he ex- France; battle of 
‘England, 665 South and North Foreland, cites the resentment of the © y 
710) ) Isle of Thanet, 684 monks ; queen is torn the Scots defeated ; 
~~\ grapes, leguminous plants, Commerce. Trade to Denmark, from him, and cruelly mur- siege of Calais ; truce 
emi a to Russia, to Sweden, to Po- dered, 592 with France ; plague 
_/ © “rooted, native fruits, land, to'Prussia,toGermany, Edgar, his accession; he pro~ in London ;' renewal 
«! ~weompound flower plants, to Holland, to Prance, to tects his coast by a numerous of the war with 
APB cn? * - Spain, to Portugal, to Italy, navy ; his licentious amours, France; battle of 
«© evergreens, deciditions tim-  17—to!'Turkey, to Ireland, | and his marriage with the Poictiers ; captivity 
| Wher trees,’ ferns; alge, to North America, to South beautiful Elfrida, 593 of the French’ king, 
7a, Fe ns America, to the West Indies, Edward the Elder ascends the 625. 
A> arytleaetyy 1 » to\the East Indies, exports, throne, 591 invasionof France; trea- _ 
mith i corey » imports, shipping, circula- defeats the Northum- ty of Bretignis con- 
Carlisley Plain of, 674 ting medium, 18 3 brians and Danes, ib. quered provinces re- 
Catmouse, Vale of, 675— Conway, Vale of, 675 — is.succeetled by Athel- Fre Absent eal 
Cities, towns, &c. defined, 670 Constitution. Origin of Par- “stan, ib. death ‘of the Black 
ena liament, mode of summon- Edward'the Martyr, his acces- ‘Prince ; the king’s 
oe i a "ing, constituent parts, Lords sion, and his murder by El- ~ death, 626 
wintery spring, simmer, © *- and» Temporal, frida, 594 Edward IV. defeats Margaret 
“| autumn,’ 692. — “of Commons, mode Edward the Confessor ascends ‘at Totton; she and 
difference of, inthe north, of electing, 25—mode of va- the throne, bestows all pow- her husband again 
| ‘eouthy-east, and west, © cating/a seat, power of par- | er upon the Normans, and flee to Scotland; act 
MG Ps 6 8 liament, "mode of opening, quarrels with Earl Godwin, of attainder passed 
of rain in diffe- mode of 26— 596 against Henry, his 
vm parts compared, duration, + pro- Edward I. succeeds his father, ~ © queen, and son ; Mar- 
ql 6S aE Bored rogation, 21 his civil administration; bis " garet defeated at. 


—- 


bels quieted ; rebellion 
of. Warwick and Cla- 
rence; they flee to 
France ; Warwick and 


i 


ooo Belfand, son taken 
prisoner, murder of 

\ her son, 640 
death of Queen Marga- 
ret; war with France; 
peace of  Pecquigni ; 
‘trial and execution of 
the Duke of Clarence; 


Edward vf suceceds his father, 
Git 
Gloucester’s dissimulation; 


the Earl of, Rivers ar.* 


rested and put to death; 
Hastings . murdered » 
arts of Gloucester to ob- 
tain the crown, 642 
Gloucester __ usurps 
crown, 643 
Edward. VJ,,. his accession ; 
. . Hertford chosen protec. 
tor; reformation com. 
pleted; war, with Scot. 
land prasecnuted ; cabals, 
and execution, of Lord 
Seymour, 654, 
persecutions by the refore 
mera; insurrections a. 
mong tke people; So- 
merget jresigns the pro- 
tectorship; . Warwick's 
ambitions projects, 657 
his death, 648 
» her accession; re- 


the 


.» France; quarrel with 
the Scots; her, tyranni- 

A gal conduct, 661 
yp) pa her execution 
Mary of Scots; 
ject of ber marriage 
with the Duke of An- 
jou: peites with 
Spain; Spanish invae 

sion, 662 


reduction of the rebels in 
Ireland, and ineurrec- 
tion and execution of 
Essex, 663 
og ta and death, 
Bly, Usle of, 673 
EB f sspends the throne, 
490 


yesigns the kingdgm to his 
WBD, iby 


cess of ys 
594 
he flies to Nofmandy, 
is recalled, 
595 
F 
. Festinaig, Vale of, 675 


Finances,—customs, excise, 193 
amount of exeise du- 
ties, 203 stamps, 
land-tax, assessed taxe 


es, » proper 
ty-tax, 21 


Figure of England, 665 

Fisheries,—salmon fishery, hers 
ring fishery, mackarel, pil- 
chard, 13 ; oyster, fishing 
vesselsin 1785, Newfound- 
land fishery, 14; Green- 


Gloucester, Vule of, 675 
Godwin, Karl, flees to Flanders 
from Edward the Cone 
fessor, bet returns with 
an army, 596. 
_Is reconciled to Edward, 
597 
Government, executive power, 
bon.» Foyal family,» king's 
counsellors, cabinet 
council, principa) of- 
sury, secretayies of 
~apeeaegat aad 


admiralty, coronation 
oath, royal, prerogas 
tive, civil list, diffe. 


Grey, Lady Jane, placed upon 
the throne, 658 

Guernsey, Jersey, &c. Islands 
of, 673 


H 


Harold succeeds Canute, 594, | 
divides the kingdom with 
Hardicanute, murders 
Alfred, and dies. 596 
Harold, son of Karl Godwin, 
aspires to the crown, 
and opposes Edward the 
Confessor’s intention of 
settling the crown on 
Wiiliam of Normandy 3 
his generous conduct, 


ascends the ‘throne, de- 
feats the Norwegians, 
battle of Hastings, 598, 
his death, 699 


607 : 
the flight of Becket to the 
continent; Henry threat- 


ter, 61G 
the usurpations of his bas 
rons; prince Op- 


for the suppression of 
heresy enforced by the 
clergy; Earl Douglasde- 
feated by Karl Perey at 
Horneldon 


L 4 Peroy aud 
Douglas defeated by 
Henry, ¥ ; 


battle of Bange; bis 


mourder of Gloucester ; 
Duke of Suffolk’s death ; 
insurrections under Jack’ 


appears as a preten 
the throne, and is for- 


» 


throne, and those of the 
Duke of Yorks) Richard) 


— the Ae ee So- 


~ oMerset) from. power 3 


Richard has recourse to 

arms, 636° 
Henry VI. is woundedandtaken 
ss ‘at the battle of 


é 


2 
i 


i 


i 


1 
i 
i FEE 


F 
: 


with a superior force, 


faa 32 gt 
be 
ine 
Pe 
z Bee 


i 
| 


i 

: 

E 
BEEF 


pray 
Ae 
iy 


i 
: 


: 
: 
REF 


ENGLAND. 


Thomas More’; suppres- 
a of the monasteries, 
651 | 


he marries Anne of Cleves; 
’ Cromwell condemned 
and executed; king di- 
+ vorced from Anne of 
Ay Cleves; he marries Ca- 
therine Howard, and pro- 
secutes the Protestants, 
653. 

his journey to York, infide- 
lity and execution of the 
jueen; his attempts to 
the faith of the 
nation ; treaty of mar- 
riage between Prince 
Edward and Mary of 

Scotland, 654 — 


gbert, 

Hills. Malvern, Cotswold, 
Stroud water, and the Wre- 
kin, 678 

Holderness, vale of, 674 

Horticulture, 738 


Brittany prisoner ; mur- 

ders him; is expelled 

from his foreign domi- 

nions ; disputes with the 

Pope; is excommuni- 

cated, and his subjects 

absolved from their al- 

his submission to the 

Pope ; confederacy of the 

- barons; Magna Charta 

signed; renewal of the 

civil wars; and Prince 

Louis of France invited 

. over by the barons, 614 
reland, conquest of, by Hen 

IL. 609 sap! 


Kent, wealds of, 676 
fens of, ib. 


Language, 35 
Lakes, in Huntingdonshire, 
__ Cheshire,.and Wales, 690 


Lakes in Cumberland, West- 
moreland, and Lan- 
cashire, 690 
Ullswater, ib. 
Derwent water, ib. 
Broad water, ib. 
Buttermere, 691 
inandermere, ib. 
teincaallte Fylde of, 674 
Laws. Municipal law; courts of 
justice ; judges; trial by jury ; 
in civil cases, 29. Courts 
of criminal. jurisdiction ; 
mode of proceeding in crimi- 
' nal cases; grand jury 3, outs 
lawry ; verdict of the jury ; 
‘royal pardon, 30. Execu- 
tion; character of the Eng- 
lish laws; habeas corpus ; 


cloth exported ; state of 
the manufacture in 
1800, 746 


result of evidence: before: 


parliament, respecting 
the West Riding; errors 
in it, 747; present state ; 
1 seats of it; 

est Riding district de- 
scribed; mixed-cloth dis- 


Wiltshire district ; Somer- 
setshire district ; differ- 
ent modes of carrying 
on the manufacture, 749 

acts of Parliament regula- 
ting the manufacture; 
cloth-halls in Leeds, &c, 
described, 750 

of machinery ; 

Pi Pomteftact returns of 
the quantity of cloth 
milled in the West Ri- 
ding of Yorkshire, 751 

searchers, inspectors, su- 
pervisors ; Norwich ma- 
nufactures ; _ historical 
notices; present state ; 
manufacture of Devon- 
shire,—baize, blankets, 

z &e. 


strong cloth, 
small cloth, flannels ; 
value of the whole ma- 
nufacture ; the raw pro- 
duce, 753. Interest of 
the capital employed ; 
number of people em- 
ployed; results, 754. 


39 


Maniufactures, ‘cotton’; hise 
torical sketches, 754, 
Change in the condition 
of the Jabourers; value 

. of the* manufacture at 
different periods, 755, 
“Improvements in all its 

branches; effects of war; 
state, in 1795, ‘in Lan- 
> eashire, ‘7565 State of 
it in Cheshire and Der. 
byshire, 75%" State of 
it in 1801; comparison 
at different sds 3 cot- 
ton imported, 758.' Of- 
ficial value of cotton ma- 

'. nufactured, and cotton- 

yarn exported ; cotton 
district described 5) pro- 


portion of its population 
emplo: 759. > Value 
of ¢ manufactured 


goods ; value of the raw 
~ material, interest and 
profit, wages, results ; 
‘| woollen ‘and cottom ma- 
‘nufactures’ contrasted ; 
' different condition of the 
working people, 760 
‘silk-trade, historical no- 
tices, 1.) ‘Present state 
_-and probable ‘value, 2 
| © «tices ; effect of bounty 
¢ on it} Irish linen im- 
} ported ; its present state,! 
3 rie 
© ‘stocking-trade in Leices-. 
| tershire,, in Notting- 
hamshite, in Derby- 
‘shire, 4 ; 
lace, 4 Shirt-buttons ; 
 quridus'instance | of the 
division of labour, 5 
leather-trade, 5. Leather 
tanned annually ; ‘tan- 
* -neries, shoes, saddles, 


gloves ; value of the ma-. 


nufacture, 6 


iron-trade, 6. Birming-. 


ham, list of manufac- 
tures, there ; remarks 
on them, % Capital; 
mode of ‘conducting ; 
number of people em- 
ployed ; japan-ware ; 
screws, locks, &e. 8. 
Nails, 9, Sheffield; dif- 
ference between the ma- 
nufactures. there and at 
Birmingham; list of ma- 
nufactures; remarks ; 
files 5» value, 9. Num- 
ber of persons employed; 
watch movements ; ear- 
then ware; glass, 10, 

paper, hats, &c. IL 

London manufactures, 11, 

Bristol ditto, 11 

Newcastle ditto, 12 

Hull ditto, 12 

Liverpool ditto, 13 

concluding-remarks; table 
showing the families 
chiefly employed in 
oe eenaadaeg 
2 

Mary proclaimed, and acknow- 

a by the nation,. 
58 


arrival of Philip in Eng-- 


Cader Idris, mineralogy 


N. 
Navy, 22 

P 
Pertti mentioned A. D. 970, 
Pagel of 673 
Pickering, vale of, 674 
Plains, extensive, 675 

, 23. State of the 
poor, 
Rr 


his captivity in Germany ; 
his return to England, 
and his death, 612 


of affairs with France; 
war with Scotland; Earl 
of Oxford made favou- 
rite; his chancellor im- 

‘ 627. 
encroachments on-his pre- 
rogative by the Duke of 


covers his authority ; 
battle of Otterburn ; 
truce with France; se- 
ditious conduct of Glou- 
cester ; Gloucester seiz- 
ed and privately mur- 
dered ; Arundell exe- 
euted, .and Warwick 
banished ; ai eiente 
quarrel, 628 
his death, 629 
Richard IIl. murders Edward 
VV. and his brother ; the 
Duke of Buckingham 
conspires against the 
king, and takes up arms, 
643 
Buckingham taken and 
executed ; Richard’s 


vades England; battle 
of Bosworth; the king’s 


death, 644 


cends the English throne, 


595. 
Stephen usurps the throne, 604. 
distracted state of the 
kingdom; irruption of 
the Scots; insurrection 
in favour of Matilda, 
605 


death of, 606 
Stockton, vale of, 674 


z 
Taunton, vale of, 675 
a general remarks, 
6 


of Devonshire and Staf- 
fordshire compared, 696 
of London and the west 
of England compared, 


ib. 
of Sidmouth and Derby 
compared, ib. 
great degrees of cold and 
heat, 697 


ing, 669 — vy 
Trade ‘trade; coal 
trade, 15. vessels 


‘the Nor- 

t ‘man barons against him, 
600 — a few 

dissensions in/his family ; 

Robert revolts; is again 

‘received into” ; 

makes the’ 
led 3 his 


50 5 i : mT ot 


and are designated as “ filled with wisdom of 
of work with the graver, as well as 


jusion, 
not in its infancy. Mention is also often made in the 
sacred writings, at a time much anterior to this, of the 
existence of signets, rings, and bracelets, which it is 
le to suppose, however rudely executed, were 

ved or carved. 


‘with certeintyaelithienn, A ehiort 
view, therefore, of the relics of antiquity now extant, 
will convey a more precise idea of ancient engraving. 


VOL. IX. PART 1. 


VLE 4 


@e 


ENGRAVING 


The hieroglyphic figures of the Egyptians are per- 4 
the most Leiant remains of engraving on ectdd ; ee 

they have been frequently met with, chiefly in the cof- Ancient 
fins of mummies, where they had been deposited as a syptian 
sort of talismans. There are in the British Museum se- ®8"*V"s- 
veral fine specimens See ie One of these, 
which bears every mark of high antiquity, has been 
minutely described by Mr Strutt. (See Dictionary of 
Engravers.) “ It represents Isis, and is carved in al- 
to-relievo ; the goddess appears standing on two cro= 
codiles, holding in each hand two serpents, a creature 
like a scorpion, and a four-footed animal; from the tails 


g of the crocodiles arise two ornaments ; upon the top of 


one is a bird, but the ion on the top of the 
other is so much obliterated by time, that it cannot be 
ascertained. The flat part of the relief, together with 
the bottom een ae of it, are ornamented 
with figures and symbolical representations, executed 
entirely with the , without any other assistance ; 
the backs of the crocodiles, and the of the four- 
footed animals, ‘are also finished with the same instru- 
ment, in a very careful manner. It is four inches high, 
and three inches four-tenths at the bottom, from which 
it gradually decreases to the breadth of three inches at 


the 

na the Etruscan antiquities at the British Mu- Etruscan. 
seum, by Sir William Hamilton, are two spe- 
cimens of the art of engraving at a very remote pe- 
riod ; a tation of which forms the ispi 
to one of the volumes of Strutt’s Dictionary. ‘ One of 
them,” as he describes it, “is a sheath to a parazonis 
um or . It is more than three inches and three- 
quarters wide at the top, and decreases gradually to an 
inch and a quarter at the bottom ; its present length is 
eight inches and a half: eh BE upon it 
ya etre nae Tg rh he trophy at 

bottom is symbolical of war ; above the trophy, 
two warriors are delineated, with a woman, who seems 
to accompany them with great reluctance, which I con- 
ceive may represent Paris and his ice conduct- 
ing Helen to the ship, in order to e her 
to Troy ; and at the top, the messenger, the servant of 
Menelaus, is relating to his lord the ungrateful beha~ 
viour of his Trojan guest. The figures are exceeding« 
ly rude, and seem to indicate the very infancy of the 
et be ey ee ee a= 
ver only, upon a flat surface, and need only to be filled 
with ink, and run through the press, (provided the 
plate could endure the operation), to produce a fair and 


impression. 

He likewise gives the representation of “ a_i va- 
luable i of ancient ving, atly superior 
in cae aren to the Socutaredh S pp or in- 
strunient used by the priests in their sacrifices ; and it 


is TP reason, to have belonged to an 
altar icated to Hercules, who is represented com- 


bating, as it a to me, Hippolite, the Queen of 
the Amazons, w irdle he was enjoined by Erys- 
theus to unloose and from her.” 


But M. D’Ankerville, who bas drawn up a deol’ 
tive catalogue of the antiquities collected by Sir Wil 
liam Hamilton, conceives it to represent Minerva lean« 

3 F 


Engraving. 
—_—— 


42 ENGRAVING. 


ing upon the head of that herd, and préssing him for- 
ward in the arduous path of glory; his bow and qui- 
ver are behind him. It is precisely seven inches 
in diameter, and about half an inch thick, apparently/, 
made of brass, but the ornaments and border are inlaid 
with silver. The figures and ornaments are carved in 
bas-relief, but the hair of the woman, and.the smaller 


inscription must be read from right to left,—another 
strong proof of its great antiquity. : 

An application of the art of the engraver, which 
seems to have been practised from the most remote an- 
tiquity, was the making of seals or signets, which 
were used as instruments of ratification. . Mention of 
them is made in the sacred books as far back. as the 
times of the i as well as in the other early 
writings of the ancients. It is probable they were en- 

on metal, and the impressions taken from them 
on wax, or some such soft ductile substance. In Hin- 
dostan, the art of engraving must have been known 
at a very remote period, as would appear from the spe- 
cimens, which we have in, this co , of the state of 
the art with them, described by M. seer. As the 
date of one of them is i and as the execu- 
eras ay considerable.advancement, it shews. that 
it must have been practised long before. ‘ They are 
both deeds of transfer. of land, engraven.on.tablets of 
coppers with seals appended to them. of the same me- 

» which seem to have been struck. like coins from an 
intaglio matrix. They are both in the Sanscrit lan- 

One of them; which: is now: in the; ion 
of the Earl of Mansfield, has been copied.in imile, 
and inserted, with:anEnglish translation -by Mr Wil- 
kins, into the first-volume of the Asiatic: Researches, 
It is dated 20ryears before Christ >and it-is further re« 
markable, that the date is ex in. Hindoo nume-~ 
vals, very much resembling’ the numerals. now in use. 
na am is likewise engraved in the me 
manner, pendant seal impressed on a pon 
rous lump of pk andsattached to itself 
by a massive ring of the same metal. .. The matrix must 
have been an-engraving of no mean workmanship, and 
it exhibits/a style of art similar, and not inferior, to the 
best of the present productions of the art of Hindostan ; 
it is in-alto-relievo, and being bedded inthe metal, is in 
high preservation. Itssubject is mythological; its form 
aci =o me nA Naso Ta 
weight metal on which it is not 
 rerreke ner cp It was ot on to Mr 
Neave by Mirza hy a Shah ene ign 
present Emperor of Hin 4 was found in dig- 
a ome within the scite of the ancient fort 
of , on the Banks of the Ganges.” 

The art of die-sinking for stamping coins, though 
by no means of so early a date as the engraving of 9 
or at @very early period. . It. iss uncertain 
wh the coining ofmoney »was invented by the 
Greeks or Lydians, though some suppose that the art 
was brought from Hindostan. The Greek money 
is su to have been struck by Phidon, haeet 
the Argives, whose reign is fixed. ithe Arundeli 
marbles at about eight centuries before the Christian 
era, or soon after the age of Homer. Many of the 
early Greek and Sicilian coins are beautiful, and. in 
highenliel -exehie, oworen the coins of Athens form 
aremarkable exception, being in a very inferior style 


. 


of execution, . -The art seems. to. Pt a 


cated to the Romans in the reign of Servius Tullius, Engraving. 
about 460 years before the commencement of our era, “Y= 
by the Lydian colony settled in Etruria, The best of 
the Roman medals are the work of Greek artists, exe- 


=] 
il 
ie 
i 
ie 


i 
+ 
HL 
ate 
oF 
Ht 
ik 


e 


a 

es 

Bo 
Sere. 
ur 

e 

: 

E 

2 


grams. ak hag vical pings ~ollecti wt ad 
one in intag’ ved on stone, with which a } 
tal, in. cameo, onstaining the name of the | 
ieee rg aaa sis MAVRIL. y | 
more specimens. found in the antiquities ‘a= 
ther Montfaucon, Franciscus Gori, and others, who have 
treated on this subj 
With regard to, ate of the ATG Bri- State of the 
tish and Saxon ancestors, little is known. Like other a 
savage nations, they possessed the art of making rude ere - 
incisions on their warlike instruments, as, the remains jy cossors, 
Foci in their parr aya aubcien ly testify ; and 
eir coins are evidently impressions, from engrayings 
cut on iron,or steel. Under Alfred the Great, the art 
seems to have met with great eee and, ac- 
cordingly, it.attained to, very. considerable perfection 
in the making. shrines. and. caskets for the.reliques of 
saints. and pious. uses, which are said to have 
been wrought in gold, silver, and other metals, adorned 
with engravings and precious stones, and to have been 
the admiration of all saw them. There is still pre- 
served in the. museum at Oxford a valuable jewel, 
richly adorned with a kind of work bling fili- 
gree, in the middle. of which .is, seen. the half-figure of 
aman, supposed to.be St Cuthbert. _The back of this 
curious remnant of antiquity is. ornamented with foli- 
age, very skilfully engrav 
Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, is said to have . 
practised both COrigRNG-ADH $F raving, as well as the 
working of images and other things, in gold, silver, 
and. brass,. However, from the Pe anigs remains 
of his skill in drawing, preserved in an ancient manu- 
script. in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, we must be 
allowed to doubt of the great talent in this way ascribed - ' 
to him by his monkish biographers. , of themt 
Some time after the conquest, a new. species of en- on brass 
ving was introduced into England, in every respect plates for 
Tifferent from the work of the chaser or carver, namely, tombs., 


ENGRAVING. 


Bograving’ inrei sa ons the tontts-etohies i chutches: 
—Y~ They were executed’ y with the graver, the out- 
~~ Tinerbei ‘made out, and the shadows produced 
slag Gemnleseh sain ae eae Ae 

ing:to the strength of shadow intended, 7 in the 

way that | ngravit oy exeeriechst shee tine. 


Being” on the stones to which they 
ae they formed part of the pavement of the 
chureh’; and so being’ exposed to the feet of the con- 
gregation passing “over them, they were necessarily 
executed in a coarse manner, and the strokes very deep- 
ly eut'into the metal. There are some of these that of- 
ten display very considerable talent in the artist. 
The art’of engraving seals on precious stones or 
which'was practised’ by the ancients, and carried 
by thent'to ‘thé greatest’ perfection, was probably the 
invention’ of the E. jans; but of the means that 
prise tt carve such hard substances, from the 
ous hiero yphies which are seen at the tem- 
one Peete, aca er places, down to the nume- 
rous minute gems which formed ornaments, 
rings; ‘signets, &c. we dare hazard a conjec- 
ture. It is supposed ‘that the corundum stone, or ada- 
mantiné spar, was the substance wa for the pur- 
pose by the Egyptian lapidaries; and Pliny informs us, 
thatthe Romans used to i sand from Ethiopia 
‘and’ India for this purpose, which it is probable was no 
other than the grit or powder of the corundum stone. 
The earliest engravings of the Egyptians are in 
intaglio, consisting most commonly of a opper, 
a scarabee, or an ibis, and in all probability execut- 
ed before the invention of letters. 
The earliest Greek gs are likewise scara- 


Ne 


i 


— in Greece with the . 
by the timie of Alexander the it had arrived 
at the perfection. While it declined under the 


exander, it migrated to Sicily and Etru- 
ria, and there shone in’ undiminished splendour ; but 
at Rome it never attained to any excellence, except in 
the hands of Greek artists. During the middle ages it 

with the other arts, and was afterwards revived 


in the fifteenth 
him kept up by Dominic’ 


7 
Origin and  Wehave thus given a slight sketch of the art of en- 
progress of in the various way? hi which it was practised 
the art the ancients: It now remains to consider its origin 


= 


among the and F the moderns, in its more import- 
come at apt of ivr impressions upon paper, 
from of metal and blocks of wood, by means of 
the or rolling press. 

honour of this invention is equally claimed by 


Printing or 
rolling the Germans, Italians, and Dutch; but as the pretensions 
press. ted Baht nae ml Mle or 
evidence, they are not enti to our consideration. 
The art seems to have origi in Germany, in the 
Brief ma- brief malers, or makers of playing cards, who cut their 
lers. on blocks of wood, them on paper, and 
at first coloured or illuminated with the hand but 


afterwards performed the operation in a much more 


py tele mmn by blocks cut for the purpose, each 
requiring a separate stamp. The carvers of 


* brief malers, that the 


43 
the’ blocks were’ called formschmeiders, ¢. e. cutters’ of Engrsving. 
forms.’ " — 

As the mania for the adoration of images of the saints 
was, at this time, (the’beginning ‘of the 15th century,) 
carried to a most extravagant height; it occurred to the 

ublie superstition might\ be made 
a source of considera emolument to themselves. ‘This 
led them to the cutting of i ; and the representa- 
tions of pious subjects, which-were cut and illuminated 
like the cards, and illustrated ere title of os pao 
or a riate passages from le s, executed on the 
ital beck, in thd Gothic chadanend then in use; these 
were vended for the edification and amusement ofthe 
unlettered, and those to whom written books were not 
accessible. 

Baron Heincken discovered, ‘“ in the Carthusian mo- Impressions 
nastery, at Buxheim, near Memingen, a print of St 9 20m 
Christopher carrying the infant Jesus over the sea; op- shou: 1499. 
posite him is a hermit lighting him with his lanthorn:; 
and behind him is a peasant, with a sack on his back, 
climbing to the top of a hill.” This piece ‘is of folio 
size, engrayed on wood, and illuminated in the same 
way as playing cards, accompanied with an inscription 
at the bottom : @hristofert faciem, Die quacunque tueris. 

FJlla nemype die morte mala non moricris: Millesimo tece? rr” 
tertio, This curious print was‘found ed on the in- 
‘side of the cover of an old book; and there being no 


reason to d its authenticity, it proves that this me- 
thod of en, and ‘printing was practised as early 
as the year 1423. ‘This print was purchased by Ear! 
ee some years ago, and is now in his possession. 

. Heincken likewise informs us, that, in the convents 


in Franconia, Suabia, Bavaria, and the Austrian coun- 
tries, he found many early specimens of works of the 
same sort, which had been intended for the laity, and . 
had been ed by the monks, by attaching them 
to the inside of books. 

These detached plates were soon followed by whole se- 
ries, consisting ofmany plates, mostly in folio, printed-un- 
der the name of legends, in which the figures of the saints 
differ little from each other, or from their yates om 
the figures on the cards, They are illuminated in like 
manner, and leave no doubt by whom they were exe- 
cuted, and are sometimes accompanied with passages 
of considerable length. 

Amongst the books of i without text, there are Poor Man’s 
still preserved in the libraries of the curious, several Bible. 
copies of the Historia veteris et Novi Testamenti, called 
also the Poor Man’s Bible. Each plate contains appro- 
priate sentences, or the names of the persons, sometimes 
at the top, sometimes at the bottom, or in scrolls in the 
middle, all in Latin. At the top and bottom are the busts 
of two saints, or prophets, with their names under them. 
In the middle are three historical subjects, that in the 
centre a principal one, and on each side one typical of 
it. We shall describe the first plate of this series, 
which will afford a fair specimen of the whole: it has 
the annunciation in the centre ; the inscription above is 
Ecce Virgo concipiet et pariet filium ; on the one side 


are Eve and the t ; and below, vipera vim perdit, 
sine vi pariente puella ; and farther down, on a scroll, 
porta clausa erit, et non aperietur. In like manner, 


on the other side, is Gideon with his fleece ; above, on a 
scroll, descendet dominus, sicut pluvia in vellus ; below, 
rore madet Vellus, pluviam sitit arida tellus ; lower down, 
creavit dominus ; and, at the bottom, the indication of the 
principal subject, Virgo Salutatur, innupta manens gra- 
vidatur. This work contains about 50 plates. "There 


Ragraving. 
—\— 


@rigin of 
prints and 
beoks. 


First book 
printed 
about 1450. 


EB 
en wood. 


Albert Da- 
ren. 


44 


is likewise an edition of this work, with plates ‘some- 
what different, with the inscriptions translated into the 
German . There exist copies of other 
similar works, such as Historia, seu identia Virgini 
Marie ex Cantico Canticorum, and Historia’ 

Marie Virginis, ez 
per ulustrata, led to books of text, illus- 
with i and still ved on one block, 
and in all robability the work of the brief maler, but 
waldind onsy.aninunisiaent ; but in some 
two and two, 


in hearers 7 anlew asertanawe 
both of prints Ss. t though practised 
this art for a time, the im nt tp em 
their invention might be extended did not occur to 
them, till, about the yas’ do ye of Stras- 
burg, a man of a bol ive disposition, see- 
ing these works, imagined, that, by cutting each letter 
separately, he would be able to print whatever he chose ; 
in this, however, he was not successful, till, after incre- 
dible labour and ce, in conjunction with Faust, 
he found means to form them of metal, with punches 
and matrices, and produced, about the year 1450, ait 
edition of the Bible, the first book ever printed. with 
moveable types, which, for beauty of execution, even 
at the t advanced state of the art, excites the won- 
ma astonishment of all acho -hersioa 
he art of engraving on w degrees to 
a re ag Sey William Pluydenwurff and 
Michael Wolgemuth are the first engravers on wood, 
whose names are preserved. They executed conjunct- 
ly, the plates of the Nuremburg Chronicle, which was 
blished in folio in the year 1493. _They consist of 
of various sorts, views of towns, &c.; they are 
ent with much boldness and spirit ; and the characters 
of the heads are often well delineated. _ They are, how- 


ever, marked with all the stiffness and inaccuracy of i 


drawing, which characterise the works of the German 
artists of that time. 

In the works of the brief malers we see nothing ‘but 
rude outlines, in the lowest style of art, (if it be at all 
entitled to the appellation, ) wifhout any attempt at cor- 
rectness of drawing, expression, or effect. The artists 
who followed, who seem to have been numerous, at- 
feenpting to give their works a little more finish, by in- 

ucing shadow, and paying some attention to draw- 
ing, brought the art nearer to perfection than it had 
yet been ; and the completion of it was ultimately effect- 
ed by the genius of Albert Durer, who, as far as regards 
the executive part of it, brought it to a perfection which 
has hardly been equalled by any succeeding artist. 

It does nct appear that Playdenwurff ever engraved 
on copper ; but as at this time, with the exception of 
him, it was the practice of the engravers to exercise 
both arts, we defer the few criticisms we mean to offer 
on their works, till we come to the history of o 
plate engraving ; and accordingly, in bringing it down 
to our own times, we shall e occasional notice of 
those who have distinguished themselves in engraving 
on wood, In concluding this part of the subject, we 
remark, that it has » Bis practised at different pe- 
Is, both by painters and engravers, in every country 
w the fine arts have been cultivated since their re- 
vival, principally in those imitations of drawings called 
chiar’ oscuros, (of which we shall presently take no- 
tice,) as well as in the engraving vignettes, decorations 
for as and mathematical di s; for these pur- 
poses it is well calculated, as the block can be inserted 


elistis et Patribus excerpla et - 


ngravi method of i g In chia 
ight drawings ity gumns of dilewens Lateran cemmalll oe 
pie —_ ay, ae ga invention of this 

art to Ugo da Carpi, a painter and engraver, born 
Rome about the year 1486; but as we have many 
cievems af cldaciedanen: by: tbaatinsainnaiaedits 
date much anterior to the time assigned by the Italians 


of its invention by Ugo da i, particularly by Mair, 
eit ig ey 1500, we cannot 


dated 1499, and one 

thods ed by the German artists differed materi- 
ally from hse ine 
deep shadows by engraving them on copper, and then 


the outline and dark shadows, another for, the li 
shadowy ants sane Ses the middle tint. 
number was geverslh iy. 


cess, consisting of four 
of which is given , 
i dat the 154th page of the 


and execution, 
prove | wenn, of the art at a much earlier peri: 
The artist whose name we are acquainted with, is Marty 
Martin Schoen, a painter, engraver, and goldsmith, He Scheea, 
in the year 1420, and died at Col- 
executed between the years 


the necessary 
which he lived, and the disadvan he un- 
der, he must be aloras io A man of strong mind and 
fertile imagination ; though his figures have.all the mea- 
gre taste and bad seaeing, of that time, his heads are 
well conceived, and the whole. is executed with much 
mechanical skill. The taste of his 
fancy of that branch of the art; yet the of his ex- 
ecution displays a more advanced state in the m i 
cal part of the art of engraving, He is said to have been 
ei siete EG yt ci Ua 
well authenticated work;), according to of Fran; 
cis Stoss, to whose style that of Schoen bears a great re- 
§ 


ign shewsthein- 


ing though it must be allowed it is greatly im- 
br ce) semblance, though greatly 


~ & ivanr 9 
- 
Pi i 


~ If we admit that Schoen’s preceptor, whoever he was, 
Phe aa the art ten years before gli ar scalp 
origin as far back as the year 1450, ten years the 
time fixed by Vasari for its Italian origin. - Ss 
Maso Fini. | On the authority of Vasari, the Italians ascribe the in- 
geerra. vention to Maso, or Thomaso Fini about the year 
1460 ; apelene uy a pan praercailise by £92 

‘ it is very possible, art of engraving might have 
been a Beetietieilinks missor the iolista tors 


Fini a has ever 
of. Paris, and others, 


_ work iths, there may be some produc- 
tions of this artist. There likewise remain two small 
pieces of this sort marked witha , consisting 
of the letters M. F. somewhat similar to one of those 
used by Mare Antonio Raimondi, but the execution of 
the plate is in a very different style. This has been by 
-some presumed to signify Maso Finiguerra; but it must 
be considered only as iy vpubr b whut 

Sweynheym _ It is Sepckahie: that the first book printed at Rome, 

and Buck- “which also contained the first vings executed there, 

~ (which were only maps,) was -by Sweynheym, 

and on his death finished by Buckink, both Germans, as 

the dedication to Pope Sextus IV. indicates: Magister 
Conradus , Germanus, a quo forma 

‘Rome librorum ars primum profecta est, mathemati- 

eis adhibilis viris, quemadmodum tabulis denis «mprime- 

rentur edocuit ;” and that on his death, “ Arnoldus Buc- 

ink, e Germania —— ad perfectum opus succedens 

\perfecit.” This work is 1478, but it appears that it 

had been begun as early as 1472. The plates are exe- 

‘cuted with great labour, and the letters.are struck with 
‘punches by the blows of a hammer. From this it ap- 
‘ “a if era did invent the art of engraving 
inl it was kept a profound secret for eighteen years 
afterwards. bn ‘ 


Baecio Bal- The next book that appeared in Italy with plates, was 
aii a ms Kod Dante’s Inferno, published at. Florence b 
Ni Lorenzo pea eerie = 1481, embellished wi 
thirteen vings accio Baldini, from the desi 
of Aliciniiva Betedli. Fac similes of two of thes 
~ will be found in M. Heineken’s work ; and although the 
design of the figures is more pure and simple than that 
of their German cotemporaries, and the draperies cast 
with tolerable ease, yet the style of execution is puerile 
and awkward, without any of the delicate finishing 
pwr ge - works of the Germans even of 
t early period, and is another strong presumption of 
jk ota of the claims of the latter to the tovention of 


In tracing the history of the art, we cannot withhold 


fat the Pe pig ae, nee fowineh they seem 
entitled. We i in with the 
x wer au accordingly begin wi : 

@crman —__ Of Martin Schoen, and his predecessors, we have al- 


ready made mention. ~The.works of his brother Bartho- 
lomew, bear a strong resemblance to those of Martin, 


but without his neatness or After them 
came Israel van Mecheln, Playdenwurh, Wolgemuth, 
and Mair, the inventor of chiar’ engraving. 

- But Albert Durer was. the first that attempted to re- 


.not. discover in his plates 


rous style that was then | 
out grace ; an 

in hi _the, boldness and freedom 
which are desirable in large historical works, they at 


least display every thing requisite for subjects more mi- 
nute and finished. Although the art of ving has 
since had the advantage of the, experience of three cen- 


turies, it would be difficult to find a more perfect speci- 
men of executive excellence than his print of St Jerome, 
engraved in the year, 1514. He is supposed to have been 
the inventor of the art of etching: his works executed 
in that way.are the earliest extant ; they are not equal 
to his engravings, but his wood cuts are free and _mas~ 
terly. Although he was acquainted with the anatom: 
of the human. figure, and designed it occasionally with 
correctness, his contours are neither graceful nor plea- 
sing; and his figures and drapery are never entirely di- 
vested of the formal Gothic taste prevalent at that. time. 
His plates are numerous, and much esteemed. 
t we have said of the style of Albert Durer, ap- 
pet in general to-his pupil Aldegrever, Hans Sebald 
, and his brother Bartholomew, Aldtorfer, Binck, 
Goerting, George Penz, and Virgilius Solis, who, from 
the small size of the greater number of their plates, are 
generally distinguished by the name of the “little mas- 
ters,” al they have likewise executed large ones. 
Hans-Holbein, a native of Augsbourg, or, according to 
some, of Basle, an eminent painter, executed several en- 
gravings on wood... The most. remarkable, are those 
called,“ the Dance of Death,” pmayargn, Bid fifty-three 
small prints, the first publication of which took place 
-about the year 1530. 
The German school long continued to produce engra- 
,yings both on copper and wood, principally illustrations 
of books ; bat an Been data i < not seem to 
have any artists, whose works deserve parti- 
cular consideration, and as the characteristics which 
distinguished it begin to disappear. from the artists go- 
ing to Rome for the sake of improvement, we shall not 
prosecute the subject further, but proceed. to the Italian 
school, from whence every thing is great and ex- 
cellent in modern art has emanated. _Generally speak- 
ing, they drew correctly, but,they seem to have been 
more anxious for,emolument than fame, if, we may 
judge from the prodigious number of Bible cuts, and 
religious subjects, executed by them, which. have all the 
appearance of haying been done. with great rapidity. 
After Boticelli and Baldini, already mentioned, An- 
drea Mantegna,,.and. Antonio Pollajuoli, practised the 
art. Mantegna,-by his superior knowl of design, 
contributed more to its perfection than all his cotempo- 
raries in the style of his engraving. He has a great re- 
semblance to Pollajuoli; but in the drawing. of his fi- 
gues he-greatly surpasses, him, particularly in the na- 
ed, Their plates are generally executed with single 
strokes, in a diagonal. direction, without hatching or 
cross lines; in the manner of drawings.done with a pen. 
Giovanni Maria di. Brescia, and others, followed the 
manner of Mantegna, without however making any im« 
provementintheart. But Beccafiumi, without much neat- 
nessof handling, produced seyeral works,both etched, and 
with the graver only, whichdisplay the talents ofa great 
master. We have likewise by: him, as well as by. An- 
drea Andreani, many prints in chiar’ oscuro, a branch 
of the art. which they carried to greater perfection than 
it had reached before, them. ‘The drawing ia correct, 
and the execution negt and spirited, 


45 


Ttalian 


46 
Bagraving. " The’ of Mare Antonio forms the tiost bril- 
——— fiant Wh the history of Ttlian ire,” He? was'borh 
pee 0 Vabout the year 1488, and there commencetl 
- his ‘as under the tuition of Raibolini, 
nacaia, St artist of Considerable celebrity at that time: Tn these é' 
— to have made . Teis not 


under whom he learnt Pits gry rte i ‘is 
probable that it was from some one of the goldsmiths 
of that ‘day: His first’ are the heroes, 
and his Pyramus and’ Thisbe, 4 1502, taken froth 
the designs of Raibolini, ~ 

Being desirous of i 
he ra: to Venite, where a thet 
Germun’ engravers, particu a set of wood cuts 
Albert Durer, the life and ion’ of 
Christ.” These he copied with such accuracy on co 
per, that they were | sold for the originals ; whic 
coming to the knowledge of Albert, he came to Venice, 
and instituted a prosecution against him for the piracy 
before the senate.’ 

The excellence of Roman di , which, by the 
nius of Michael Ange elo and i aided by the ° 
interment of the'the d' ewires of ancient ed and the 
magnificence of the Medici, had now reached its acmé, 
attracted Mart Antonio to Rome, where his merit soon 
recommended him to the notice and friendship of Raf- 
faelle, who em him to engrave from his d 
under his own eye, and is ‘said “hough without suffi- 
cient evidences) ¢ to have assisted correcting the 
outlines ‘on his’ plates. The first plate whtich he exe- 
cuted from the of Raffaelle, was Lucretia stab- 
bing herself ; and in it he seems to have exerted’ all his 
abilities to make it neat antl delicate : tg after, 
the plate of the 7 t of Paris ; a work possessed 
of cdacti more spirit and Poder His engravings af- 
ter Raffaelle are very numerous, and are all marked 
with that correctness of scientific delineation, and beau- 
ty of character in his heads, which distinguish his 
works, and which placé him, in this respect, in the 


est rank of engravers of any age or nation. 


himself by travelli 
saw the works of the 


The style of Mare Antonio, however, possesses none — 


of the-blandishments of smooth delicate execution, to 
which his German contemporaries had attained in so 
eminent a degree, His manner is dry and unattractive, 
without any tittle at banaue of local 
Tighe” or oscuro, or reflected 


Among the many young Italian artists whom the re- 
putation of Mare Antonio had attracted to Rome, for 
the sake of his instruction, the following may be na- 
med; Agostino de Musis, Mare da Ravenna, Giuglio 
Bonasoni, Nicolo Beatrici, and Enea Vico. His school 
was likewise frequented by several artists from Germa- 
ny, such as olomew Beham, George Penz, James 
Binck, and many others. 

Mare rete d during the lifetime of Raffnelle, de- 
voted himself'almost exclusively to hich ‘ap the works 
of that master; but on his death, which happened in 
1520, he executed several plates from the’: Loess of 
Giuglio Romano, and amongst others a set of lewd sub- 
jects, accompa ee amin tan pen of the 
Aretino. offended Pope ¢ Clement VIT. 
that he wat casino prison, from whence he was with 

released at the intercession of Cardinal 
io de Maciel and Baccio Bandinelli, the scul 


In to the latter of these, he engraved 
I rte the eer of thay ut) 


of 
St Laurence; in which, the drawing of the naked 
(which he corrected) is excellent, draperies are 


by pine 


ENGRAVING. 


oad Kept keg , 
well maintain ae e 
‘mentioned, ae walle By Gece 

under the name OP Mitt B his ‘siete “and 
their relations, Giovatini Battista and ‘Ais Ghisi ; 

though in none ‘of the ‘hi, er excellencies of the art 
has he’ ever ‘beet’ equallec 


of his suce 
o de Musis a few of his 
vie Te method which “has since ‘been ake 


of wetted tk Baltes 
A men of his method will be found 

works, in a small plate of an old man seated on a 
che garb earl e back : “in thi 


zeae 


a 
- & 
Zz = bs 
af | 


ire 
it 
: 
: 
$ 


il 
iF 


e 
oe 
Ee 
i 


ving’ engra ee 

the Dutch and Flemish painters, he went to Italy. 
first settled at Venice, where he resided in the ho 

of Titian, and engraved some of the finest works 4 
that great He afterwards established a : 


‘at Rome, where Ke exectited those admirable works af- 


ter e, and others of the Roman school, which 
are much sought after by the judicious collector. The 
‘plates of C. are wrought entirely with the graver, 
in a bold, open, and masterly manner, and 
more freedom of execution than had been eat be 
pti te hi reed eevetic 
8, is are 
with and t addvees el 
This ‘style was imitated by Henry Golzius, who 
introdu it into the Low Countries, and laid the 


pete tH the works of Bolswert, Pontius, and Vos- 
terman. This period, when the transcendent - 
ties of the Roman and Florentine schools of paintin 
were thus so successfully diffused by the ts 
Mare ogg and his seg successors, marks x4 
true era ie talian engra ; 
soon after this time, the oe pl ‘of ‘the art baba 
to develope themselves, for the charms of 
chiar’ oscuro, the delicate Hh ag umah flesh, and, 
to a certain extent, the beauties or haeal colour. Its 
professors relaxed their efforts in the 
and difficult paths of d 
and attractive e parsuits, Ww lepend on freed 
dexterity of execution ; but pa higher rare 
of the art have never been entirely lost si 
Italian school, and they have shone fo Airs 
splendour in our own re united wie oa ry 
which the experience of so many cen 
, as the works of Cunego and Vo’ ban 
tly testify , and still more, > of e Mor- 
i ghen, and lt of his pupils, 
The art of en and was likewise cul- 


tivated with mu sie by ost AG Aor eathe. 
ers. Titian etched many pes in a slight spi- 
3 


i, to coo thé more foe 


| 


E_NGRAVDNG 47 


Engraving: rited style ; and there.are also:attributed toyhim several said of his) Fairyand many others. The subjects which Engraving. 
—— idateewen on er Parmeggiano. etched seve- Callot and Della Bella. chose for their sii iies nearly “—y—~” 


ee ral ich are valuable for the spirit and grace similar; but. the excellence of the former consists in Italian 


il 


rH 


. Caracci must be ranked 


EER: eg 
rant of its yor that he only learned it 
engravings said to be. by him, but it is more likely that 
they were executed by Ugo da Carpi, or Andrea An- 
dreani, under his direction. As an ver, Agostino 
the most celebrated 
artists of Italy. The. correctness of his design is only 
equalled by the beauty of his execution ; and hi ware 
would have nearly reached perfection, if he paid 
more attention to the. ion of Jocal colour, and 


inci jects, as well as in the dis- 
tances, which pe a Ae harmony of the ef. 
i ight. unfinished to the 


with the graver. We have likewise. several plates by 
the rest of the Caracci, which possess all the beauty 
and correctness of design, as well as freedom of execu- 


as they did piesdelioazeen amuse ethansiin 
Agostino, they are not so highly finish- 


28 
4 
: 


The etchings 

tagallina, born at Florence 1610, are marked with the 
character of excellent taste. No artist has ever sur- 
one him in the deli and. spirit with which he 
handled the point ; his plates have a clear.and 
brilliant effect. They are often slight, which. is not 
surprizing, when we consider that their number amount- 
ed to more than fourteen hundred... His works are ge- 
nerally of a small size, and consist of every variety of 
Theat history, landscapes, and animals, 
who was also a disciple of Cantagallina, though 
born at Nancy in Lorraine, must be considered an art- 
ist of the Italian school. The fertility of invention, 
and the vast variety which are found in the works of 
this excellent artist, is truly astonishing. The talent 
he possessed of combining an amazing number of fi- 
gures, and of varying their attitudes, without forced 
contrast, so that all, whether single figures or groupes, 
may bets we orm from each other even in the sha- 
dows, was truly admirable, particularly when we con- 
sider the extreme minuteness of many of them. He 
——_ (especially in his large prints) raised the 
point of sight to a considerable height, in order to af- 

ford more ample room for his figures, and greater 
to his invention. In that charming print called The 
Punishments, the number of: figures he has introduced 
is astonishing, all of them disposed in different guoupes 
with the greatest judgment ; and the actions of even 
oo ni ae of ~ aan the distance, are conspicuous, 

ou largest re on’ the foreground scarcel 

exceeds three-fourths of an inch, The same may be 


the clearness and 

rangement of his gi _and the firmness of his out- 

line ; while that of the latter consists in the freedom 

of his point, and the lightness and elegance of his fi- 

gures. 

The etchings of Spa 

and free ; his lights. are broad and clear, and have a lett. 

powerful and pleasing effect. He drew correctly, and 

the extremities of his es are marked in a masterly 

‘manner. The characters of his heads are admirably 
particularly of his old men, which he was 


fond of introducing: into his compositions. Guercino, Guercino. 


(born 1590,) as an engraver, has left only two memorials 
behind him-of his, ts, a St John and a St Antony 
of Padua. . They are executed with much spirit and 
freedom, in.a style resembling his admirable drawings 
with a pen, which have been imitated so ly. by 
Bioniiiioemes and. in. our own time. by Bartolozzi in a 
very superior style, from drawings in the collection of 


his present Majesty... Salvator Rosa-has left many etch- salvator 
i ‘both. .history.and landscape. In these we must fon. 


not look. for the.grace and interesting delicacy of Cor- 
regio or Guido, nor the scientific design.of the schools 
of Rome .and Florence. His ingest Tepre- 
sent banditti ; and his rat fe : id and savage 
grandeur of Alpine scenery. His style is slight but 
masterly ; his heads are admirable, tee the legs and 
other of the naked are incorrectly drawn. | His 
draperies are stiff, and ill cast, and the whole destitute 
of elegance: however, the masses of light are finely 
preserved ; and his landscape is sublime. 

Inthe department of] e, Claude: Lorraine first 
claims our-notice. He has left about 28 landscapes, 
though in general in rather a slovenly style of execu- 
tion. They display great. intelligence of. the’ chiar’ 
oscuro, and have, to the eye of the judicious critic, an: 
admirable effect. One of the. most) characteristic ex- 
cellencies of his pictures, is the beauty, grace; and fine. 
diversity of character in bis trees; and these qualities 
he has transfused into his etchings with unparalleled 
success. :One of these landscapes, in particular, may 
be mentioned, on the right side of which, in the middle 
ground, is a groupe of trees, and seen through the 

ing the ruins of am ancient temple, in which the 
richness and diversity of character, and the truth of 
nature, we hesitate not to say,have never been equal- 
led. His subjects-are the same as he vipensnton on 
his canvass, landscapes with ancient ruins, rivers, a 
sea views, embellished with shipping, figures, and 
cattle. The etchings of his pupil Swaneveldt, which 
are very numerous, are executed with much spirit and 
effect. They are in general well composed ; but though 
they possess much of the truth of nature, and great 
neatness of finish, they bear no.comparison with those 
of Claude, j 

There are many beautiful etchings of the Italian 
landscape painters, as well as by French and other fo- 
reigners, who, studying in Italy, or forming their style 
on the Italian models, must be considered as belong~ 
ing to that school, such as Gaspar Poussin, Milé, Glau- 
ber, Both, Rousseau, Sebastian Bourdon, Meyering, 
&c. But as the peculiarities of each will be better un- 
derstood by an inspection of their-works, than by any 
verbal description, we shall not. enter on any further 
details on the subject, 


The etchings of Canaletti, however, are executed in Canaletti. 


= ity of his d ins, ia 


gnoletto (born 1589) are bold Spagno- 


ve been leftin a state of comparative negl 
and obscurity. Canaletti is remarkable for the distinct- 
throughout the whole of 


is Noél Garnier, who lived) about the middle of the 
16th . His manner is 


very 
in general small. He ied many of the prints: of 
Maid ments with sana eioasane but his chobasiies 
are mostly from his own designs. They are executed 
with the graver only, and have merit. Claude 
Mellan introduced a new meth He expressed all 
the varieties of shadow by parallel lines without cross- 
ings, the greatest depth wn ar by only: strength- 
ening the lines, and consequently bringing them closer 
to each other; and the effect /he uced is clear, soft, 


and le. The number of his plates is very con- 
siderable, among which there are many irable por- 
traits. The most singular of all his ions is a 


aes the dy Seetiet, ansaar en 
St Veronica, executed with one spiral line, running in 
concentric circles from the point of the nose to the ex- 
tremity of the work, with the motto, “formatur unicus 
una,” representing, as large as life, the head of Christ, 
crowned with thorns, on a piece of linen. This print 
is not remarkable for any excellence of character or 
design ; we adduce it solely as a speci of his dex- 
ity in the use of the graver, and the whimsical use 
to which he, in weber arm it. Hedied at 
Paris in 1688. But the most iant epoch of French 
ving was the time of Louis XIV. when the mag- 

i ce of the monarch, aided by the taste of his mi- 
nister Golbert, produced such a constellation of artists 
as had never before at one time. The most 
Sous of all were Gerard Edelinck, and 
‘GerardAudran. Thoughtheformer was born at Antwerp, 
he must be considered as belonging to the French school, 
as the splendid works on which his fame rests were all 
executed at Paris, where he settled.; This extraordi- 
nary aftist w t entirely with the graver.; and his 
execution, which is both spirited and finished, dis- 


plates are of 
a most sur- 


_ him in the clearness of his cutting, and the 


after N. Poussin, and other Italian are a last. 
pos rman cn 8 The other of his fa- 
y were all men of talents ; and none of them 


lifer apie gle es co 
f that department 


sidered as the ctions. 


t=] 


There ie of. this ee c 
younger, is the most eminent family. I 
in boldness and freedom, they have hardly 
been equalled in the beauty of’ his’ finishing; and the 
clearness of his stroke, His celebrated \ portraits of 
Bossuet and Samuel Bernard, are considered the finest 


mens of that style of engra’ 
there is different from all the 


i 8 well as ar= 

Sie he pega the feta of a lgueee eahicapentlaa 
. “a 7 

correct : their i oes ee seat re 3 

accessories, are executed with great taste. He gene- 

rally advanced. his plates with the point, to a state 


which left the graver only to give them more harmon 
of effec eed 


and ect ; and if his execution is inferior to 


he has engraved, The number of his plates 
nearly 3000. : isattntho 

There were many other artists of eminence at this 
time, such as Chereau, Cochin, Simonneau, Beauvais, 
Dupuis, &c. but of these our limits do not permit us 
to enter on any i details. 


brilli of colour, to a greater perfection, 
i attiat of hie voolyttay:s but otwi 
the beauty of his execution, his flesh is like marble, 


and his drawing is lame and incorrect, These defects 


lencies, which we have ascribed to Balechon, still far- 
ther. No engraver, since his time, bac ormeaane 


smoothness of his effect; and his style was admirably 
adapted to the subjects he chose, which were in gene~ 
ral the conversations, and other familiar, subjects of the 
Dutch and Flemish painters. He imitated sattin with 
astonishing success. His print,of the death of 

iopiner Detather, affords a wonderful example of this, 
She is habited in white sattin; and though we must 
condemn the taste which dictated such a costume in 
such a subject, every one must admire the talents 
which its execution displays, The flesh in this, as well 


Nanteuil, who.applied himself exclusively to the en: Nanteut 


. The style of Les Le-clere. 


ENGRAVING. 
landscape; and portraits ; the latter of which are in ge- Engraving. 


‘Fagraving- as most of his other works, is hard, and like marble, 


F 
school. 


Le Bas. 


David. 


but it is to be regretted ‘that these qualities, 


from the excessive clearness of his lines. 

» The lan , cattle pieces, and drolls of the Fle- 
mish and Dutch schools, have been rendered with much 
fidelity and spirit by Le Bas. - He availed himself much 
of the freedom and facility of ing, which he har- 
monized in an admirable manner with the dry point 
and the graver. He executed upwards of an hundred 
plates after Teniers, besides numerous engravings from 
Ostade, Wovermans, du Jardin, Berghem, and onsets of 
that school. 

From the brilliant era of the age of Louis XIV. to 
the present time, the French school has distinguished 
itself for all the mechanical excellencies of the graver ; 
the 
time of Edelinck and the Audrans till within these 
few years, have seldom been displayed on subjects of 
legitimate historical composition, but have in general 
been confined to the representation of the most absurd 
and ridiculous frivolities. The genius of David, and a 
concurrence of other circumstances, have revived the 
study of the antique, and effected a total revolution in 


folly and affectation, they have gone to the other, that 
of cold insipidity. Their historical subjects now, in 
aiming at the chaste and rigid style of the antique, pre- 
Swe en eet oe mh hinpe re lea af e, ener- 


gy; or action. this sort are all the works of the pre- 
sent French pS aN mt ing all the beauties 
of mechanical skill, in whi have so long excelled, 


The Flemish and Dutch ools now demand our 
consideration ; and as the styles of them both differ 
not ially from each other, we shall include them 
both under the same head. 


cas Van Leyden, must be ed as the patriarch of the 

Dutchschool. He was ten ierirg ed so contempo-« 

rary with Albert Durer, There existed between them 

ial fri ip. aetidberat tron hr 

passed Albert in composition, though inferior to him 

i His drawing of the fi is stifly taken 

n without grace or elegance in the style, 

at that time prevalent in his country. His ex- 

on is neat and clear; but as his stroke is equally 

n the aes as in bo distances, and as 

‘is a-wan connection in the masses, his q 

of connection nthe mates, his plats 

effect, to those of Albert Durer. He engraved 

well as , but his cuts are not nume- 
are spirited and masterly. 

After the death of Lucas Van Leyden, the art seem- 
2 ah pg for many years, as the 
engravers seem to have been princi employed, as 
in Germany, in decorations ‘abode Whe “care te 
‘who flourished about 1580, and who imitated the 
style of Albert Durer, with the exception of correct 
drawing, and much attention to the marking out the 
extremities of their figures, did little towards its ad- 
ancement. 


ny 


had the benefit of the instructions of their uncles. 
Their works are multifarious, consisting of history, 
VOL, IX. PART 1, 


49 


neral very fine, and much esteemed. There were in Flem 
the Low Countries at this time many other artists, whose 344 D a 
works display great talent; the elder and younger Peter schools. 


de Jode, Philip, Theodore, and Cornelius Galle the el- 
der, who all drew correctly ; but as with them engra- 
ving was more an article of commerce than an art 
which was to be cultivated and improved for its own 
sake, it received little advantage from their exertions. 


Cornelius Bloemart introduced a new style, which was Bloemart. 


the source from which the great engravers of the French 
school derived the principles of giving so mach colour 
and harmony to their works. He tinted the lights on 
his distances, and other parts of his plates, with great 
care, which, till his time, had been uniformly left en 
tirely untouched. By this improvement, he laid the 
foundation of those principles of colour and chiar’ oscu- 
ro, which form se essential a requisite to breadth and 
unity of effect, and have in later times been practised 
with so much success. The art received another im- 


portant improvement from Henry Goltzius, who, on his Goltzius. 


return from studying at Rome, despising the neatness 
and stiff dry manner of the little masters, introdu< 
ced the bold, free, and clear style of cutting, which dis- 
tinguish his works. He possessed a most profound 
knowledge of the figure, and drew correctly; but, in 
avoiding the formal style of his countrymen, and endea- 
vouring to imitate the sublimity of Michael Angelo, he, 
as well as Sprangher, fell into the opposite extreme of 
bombastic absurdity and extravagance. However, he 
has never been , and hardly ever equalled in 
the freedom and dexterity of handling the graver. He 
engraved small its with much taste, neatness, and 
good drawing. He also cut, from his own designs, ma- 
ny blocks in chiar’ oscuro, in which he was very suce 
cessful. The outlines are executed with all the free« 
dom and dexterity for which he is so remarkable ; and 
the works which he has produced in this way are truly 
excellent. He was followed by his disciples John Muller 
and Lucas Kilian, who carried his style to A pie 
jitch of extravagance than his preceptor done. 
But it was imitated with more judgment by Mathem 
and Saenredam, whose works diep y more delicacy 
and correctness, 
The brilliancy and splendour of Rubens afforded a 
new object for the imitation of the engraver, for which 
the improvements of Corn. Bloemart and Goltzius had 


prepared the way. About the beginning of the seven- 
teenth century, flourished the pt 


instruction of Rubens, they improved their style. Of 
this school, Paul Pontius, Vosterman, the younger Pe« 
prineipelly i th others, make a 7 i pv 

rinci in their engravings after Ru and Van- 
hycke all drew correctly, and have been very 
successful in rendering the harmony and beauty of the 
originals. But after the death of Rubens, the art of en« 
graving gradually declined, and ceased to produce, in 
the higher d tt of the art, any specimens wor- 
thy But in the departments of land 
scape and animals, and such subjects, in which the 
Dutch and Flemish schools excelled, there are many 
beautiful etchings, executed principally by the painters. 
In consideri is of our subject, we cannot with- 


our attention. 


hold from Rembrandt the pre-emmence to which his Rembrandt. 


works so justly entitle him; they consist of history, 

landscape, and portraits. His drawing of the human 

figure is very bad ; his heads are all of a low and vul« 
G 


Iswerts, whose first The Bols. 
exertions were in the style of Goltzius; but under the Wert &c- 


Vandyck. 


Lutma. 


; and even in those historical 


boldness, freedom, facility of his execution; His 
beauties which we have assign- 
ed to historical works ; and as to his , Whe- 
ther in the varied and brilliant effects. of sunshine, or 
the stillness and solemnity of twilight, we cannot suf- 
pay Ppa the beauty, character, and sentiment, 
which he has so happily infused into them; and even 
safthtess slliihtar warlcs, whenelas thee teiiitloustee thaer 
outline, every stroke of his point teems with nature, 
character, ion. is etchings in general are 
executed with aquafortis, and finished with the gra- 
ver and the dry point. They are very numerous, and 
consequently of very different d of merit, 

The few etchings which Vandyck has left, are admi- 
table specimens of his talents in that way. His prin- 
cipal works are the Ecce Homo, from his own design, 
and Titian and his Mistress, from a picture of that mas- 
ter. ‘The character of his heads is finely expressed ; 
are drawn with much taste and correctness ; 
the hands are firmly marked, and full of energy 


Antwerp under his in ion, from pi of his own, 
are a few etched by hi , which, for spirited and 
correct drawing, fine expression, and tasteful execution, 


address of Martin Vanden Enden, as the plates were 
afterwards retouched. 

the engravers who have successfully worked 
after Ru’ we must not over a Jeg- 
her, who has left some excellent imitations of Rubens’ 


ings. 
, bold style, with 


erful strokes; and 
all the fr me 


and spirit of the origi- 

, even in the dark cross- i a of the art 

wood-cutting lost to the moderns. e extremities 

of the figures are well marked ; the heads, h slight, 

expressive; and in all his works the style of the mas- 
ter he worked from is admirably preserved. 

There are many fine etchings of Ferdinand Bol, 
Lievens, Van Vliet, and several other painters of that 
time, who either were the pupils of Rembrandt, or imi- 
tated his style. They have all a fine breadth of ligh 
and are executed with great spirit and effect ; but have 
not in any instance equalled brandt. There are a 
few ee Lutma executed at this time 
in a new way, opus mailleoli, or the work of the 
hammer. ee eee 
mer and small punches or chisels, like the etching 
points ; and the s were made of any depth, ac- 

ig to the force of the blows andthe closeness of 


ss 


the dots. Say oceyicd of ahnna initio beloeetaiees 
ing entirely scra , gives in impressions 
epee pe bern rhe g 


ENGRA 


VING. 


is: 
engravers. ings are i ; but his 
Tie wate of ex< 


but on the flesh he bestowed i 
heads are finished in an exce' 
both the character and expressi 
his dexterity in handling the graver. 
ny works of considerable size, from his own 
Seen the: pets te ee 
, history, it, conversations, and ] 
&c. which are much esteemed. His brother, John 


same family, has left many etchings in a free, spirited, 
and ly style. Though but slightly finished, ‘hi 


drawing is correct; but he paid little attention 
lour or effect, and left many parts of his 

untin His works, which are numerous, are prin« 
cipally 


and Du Jardin. 

painters of the Dutch school have likewise pro« 
duced many beautiful etchings of conversa- 
tions, cattle, &c. The lan of | c 


may contrast the 
works, in this way, which have been us by Jakob 


Ruysdael. Without the finishing of Waterloo, they Ruysidl. 


etchings of Ostade it m meetings, and si- Ostade. 
milar subjects, conceived with coat Shiite ‘and exe- 
ted wi i, 


much it; and fi and still life 
admirabl geoupul:!Toy are all his own de 
signs, of various sizes, and very numerous, and of difs 
ferent degrees of merit. 

Of all the painters who have etched animals, for 
scientific drawing and profound anatomical knowledge; 
nnkeietbone to be compared to Paul Potter. He 
left many etchings, wherein he has exerted his great ter. 
talents in this way with much success. His figures are 
grouped with great taste, and their extremities are 

1 


Paul Pot« 


ENGRAVING. 51 


Engraving: marked with great precision. His etchings are not ve- and they have apleasing effect. He likewise engraved Engraving. 
at high prices. Adrian a large chi of a ship, called the Royal Sovereign, on ==” 
Van de Veldt, and Karl du Jardin, have likewise execu- two plates, which, when joined, were three feet long, park 
ted many etchings of cattle, which, for tastefulness, by two feet two inches high. He died about the year 
correctness of design and anatomical knowledge, are 1648. . 
next to those of Paul Potter; while those of Berghem, — Faithorne is the next English engraver who merits Faithome 
ich are executed with the greatest spirit and taste, our attention. He was a man of great ius, and 
drawn, are, on acemparison with the being obliged to leave England during civil war, 
those we have just menti very deficient he went to Paris, where he derived great advantage 
and beauty of anatomical detail. There from the instructions of Nanteuil, and on_ his return to 
etchings Cuyp, Stoop, Bamboccio, and his native country, he executed a great number of por- 
possessing in a greater or lesser degree the ex- traits, and several historical subjects in an_ ex! t 
ies which we have mentioned; but on a conside- manner: he worked almost entirely with the graver. 
these, our limits do not permit us to enter. In the early part of his life, he imitated the Dutch and 
however, conclude this account of the Dutch wares agen eg engraving ; wie on Sie SPREE ae 
school, without making respectful mention of an ama- France, he greatly improved it. His best portraits are 
teur whose works display so much genius, and would admirable, and are finished in a free delicate style, with 
artist,—the person we allude to is much force of colour ; his drawing of the human 
is by no means correct nor in a good taste, but as he 
his ; he flou- dedicated so much of his time to portrait. the few histo- 
year 1610. sar ye gee which he has _rical works he has left are not fair specimens of his ta- 
i from the picturesof Adam lents. His portraits are numerous, and not of 
whom he had contracted an intimacy merit, his best ones are very valuable. His son Wil- 
is correct and tasteful; his liam Faithorne many portraits in mezzotinto, 
marked ; the extremities are judicious- which are greatly inferior tothe works of his father. The Mezzotinto 
effect is p and powerful; invention of this method of engraving, which a little Memvig 
Tha pines aresall samechable before this was brought into England, and has been )\¢n'd bY 
since cultivated with so much success, is generally at- pert, 
tributed to Prince Rupert, who, it is Said, one morning 
secing a soldier cleaning his musket, which had been 
the 


P 
1 
g 
i 
eh 
-S2 5 
&, 
ite 


by the night dew, and observing something of 

7 a figure.corroded on the barrel, he con~ 

ceived the idea that, by covering the plate with such a 
ined ground, and scraping away the parts where the 

its were required, he might produce the effect of a 
drawing ; and that, having communicated his ideas on 
the subject to Wallerant Vaillant, with his assistance he 
yeaa an ears which, See sort, answered 
“this purpose. e Prince engraved in this way a print 
of an executioner, holding in one hand a coeticend 
tin not been in the other a head, after S letto, dated.1658. He 

this is not so conspicuous. afterwards ved, on a reduced scale, the head of the 
executioner, for Mr Evelyn’s Sculptura, who therein as< 


8, 
res 
2 
i 
Py 
F 
at 


BEES 
eek 
a8 

4 
ee 


E 
2 
5 
: 
i 
| 

i 


i 
ag 
# 
f 
i 


Hl 
i 
i 
? 


i sures us, that it was given to him as a specimen of the 
Sacletines sh-leotigeraciaptenl tan ton as one tna, ee, poclsvelyy mewrveds ke aioe 
i invited from it is itive 
eee oe, Sl themonarch, Heineken, whom we a prom fliers in- 
few of the nobility. Among the ar- vented by Lieutenant Colonel Siegen, an officer in the 
different times visited England, there service of the Landgrave of Hesse, and that the print 
RO TIN SRD: DERN, PEGS ly in Whicis hia’ peodachd was. tho: peetemih ti the Esters 
of history portrait. most Amelia Elizabeth of Hesse, engraved as early as the 
and Crispin de year 1643,and that Prince Rupert learned the secret from 
fon Houry igo hhim,| and’ brought. it to E land, when he came over 
Vosterman, Hollar, Blooteling, Vander- the second time with King Charles II. 
Gribelin, and Dorigny ; but till the time of the __ Robert White, the scholar of Loggan, born 1645, be- R. White: 
ithorne, who flourished in 1670, the native sides many portraits in black lead on vellum, in which 
limited themselves to maps, cuts, and small he was v successful, has left many engravings of 
portraits, ispieces, and book decorations. His en- 
gravings, respectable, are not equal to his draw- 
ings, He likewise scraped a few portraits in mezzo- 
engraver who merits our attention. He pos- _tinto, which are much inferior to his other engravings. 
talents, as his works sufficiently testify; His son George White, learned the principles of draw- G. White 
numerous, as he led an irregular life, and ing and engraving from his father. His engravings 
ispi and are neatly executed ; but his principal works are in 
and portraits; he also executed a va- mezzotinto, in which he was very successful. He fre- 
subjects, animals, flowers, quently etched the outlines of his portrait before he laid 
i its are very on the mezzotinto ground, which gives much firmness 
: works: these he exe- and precision to his effect. The last portrait we have 
with the graver, in a free open style, of him was Bishop Weston, 1731. 


Engraving. 
—— 
English 
school. 
Vertue. 


Pond and 


Woollett, 


52 


George Vertue, born 1684, a scholar of Michael 
Vandergucht, was one of the most industrious artists 
that this country has ever produced. He has left a nu- 


pret om ena ert Ap tre og A9 
spectable, man cuts, O almanacks, an 
antiquities of all kinds ; and he made many drawings 


in water colours, with the view of engraving them. 
We are likewise greatly indebted to him for his Lives 
of the English Artists, a work for which he was inde- 
fatigable in collecting information, as well as in procu- 
ring its of the artists. The manuscript work 
came into the hands of the Hon. Horace Walpole, who 
revised and published it. It abounds in miuch cu- 
rious and i ing information, and is well known. 
He died 1756. 

We have several works executed with great spirit 
and taste, in a very artist-like manner, the productions 
of Arthur Pond and George K n ; among others, a 
set of plates, in imitation of chalk, and ers De draw- 
ings, the designs of the great Italian masters: 
some of these are in chiar ’oscuro, with etched outlines. 
They flourished about the year 1740. 

The first artist of any school, who has been com- 
pletely successful in ean with the truth, spirit, and 
character of the griginals, the landscapes of the great 
Italian masters, (not even excepting Edelinck and Au- 
dran, in their beautiful works in this way,) is Francis 
Vivares: he was a native of France. It appears that 
he did not apply himself to the arts till he was consi- 
derably advanced in life. He learned the principles of 
or fon Poe oe eatin percteens eheoane! 
great genius, he improved on e 
tor, and acquired such freedom in etching as had never 
been before by any engraver: the foliage of 
his trees is delicately and lightly expressed ; aad His 
effect is deep, broad, and clear. His finest works are 
from the pictures of Claude Lorraine, and possess in- 
finitely more of the character of the originals than those 
of any other engraver. 

He must be considered as the founder of the English 


school of landscape engraving, and al (except 
by Woollett) he steve Phi equalled the Tight 
which he gave to su ing artists has been the means 


of keeping up that decided superiority in this depart- 
sei w hick Phis school aaa Move every other, 
He brought his plates to a state of conaderians finish 
and eifect with the point, and put the last touches on 
them with the graver. ; 
The landscapes of Woollett stand unrivalled for 
beauty of execution, and may be considered the most 
pests models of style for landscape. Like Vivares, 
carried his plates a considerable way with the point, 


and 

ing them up in the more delicate parts with the 
dry point. His works have all the delicacy and clear- 
ness of the French masters, and with all the spirit and 
taste of Vivares. He likewise executed several histo- 
rical plates and portraits with great success. His chief 
works are the ] landscapes, which he has engraved 
from R. Wilson, and others; the Death of ‘General 
Wolfe, after West; and a small portrait of Rubens, af- 
ter himself. In tracing the progress of this branch 
of the art, we cannot withhold our admiration from 
these two great men, who, from the state of total insig- 
nificance and neglect in which they found it, raised it 
at’ once to such dignity and perfection. The earliest 
landseapes we have of any importance from the works 
of the great painters, are the engravings of Bélswert, 
after the pictures of Rubens, ‘They-are executed with 


ve them the necessary a with the graver, 


ENGRAVING. 


le of landscape, 
cated th deta tah ands ; 
the un Gace shethrers witeeil’ enecaned voatom 
jects, with which are entirely executed, are 
sell very: eliictive igtalmowoter ond irit. ‘The lands 
scapes of Balechou, which are unriv: 
ting and dexterity of h . 
most erroneous conception 
Saalicading ions of the arial 
excellencies, very imperfect representations i 
sence of cook abbtieailles of water, or the rich. 
ness and variety of nature in the foliage of trees. 
discrimination of Vivares and Woollett pointed out the 
defects of their predecessors ; and, more particularly 
in the works of the latter, we find all the truth of na~ 
ture united to all the beauties of mechanical, skill. 
John Browne is-another eminent engraver of 
scape of this time. He has executed: several large 
works after S. Rosa, Both, and other great masters, in 
an excellent style. He likewise etched many of the 
plates which were afterwards finished by W with 
graver. : 
From this period, the English school is ifie in 
actisearitl Goer} depevtihianty ag Pemaan wes arn 
that we ought to mention 0 EE ee 
He is admirable for the breadth of his effect,: and 


to be regretted that, 
drawing should be so 


only room 
to mention a few names ; ire, Hall, Ryland, 
Bartolozzi, Heath, Holloway, and many others of our 
cotem ies, who maintain, with suc- 


cess, the art. {0 
the English school, for 
‘line manner, 


ee pare “4 
for ite, ‘ally in the imitati 
, broad ae of the English syle, which 
originated in Sir ua Reynolds, ever since 
distinguishing characteristic of this school. 
its the earlier artists, 
such as Faber, M‘Ardel, Smith, Williams, and others ; 
‘but, in the its of Earlom, Watson, V. Green, &c. 
after ids, we-see the art carried to the utmost per- 
fection. In-stippling, or the chalk manner, the artists 
ir productionsare innumerable, and of very differ- 
ent degrees of merit, principally of a small size for books. 
We'have, however, many beautifully executed in the 
chalk manner by Bartalozzi, Holl, Collyer, and others ; 
but there is verlag none superior to of Caroline 
‘Watson, who has produced, among many others, that 
‘head ahr ee oe tispiece to 


We have many 


Sir Robert 
Strange, 


Waisen. 


oz 


ENGRAVING. 53 


his works, and which, for spirit and effect, ishardly sur- tion, and from the mode of their passions, not from Engraving. 
passed by the works of any artist. their haying the wit of fine gentlemen. Sometimes he 
In landscape, besides Vivares, Woollett, and Brown, rose to tragedy, not however in the catastrophe of ki 
whom we have already mentioned, we have many fine ahd heroes, but in marking how vice conducts insensi- 
works, principally from the pictures of the old masters, bly and incidentally to misery and shame. He warns 
sg ope Wood, Elliott, Lowry, Wilson, Ma- against encouraging cruelty and idleness in young 
jor and others ; ts ca ate the taste coe Pregame eye cokyok ip oy myedend 
embellishing books with subjects of topography an e vulgar, y different paths, to the same 
and antiquities, having been carried to a most extra- end. The fine lady in Marriage a la Mode, 
vagant height, has diverted the current of British ge- and Tom Nero in the Four Stages of Cruelty, termi- 
mnsvepmnneiescey nenaed of heroic land- nate their story in blood: she occasions the murder of 
scape, and absorbed all the talent of the ish school; her husband; he assassinates his mistress, It is sel- 
Peg age om Bal y ig ll ue and inte- dom that his figures do not express the character he in= 
rest of such works), would been more worthily tended to give them. When they wanted an illustra- 


Ss . to 
_employed in translating the works of Claude Lorraine, tion which colours could not bestow, collateral circum~ 


Engraving in aquatinta,. which was invented by St his crutches, and his pedigree issuing from the bowels 
Non, and communicated to Le Prince of Paris t .of William the Conqueror, add to his character. In 


ed by Sandby. It has been carried spectator. Sometimes a short label is an epigram, and 

oom ) se Rea by our cotemporaries, in ing is never introduced. without improving the subject.” 
i wings ; and the process, being sim -His plates are numerous, and have all the expression 
_expeditious, and of course well adapted to commercial and character of his pictures, and are executed with 
purposes, has been much practised. The English pain- great boldness yl, sm His drawing, though not 


ve executed, are chiefly on the excelledin. It is to be regretted, that his ambition 
separate of which . prompted him, in an evil hour, to aspire to the rank of 
end is arti a historical painter—a-walk of art in which, from his 
Mezzotinto has been likewise ed with the previous pursuits, and the peculiar nature of his talents, 
. capes eeina Sue ee drawings, as (great as Has, WEN 8 heme by no means qualified 
exemplified in that ex: t work by Earlom, called . to excel. e painted several pictures in this way, 
the Liber Veritatis, being a collection of 200 plates sania aeaplen, the, grosiems igmcente. 6 Sao veqrtiniies 
Seen Spine pa 96 Clete Lartaian, jn tie collection essential to this ch the art; and are com- 
of the Duke of Devonshire. The brilliancy of the ef- pletely destitute of good taste, correctness. of design, 
fect has been rendered in an admirable style with the colouring, in short of every quality which is consider- 
mezzotinto, and the outline added with muchtruthand . ed muliapeosble in such subjects. He has likewise 
spirit, with etching. engraved them, and in a style which, though happily 
In the department of drolls. and conversations, till suited for those subjects on which his fame rests, have 
the appearance of Wilkie, the English school never turned his history into caricature. 


$e to this a dramatic - works of every description, from the largest histori 
dactic character, strong and satire, and plates to the smallest vignettes, are, with it, brought 
grammatic point. “ I consider great and origi up to considerable effect, and finished to the n 


3 with the graver ; the lights on the more delicate 
medy with a than as.apainter. If catching the — parts being tinted with the dry point. 
r ; of an age, ‘ living as they rise;— The principal instruments used in stroke engraving, 


ed by and just expressions of the passions, be ing the plate. 
» Hegedh compe comedy as. much as Mo- The a en 5 ict pla 
i i aq prism, about one tenth of an 
inch thick, increasing a little in thickness as it ap- 
personage is dis- prone fig ote. which is made of wood. In.ma- 
I his , and cannot be _ king the incision, it is pushed forward by the hand.in 
confounded. with any other of the dramatis persone. . the direction of the line required, and held at an angle 
, the last print. of the set I _ very slightly inclined to the plane of the copper. It is 


Tp 
z p 
rie 
i i 
cit 
: ze 
i 

z 

+ 

ey} 


5 
: 


have mentioned, is an. ignorant. 3. and if witis . obvious, that it must be ed with only one (the 
struck out of ths characters inane is not “lower) ingle of the toa, and the point i fone by be 
ed, it is from their acting conformably to their velling off the end of the instrument. 


ind. Fiddler There are various kinds of engraving, as has already pjfferent 
by our countryman Burnet, from the pictures of that been seen; but that which is performed with the gra- kinds of en- 
eerroir na syetenene of Daitioh t which rival . ver is the oldest, and to it,’in- common language, the graving. 


strokes of na- are, the graver or burin, of which there are various ™® 
ture, and heightened by wit, and the whole maintain- sorts; a scraper, a burnisher, and a cushion for support- 


—_—\~ 


54 

The burnisher is about three inches , is used to 
soften any of the lines which are cut too as well 
as in the n of the 


Copper, 
peor gyn vg aprabarcarboier sce As « about six 
inches long, tapering to a point, i areee 
edges. It to used to serepi off the higlk shale ieee 
by the action of the graver. In order to shew the ap- 
ce of the work as it goes on, and to polish off 
more completely the barb, a roll of felt or cloth, 
called a rubber, is used for rubbing the part of the 
with a little olive oil. 
A cushion, being a leather bag of sand, of about nine 
inches diameter, was formerly used to lay the plate up- 
on, to allow it to be turned in any direction; but 
this is now never used, except by the engravers of wri- 


a engraving a series of parallel lines, which are 
all either equidistant, or approximating towards each 
other in regular gradation, a great to the most mi- 
nute distance, such as in the blue part of a sky, water, 
or in plates of machinery, &c. where a smooth tint is 


required, an called the ruling-machine was 
some years invented by Mr Wilson of Lon- 
don. The accuracy of its operation is perfect, and the 


beauty of the execution is unequalled by any thing 
that has ever been performed in any other way. It is 
performed on the etching ground by a point or knife 
connected with the spare, so as to move with un- 
ing certainty, and bit up in the usual way with the 
equafortis This instrument will be elsewhere found 
minutely described: (See Rutinc Macutne). There 
are numberless imens throughout this work of the 
productions of this machine, and we may mention at ran- 
dom, Plates CC. and CCI. to which we refer the reader. 
In wood engraving, the block is commonly made of 
-tree or box, ‘ne differs in thickness according to 
Cie. The surface for the engraving is on the trans- 
verse section of the wood: the subject is drawn 
- witha ho pater ink, with all the ve that 
it is required to have in the impression. @ spaces 
Seema the lines are Lent rh bp Say oh knives, one Is, 
and gouges, leavi e lines ve been drawn 
with thanks 
It will be seen, from this, that the pres- 
sions from blocks of wood differs from that pper- 
plate in this, that in the latter are delivered 
the incision, while in the wooden they are deli- 
vered from the raised part. 
In looking at the works of the old German artists, from 


im 
co 


" the time of Albert Durer down to Christopher Jegher, 


we are surprized at the frequent occurrence and free- 
dom of execution of the dark cross hatchings—an ope- 
ration which, by the common process of cutting away 
the interstices, could not be done but with the 

labour, and certainly without the freedom which those 
artists have displayed. 


As many of the impressions exhibit unequivocal evi- - 


dence of being worm-eaten, every doubt is removed of 
the nature of the material on which they have been 
wrought. We are therefore irresistibly led to the con- 
clusion, that those parts, instead of being cut with the 
tool, nye been executed by some chemical 

in some degree anal s to etching on copper, by cor- 
roding the Sater ations thataad rae lines ; ma has 
been suggested to us by an eminent artist of this ag 
Mr W. rs, that this might have been accomplish 
ed by sketching in the work with any bituminous sub- 


stance capable of resisting the action of acid, such as - 


the common etchin -ground, (see Ercuine), render« 
ed fluid by solution in oil of turpentine, put on with 


ENGRAVING. 


merville, wherein he has these 
with the utmost freedom and de! x His method he 
does not choose at present to divu 


dows in a second, and the third gives a pee = om 
whole, except where the lights are cut away. See Pa- 
pillon, Histoire de la Graveur en Bois. 


ia w qusual capable of roc thetetaa ot capes 
with a le of resisti action of 
fortis. The design is made with a black-lead 
a piece of of the same size, which being 
for some time in water, and laid on the plate with 
ee ee and run through the 


crossing 
quired. The thickness of the lines, which is regulated 
by the quality and distance of the object, will 
by the size of the point of the etching-needle, 
greater or less ing to the 
intended. The corrosion with 


° 


require. It 
may be then touched up with the dry peice or deena. 


late, without d, solely by the point of the 
SE nodies‘autd that which i reseed by operation 
is taken off by the scra 4 

Etching with the sott ground jaw imsthod of kin 


imitations of black-lead or chalk drawings. The 
is mixed with a proportion of tallow or hog’s-lard, ac« 
cording to the state of the pa art Aa 9 of thin 
per is put over the plate, and to it at the 
our corners by a little turner’s pitch. The design is 
then made out on the paper, and shaded to the necessa« 
ry degree of effect with the black-lead pencil, an 
action of the pencil on the takes off the ground 
from the copper at the same time; and when finished, 
it is bit to the requisite depth in the usual way. 
details of the various will be found more 
nutely detailed in the article Ercuine. 
Stippling, or the chalk manner, is 


wheel, consisting of 
centre, and ase 
of steel wire i 

times used ; moving this backwards and forwards, 
the points mark the copper, and give an excellent imi-« 
tation of the freedom of chalk-drawing. ‘The work is 
then bit with the aquafortis in the usual way. 


Etching. 


Stienlion: 


Another method of wim Or. oregon discovered wittiams’s 
r 


by Mr H. W. Williams, and tein of Edinbur; 
it is performed by instruments totally different from 

needle ; the beauty and richness of its effect 
is only equalled by the rapidity with which it is exe- 
cuted, Although the inventors have not as yet prose- 


process. 


E . 
@n steel, 


engraving. 


Mezzotinto © 


“ENGRAVING. | 
Engraving. cuted their-discovery as far as it is obviously suscepti- 
ble, yet what they 1 have produced shews that it is ca- 


le of much variety of application. The speci 
ae mostly i laitecis aa sen HY te ties: 
which are executed with minute parallel lines, have all 
delica¢y and smoothness of aquatinta ; the water 


i ectly liquid and bg or cid ag 
Shobacter of ths Yorke and other objects in the fore- 


the specimens will shortly publish. 
ee i ipally cut- 
i and for 
peti pete! tring 
vice of the es is performed in relievo, i 
to a model in wax; tea when finished, it receives a 
high temper, in order to stand the blows of the hammer 
in ing the matrix. The steel of the matrix is made 
hot to soften it, that it may more easily take the im- 
pression of the punch ; and when struck, is touched up 
there any deficiencies, by means of ing 
@ The ings of the , en= 
ring aid ite 
well tempered, and very sharp. 
Etching on steel is ‘ormed by drawing the de- 
ign with i vet, a 
in 


glazier’s putty, or the bordering 


a 
It may then be poured off, and the black clean~ 


y with a little turpentine 


‘instrument, and mo- 


ing needle, The lightest are then scraped to the 
an Seunnia; sok Reruabbotesione sis seo. 
in the same manner, by scraping them, so as to 


P 

2 a or less portion of the ground, according 
ving on stone, is a method of imitating pen 

and ink drawings, for which the inventor some years 
ago obtained a patent. It is performed on a slab of 
marb in pa gi lane pr The design and 
effect is made out, with a pen di in a solution of 
lac, the of pure soda, with a little soap, and co- 


black. 
] ing has been on the stone for three or 
four days, or when the ink is 
i In this state it is 


erfectly dry, it is soaked 
ater. 
from the balls, and the ink will adhere to the design 
and not 


bed with printer’s ink 


the way as letter- ting, b 
putting a sheet of dex paper over it, dal atic ok tt 
to the action of the printing-press. 

Another method of 


.* 
on stone 
ue In 


in 1801; and, in 1803, a 
of Austria. He ac- 
inting-houses at Munich 
ion, similar establish- 
ments were formed in France and Italy: but it is at 
Munich that the art has been brought to the greatest 
i It has been found well adapted for imita- 
tion of wood-cuts, drawings, music, all kinds of wri- 
ting, and geographical maps. 


55 


The metliod’ is ‘to také a calcareous stone or slab of Engraving. 


marble, with a good polish, of from two to three inches 
thick, and of a size ioned to that of the work to 
be executed on it. The design, notes, or letters, are 
marked out with a solution of gum lac and’ potash, 
coloured with lamp black. When they are dry, the 
stone is covered with aquafortis; and the acid attack- 
ing all parts of the stone except those which have been 
impregnated with the resinous ink, the drawing re< 
mains untouched, and appears like the block of a wood< 
cut. When the acid has corroded toa sufficient depth, 
the slab is washed with clean water, and, while wet, 
printing ink is applied to it with balls in the usual way, 
and put through the ro) press. At each proof, the 

2k must be washed — _—— sare method, roe 
expedition, cheapness, urability, greatly the » 
advantage over the usual processes, particularly for 
music ; and it is said, that, at the stone printing office 
at Vienna, thirty thousand impressions were taken off 
the same slab, and the last impressions were nearly-as- 
good as the first. 


Etching on glass is performed by laying ona acta ae on 
and making 


isting of a thin coat of /bees-wax, 
the design with an etching needle. It is then covered 
with sulphuric acid, and sprinkled over with pounded 
Derbyshire spar (fluor spat). It must be taken off af. 
ter four or five hours ; rae. when oer roby 
turpentine, the etchin, appear, leaving w 
been covered with te hee Sartachen, y this me« 
thod, glass vessels are graduated, or ornamented. 
This process is sometimes reversed, by putting on 
the design or ornament with a solution of bees-wax in 
mtine, and ing the ground to the action of 
the acid, which, win sufficiently corroded, will leave 
the ornament untouched, and the ground deprived of 
part of its polish and transparency, It is to be obser« 
ved, that the po pe acid does not immediately act on 
the glass, but only by expelling one of the constituent 
parts of the spar, a fluoric acid, )’so that the effect of 
the corrosion will be according to the quantity of the 
fluoric acid evolved, acting on the glass; and as it posses« 
ses much greater activity in the gaseous state than when 
combined with water, the operation will be performed 
more expeditiously by exposing the plate to the action 
of the gas as it evolves, properly secured to prevent its 
escape ; and in this way, several plates may be bit at. 
orice. 
Seal-en, 


It was performed on_ all sorts. of precious stones, but 
onyx was the most commonly used for this purpose. 
The operation Bb hey by inserting the tools into 
the axis of a 1 iron whéel, whichis attached to an 
apparatus like a turner’s lathe, and kept in motion by the - 
foot. The tools are tightened bya screw, and the stone 
to be engraved is applied by the hand to the tool as it re - 
volves, and is shifted and conducted as required.’ The 
tools are generally of iron, and sometimes of brass ; 
their forms are various, generally resembling chisels 
and gouges: some have small round heads like buttons, 
others flat, &c.; and when the stone has been engra« 
ved, it is polished on wheels of hair brushes and tripoli. 
See Strutt’s Dictionary of Engravers; Bryan’s Dic- 
tionary of Painters, Engravers, Be. ; Landseer on En« 
aving ; Heineken Idée Generale d’une Collection com~ 
plette d’Estampes ; Vasari Vite de’ Pittori ; Orlandi, , 
Abecedario Pittorio ; Christ. Dictionnaire des Mono«: 
ammes; Papillon Histoire de la Gravure en Bois; 
elibien Principes de l Architecture et des autres Arts 
qui en dependent. (P. G.) 


ving, which is performed both in cameo Seal en-” 
and intaglio, was an art much practised by the ancients, 8*¥"& ~ 


56 ENHARMONIC. 
Rahernee- LSHEASMGMIG Salas, biseesie, See E= 2 ae es 8z 
substitution, during ‘ormance, of one interval = 3% — = —8-6th 
—Y~" another, differing » ina alight deme; oe = VUI — sill rae 

which i called Divecouncr of Tune, (eee tat article} 

which is IVERGENCY 2f Tune, (see article. yi 

The Rev. Henry Liston, in ide vale work, entitl $29} dt pac be ee 

An Essay on ‘ect Intonation, p. 72, after giving an aaa is ita a —t 

extract uygen’s ios, remarks, that a: BP oe =s sere 

the pitch, in singing, or on his organ, &c. cannot be abs etre: a i 

preserved by ly tempering every interval, but pach gy a +S Pp 

must be effected by substituting other notes, in parti- eal Tits, 9 ag te th a 

cular situations; and, at page 120, he shews also, how, * A + 2-—f¢ =T +. 

when the musician, by a series of dominants, has wan- pak rp all, “ecietah rs A 

dered away from his principal key, may recover his i _; a bark. 

lost ground, while he seems to the hearer to be perse- sale trts Roe wid het er 

vering in the same course, by only substituting a par- ef SO Rix — : 

ticular note, either higher or lower, by a schisma, brs ! 

major, or by a minor comma, than the one that is writ- =29.—2r —5=5 &= t— 8—3 

ten, in the ordinary notation of music, and in which en- =f/—zx—- = = T—2S—c 

harmonic changes are all marked in his improved mode =f/—r —25 = T— J—S 

wins oy. music for the performer, on perfect instru- =f/—€—=z mY a 
Ennarmonic Degree of Aristoxenus, or Diesis qua- = pugs : a = 

drantalis, is an interval, equal jth of a major tone, or = P—f—fc “tye 


3 T;=25.92713535 4-f+4 2m, or 262 4 3f4+ 21m. Some 
authors have called this the-quarter sais stage and Mr 
Hoyle denominates it the é onical diesis. 
nuHARMoNIC Degree of Euclid, is an interval three- 
thirtieths of the minor fourth, or ., x 4th, =25.32674 
=+f+2m, and its common log. is =.9875061,2634. 
ir Ennarmonic Diesis, (greater $) or diesis greater of 
the mean-tone system, (see Vol. VII. p. 739,) is an in- 
3 
terval whose ratio is 32 OF oF =21542m in Fa- 
rey’s notation, =.9897000,4336 in common logs. = 
-0102999,566¢ in recip, logs., =.0342153 in Euler's logs., 
=1.9091591 in major comma logs., =21,0157248 in 
schisma logs., In tyneable intervals it is VIII—s III, 
=2VIII—3-6ths, =4th—2 III +43, by either of which 
methods of ascending and descending, or vice versa, in 
the tuning process, on an euharmonic organ of Liston’s, 
this in may be tuned above or below any given 
note ; already it will be found tuned thereon, above 
KD, E, %G and XB, ctively. 


In the symbols explained in Plate XXX. Vol. II. 
the following equations will be found to express the 
exact relation of this interval to all the other inter- 
vals therein, viz. * 

&=c +E é= R+- 
=r+2€ =21542m 
' $=R4y 4+¢ 

ox +F +55 
=d+m+9= 
&é=S—wv é=S—-e 
a gl Se 
 =2— =f— 
=S—lI i ak, 
=L— =2S—t 
=I —; =T —25 
=f—c =t —2s 


In that almost endless diversity of nomenclature, im 
which theoretical writers on music have indulged, this 
interval, besides the above, has received the denomi- 
nation of apotome by some writers; apol mirjor 
by Salomon, Boethius, &e.; bacchius by Rameau ; 
comma by Chladni ; (see Comma, Vol. VIE. p. 19.) com~ 
ma greater by some writers ; diesis by Euler, Liston, 
&c. ; diesis minor by Holder, ; diese major by Rameau ; 
diminished second by Liston ; harmona by Hanfling ; 


uarter note b ce, Holder, &c.; quarter tone. by se- 
bars raat ry Earl Stanhope, &c. Nip teen 
ror ()) of the trumpet, and French horn minor sixth. _ 


Ennarmonic Diesis (lesser) of the mean-tone sys- 
tem, (see Vol. VII. p. 739.) occurs adjacent to the half 
notes of that system of temperament, is an interval equat 
173 >+4f4 14m, =17.89376412-4 2 m, whose common, 
log. is .9912224,3171. Se! ae 

Se nidnanaiic Diesis of Aristoxenus, is one quarter 
of the major tone, }T, or his entaeant’ Pee 
which see. rs saunas 

Ennarmonic Diesis of Euclid, one-tenth of the mi- 
nor fourth, or x4; x 4th, or his Enuarmonic Degree, 
which see. ’ ? . te 

Enuarmonic Ditone of Aristoxenus, is an interval 
less than a minor fourth by half'a major es a 
=2025 4.4f4+17]m, =202.00393122 4 4f4-17m; | 
common log. .9006375.2462. . vy 

Ennarmonic Ditone of Euclid, is an interval 24- 
30ths of the minor fourth, or + x 4th, =203.20471=-+.. 
4f+-17m, whose common logarithm is .9000490,1071._ 

NnuaRMoNIC Genus of the Greek music. See Gre 
NERA. ” 

Ennanmonic Interval of Good and Gregory, is the 

Major Comma $9, which see, weg - 
NHARMONIC quarter of a Tone of Rameau, is the 
Enuanmonic Diesis 334, which see. (¢) | 


57 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


defect in appearance must indeed be conceded; and Entontid« 


rome is deri wien 
sectum has a similar root, from in, into, and seco, to 


the mind of the The extreme dif- 
of discri the and i 


E % 
siya 
: 
Hei 
ae 

HE 
HH! 


! 
; 
i 
: 


i 
rH 
i 
Hs 
il 


F 
H 


VOL, IX, PART 1. 


this may be regarded, in point of , a material 
Daeet thes ate mat elstent od alana in magni- 
tude as to become, Wat tay oataretnee on meé oa 
strikingly attractive. Were in size to 

smallest birds, their elegance would render them more 
inviting in the eyes of mankind in general ; but, even 
ie eee eee eens woeeuen vinwerces 
croscope, we find their beauty and elegance far supe- 
rior to that of any other class in nature.‘ After a mi- 
nute and attentive examination,” says Swammerdam, 
“ of the nature and structure of the smaller as well as 


wonder at the elegant disposition of parts, to what a 
height is our astonishment raised, when we discover 


iat, eae renee’ Soe jeetinii the. meneueeealer 


logy- 


manner 
Insects may be divided into two kinds ; those which Uses of 
are immediately or remotely beneficial or injurious to &tomology. 


mankind. Many insects certainly seem not to affect 
us in any manner ; others, and by far the greater num- 
ber, most assuredly fall under one or the other denomi- 
nation, and surely on this account demand our most se- 
rious attention ; but, lest our allusion to the utility of 
some insects should seem hypothetical to the su 

cial observer, whilst the noxious effects of others aré 


all insects, whose numbers spread desolation 

the world, are not (except on some occasions 
when their multiplication exceeds all bounds). unpro- 
ductive of advantage. Although they depri 
Ser yee of their vegetable food, yet, 


in return, their afford nutriment of a wholesome 
and kind, and in much greater abundance, 
The various ies of locusts are the common food on 
which the i of many of the world sub- 
sist at cular seasons. The of bees, in man 
warm ,cohustitates another priaitapassialout foo. 
The of several moths furnish materials for 


countries, the silky produce of these indi 
animals is of as much use as the fleecy coat 


the wax-insect of China is a very distinct.animal: ( 
Cicapa, Index; and Donovan's Insects 
Some insects are used with success in 


History. 


= rr 


History. 


58 


the philosopher.” But allowing these benefits to be un- 
a and that the study ot acqnmalogy 3} is not 

ductive of any substantial advantages, how absurd 
would it still be to treat such an extensive portion of the 
creation with neglect?) The objection, that they are in 
nowise conducive to our interests (even if founded in 
truth); -svould be no evidence of the fri Beles 
ence, unless we are to conclude, that the uiries 
which merit our rational attention are thoze whi tend 
tification of selfishness. . If this be oe 


to the 

jection, how man écts. of 
vemignne must be rej J a a the 
earliest in which the light of natural know 
dawned, this class of animals obtaitied consid 


attention ; and although the! stidy has not at_all times 
been cultivated with equal ardour, yet we shall here- 
after be.enabled to: prove’ that it has not been utterly 
ected, but has en the study of men endowed 
talents,as splendid, and judgzhentasiabneds 9 lie 
eet of those who affect to treat it with con- 


tempt. 


HISTORY. 


From the earliest penais of which any authentie:re- 
cords remain, this science has’ obtained 2 very consider- 
able portion of attention ; but the total destruction of 
the great public libraries, has deprived us of the means 
of ascertaining 
attained, till within about 2000 years of the present 
time. We shall now endeavour to lay before the read- 
er an gt ye of mae meee and, as eats oj 
subject importance, as far as our limits w 
i mention every work, however slight, which 

roductive of any material information ; at 

vane tebe, we wish it to be understood, that we 

p perpen it necessary, or within our province, 

to enter at large upon a critical analysis of the multi- 

tude of writings before us, but only such as we have 

had an of er ore de- 

— e leading intention eir authors respec- 

tively, which we sal enumerate as nearly as possible 

logical order. 

Sonie books to have been written prior to 

the date of those w have ed to us, as we in- 

prone nt Se career the carlizst of: shione 
works ‘now extant. 

caiemaeae this subject are to be found in 

where mention is made of - 
entitle ie Moses = 
uired a know s science from the 
a korg of re- 
lating to insects ; and amongst the obsolete works of 
Goldmon, he’ ia said: to» have treated “ creeping 

Hip who lived about 500 years before Christ 
(as we are told by! Pliny), wrote on insects. The wri- 

pilpoophegs, quo- 


ea earlier Greek ‘and Latin 
by Pliny, afford extracts of his li 
Atutctle Homgished ta thetuabcomding igi He wrote, 
amongst many other es 2 History of Animals, an 
ebecinry hang ae and comp sive 
view of the anim cinstion f baithhe tanely escends to 
the description of species. It is a work of the greatest 
merit, which no one can impartially peruse without 
confessing the intimate knowledge its writer must have 
possessed of nature. The insect ‘class is treated of in 
one ana de In the seventh chapter of his 
first book, we find the term trrou« is that of a family, 


to what state this branch of science had — 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


which constitutes one of his four orders of animals with 
colourless blood. These animals he terms ersangui- 
neous ; and, in his definitions, he points out, with great * 
accuracy, in what differ from the other three divi- 
sious of this class, viz. Mollusca, Cristacea, and Testacea. 
In the first chapter of the fourth book, we find the. es- 
sential characters more clearly given, inaanely the inci- 
sione on theibatk de belly; or oath, -by which their bo- 
dies appear to be divided into two or more 
another part of his book, more: 
describes. 


ent 
which Append thind that walk. 
he notices those with naked and. 

with a sheath ; sh dep dig 


of 


Goon scientlingseather culture of bees, ey a 
was attended to with the most enthusiastic ardour, 


History; 
Aristotle. 


Aristamachus of Soli is said to have written omthe 4,:amq. 


ees ta wed of fifty 


deserts attending to then 


to-have So Bz 


Philiscus, 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Mistery. wornis was an of attention. He says that garments 
—Y~" of silk were admired'in his days by the fair sex, 
as it'shewed their form to’ ry — the aeey 
- of its *texture. 

From the time of Pliny till the: prentiueoh the Ro- 
man empire, the study seems not to have been totally 
disregarded ; but we are ignorant what steps were advan- 

Titus, & Ged during that’periods “Am the writers were Titus, 
ZBtius, Alexander, Oribasius, lian and Paulus Agi- 
néta, who lived’ between the fourth and seventh century. 
Between 'the'ninth ‘and twelfth’ century, some of the Ara- 
bian botanists’ distinguished themselves = entomolo- 
gists. The’ principal were Rhazes, Avicenna, Avenzoar, 

Arabian et dnd Averthoes. ““Fromthis period till the fifteenth cen- 


, viz. M s; Platerus, &e. 
Albertus Albertus’ M wrote a” 1 zoological 6, en- 
Magnus. titled, "De Anita, of which treats of insects. 


He died 1280, but his work did not appear until the year 


1519; ed at Venice, 
Agricola» Tn: a published” his'work, De Animalibus 
whicly contains a systematic arrangement of 
insects; He-redices ‘all ro ie are to three ipal classes, 


and, 3. Those 


viz. 1. Those that walk ; ntl andae 
cdelben athe of 


furnished with swimming feet; and d 


Pe 1853) Edward’ Woitort | published’ a'work, entitled, 
De Di Antmalium, in’ whiely ‘he® treats 
oninsects. The book is in folio, and appeared three 
years before the author’s death. 

- I 1555, Rondeletius of Montpellier owe ye) his ‘valu- 

able'work, « Universa s altera,” to 

the world, in which “ee magento pen’ he accom- 
with wood ‘cuts. 

Tn 1599, in folio, was published at Naples, « Ferrante 

+ Historia Noturale libri 28." 

1 a very voluminots work. wis published, etitit- 
ed, De Animale Insectis, by the «ind le compil- 
ee | ef” ‘Aldrovatidus:’ Doriovan is inclined t6 give him con- 
pein ‘credit: He has'certainly acquitted himself in 

ec gl the’ undigested observations of the 
ancients ; but from his wacre ge ignorance’ of the’ subject 
he has necessarily fallen into all ibe erery oF his 
" céssor8: ‘we must; however, allow, that"hé has’acted with 
candor, having rarely omitted” to mention’ his authori-’ 
ties. He was professor of medicine at Bologna, and 
Sealer ange ‘mite ‘oF his time in the stixcly of insects, and 
stims’ of money in’ acqetniig specimens, 
Seat enploy ing artists’ to figure”them. He’ is stiitéd’ 
to have paid two] “hundred flotins” annually to an’ artist, 
Who was occupied solely” i in’ the ‘delineation of insects. 
ve divides eds into two great” orders, 1. Terrestial ;* 
hich he’ terms Insecta farica, and Non 
fe these 1 he divides into sub-otders, from thé num- 
ber ani situation of their wings and feet! His figiires 
are” but ‘rudely expressed, which is excusablé. At 
this time a taste’ for more expensive’ “embellishments 


Wotton. 


per bat p arcely oh rom i 
were exclusively ir r ay iveets i hesedivks 
Me} In 1612, the Historia Animalinm Sae?a, by’ Wol-' 


fang’ Frenzius, dividing’ imsects~ into tlitee classes, 
1. Actia, 2. Aquatica, 3. Térrea, and ‘coritaining ‘seve- 
ral new’ observations, a ears and’ three years af- 
serwards, in ‘the year 1616, at" Roti wpaiplet of 


tury; a few obscure writers, scarcely'worthy of ree ap- > 


59 


about one hundred pages, in’ Eatin;' entitled; De Fors 
mica, by Jeremialy Wilde. ~ 

In 1622, a work but remotely relating to insedts,: in Jeremiah 
4to, appeared in Edinburgh, bearing the following \title, 
Hicroglyphica Animalium Terrestrivm, Sc. que in ‘Serip- 
turis Sacris inveniuntur et um aliorum, cum’ eorun 
interpretationibus ; which, being the first work»relatin 
to insects published in Britain, is not ese of notice 
asa curiosity. 

In 1630, a thin quarto, by Hoefnagle, was' published Hoefnag'e. 
anfder the title of Diverse Insectorum volatilium Icones 
‘ad vivum ‘depict, per D. J. Hoefnagle, typisque man- 
dale a Nicolao’ Johanni: Vischer, containing 326 figures, 
some of whicly are‘very indifferent." He has not adopt- 
ed any particular mode of arrangement, but contented 
himself with delineating them in the state’ presented by 
chance; not always following thém throughout their pro- 
gressive i. 

In 1634, Thomas Mouffet published his Jnsectorwm Mouffet, 
sive minimorum Animalium Theatrum, which appears 
to be the’second! work’ on entomology published in our” 
country. This work, a& its title indicates, is written 
in the Latin language ; it appeared in London in one 
volume folio, and contains numerous wooden cuts, rude= 
ly executed, aécompanied by long, tedious, and often ri- 
diculous and fanciful detériptions of the spécies:’ The 
first seven chapters (capita,) are occupied with heavy 
details concerning the common hive bee (Aris M 
The eighth is entitled, De Vespis. The ninth, De Cran 
brone et Tenthredine, which includes the himble bees 
(Bomar). The tenth, eleventh, and twelfth, De Muscis, 
which includes, with several dipterous (or two-winged i in- 
sects) many h opterous, as well as neuropterous in- 
sects. The thirteenth, De Culicibus. The fourteenth, 
De Papilionibus, which occupies two hundred pages, the 
margins being embellished’ with 112 wooden figures, 
executed inthe radest style, yet in most instances to- 
lerably intelligible to the skilful entomologist. The’ fifs 
teenth De Cicindela, including the glow-worm (Lampy- 
ris,) and’ several others. The’sixteenth, De 
The seventeenth, De Cicadis et Gryllis. The eighteenth, 
De Biattis. The nineteenth, De By ‘et Ceram 
bice. The twentieth, De Cant The twenty- 
first, De Scarabais, which includes many of the larger 
beetles, (Coleoptera). The twenty-second, De Scara- 
beis Minoribus. The twenty-third, De Proscarabeo et 
Scarabeo Aquatico. The twenty-fourth, De Gryllotal- 

/ The twenty-fifth, De Phryganea: The twenty- 
sixth, De Tipula. The twerity-seventh; De Forficula 
tive auvicularia: ‘The twenty-eighth, De’ Scorpio, For« 
mica, et Pediculis alatis. And, lastly, the twenty-ninth, 
De Cimicve Sylvestri. After these, we arrive at the se- 
cond book, which treats of apterous irisects, (those 
wanting wings), amongst which he’ places all sorts of 
Larvw’ (or Soha ut of other species belonging’ to 
winged insécts, and likewise many of the vermes, &c. 
We miust apologise to the reader for taking up so much 
of his time with dry statements of the heads of this 


History. 


' work; but as it was one of the first produced in’ this 


country, we trust he will ‘not consider it as entirely uz 
interesting ; and as a specimen ‘of ‘his bd and notions 
relative to insects, we miay quote the following, which 
speaks of a species of Mantis, (probably M. religiosa or 
Oratoria): ‘“ Pectus habet longum, tenue, cuculo tec~ 
tum, caput simplex ; oculos sanguineos, satis magnos, an= 


History. 
—— 


Hollar, 


Johnson. 


Mey. 


Power. 


Hook. 


Charlton. 


60 


tennas breves, petles sex locustarum more, sed anterio- 
res multo crassiores i ue ceteris, quos quia junc- 
tos plerumque elevat (precantium ritu) a nostratibus 
— solet: totim corpus macilentum est. 

divina censetur bestiola, ut puero interroganti de 
via, altero pede extenso rectam monstrat, raro vel 
nunguam fallat. Cauda illi bifurca, setaceis acus 
leis preedita ; atque ut nanum elevatione vates refert, ita 
etiam et motus similitudine ; neque enim ludit ut alii, 
neque saltat, neque gestit ;\sed lente obambulans mo- 
destiam retinet et maturam quadam ostendit gravita- 
tem.” The work is ly an improvement on that of 


Dr Wotton, in 1550, continued by Conrad Ges- 
ner; and was enriched and published in its 
present form by Mouffet. 

In 1646, Hollar gained considerable reputation by 


his work, Muscarum, Scarabeorum, Vermiumque varie 


Jigure et forme, oinnes ad vivum coloribus depict et ex 


collectione arundeliana, §c. which was published at Ant- 


werp. 

In 1657, the Historia Naturalis of Johnson, in folio, 
was published ; but as this work is a mere compilation, 
itis unworthy of further notice; for “he has not added a 
single remark to what was before known.” 

n 1658, an English translation of Mouffet’s work 
8 et in London by Topsal, chaplain of St Bo- 
tolph. 
Goedart, about this time, published a work in the 
Dutch lan , with plates. This work, considering 
the time of its appearance, must be considered of cons 
siderable merit. It has been translated into Latin, 
French, German, and English, with copies of the plates. 
«For the space of twenty years,” we are told, “ Goe- 
dart devoted himself to the study of insects.” He 
followed them through their progressive changes with 
great precision: this renders his book more extensively 
acceptable ; and his figures, which were never surpassed 
by his predecessors, are sufficiently correct to be under- 
stood. The first edition of this work being sold off, the 
first volume'of a Latin translation, by Dr Mey, minis- 
ter of Middleburg, was produced, under the title of 
pee as Le ride he ia Naturalis Insectorum, in 1662. 
Lister allows but little credit to the translators of his 
works ; “ Goedart,” he observes, “ left his writings in 
Dutch ; his translators were men wholly ignorant of na- 
tural history, and their comments are mere rhapsodies 
altogether.” 

In 1664, a quarto relating to insects as objects of mi- 
cros¢opical investigation, by Power, was published. 

In 1665, Hook’s Micrographia appeared ; and, like 
the former work of Power, treats of minute insects. 

In 1666, was published in quarto, Adami Olearii.Got« 

kunst-kammer Sleswig. 

1667, Pinax rerum naturalium Britannicarum, con- 
tinens Vi ilia, Animalia et Fossilia, in hac insula re« 
perta t by Christopher Merre:, M. D. was pub- 
lished in London. This is the first work treating exclu- 
sively of the inseets of Britain: it contains a brief ca- 
talogue of such as were known to Dr Merret, each being 
accompanied by a concise descriptive sentence by way of 
name. In the first volume of the Transactions of the 
Entomological Society of London, an.account of the in- 
sects given by this author, with thei systematic names, 
is prs by A. H. Handorth, Baynt 

In 1668, Charlton published a work in London, with 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


a systematic 
Aldrovandus, enti 


on ee a as8 ap pr vor afs 
fording one many exam cul i 
rit which living merit so rarely fails es nal 
labours bestowed for the benefit of an 
world. No sooner was his death announced, than his 
merits were discovered, and his work was rendered 
into French by an anonymous translator: this and. 
many other editions soon after followed... The sys. 
tem of this author is interesting ; we shall therefore give 
a short sketch to our readers. He divides insects inte 
four classes, the characters being taken from their meta« 
morphoses and economy. The first no change, 
and includes spiders, onisci, &c. (which are noticed une 
der our article CnustaczoLoey), |The second class ine 
cludes those which, after leaving the egg, appear under, 
the form of the perfect insect, but have no wings ; im 
which state it eats and grows, till, having passed the i 
salis state, it issues thence with wi a ina ' 
tion capable of propagating its kind. This class come. 
prehends the onions Ot bith Dermaptera,. 
Dictuoptera, Hemi; and Neuroptera, of this work, 
In the third class, we find those insects which appear 
when hatched from the egg, under the form of a caters. 
pillar (Larva,) which when full grown, changes. into a 
is, where. it remains until the parts are fit to be 


orders, 1. Coleopera, and 2. plea, (Lamarck); Sucto- 


hends those who having attained the pupa (or cngnies 
in- 


sects alluded to are the orders Diptera and Hymenoptera 

of modern entomologists. rere 

’ In the same year Wolf’s Dissertatio de Insectis, §c..wore 

appeared at Leipsic, The author was professor of mes. 

eo ‘or lished his Esperimenta, 
1671, Redi publi i i circa gene= Redi, 

‘atlasmaestetntastaieoeanaeran ins, 

tained doctrine of ora generation Ment pyri 

roving by experiments and close reasoning, 

of cpjnione. At the end of this book he has given 

figures of the lice of birds. 

In 1671, Claude Perrault, one of the most learned Perrault. 
exotic entomologists of his age, author of several very. 
ingenious papers in the Memoirs of the French Academy, 
published a folio work at Paris, entitled, Memoires pour. 
servir 4 U' Histoire naturelle des Animaux. ere 

In 1672, Ferrard published a work Napiew of Ferrard. 
which we have no account, nor have we met withit, _. 

In 1673, Franzelio submitted his Insecta Novisolit. Franzelio. 
cum nive delapsa to the world, oa , 

In the same year, at Frankfort, was published by 
Mollerus, Meditatio de Insectis, quibusdam Hungaricts. yoters, 
prodigiosis anno proxime preterito, ex aere una cum nive 
in agros delapsis, ornamented with wooden cuts. rity 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


In 1675, a tract on the natural history of the Fpl: 


ee mera horaria, by Swammerdam, appeared, entitled, 


Griffin 


Wagneri. 


Pa 


meri Vita of van ’s menschen leven, 
font inde Elite van he aig! nde cm-daghlvent 
poo 


in the same 


el 

Ereee 

ak 
Wh 
tI fe 


Hi 
| 


i 
i 


In 7 
sects, done into English, and methodised, with the addition 
i Mr P. Fib, was 
to have been transla- 
ted by Lister ; the initials M. L. are at the close of the 


in Lyons, under the title, Historia 
nsectorum, Latinam fecit H. C. Hennius. 
his ara Liner at edition of Goedart, 


61 
3. Those with deflexed wings. Moths: 

4. Libellule, or dragon flies. 

5. Bees. 

6. Beetles. 

7. Grashoppers. 

8. Di , or two-winged flies.. 

9. Millepedes. (Now Crustacea.) 

10. Spiders. (Now Arachnides.) See the ace 


Although we readily allow Lister the credit due for 
this arrangement, yet we cannot avoid expressing our re~ 
gret for his remarks on the original author, to whom he 
allows neither credit as a naturalist nor as a writer. He 
po Assasin ep ae ; but says, “ Goedart, 
forty years attention, seems to have made but little 
advancement in his skill in the nature of insects ; he ra< 
ther seems.to have diverted himself, than to have given 
himself any trouble to understand them; and yet after 
si piss Pad iemcatenpeticin just and correct, but 
in many places short and hardly intelligible.” These 
opinions are delivered in a style of affected supe- 
reecitys over his author, highly unbecoming and not 
true; and he gained no reputation on the conti« 
nent for these illiberal remarks, which were much con- 
demned. 
Also, by the same author, Appendix ad historiam ani= 
malium Anglia. London. Octavo. 


. CrusTacrotoey. 


History. 


In 1687, Leeuwenhoek published his Anatomia seu in- Lecuwen-- 
| ar reese cum animatarum tum inanimatarum, ope et. boek- 
detecta. 


microscoporum 

In the same year, Gey: 
medicinal properties of Spanish flies, (cantharides,) un- 
fon gy title, Zractatus physico-medicus de cantharidts 


ereus wrote a treatise on the, Geyereus. 


Also by J. F. Griendel, at Neuremberg, in quarto, Grigndel 


pis ang eS ag which some notice is taken of 


In jn 1688 was published an Italian edition of Redi’s 
circa Generationem Insectorum, entitled,- 
intorno alla Generazione degl Insetti: 


bears but an indifferent cha- 
racter. Frisch and 


and a few perfect insects are also noticed. Another edi- 
tion was published at Leipsic in 1690. 


yonet consider it but a superficial, 
production. It treats of the larve -of various insects,. 


Blankaart of Amsterdam, Blankaart 


John Cyprien also published at Frankfort, Historia Cyprien. 


in the same year, in which insects are no-, 


About this 
by John de rng the other by C. Mentzelius. 


th 


titled,. 

And in the same year, seg, = Regnum Animale, 

‘ In this year also, Stephanus Blancard published in oc- 
tavo, at Leipsic, Schon-burg der Ruspen, Wormen, Ma- 


1. Those with erect wings, and angulated pupe. Bul- den. 
In 1691, Historia Vermium, by Jungius, was. printed anges 


2, Those with their wings. placed horizontally, and 
etn lene ee 


at Hamburgh. 


|, two papers on insects appeared, Gb: Murstto, 

In 1690, Bilberg publish Upsal a di on 

n 1690, g published at a dissertation ens Bilberg. 
Locuste. 


Kinige 


In 1692, 1 in the Memoirs of the French Academy, we: \Sedileau, 


, fixid a curious paper, by Sedileau, entitled, Observations: 


History. 


Heanius. 


Heben- 
streit. 


Ludolphus. 


Albino. 


Petiveri. 


Goeilart. 


Petiver. 


Ray. 


Rumphius. 


Wedelia. 


Petiver. 


62 


sur Vorigine d'un espece de Papillon, (alichtnee ae 
turnia pavonia major.) 

In 1693, an calidad edition of Swarasedidatn’s 
Historia Generalis Insectorum Latinam Secit He CG Hen- 
— was printed at Utrecht. 

n this year, the igious ravages occasioned fy its 
mense = hay of ra me which, im ak in the month of August, 
over-ran Germany, and extended: partially, through’ the 
rest of Europe, even to the northern borders, could not) 
p= ec the observations of many writers, among 

nd the following naturalists, De Locustis im- 
oa donite aérem nostrum et porten~ 
= 'c tiple quid TP To. 
custis, anno praeterito pee ea in corgi d visis, 
cum dialriba, qua sententia autoris de myy>w defenditur, 
by Exidolphusr The former of these works is comprised 
with ene from which: we — 
the species treated of to be Gryllus migratorius. 2 
work. of Ludolphus is in folio, and cmctatbo eighty-eight 
pages, embellished with The following authors 
also published: tracts. on this: subject, namely Crellius, 
Bnkinjer, Woollenhaupt, and raat but we are 
ignorant of the titles of these little dissertations. s 

In 1694, Albino published a‘small tract on the Spa- 
nish flies, (Cantharides.) 

In 1695, the Arcana Nature Detecte, by Leeuwen- 
hoek, appeared. 

‘And i in the same year, a small octavo, Jacobi Petiveri 
Museum. 

In 1699, Hombergh published a in the Memoirs 
of the French: exten Agrioh virgo 

In 1700, was published, in three —. umes duodecimo, 
Histoire Naturelle des Insectes selon leurs différentes 
nae observées par Jean Goedart. Amster- 


"In.1702; James Petiver produced the first decade of 
his Gazophylacium nature et artis,” which was carried on 
Sttigitledwehy till about ten years afterwards. It consists 
of ten decades, which treat of insects, as: well as larger 
animals, fossils, and plants. 

In 1705, our celebrated countryman Ray Da re eon his 
work entitled, Methodus Insectorum, seu in methodum ali« 


digesta. 

In this year also, the entemological part of. the work of 
Rumphius appeared. 

In 1707, appeared in London, A Voyage to the Islands 
of Madeira, Barbadoes, Jamaica, with the Natural. His- 
tory, &e. by Hans Sloane. Folio: 

n 1710, Russel published his Theatrum universale 
omnium animalium, which:treats of insects. 

‘And theillustrious Ray’s' Historia Insectorum, under 
the care of Dr Derham, after the author's death, appear- 
ed. In this work, he divides insects into two ‘principal 
classes, such as transformation, and those that 
do not ; and these he subdivides into several orders. He 
includes amongst these some vermes, which have again 
been removed by Linnzus, as we shall have occasion to 
mention hereafter. 

In 1717, Wedelio published a tract on the utility of 

in the materia medica, in Jena. 

‘And in the same year, - Petiver, an entomological 
writer, published a work, Pi Brittane Icones, 
nomina, &c. in folio, London, which in its time was 
certainly a valuable publication to the student of ento- 


mology, and-even now, as a work of reference, is in’ 
high repute. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 
- In 1720, Crises hid Renting we Sao. Stacy) 


- zards, 


la Floride, &e. par Mave 


ten 
parts, each being illustrated by three. plates. 
In this year, Eleazare Albin’ published in'London, A: Albin. 
Natural History of English Insects, with: mead or 
copperplates; injone volume quartoy» | 
In 1721, B published im London, APhilosophi: Bladley. 
cal Account:of bs of Nature, which contains some n 
cntuncogel matter, and alsova few) ee 
sects, in octavo, Otinias = the is of 
Tw 17225: ra wer 
lenwaeae oe 1 
In 1725, Sir Hans Sloane p 
second volume of his Natural History ‘of Jamaica; the: 
second ‘book ef which: ‘treats of ‘the insects ofithat island, 
accompanied ‘by several-uncoloured ‘platesy: o/s!) 


In1726, M vat th Merian. 
ee vet Metaeatph e Hague in ize folio 
ensium ; the materials of serene ve 


or under her directions, in Surinam, where she spent two 
years; , for the sole purpose of forming a collection, yand in 
taking drawings for this work; which is not, however; 
entirely devoted to entomology; for besides» insects, we 
find depicted. Leno celgantberte ye'eon ga ve) wien 


Ss, serpents, &c. 

In 1730, Valisnieri, in haa 
intorno agli insetti, distributes al zthrioapolay ore en 
from their habitats. ‘The first comprehends those which 
live on plants; the:second; such aslive in’ water ;‘the 
third, those’ that live: on earth, or amongst» stones ; and: 
the fourth, those which subsist on other animals. ty 

In 1731, was published in’one volume’ quarto in'Lon« 
don, Insectorum Anglia Naturalis Historia illustrataToo« 
nibus in centum tabulis aneis eleganter ad vivum expres 
sis, &c. by Eleazave Albin, and was esteemed an elegant 
work ; but, we must confess, itis more remarkable: for 
gaudiness than fidelity. 

In 1731 at London, Histoire Naturelle dela Caroline, Catesby. 

Catesby, folio, 


In 1734, the first volume of Reaumur’s Memoires 
servir a l' Histoire des Insectes, was published in 
The'five succeeding’ volumes appeared between’ thar ine 
and 1742. 

In 17345 Alberti: Seabee): 
lium Thesauri accurata descriptio, et iconibus artificiosis~ 
simis\ expressio Latiné et: Gallicd, toms iv. folio: The 
first volume appeared i in above > aoe the other: three: 
beforel 765. cw 

In 1735, the illustrious Swedish naturalist Linmeens; Lines 

published \the*first edition of ‘his. § Natira, sive 
Rega tria Nature S§ "/proposita per classes, ors 
dines, genera et. species, in which work: he distributes ine 
sects into four orders, aecording’to the*number and form 
of their wings ;pander Clwaningsy 1. Coleoptera’; 2. Ans 

3 3. Hemaptera; 4. Aptera: In the first, are’ 

contained those: whose wings are covered; the second’ 
those with naked or uncovered wings, as butterflies; dra- 
gon flies, ephemera; &e, ; the third, locusts, bugs, &e. 3) 
ae fourth, those without wings, as lobsters, spiders, lice): 
&c. _ Besides these, several animals; which; in later'edi-: 
tions of the work, Linnaeus considered? as’ vermes, were 
included. These were the earth-worm (Lumbricus,)' 
the leech (Hirudo, ) all land and sea shells, and: star- 
fish (Asterias,) sea-egg (Echinus;) &e.; and in this’ 
arrangement, he by no means deviated from the received 
opinions of his time. In the subsequent editions of his 


" Reaumuy. 


et Observazioni: V alisnieri. 


, 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


‘work, these orders are divided, andthe vermes are se- 

; and, after the manner of Aristotle, are consi- 
dered.as forming another class. His final arrangements 
we shall notice, when‘ speaking of his last (12th) edition. 
See the year'1767.' And in the same year at Upsal, 
Acta Literaria Scientiarum Suecie. 

In 1736, all the works of Swammerdam were put to 
~ press, entitled, Biblia Natura, sive Historia Insectorum 
Belgie, ‘eur wersione Latina, HD. Gaubii, et vita aucto- 
ris, per H. Boerhaave: The first volume appeared in 
1737, and the second iit the year foll 

In radie ie ‘Lesser published a work, entitled, FEC. 


oder Vernunft-und Schrifimiis- 
Ler Vehleck ci th fray Betrach- 


se deer ta achteten Tnsecten, &c. Frankfort 

i ars bars, “This work has never come under 

our inspection. We have, however, noticed . a French 
transla which in 1742, at some len , 
oi i Linné D Baimskalor two Talend be eo 


the other 
ane 
a? stl Ea in Pa aay leh 
ska Ve Hi 
And 


hwardighter uli Insecterne. 

L'Admiral. In 1740, the folio work of L’Admiral, entitled, Naaw- 
uae Waarneemingen van Gestaltvernisselende gckor- 

Sie ern taoraner rae it contains 

of highly fini etchings, ‘which are distinctly 
ied by Hse in his . ‘Auvelian. This work is confined 
‘to the insects’ of , and: contains of about 
fifty of the larger ‘species, principally of lepidoptera, 
which are ted in various attitudes, with large 
‘branches of the plants on which they feed, generally ac- 
companied with their larva and pupa. It in nuni- 
eds phertaniior of coats one hundred’ plates, 


artes i sop fi but As work 

seed we, cnt the work contaih 

tes, id 06 Pages of print; but Mr Do- 

rer * which i is the most complete "that we have 

ge) vibtte and twenty pages, 

n rdty published a valuable work, under 

te ie Tee j a ee circa Ratisbonam I, Indigeno- 

three volumes quarto, with a vast number of co- 

fared plates The classification of this author. differs 

ly from that of Linnawus, and approaches that 

ed by Geoffroy, yet is so far distinct, that being)a 

system. of considerable repute, it may not be amiss to 

present am outline of it in this place. divides insects 
into. orders, which he terms classes ; 

de Coleoptero-macroplera, those with their ely» 

tra crustaceous throughout their whole length, and ex- 
‘" hoe arenes the abdomen when closed. 

2 a, those with crustace- 

shorter than the abdomen. 


nz, 


Boerbaaye. 


branaceous win, 
6: Insecta Dipl 6 ohells ER  i 
7. Insecta Aptera, ‘oF those without 4 , 
Tn 1742, a French work, being a ion of Les« 


q ser’s Ingecto- Theologia, with remarks by Lyonnet, entis 


—_ 


63 

tled, Theologie des Insectes,.ou Dentonstration des Per« _ History. 
fections de Dieu dans tout ce qui concerne les Insectes, “"-¥ 
Traduit de L’ Allemand de Mr Lesser, aveedes remarques 

de Mr Lyonnet a Ja Haye, octavo, appeared. The ori- 

ginal work we have never seen ; it appeared in.1758. The 

views of the author are to promote the glory of God ; 

nor did he in any degree attempt to establish any new 

facts relative to entomology, but directed his attention to 


~the collection of such anecdotes relative to the natural 


history of insects, as could be rendered a convenient meé~ 
dium for the theological remarks with which ‘his pages 
abound. To the entomologist, the work is of no use ; 
“for his knowledge was but limited, and his remarks often 
erroneous. A's a theological production, however, it may 
have an useful tendency, as it is calculated to expose the 
glaring errors of others, who, with a fanatic spitit, ‘had 
“entered on the same subject. One of the best chapters 
relates to the abuse of insects in theology. He says, the 
Jews are accused of stating many wonderful things rela- 
tive te insects, which can only be considered as fables. 
Amongst many instances, after repeating the text, Kings 
i. 6, 7, concerning the erection. of the temple, (“And the 
— when it,was in. building, was, built.of stone, 
ready) before it,was, brought. thither : so that was 
neither hammer nor ax, nor any tool of iron heard in the 
house, whilst it was building,”) he states, thatithe Jews 
explain. this’ passage in the following manner: The work- 
men (they say) e¢mployed.ai worm ‘to shape the. stones ; 
which inséct; named Schami7, .cuti‘and. broke’ theni to 
pieces in: places where applidd.: ‘They: add, that it was 
* figured like unto a grain of barley,” and wasikeptiih 
a leaden ‘box, “ because: had it reached rocks; it would 
have cleft them, so as to unfit them for use.” This fa» 
ble, with many others equally absurd, invented by the 
rabbis, is particularly mentioned.” Amongst the fazed 
of Catholic superstition, too, he selects several anecdotes 
equally frauight with folly, whith, + hin really believ 3 = 
time of Lesser, will excuse him ‘th é ing’a a div: 
applying his time td the’ expostite of such gross wh . 
Two of these anecdotes we shall take the Ii liberty of 
fists Baldus relates, that a hnuttiber of Bees. acci- 
dentally passing over holy groufd, paid” it Hoin inage, and 
carried a portion res illy to ine hive ; and it is sta- 
ted that St F rancis, when wa in_his Rede, wit a 


grasshopper, which apt ished on] 


at his command, sung Pepa a 
Detharding also, this year, Poe aed Bea ti pg Detharding. 


sica Vermium in Norvegia qu. nova, visi, in 
a relating to the. Rpkngpei at Vaasa or 


Edwards publish 1 the first volume Edwards. 


other rare and marie animals. ‘London, quarto. 
‘Three other volumes appeared before 17.52, in which ind 
abe insects oo given. 
1744, at tockholm, was: published by. Denier, m1 Sesh 
little work in octavd, on the utility of study. 
ing intseets, entitled Tal om nyttan, sum Insectere ovhde- 
ras sharshadande, tilskynda oss; pointing out the advan- 
tages of cultivating’ the naturalhistory of thosé animals, 
‘and, as far’ as we know, is the oldest work on this stib- 


he 1745, oo, jusilem Olandski och” Gotliltindsiig’ Reva 
Sfarriittad ar, ost. Stockholm och Upsala, " 1745, lie 
‘small yoltime octavo, By. Ling,” 

In 1746, Der monallich-herausgegebencn Inseclen Be- Roel 


History. 
—— 
Kleeman- 
nir. 
Kleemana- 
hus. 


Menander. 
Gould. 
Bazin. 


Gadd. 


Lyonnet. 


Hoppe. 


Wilke. 


64 
i . eet tention, one us, 

pte Vauaeiee painter. The work he an A 

wo other volumes appeared in 1749 and 1755. To 
these a fourth volume was added by a relation (Klee- 
mannir) after his death in 1761; and, since that pe- 
riod, us published three other parts. 

In 1747, a tract, explaining the advantages. arising 
from the study of insects, entitled, Dissertatio de Usu 
——— Insectorum, was published by C, F. Menan- 


In the same year, William Gould published in Lon- 
don An Account of English Anis. 

Also in Paris by Bazin, Abrégé de Il’ Histoire des In- 
sectes, pour servir de suite a Histoire Naturelle des 
Abeilies. 

In this year also was published in quarto, Adrian 
Gadd. Observationes Physico-CEconomice, in septentrio- 
nali preiura territorii iorts Sat ie collecte. 
Dissertatio Preside C.F eee ay 
stp of naka histor). “ f 

In this year, Theologie des Insectes de Lesser, avec 
des remarques de Lyonnet, a la Haye, in two volumes 
octavo, appeared, a translation, with comments by 
Lyonnet, of Lesser’s Insecto-Theologia, published in 
1738. 

Also Buzin Gilles Augustin Abrégé de I Histoire des 
Insectes pour servir de suite a U Histoire Naturelle des 
Abeiiles. Paris, in two volumes duodecimo. 

In 1748, was published in London, J. Dutfield, 
six numbers of a natural history of English moths and 
butterflies. - 

And, in this year, T. C. Hoppe —— two small 
entomological tracts, as Aniwort-Schreiben auf Hern 
Schreibers zweifel ; and Lichen-Weiden-und Dorrosen. 
The first at Gera; the second at Leipsic. 

In 1749, Linné published Ejusdem Skénska Resa. 


And at , J. M. Seli Aves, adjectis 
gs G. Edwardi Leone, | Polio r 
In the same year, or ps earlier, the id 


racy; and, when we reflect on the celebrity this work 
‘has heretofore enjoyed as an original production, it cer- 
‘tainly attaches some little to our naturalists, 
that facts, so publicly on the continent, should 
cp interesting ‘hall copy thiepact tesacened 
rious , we copy 

by a friend. “ In the sw Laan anthaad amt Glas 
amusements of insects, I have mentioned a certain wor 


iption, which is, however, promised at some future 
Peter In the notice to these plates, he professes to 
them from life; but, by those acquainted 

other works, it will readily be discovered that se- 
are taken from Albin’s work, from Merian’s book, 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


and many from my own. How far he has succeeded, I History. 
leave to tej ee rteenainh o = dee ne mail 
, but not alwa’ to 
too severe; ut let elalil qratalderthes be wmemantteden the 
works of others, and gives them for his own. I venture to 
assert, that in the future description of his work, he will 
be careful not to mention the authors whose works he 
prs ee er Be tera Sagem stem oe 
on w 
sovareing ine neers: oF bagi! them a different od 
sition.” Vol. iii. p. 192. 1749. - The substance of these 
remarks we are to be under the necessity of al- 


lowing to be true; for the eye of the artist will per- 
ceive, on comparing the two icati that 
nie “Oy dvapeucre nee Ses For valores of | 
Résel. e ve repeated Résel at 5) 
we wish to im’ on the public mind rn 
lue and importance of an work, in 


above mentioned, is rather i stated in the title.« 
page; for the plants on which the insects are q 
are not those which furnish their nataral food ; | 


De Geer also in this year. published the first volume ra 
of his invaluable work, emotres. mae 


des Insectes, at Stockholm, which was received with 
every demonstration of praise to which its merits are 
entitled. From the testimony of the author’s merit af- 
vg by this Yygcimy the continuation Ne 

wi Pra ; but nine years elapsed before the se- 
cond volume appeared, and it was al twenty- 
six years from its commencement to its termination. It 
was completed in 1778, in which year the labours of its 
author closed with his life. He was author of several 


mecsimirt ty cee aa ; 
i, in 1753, : - ; 
Garniblica,’ in: which, lve dintalloutes “All the insets of SP q 
which he treats, into orders, genera, species, and vari- 
eties, nearly after the manner of Linné. As a systema- 
tic work, this publication is of little importance; in other 


pe oe ied rm 
n this year also, Nova Insectorum Species, Diss. 
Presid. Johanne Lecher. Resp, Isaacus. Uddman. 
Abow, quarto, 

Care 1754, Kalm, a learned botanist, ish 
ed a paper on a species of Cicada, in the Swedish lan- 

; but we are unacquainted with its title. 

In 1756, in folio, Brown's Civil and Natural History 

of Jamaica. nevis 


In 1757, F. Hasselquists Iter Palastinum, eller Resa 


ENTOMOLOGY. - 


Landet aren 1749—1752, Utgisver af Car. 

Linné, appeared at Stockholm. 

In 1758, in quarto, an interesting work in its day, 

entitled, Ejusdem Dissertatio. Centuria Insectorum ra- 

, an English translation of one of the 
was published in London by 

Thomas Fleoyd. . 


~ And in 1759, J.C. De Schreberi Nove Species In- 
at Halle. Z 

eit hl eiet Aetmalinen,Speiiorias,dyaise 
_ In 1760, Caroli a Linné Amenilates Academice, tom. 


Schreberi.. 


nthe same year with the above, an octavo, Det 
Trondjemske ‘orske Videnskabers Selskabs Skivter. 
7 i Hafniz, octavo. 


~ dn 1762, Histoire abrégé des Insectes aux Environs de 


Sa 
tematicas cum introductione et iconilus. The latter is 


an elementary work in the Latin and Dutch langua- 


ges. ; 
Gronovius In 1768, L. T. Gronovius published in folio, Groro- 
: a i Three fascicali only 
Scopali. Also Whaonis ntonii Scopoli Entomologia Carnioli- 
&c. Vindebonzx, in octavo. x 
VOL, IX. PART L 


8 


65 

In this year, Den Danske Atlas ued Eric Pontoppidan, History. 
Kiobenhayn, in quarto. Other parts appears ~~~" 
ed in the’years 1764 and 1767, forming altogether three }00*PP'- 
volumes in quarto. 

In 1764, Dr M. Geoffroy published in two volumes Geoffroy. 
quarto, Histoire abrégée des Insectes, dans laquelle ces 
Animauz sont-rangés suivant un ordre methodique. Paris. 

Linné in this year, again appeared before the public, 
and produced his camille Ejusdem Museum Lodovica 
Ulrice Regine. Holmiz, in octavo. 

Also Fr. Miiller Fauna Insectorum Fridrichsda- Mutter. 
lina sive methodica descriptio Insectorum-agri Fridrichs- 
dalensis, &c. Hafniee et Leipsize, octavo. 

Also J. C. Scheeffer’s Abhandlungen von Insecten. 3 
Bande. Regensburg, quarto. , , 

Also the second part of Zoophylacium Gronovianum, Gronovius, 
by Laudentius Gronovius, containing de- 
scriptions of about six hundred insects, with synon 
after the Linnean system, accompanied by four illus. 
trative was printed at (panes folio 

In 1765, Seba’s Thesaurus Nature was published at 5¢ba- 
Amsterdam, in which a vast number of the extra Eu- 

Tae insects are aye in a very coarse style. : 
_ In this year J. G. Gleditsch published at Halle, in Gleditsch. 
8vo. the volume of Vermischte Physicalisch Bota- 
nish Srecnonescte Abhandlungen ; two other volumes 

in the two ing years. 
vot sep yA ng a 
‘asste Nachrichten, die Naturhistoire in 


isbenhavnske Selskabs. Skrioter,, at Kio- 


In 1766, Scheffer published at Regensburg Elemen- Schaffer. 
ie, containing 132 plates, illustrating the 
his , and an additional section with 
Saniciddes tisk aoeumee of catching insects, 
i &e. 


In this year, a second edition of Frisch’s work 


as SET , 

n 1767, Pallas published at Berlin, in 4to, the first Pallas, 
fasciculus of his Spicilegia Zoologica quibus nova infor- 
mis-et obscure animalium species Iconibus, descriptionie 

bus atque commentariis illustrantur, a very valuable work, 
Several other numbers or fasciculi were published be 

fore the year 1780, when the last made its appearance, 

And in the same year, the twelfth edition of the 
Systema Nature of Linné was produced. As this was 
the last work of that illustrious naturalist, we shall 
lay before our readers his ical arr. ent. 

e divided insects into seven orders, deducing his cha- 
racters from their wings, as follow : . 

Order J. Coreoprera, (from xoAs<, a sheath, and : 

alegiv, a wing), including those insects having crustaceous 

is or elytra, which shut together and form a longi- 
tudinal, suture down the back of the insect. _In many 
the whole body (abdomen) is covered by these elytra, 
in others partially, The coleopterous insects compre- 
hend those commonly termed beetles. 

Order II, Hemirrena, (from gery, half, and alegi, a 
wing.) Theseanimalshave their upper wings half crusta- 
ceous, and half membranaceous, or of a matter inter- 
mediate between leather and membrane. Examples, 
the bug, the locust, &c. 

Order III, Lerivorrera, (from aszis, ascale, and 

1 


History. 
—_—— 


66 ENTOMOLOGY. 


slew, a wing.) Insects having four wings imbricated 
with calee * butterflies and motlis, 
Order IV. Nevnorrera, (from niger, @ nerve, and 


‘igiv, a wing.) Insects hav four transparent na- 
k win se) ud with veins or nerves. Exam- 
ples, libellule, or dragon-flies, &c. 


Order V. Hymenoprena, (from Yea, a membrane, 
and sigs, a wing.) Insects with four naked and mem- 
branaceous wings. Examples, bee, wasp, &c. 

Order VI, Diptera, (from di, two, and algiy, a wing.) 
Insects with two wings, as gnats, flies, gadflies, &c. 

Order VII. Aprena, (from ¢, without, and ae. a 
wing.) Includes all insects without wings, as spiders,* 
crabs, lice, &e. pe on 

The t icuity of Linneeus’s System of Ento- 
mol Fevose trier its athe having made choice of the 
role Obvious characters which insects afford for the 
leading distinctions of his orders. In the construction 
of his he has taken his characters from the 
parts of the head alone, paying particular attention to 
the form, situation, and structure, of the antennz or 
horns ; these being conspicuous in most insects, 
and so infinitely varied in their appearance, as to con- 
stitute, with few exceptions, a permanent distinction. 
That there are other characters which, in the opinion 
of later entomologists, are better adapted to the pur- 

of classification, the reader must be aware ; but 

ese, although really preferable, are too mi- 
nute to become always useful to the student; yet to 
the man of science, who is really willing to learn and 
study entomology as a science, there can be no doubt 
as to the superiority of the modern systems, although 
we are Wt "illow ‘thatthe chivactere’ from’ the 
mouth are not so well calculated to further the views of 
the superficial observer, as those Linné ; 
the simplicity of his arrangement, the celebrity of his 
name, and the princely patronage under which he 
wrote, conspired, with other favourable circumstances, 
to render the science more universally cultivated, ad- 
mired, and , about his time, than it appears 
to have been at any former period. Much credit is un- 
doubtedly due to this great man for his entomological 
labours ; but as we have stated before, when ing 
of Aristotle, he is not alone entitled to our commenda- 
tion for the arrangement he has proposed; we must 
acknowledge the merits of his predecessors, who wrote 
under less favourable circumstances, but nevertheless 
excelled in this department of science ; men to whom 
Linné stands in a very high degree indebted, and with- 
out the aid of which it is impossible to imagine the 

which now commands our respect. In the 
works of Aristotle and Pliny, if those of Aldrovan- 
dus, Swammerdam, Ray, Willoughby, Lister, and vari- 
ous others, (whose works we have noticed), we = 
ceive, with some variations, the grand outline on which 
he has formed his system. It was from these valuable 
sources ian es mou from which he 
selected, wi ound ju ent, and the greatest 
success, the valeable antter, carefully and industrious. 
ly separating the dross. The characters of his orders 
and also are to be found in several earlier pub~ 
lications, as are descriptions of several of the species, 
But he has concentrated these scattered rays of science 
with so much skill and industry, that we must admit 
that to him alone the science is indebted for that firm 
foundation on which it now rests, His style through. 
out is concise and expressive, but in many instances it is 


so laconic, that it is impossible even to guess at the ani- History, 
Bomare Dictionaire Bomare. 


mals described. 
In 1768, was published in Paris, 
raisonné universel d’ Histoire Naturelle, 4to. 


In 1769, in three Deere 4to. “~ Teones In« Scheffer. 
sectorum circa Ratisbonum Regensburg, 
. by Scheeffer. : ; 


And in the same year, at Leipsic, was published in Scopoli. 


octavo, J. A. Scopoli Anni Historico Naturales. 
Also Dr John Berkenhout, M. D. 


limited, treating 
which are arranged after the Linnean system. Not- 
withstanding the small number of species enumerated, 
this little work has tended ially to advance the 
study of entomology in Great Britain. Since the 
lication of the above, three or four other editions hi 


ss 1770, J. R. Forster published, at Warrington, in Fiske 


octavo, A Catalogue of British Insects, a mere 
Latin names, amounting to about 1000 ies, the 
greatest number hitherto enumerated. This was in- 
tended as a Prodromus to a general work on the insects 
of Britain, as we learn from the preface, in which the 
author offers duplicates in exchange for any not in his 
collection. 

In this year also, D. Drury published a very beauti+ 


ful work in one volume, con voy omen de- 
scriptions in English and Festiclt with an index of 
Linnean names, illustrated by coloured 
entitled, Illustrations of Natural rey | are 
exhibiled Figures of exotic Insects, &c. plates form 
a miscellaneous assemblage of the more beautiful extra 
European insects, which the extensive collection of its 
author afforded. Three years after the publication of 
the first volume, a second appeared ; and the third, 
which concludes the work as far as it proceeded, ap- 
in 1782. Besides those figured and described 
z= the three a aera the extensive cabinet of 
r Drury contained man ice specimens, reserved 
as materials for a fourth ha which were 


rieties, no less than 11,000 insects, (in his time the lars 


gest collection,) which he obtained by transmitting 
ea directions and instructions, in various lan 

‘or gathering and ing insects, i ce 
an insect for all insects, “ from the size of a honey-bee 
upwards.” His museum of entomo was di 

of in London, by Pape auction, and produced about 
six hundred poun One insect, viz. Scarabaus Go- 
liathus,( Goliathus magnnt) eh ectan by Mr Dono- 
van, for twelve guineas and a half, who obtained also all 
theBritish insects, (which were very numerous, collected 
by Mr , and now enrich his splendid museum. 


And in this year also, G. A. Harrer’s Beschreiburg Harrer, 


oo nt Insecten welche Herr D. J. 
neffer in eclxxx ausgemahiten kupfertafeln herausge- 
geben hat. Regensburg, octavo, 


In 1771, John Reinhold Forster published Nove Forster. 


* The crabs and spiders are now considered as constituting two distinct classes. See our article CRUSTACEOLOGY. 


published the Berkenhout. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 67 
species Insectorum centuria, 1; the avowed purpose of stated to have-been published in this year, but is no- _ History. 
“_~ which, as the reailer is informed in the preface, was to ticed by us as having been published in the year 1749, “"Y" 
ive descriptions of one hundred insects, not mentioned or earlier: but, from the comments made on that work 
im the latest work of the illustrious Linné. ‘The in- by Riésel, it must have been published, as we have sta- 
ted, in or before 1749. 
In 1774 was published at Amsterdam, in folio, by L’Admiral. 
Jacob L’Admiral, Veranderi van Veele Insecten. 
Also, at Halle, in 8yo. Der Naturforscher, but the au- 
‘ thor’s name not known to us, ; 
of the insects seem to have beenun- _ And, in this year, Iwan Lepechius Tagebuch der Tagebuch. 
to Linné, and some Le RN Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen der Russischen 
er and Reichs; Altenburg. One volume appeared first, and 
i ; y two others before 1783. , 
observation of Linné, whose work he was - In 1775, an interesting little work, describing the in- Faeslins. 
i i i i sects of Switzerland, under the title Verzeichniss der 
one of those eminent naturalists ihm Bekanten Sune we printed at 
accompanied the celebrated Captain Cook in his Zurich, in quarto, by aspar Faeslins. 7m 
i In this pat J. C. Fabricius, a pupil of Linné, pub- Fabricius. 
i im, ri yg Pa RARE , under the title Sys- 
Mantissa Plantarum altera generum editionis vi. tema E ie, in whi principles of a new 
et Specierum editionis ii. Holmie, of Linné, in which SDUAae shaudiietanrés teavthe dese'ainie|clenphoneh, 
several insects, not noticed in other parts of his works, He has taken the essential characters of the classes (or- 
are described, octavo, in this year. ders, Linné would have termed them) from the 
In 1772, Curtis in London a translation of of the mouth (Instrumenta cibaria), which has given 
the Fundamenta Entomologia of Linné, which consider- _ this the title of Cibarian System. in this work, di- 
yoo rym 383 Leng ete mee T ERNE 4 Pose insects into eight ee So hee ——, 
in same » Dr J Lettsome, Synistata, Agonata, nogata, yngota, an 
in aT. Naturalists and. ‘Travellers pa: saree ary bon winaes agp erineae PPC mee” 
Companion, giving directions how to collect and y very ; but his mode of distinguishing the genera 
ansaie adi aeastols oatenel etedioations, Je hits niece un elt sattionah, casdecmndestheiging: teotee beiawhotgie of 
‘several editions, and may be considered asa natural genera, which, by his method, are generally to be 


very useful book to students of en stp eens see eee of any other parts. 
“Riso M. Th. Braunichil ZoSlogia Fendewenta Ashe has since that time written several other works, and 
iont i Linsie, added. considerably to this system, we shall defer no- 
ticing it further for the present. We may, however, 
In 1773, Kahn published a tract relative to the mode observe, that he gained such reputation from this work, 
of preserving and catching insects, entitled Kurze an- that he was induced to prosecute his entomological-stu- 
leitung Insecten zu sammlen, dies with increased ardour, and during his lifetime al- 
Thomas Pattinson Yeats i Institutions of Ww ne Sea AR SANE ETE BET 
i i shlans Desoriplinnss Animalium, Avium, Amphibiorum, 
Linnean orders and genera, collated with three other Piscium, Insectorum, Vermium; que in Itinere Orien- 
namely, those of Geoffroy, Scopoli, and Schef- ali observavit, Petrus Forskal, Prof. Harn. Post 
Sentegethor wen many i observations, by its mortem Auctoris, edidit Carsten Niebuhr; Havnie, 
translator. It is parti 'y defective, however, in the quarto. 
comparison drawn ee Moses Harris also ished a little let, enti- Harris. 
. ¢ co Nae ner aan = The Fagiek i bs or Aurelian’s Aacgad 
When Scopoli published y ere omen Am nion, London ; an alphabetical catalogue 
coincided very nearly with Linné, in hi mee ome the lepidoptera collected. by its author in E 
i he land. is little tract, although ap tly insigni 
and another. For an account cant, has materially contributed to ihe pinenical study 
‘the system alluded to, see the year 1777. of entomology. The Linnean names, as far as they 
ree mensin ny teavo- were known to him, with the time and place of the 
lebrated Russian naturalist Pallas, appeared, entitled, appearance of the insects, in both states, are concisely 
P. S»Pallas Reise darch Verschiedene Provinzen des given incolumns. A frontispiece is added, explaining 
Russichen Reichs. St Petersburgh, which has been ren- terms used in the description of animals of this order. 
Latin and English. In 1776, Peter Brown figured a number of insects in Brown. 
In this year, also, Dr John Hill published a Decade his New perenne Apa Ae 
of curious Insects, some of them not described before, In this year, Sulzer published, in quarto, Abge- Sulzer. 
shown in their natural size, and as they a before kiirzte Geschichte der Insecten, Winterthur. 
the Lucernal Microscope, in which the Apparatus was The Genera Insectorum of Fabricius appeared in this Fabricius. 
artificially i/luminated ; with their History, &c.: illus- year. 
trated with ten quarto plates, in which the figures are In this year, also, J. H. Sulzer’s Abgehiirtze Ges- sulzer. 
sometimes immensely magnified, and far from correct. chichte der Insecten, 2 Theile, quarto. 


Alp 
rE 
al 
nie 
a 
rh 
a 


i 
i 
: 


cFE 
He 
ute 
ii 
hal 
ate 
FE 


A 
i 
H 
if 


Forskal. 


~ The scientific accounts are given in English, accompa- Also, zur Naturgeschichte von Franz, von Schrank. 
nied with various interesting observations as to their Paula Schrank, peg, octavo, 
natural hi and econom In this year, O. F, Miiller Zoologia Danica Prodro- yuler. 


y- 
In the Transactions eS ae of mus, &e. Hafnize, in octavo, and must ever be 
i work of Benjamin is considered a most v and useful work, 


History. 
Schrier. 


Gueze. 


Esper. 


Pallas. 


Pabri¢ius, 


Cramer, 


68 


pepe lian Sgggane at Halle, in octavo, the 

first part of a work, entitled, Joh. Schréter Abhand- 
iiber verschiedene Gegenstande der Naturge- 

schichte ; a succeeding part appeared in 1777. 

A valuable book in quarto, entitled, Systematisches 
Verseichniz der Schmetterlinge der Wienergegand, &c. 
Wien, a in this year. wns 

In 1777, Scopoli published the ic work be- 
fore alluded to, under the title, Introductio ad Histo- 
riam Naturalem. In this work (which does not relate 
exclusively to the science of entomol » he divides 
insects into five tribes, under the appellations 


of Swammerdami-lucifuga, G m » Réese- 

In this he identifies each tribe with 

the name of that author who has, in his opinion, been 

most successful in the explanation of that to which his 

name is attached, The order ifuga includes two 

1, Crustacea, 2. Pedicularia. noptera com- 

his Halterata, Aculeata, and Caudata. } 

era, the genera Sphine, Phalena, and Papilio. 

a pager greenside pe And 
‘oleoptera he divides likewise into those inhabiti 

water, and those the land. ie 


In this fertile year, J. A. E. Gieze to publish 
an extensive systematic work called £ ische bey= 
trige zu des Ritter 's Linné zwilfien Ausgabe des Natur 


Systems, &c. which was continued progressively in 
parts till 1783, in octavo. = 
_ also uced in Germany the first part of his 
valuable work on lepidopterous insects, entitled, Die 
Schmetterling in Abbildung nach der Natur mit Beschrei- 
bungen, a by many plates, of which a second 
part was published in 1779. Between that time and 
1786, two other parts appeared likewise, and which, al- 
er, form a very extensive publication. 

n 1778, at Berlin, was published in quarto, by Pe- 
ter Simon Pallas, Naturgeschichte Merkwiirdigen Thiere, 
in welcher Vornehmlich neue und unbekannte Thierar- 
ten durch kupferstriche, Beschreibungen und Erklarun- 

Sift Cropnsky ube 

And Paul Czempi ublished, in octavo, Totius 
as Animalis Coe : 

Iso, in quarto, Nomenclatur und Beschreibung der 
Insecten in der Graffichaft Hanau-Miinzenberg, von 
Joh. And. Ben. - 
oe Magazin 7" die “eat 8 der Entomologie 

eraus, , von Jos. ij » Zurich und 
Se cee 


And, in this year, at Leipsic, in octavo, was publish- 
ed, Versuch einer Naturgeschiehte vom Ladlabe. Niteoohs 
Jen von J. 1. Fischer. 

Moses Harris also published his Aurelian, or Natural 
History of English Insects, namely, Moths and Buiter« 
lies, London, in quarto. 

Lastly, J. C. Fabricii Philosophia Entomologica, &c. 
a work to be studied by every scientific entomologist. 

In 1779, Pieter Cramer published, De vit Landsche 
kapellen, Voarkomende in de drie Waereld deelen Asia, 
Africa, en America, or extra E insects, whieh, 
with the continuation published in the year 1782, con- 
sists of four volumes quarto, with many plates, con- 
fined ey to lepidopterous insects, 
_ And, in the same year, another very expensive work, 
in the French lan , named Papillons aE s 
peints d’aprées Nature, which, as its title shews, is 
voted entirely to the lepi insects. 

In 1779,. was published, in octavo, An, ‘angs-griinde: 
der Naturgeschichte, von Nath. Gotft. Leske. Leipzig, 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Freunde. ' ven 
Also, Otho Fabricii Fauna Granlandica, &c. Haf- oro 


nie et Lipsic ; a valuable little work, in one volume Fabricius, 


octavo. 

In 1781, was published, in London, 
but, an elementary work, The Genera J 
Linneus, exemplified by various Specimens of 
Insects. As an illustration of the Linnean m, this 
work may be not uninteresting to the English reader, 
but its views are too limited to admit of even mere gene- 
ral utility. Its author does not seem to have been. aware 
of the vast improvements the science had. I 
on the Continent, in the interval between the i 
tion of the Genera Insectorum of Linné, and the time 
in which he wrote; and has therefore drawn no com- 
parisons between them, which, without innovation, 
must have placed the science in a more lucid point of 
view. Itis to the silence of ish writers in this 
respect, arising either from want of information, from 
satisimactith uf iDibenelity, ciedan: jenlouny,/at-maigeiony 
that we must ascribe the very low state of entomologi- 
cal knowledge in Britain, even to the: ) 

In the same year, Franciscus Paula 
yore i by his enumeration of the insects of 

ustria, called Enumeratio Insectorum Austrie Indi 
norum, which has since been rendered into German 
Fuesly. Je » nbs setormigd 
Johann Nepomuk von Laicharti eee censor pages 
lished, at Zurich, the first part of he re of the t¢- 
insects of the Tyrol, Verzewhniss und | ibung der 

voler Insecten ; a second part appeared in 1784. He 
Y ee a that of Linné. Insects 
y. 


are divided into ten classes or orders, charac 
terised from various parts of the body. These orders 
are named, Scarabecides, Grylloides, Cimicéides, Pa- 
pilioniiides, Libelluloides, Vespiides, Musedides,~Can» 
créides, Arandides, and Oniscordes. eel | 
In this year, the Icones Insect Colley et Deserip. 
sie, Si mid sera alee ne 
Poe nih rer oa ne roe 
giee, 3 inone volume quart © 
And Herbst published ‘Archiv der Insectengeschichte, Werbst. 
bcs: sepa von Jos, Caspar Fuesly ; Zurich und 
rthur. In ides ieiphe di mn Whe fall Secqui. 
In this 5 Ni ; Jacquin. published in 
am et Historiam sets ote ei an yd 
Also-the Genera Inseetorum of Lin , &e, by James 
Barbut ; London, , another edition. 
And Thunberg published at Upsal, oon Museum Thunberg. 
Naturalium Academie Upsalensis, §c. Pars 1 ; to which 
twenty other parts, and an appendix, were added be- 
a Alen, Beitrage wor dhschdsigerthdshte vine &e. 
so, Beitrage zur Inse ichile von August, &¢.) Knoch, 
Wilhelm Knoch ; Lipzig, octavo. ~ vi 
And J. C. Fabricii ies Insectorum, appeared in 
the same neo, 
In 1789, Moses Harris: published: his: Zxposition of 
English Insects, &c. illustrated b sone copper- 
plates, in quarto, in which he has given: of about 
500 species. The text is in French and , and 
the specific names are given in Latin, but many 
as can never be adopted ; such as, forexample, (Apis) 
Audeo, &e. } 
And in quarto, Eri¢ Pon 
paa Norges Naturlige Historia, Kioberhavn. 
In the Transactions of the Paris Academy for this Morand.. 


Det forsle Forsog Pontepper 


. 


TH 


F 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Motarid, entitled; Memoire sur 
ie a primer en “ee 


he S. Semler also published, in the German la , 
crepe pay Wi pag eines Diarium iiber die 
oy area mes rey 3 ig 


vale Methotinea tone d- 


Animaux, was publi 


iis pode is Gow @ Species Tn 
method of Wie Gok ia sinipl ie 


onthe pie (plant-lice, or 
hlese zur Bonnetis- 


i little 
y te Brom tat Ma, the Jr 
appeared in immense swarms in 
i during the summer of 1782, 
so many trees of their foli , a8 to create 
of the total destruction to the whole ve~ 
The of this tract was to show, 
e food of these voracious ani- 
mals, id + attack. This is an additional 
ad) dnt sone Pode of ee any ele fone an ac- 
quaintance with the natural history of insects ; for the 
authior, by this publication, was enabled to dispel the 
uneasiness occasioned by these supposed “ ministers of 


See 


lation of that vast me- 
calami 
beecish ee 


Alan: the interesting waph:by Biota De Geer, Gene- 


ne Species Fasecioren, Grrankt, ‘A. J. Retzio, Lipsie, 


octavo. | 
In 1784, an work, in octavo, entitled; 
“ag a Concinnata, was pub- 
lished by J. A. B. 


Thun in this year, published his Dissertalio Sis- 
fens Insecta Svecica 
And, in the same ear, Harrer wrote on the insects 


of Germany, under the title, G. A. Harrer’s Beschrei- 
yf Can lage Weiche Her D. I. C. Scheeffer, 
&e. at . in octavo. 


In he the following works 4 
ogia Parisiensis, sive Catalogus Insecterum 
agro 0 Parisiensi repirhanse Secundum Methodum 
nena &c. edente A, F. De Fourcroy, duodeci- 
mo, in two volumes. 
Matthew Martyn’s Aurelian’s Vade Mecum, &c, was 
Ay in Exeter. The insects are whimsically ars 


69 
dye Linnean classes and orders History: 
lants on Spin Sey Sy 


of 
istoria Wetaaie © Cereidieen Sueciae ; auctore Bonsdorff. 

Gabriel Bonsdorff, &c. Upsalix ; in quarto. 

Naiursystem aller Bekanten in , Auslandischen In- 
seclen, §c. von Carl. ‘Gustaf. Jablonsky, Berlin, Fortge- 
setzt'von J. F. W. Herbst. 

Nath. Gotfr. Leske Reise Durch Sachsen i in Riicksicht Reise. 
der Naturgeschichte und Giconomie, Lei ; in quarto. 

Natural. Historische Briefe iiber Gstreich, &c. von Schrank. | 
Franz, von Paula Schrank, und Karl Erenbert Ritter, Moll. 
von Moll ; Spisborah. 

In ind 1786, Xavier Walfen published an account of the walfen. 


pies fe. Cape of Good Ho 
hichte der Schmetterlinge, Ausburg. 
Schwtelicne Einleitung in die et Leipzig, 


in octavo, 
Scopoli Delicie Flora et Faune, :c. Ticini, in folio. 
a 1787, were published the foll works : 
Dominicus Cyrillus, a ty. volt on the insects 
of N aples, entitled feng, (= eopolttane. 

A curious little on the gad-fly, was published 
in Leipsic, by J. Fi Fischer, entitled ationes de 
Oestro ovino atque bovino ‘acte. 

Fabricius printed his issa Insectorum, §c. Hafs 
nie in two octavo volumes. ne 

incentii P Specimen WE che erioris 
Calabrice, F et Mo . a 

Meidinger Nomenclator, (Versuch einer Deutschen 
Systematischen Nomenclatur aller in der letzen Ausgabe Wa 
des Linneischen Natursystems befindlichen Geschlechter 


der Thiere, Wien.) octavo. 

Kongb. Svenska Vete Academiens Handlingar, 
in octavo. This work is quoted thus, Act. Holm. 

John Adams published Essays on the Microscope, in Adams. 
quarto, at London, 

In 1789, a series of letters on the important subject Anderson.. 
of the cochineal insect, (which had been discovered at 
Madras a few years before,) from James Anderson, ad- 
dressed to Sir Joseph Banks, from Madras were pub- 
lised. Two oth other letters on this important subject ve 
been published since. 

And in the same year Swederus published a mono- 

on that a ae fark elec. us geen 
im a memoir enti fuing elt us 
land insecterna, hérande til At nash 

The work of M. B. Borkhanects, ¢ eeakta ye lepi- 
dopterous insects of E i. at Franc- 
fort, under the title Notrjtechiclte der Bosopaischen 
Schmetterlinge nach Systematischer ordnung. 

J. F. Gmelin published his edition of the Linnean 
Systema Nature. The entomological part is comprized 


Cyrillus. 


Swederuss 


Borkhau~ 
sen. 


Gmelin, 


in three and was published in The 
editor is considerably ind tothe writings of Fa- 
bricius ; and he rejects his classification, yet he 
has copied the species, ted them with the 


Linnean genera, which he ee aiiica t into families 
answering to the Nomen genera, and has, by this 
means, Vv ented and im roved the 
original work of Linné; we must allow that he 
has committed a vast number of the most inexcusable 
blunders, ly_in his quotations and references 
to plates. He has also, in many instances, described 
the same animal twice, or three times, under different 
names, We are surprised that lis errors are less:nume- 
rous, as he can be esteemed in no other light.than as 
an industrious closet compiler, 
In this year, also, was published, in Leipsic, octavo, Goeze. 


History. 


Marsham. 


Roemer. 


Olivier. 


Paykull, 


“pars Eat y 


70 


a work.entitled Niitzliches Allerley aus der Natur und 
ay gemeinen Leben fiir allerley Leser von Joh, Aug, 
And Mr Marsham wrote the: article ray ig’ tae 
Hall's Encyclopedia, which is illustrated by 
lates. In this article he briefly explains the entomo- 
ical system of Linné, and. mentions. the names of 
other authors of eminence ; and likewise explains the 
mode of collecting and prerg insects. 

Also Beobachtungen und leckungen aus der Na- 
turkunde von der Ge. Naturforschender Freunde 
zu Berlin, in octavo. 

Likewise J. T. Zs-chach, Museum N. G. Leskeanum 
a, octavo, Lipsie.  ...., 
In 1789, a second edition of Berkenhout's outlines, 
under the title of Synopsis of the Natural History of 
Great Britain, §c. ap . 

And Johannes Jacobus Roemer published his Genera 
Insectorum Linnai et Fabricit, Iconibus illustrata, &c. 
Vitaduri Helvetorum, in-quarto, with thirty-seven ex- 
planatory plates, nearl of which had previously 
constituted the work of Sulzer, 

Tn this year, also, the first part of a most voluminous 
work, on entomology, was undertaken, at Paris, by the 
celebrated Olivier, entitled Ex ie, ou Histoire 
Naturelle des Insectes, avec des charactéres génériques et 
specifiques, &c. par M. Olivier, M. D. a Paris, in quarto. 

rom its title, we might infer, thatthe author intended 
to have treated. on every class and order, and, in con- 
formity with the first part, to have illustrated the whole 
be He, POMP Gn oraitinet the work, 
which is very extensive, entirely to the order coleoptera, 
which ke deh as Pesan as possible ; it is, how- 
ever, as must be |, a very defective, yet a va~ 
luable and useful w 

Paykull published in this year, at Upsal, Ejusdem, 
Meneareghen hylinorum Svecie, in octavo. —— , 

A de Villers published, at Lyons, a small work, 
under the title of Linnai Entomologia, 5c. curante et 
Lugduni, in octavo, in which 


to avail 
Geoffroy, De Geer, and 


In this year Natursytem aller hekannten in und auslan- 
dischen Insecten, &c. von, Carl. Gustay. dablerteve und 


Jfortgesetzt von Jobann, Friedrich. Wilhelm. 


Ber! = a in octavo, Anf gs hes 

And at Leipsic, in octavo, Anfangs-griinde der Natur- 
geschichte on eb. Gotfr, foran 

a 1790, ny ip on the genus jg pon 
in the Jour. tir die Entomologie, by Mayer, who, in 
the following year, published a work, Fl octavo, at 
Dresden, entitled Sammlung Physikalischer aufsitze, 
besonders die Bohmische Naturgeschichte betreffend, von 
einer Gesellschaft. Bohemischer Naturforscher ; heraus- 
gegeben von, Dr Johann. Mayer. 

In the same year, 1790, a Johann, Daniel 
Preysler Verzeichniss Bohmischer Insecten, Prag. in 
quarto, which is a catalogue of the insects of Bohemia. 

And Fauna Etrusca, sistens Insecta, in inciis 
Florentina et Pisana presertim collegit, Petrus Rossius, 
&c, Liburni, in quarto, ‘ 

Also, Dissertatio Historico-Naturalis, ignotas Insecto- 
rum species Continens, Conrad Qu » Lunde, in 
quarto, Quesnel is author also of two tracts, but we are 
an Soaks Sabena thee toe aan en saan in 
fer 8 nya Suenska, Da irilary an Pop the oer 


on noctua pruni, Beskrifning ifver eny Nattf ja 
Paykull published, in the same year, his Tirepeptis 
Car Suecia, 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


T | ici aanitih atin ai 

Ae ete i Gsclichle, Herausy Sey 
von Ludwig r 
Entomologie, Herausgegeben 


o n von L. G, Scriba, 
kfurt, in octavo. __ wong ret 
“And Insecien, Koléndar, vom Wic. oe. Brabay. Msins, seine A 


j , it was di its author, who, with great 
cae Sane Sree aaa 
sorry 


this Tablication, which, we are 


persenenes. We notice it, as we perceive it quoted 
y children, who, (with such a work as the 
might have given to the world,) would very 


natural hi , so much in this country. 
In os eye LSA pens several valuable en- 
ical works, er i a work which we 


have noticed under the year 1790, whilst speaking of 
The first volume of the Transactions of the Li: nean 
in 


pide ar pg oy 
i be F ~ 
on ctbeotan on the history of hese 


5 . Stralsund, in octavo. 
an in’ 


* Ludwig: 


engerchitt Frankfurt am Main, quarto, by. 
Johannes Ludwig. 
In the year 1792, several valuable works were pro- Donovan. 

duced, and amo: others, the first part of a cons 

siderable work, Natural Hi of British Insects, 

by Edward Donovan, which has since been continued 

in monthly numbers until the present time. The 

design of this immense undertaking is to afford ge- 

nD and scientific descriptions of all the insects of , - 1 
Great Britain, accompanied with a coloured Ggare, of 

each, as far as possible in their various states of trans- 
formation. The work at this time consists of eighteen 
volumes, and includes an extensive variety of the er 
cies, being the most extensive work hitherto under- 
taken as an elucidation of the Entomology of oe 
It is in octavo, and still continues to appear in monthly 


numbers. it + . 
Thomas Martyn published in this year, in imperial Martyn. 
ali the coleopterous Insects found in England, in- 


quarto at London, The English E ist, 
ceding upnards of five hundred different Species, the 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


oe yA lioi raedagetl pedal Fal i the 
Eien eres Se petied Hit eet arent 

according to the Linnean system. ‘The 

in rome cing are useless, mel ‘ies etter. 


press is "indifferent 

Fabricius. Fabricius in this year published onl 
posse rn 

notice his system. 


whit heed we shal tee 


Poy kull alee, whose taerk et: have often noticed, 
s ‘culionum Suecie ; a 
Ser wing wie te more than any 

to the 

Paty x9 Fhe Buen Beir zur Geschichte der In« 


+g iy gon vad 
began sie ssteeehe in monthly num- 
Sng entitled Fauna Insectorum Germanica Initia, oder 
Deutchland Insecten, auctore W. F. Panzer, which still 
continues to be 

Dr Smith’s ‘our on the Continent in 1786 and 1787, 
year. i ante rag capri Saat 


Paykull. 


Gegend um ‘Mains, Rheinisches Ma- 


gazin 2ur eee naturkunde, herausgegeben 


a: wary oe 
gebildeten und en Insecten und Wiirmer mit 
moglichst vollslandiger Synonymie. Erste Abtheilung. 
Nis Wockd volume of Linnean Transactions 


bp pre in which are the followi ; the 
ee ph ie Hheataheoasaaby Phalaena 
J. ; a new t of the genus 
of Linné, by W. Jones, which is so in 

as coming from excellent au , that we can- 
net refrain from layi pera OS Name’ ta secant 
his innovation: paper was, to 

out that the sh: oe ve (which forms a 

jpal character wi Linné in his distribution of the 
milies of that us, ) various’ at first view, 
th each so ly, that it is impossible 

to draw from them the line. between 
each family. Linné, he observes, was acquainted with 
about 274 species, whereas the writer of this memoir 


ie 
rch 
56 
a 


in various publications ; and 
examination of these, is induced to 


71 


“ Wings denticulated.” Linné. Jones adds, “the un- History. 
der without a connecting nerve in ‘the centre, ===" 
with a abdomitial groove ; ‘y'~ <P ame ae 
Plebei: rurales ; gs obscure.” 
Linné. shines adds, «¢ aa altoid ‘slender ; 
under wings with no connecting nerve; antennz club- 
bed ;” and these he divides into two sections, those 
with long, weak, flexible tails ; and those without tails, 
and having the wings entire. — Plebeii urbieule: « Spots 
on the wings generally transparent.” Linné. Mr Jones 
divides these into three sections, thus: 1. Thorax and 
abdomen short, thick or broad ; under wings without 
a connecting nerve ; antenna hooked at their points, 
2, Upper wings pointed at their extremities, and long 
in yah ghey to their width. 8. Upper wings less ex- 

and, together with ‘their under wings, more 
round; their margins entire —To the Linnean families, 
Mr Joes adds another, which heterms Romani, which 
are generally of a large size, without the abdominal 
groove; no nerve ; antenne generally sharp- 
ened ; and the nerves in both win extending from 
their base to their extremities nearly in straight lines. 
We cannot conclude our account of this ingenious ar- 
rangement, without observing, that Mr Jones has made 
a series of drawings for the gratification of himself 
and friends, of every species which he could obtain 
access to, in a very elegant and correct style-—In this 
volume Mr Marwich has given an account of Gmelin’s 
Musca Pumilionis, to which some: ingenious remarks 
are added by Mr Marsham. 

In this year Archives de Uhistoire des Insectes publiées Fuesly. 
en allemand, par Jean Gaspar Fuesly, traduites en Fran- 
Gots. Winterthur, i in 4to. 

Panzer also published Faunw Insectorum America Panzer. 
Borealis prodromus. Norimburge, in 4to. who also 
edited the following work : 

J. E. Voet. Icones Insectorum Coleoptratorum §c. il- 
lustravit D, G, Wolfgang, F. Panzer, &c. Erlinge, in 

quarto. 

Neuestes Magazin fiir die Liebhaber der Entomolo- Schneider. 
gic | bet ti von D. H. Schneider. Stralsund, in 


re 1793 was published at Halle, in octavo, Ento- punker. 
mologisches Bilderbuch fiir junge Insektensamler, _ von 
Johann. Heinr. August. Dunker. ; 
And David Henrici Hoppe, M.D. Enmeratio In- yoppe. 
Elangee, Elytratorum circa Erlangam Indigenarum. 
Svo. 
Lewin published i in this year, The Papilios Lewin. 
of G on peg in quarto ; if which “adh werent in 
E with v ant res, all ies of 
butterfly at that tine aierii * inhabit eheac’ islands, 
which Snctaitad to about sixty. We understand that 
the author intended to have figured all the Lepidoptera 
of Britain; but his untimely death prevented his pro- 


instead of ceeding farther than the Papiliones. 


Latreille in this year produced his Precis du Cha. Latrcille. 
raclére des Genres, in which he divides insects into two 
sections, viz. those with and those without wings, and 
these he divides into the following orders: Coleoptéres, 
Orthoptéres, Hémipléres,,.Neuropteres, Lépidopteres, Sit 
ceurs, rs, Parasites, heal ce niomostracés, 
Crustacés, and Myriapodes ; as completely al- 
tered this _ arrangement in his later works, we shall 
ovis this method farther, as it will be sufficient- 

obvious to the reader what these alterations are from 

terms employed, &c. 
A new edition of Rossi’ 8 Fauna Etrusca, &¢. was pubs Rossi. 
3 


History. 
—_—— 


72 
lished at Helmstad, by Dr Joh, Christ. Lud Hell. 


wig. a 
Francillon. fir Francillon published a small tract’ on a new co- 


Dryander. 


Hennert. 


Reich. 


Fabricius. 


s insect, accompanied with a coloured 
Tee cotitled i Be eho rane eee ny 
Potosi in South America; with engraved representa- 


tions of the same, coloured from nature. Scar ma- 
is the name applied to the si insect. 

n 1795, wes, totacael eee , or a De- 

monstration of the Being and Perfections |, from a 


consideration of the Structure and Economy of Insects. 
This is a ion of Lesser’s work, mentioned before 
under the year 1742, with Lyonnet’s notes, and a few 
Diy he translator. 8vo. 

n 1796, appeared Samméung naturhistorischer und 
Physikali. aufsatze von Frans von Paula Schrank. 
Nurnberg. In octavo. 

H produced his Entomologisches Taschenbuch. 
Regensburg. In octavo. ee . 

an interesting work in folio, Museum Regium 
descriptum ab Oligerio Jacobeo. Hafn. 

Jacob Hiibner published his Der Samlung Europais- 
cher Schmetterlinge, A in . But few co- 
pies of this beautiful work have reached this country, 
and, as we have not examined it with care, must re- 
frain from giving our opinion on it, From what we 
have seen, it appears to be a valuable publication. 

The second volume of Cata ibliothecee Histo- 
rica naluralis, Josephi Banks, eti, by T. Dryan- 
der, comprehending the entomological works of that 
immense collection of books, was published in 1796. 
We cannot speak too highly of its contents, which are 
admirably , in such a manner as to be in itself 
a valuable bibliotheeal system of entomological writers. 

In 1797, C. W, Hennert published at Berlin a work 
in quarto, entitled Ueber den Raupenfras und Winbriich 
in den Jahren. 

And Dr J. E. Smith published a magnificent work in 
folio, in London, entitled The Natural History of the 
rarer Lepidopterous Insects of Georgia, collected from 
the Observations of Mr John Abbott. It is comprised 
in two volumes, with about an hundred plates; and 
the insects are represented in their different states, on 
one of the plants on which they feed. Mr Abbot, the 
gentleman whose notes and drawings the work 
was formed, was an assiduous collector of insects resi- 
ding in North America, from whom many of the Lon- 
don cabinets have received the most valuable specimens 
of the insects of those regions, in the highest state of 


In the same year, Mantissa Insectorum Iconibus il- 
lustrata, Species novas aut nondum depictas exhibens, 
Jas. 1, auctore, Godofredo Christiano Reich, &c. No- 
rimberge. _ In octavo. 

The third volume of the Transactions of the Linnean 
Society of London, containing some interesting ento- 
mological papers, appeared, as follow : Observations re- 

ing some rare British insects, by W. Lewin ;—a 
age? of three Species of Cassida, by the Rev. Wil- 
liam irby ;—Observations on the Economy ‘of Ichneu- 
mon Manifestator, by Thomas Marsham, Esq.—Obser- 
vations on the Insects that infested the Corn in the 


year 1795, by Thomas Marsham, Esq.— , a most 
and spgeatons paper on the , or 
Gad-fly, by Bracy Clark, Esq. 


In 1798, Fabricius published the supplement to his 
Entomologia Systematica; which presents an outline of 
his system in its latest state; and being the result of 


ENTOMOLOGY, 


History, 


such extensive knowledge as he possessed, demands a 
: Hi a el 


considerable share of our attention. He, in this work, 
divides insects into thirteen classes, as follow: 
Class 1. Ereutuerata. Jaws naked, free, bearing 


i. ; . 
Pe ess 2. Utonata. Jaws covered with an obtuse ga- 
lea or mouth-pieee, av 
Class 38. Synistata. Jaws elbowed near the base, 
and connected to the lower lip. ty 
Class 4. Piezata. Jaws y, compressed, and 
usually el ane: 
Class 5. Oponata. Jaws horny and toothed; two 
palpi or feelers, me : i 
lass 6, Mrrosata, Jaws horny, arched ; no palpi, 
Class 7. Unocatsa. Jaws horny, unguiculatec 
Class 8. Potyenata. Jaws many, (generally two) , 
within the 7 Aas 
Class 9. KieistaGNaTua. Jaws several, without the 


Class 10. Exocunarua. Jaws several, outside the 
lip, but covered by the palpi. — 
Class 11, Grossara, Mouth composed of a spiral sill 
tongue, situated between the two palpi. ay 
ss 12, RuyNcota. “Mouth composed of a beak, 
or articulated sheath. 

Class 13. AnTiiaTA, Mouth composed of a sucker, . 
not jointed. eee cael : 
In the same year, viz. 1798, Clairville published, an cjsiryitle. 

octavo work on the insects of Switzerland, in which 


he to divide insects into eight orders, nearly 
after the system of Linné; but he distinguishes thew 
tiple, De 
plera, Elem 
ie Helvétique, ou 


logue des In- 
. avec Perttprst Figures. Zurich. 


E 
sectes de la Suisse, 


y Professor A ksvegr aba rcp cate cate 
or An i in ; 

pi Sire and Figure of a minute Ichneumon ; by G. 
Shaw, mapa ey a new genus of _Hymenopte- 


eno 
tici, and. 
upon the Insects that attend Wheat; in a letter to 
Thomas Marsham, Esq. by the Rev. William Kirby ; 
—Obseryations on the genus Pausus, and Description 

of a new Species ; by A Afzelius, M. D. 

_ E, Donovan this year “Pig in London, Natural 

History of the Insects of C ‘hina, which is the first work Donovan. 
on the entomological producnets of that vast empire 

that has . The materials composing this vo- 

lume, (which is in 4to.), and from which it was ina _ 

great manner formed, were obtained from the first and 

most authentic sources, including many of the speci 
collected at the time of the embassy of Lord Macart- 
ney, with many others obtained from the. ets of 
Lag, San gr ity, oe Say Cotnienslts ; 
The work is illustrated by er-plates, beauti- 
fully coloured. It has been translated tato the French 


. and German languages on the continent, 


Faune iy Se Prodromus, exhibens methodicam De- 


La coed nsectorum agri Petr , &c. auctore 
J. Cederhielm, Leipsia, tiny 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


History. And Verzeichniss der Kafer Prussens entdorfen von 

—\—" Johann Gottlieb, von Johann Karl Wilhelm » &e. 

Gottlieb. Halle, in 8vo. aad a ; 

Webersicht. Also Busch Webersicht, (Almanack) der fortschrifte 
-in Wissench. Erfart, in 8vo. 

Zinke. Likewise, Ni ichte der schadlichen Nadelholz- 
Insecten, nebst Anwet. zu ihrer Verti 5 (Bin 


kull. 
ie treatise on the insects of Sweden, entitled, Gustave 
Paykull Fauna Suecica, Insecta, Upsalis, in three oc- 
tavo volumes. 
Goeze. 


In 1799, a very useful work, entitled, ros 
Fauna oder Naturgeschichte der Europiischen Thiere. 


Von J. A. E. Goeze, &e. Kaefer,. Leipzig, in 8vo. 
Cratze. And Christian Cratzer Sinenolagicke Versuche. 
Wien, in 8vo. 
In 1800, the science of ‘was consider- 


i 


E 
He 


fll 
: 


l 
| 


& 
z 
S 


i] 


< 
Es 
2 
fad 
2 


octavo volumes. 

the Verzeichniss meiner Insecten Samlung oder 

1 iy seo om Liebhaber und Samler. 
Sturm, Erste Nurnberg, in 8vo. 

Dryander. ~ Lastly, the 5th volume of Bibliotheca Hist. Nat. Bank- 
siana, by Dryander, contains some references to the 
be er entomological writers. 

Lamarck. In 1801, a most interesting publication in 

Paris, by the celebrated Professor of: Pindenass 

entitled System i 


F 


<b 
8 


_ 


r 


73 


the Linnean aptera to two other classes, viz. Crustacea | History. 
and Aracunipes. See our article CrusTacrotoey. ° 
The Insecta he divides into three subclasses: 1. Those 
with mandibles and maxille; 2. Those with mandi- 
bles and ‘trunk; 3. Those without mandibles, but 
having a trunk or sucker. In the first, he places the 
orders Coleopteres, Ra ee and Neuropteres ; the 
second is merely confined to the Hymenopteres; and in 
the third, the captioctite, Hemipteres, Dipteres, and 
Apteres, (which last contains but one genus, viz. Pulex, 
the flea). His subdivisions of the orders we shall have 
occasion to notice hereafter at length. 

Fabricius also published his Systema Eleutheratorum Fabricias. 
Killie, in two octavo volumes. 

And Illiger preduced his Magazin fur Insectenkunde Mliger. 


herausg von Karl Uliger. Braunschweig, in 
octavo. 
Likewise Neue zur Insectenkunde. Von Kuoch. 


Angust. Wilhelm. Knoch. Leipzig, in octavo. 
' Another interesting: work, ici Weberi Obser- Webceri. 
vationes Entomologice, continentes novorum, qua condi- 


Lastly, Jacob Sturm’s Abbild zu Kare Illiger’s sturm: 
Ueberfet von Olivier’s Ento ie oder Naturges- 
chichte pee Rete Nurnberg, in quarto. 

In 1802, several works in this country, and Latzeille. 
two in Paris, highly interesting, especially to the natu- 
ral i We may first notice Hisloive Naturelle 
des Fourmies, et recueil des Mémoires, et des Observations 
sur les Abeilles, les Araignés, les Francheurs et autres 
insectes, Par P. A. ille, &c. Paris, octavo, 

The Rev. William Kirby this year produced that ex- 
cellent work, entitled, Sabaigeaplad 
two octavo volumes. Our author na 


head of Introductory Remarks, gives us a minute ac- 


Kirby. 


in describing 
reigned throughout the order Hymenoptera, gives us 
terms, with comments on terminology in 

The characters of the order Hymenoptera, 
ic characters and divisions of families, 


plates explaining the various parts of the mouth, 
pr Fee to each tamil 
volume treats of the species, with occasional re- 


an history in this country. 
pe of Latreille, which we have ceoulead above, 
we find the same divisions as those instituted by Mr 
Kirby; they differ merely in terms, Latreille consider- 
ing each of Mr Kirby’s subdivisions as a distinct ge- 
nus. We wish we had room to give a complete account 
of this interesting publication, we have already far 
exceeded our limits in this department of the article, 
and shall therefore lay before the reader as much of 
that valuable work as we can find room for, under the 
Pp head, in our descriptions of the species. 
homas Marsham, Esq. the oldest of the British en- Marham. 
s 


History. tomologists, this 
on intended work on entoma 
of 


Stewart. 


Schellen- 
berg. 
Haworth, 


7A 


published the first volume of his 
. This volume treats 

and is entitled, Entomologia Britan- 
nica. To the 


of Linné, he adds, Cistela, Cor- 
ticaria, Nitidula, Boletaria, Opatrum, ry cian 
~Auchenia, Crioccris, Tillus, icliuem, , Pyro- 
‘chroa, Parnus, Heterocerus, , Lytta, Ips, and 
Hydrophilus ; the two last, however, are to be found in 
the MSS. of Linné. We cannot approve of this author 
having changed the names of some of the genera, and 
using them in a different sense from other authors, 


and in sometimes unnecessarily giving up one name, 
and imposing a new one; thus we have Boletaria for 
Mycetophagus, and Corticaria for Lyctus, Ips, and Col- 


tidium. In his a he is very accurate ; and 
although he has not adopted all the Fabrician genera, 
yet in many instances his families are com of the 
same ials. We anticipate the completion of his 
work with great pleasure, as the abilities of the au- 
thor are univ ly acknowledged, and’ his collection 
and manuscripts extremely valuable. 
The sixth volume of the Transactions of the Linnean 
iety of London, which a) this year, contains 
several valuable entomologi tracts, viz. “A Dissertation 
on two natural genera, hitherto confounded under the 
name of Mantis; by Anthony Augustus Henry Lichten- 
stein, M.D. &c.”—“ Observations on Aphides, chiefly 
intended to shew that they are the principal causes of the 
blight in plants, and the sole cause of the honey-dew; 
by W. Curtis."—« Observations on the Curculio Trifo- 
lii, or clover-weevil, a small insect which infests the 
heads of the cultivated clover, and destroys the seed, 
in a letter to T. Marshman, Esq. by William Marwick, 
.; With additional remarks by Mr Marsham.’— 
« Farther remarks on the Curculio Trifolii, in a letter 
to Wiliiam Marwick,’ Esq.; by Martin Christian Got- 


tlieb Lehmann.” —* Descriptions of some singular co- 


s insects; by Charlies Schreibers.”—“ Obser- 
vations on several species of the genus Apis, known 
by the name of humble bees, and called Bombinitrices 
by Linné; by P. Huber.” | This last is extreme- 
ly valuable ; and, with the others, will be mentioned 
when we are treating of the genera and ies. 

This year, an anonymous work, ‘in 2 vols. 8vo. ap- 
at Edi , under the title of Llemenis of 
Natural History. It is a very useful elementary book, 
and does credit to the author, who, it is well under- 
stood, is Mr Charles Stewart of that . The first 
volume treats of mammalia, birds, amphibia, and fishes; 
the second volume is entirely dedicated to insects and 
vermes. It is now out of print; and we may suggest, 
that if a new edition were altered to suit the present 
systems, it would prove still more valuable and inte- 
resting to the student of natural history: we may be 
excused for adding, that several species of insects are 
marked as natives of Britain, which have not been ad- 
mitted as such into the best British collections,—a 
slight mistake, but one which is calculated to embar- 
yass the beginner, and may easily be avoided in future. 
In the same year, Faune Parisienne (Insectes) ou 
Histoire abrégée des Insectes des environs de Paris, classés 
d’apres le Systeme de Fabricius, &c. Par C. A. Wale- 
Likewise O vanenk &c, Carl. Fred. 
ikewise reattones Ent ice, &c, Car 
Fallén. Lunde. ran ste 


berg. Winterthur, 4to. 
In 1803, A. H. Haworth presented us with the first 


And Enlomologische Beytrage. Von J. R. Schellen-_ 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


part of an elaborate work, entitled, Lepidoptera Bri- Miswry- 
fia the objec of which a8 we ae infirmed i, = 
preface, to give descriptions various species of 
that — — of insects . a. natives of this 
a isa very di this 
haps the most difficult of all the orders; at least ae x 
scribing the species, the entomologist will find himself och 
more perplexed than in his examinations of any other. 
The author has acquitted himself, in. onr opinion, with 
considerable credit. Two other parts have since 
peared, but the work is incomplete, one part’ being Fak | 
unpublished, . va oats , 

In this year also appeared Versuche iiber die Insectem, Schwid. 
Ein Beytrag zur a ae Nitizlichen und Wis- 
senwiirdigen aus des Insel 3 von Carl. August. 

Schmid. Gotha. In octavo, wi 

Likewise Voyage en Hongrie ; précédé d’une Deserip- Townson. 
tion de la Ville de-Vienne et des Jardins impériaux de 
Schoenbrun, par Robert Townson ; publiée a Londres 
an 1797. . Traduit de l’Anglois par Cantwell. Tom. 3. 

Paris. vo. ; 

Also Entomologische Hefte, enthaltend. Beitriige zur Sturm, 
weilern kenniniss und Ausklii der Insectengeschichte, 

Sc. Ausgearleitet von einigen Freunden der Nalurge- 
schichte, mit Kupfertafelu, von H. Sturm. Frankfort 
am Main, Octavo. : " 

Lastly, D. Joh. Fried. Blumenbach’s. Handbuch, der Blumen- 
Nalturgeschichte. Edit. 7ma, Gitti Octavo, © 

In 1804, James Sowerby published the first number Sowerby. 
of an octavo work, entitled, The British Miscellany, or : 
colsured figures of new, rare, or little known animal sub- 
jects, not before ascertained to be inhabitants of the Bri- 
iish Isles, &c. The few insects figured are highly in- 
teresting ; but the work, from want of liberal support, 
has never been continued beyond 12 or 15 numbers. . 

The seventh volume of the Transactions of the Lin- Roxburgh. 
nean Society of London appeared this year, in whichis 
the following paper, “ Account of the Tussech and Ar- 
rindy Silkworms of Bengal, by Wm. Rox M.D.” 

In the same year, Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelless pumerit, 
Par plusieurs Professeurs du Muséum National d’His- 
toire Naturelle et des autres principales Ecoles de Paris, 

U Histoire des Insectes, par le Professeur C, Duméril, ) 

aris. Octavo, : mud 

And Naturhistorische Reise durch einer Theil Schwe- weer and 
dens, von Dr Fr. Weber, und D. M. H. Mohr. Got- Mobr. 
tengen. Octavo, nae srw 

‘he Annales du Muséum National d'histoire natu- 
relloim Paris, appeared this year in quarto, volume 


In 1805, Panzer py | lished Critische Revision der In- Panzer. 
secten-faune Deu , nach dem Systeme bearbeitet, 
1-96 . 1. Bandchen. Niirnberg. Octavo. 

E, Donovan this year gave to the world another work ponovan. - 
on exotic insects, in quarto, entitled, An Epitome of 
the Natural History of the Insects of New Holland, New 
Zealand, and New Guinea, Otaheite, and other Islands in 


, wart 


Likewise, Journal de le. Seeséié.des Notwralietes de 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


History. 2 Université Imperiale de Moscow. Premiere année. 


—v—=——" No. 1. et 2. Avec 
Beauvois. 


_ Gyllenhal. 


Moscow. 


And Insectes recueillées en Afrique et en Amérique, 
dans les d'Ovare et:de Benin; a Saint-Domin- 


et dans les etats-unis, pendant les années 1786 et 7. 
ar A. F. J. Palisot de Beauvois. Paris. Folio. 
And Deutschlands Fauna in Abbildungen nach der 

Natur mit Beschreibungen von Jacob Sturm, &c. Nurn- 


ern. Leipzig. 
In 1806, C. Duméril published at Paris, his Zoologie 
ique ou Méthode Naturelle de Classification des 
Animauz, &c. in which we have the Insecta and Arach- 
nides classed , with tabular peta genera. 
An interesting and highly useful work, entitled, S 
&c. von C J. Schénherr, Ee. 


tomological library. 

P. A. Latreille also this year published the first vo- 
lume of his Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum ; but as 
we shall follow his arrangement with but little altera- 
tion, in the insect class, we shall not enter into any ac- 
count of the merits of the work, which we think the 
best on the subject hitherto published. 

. Dr G. W. F. Panzer 


And Svensk Entomologi ab Carl Iser. Linképing. 
Lastly, Svensk Zoologi, eller Svenska Djurens Histo- 
ria, ew ra Geaeck, Sortsatt ab O. Swartz, utgifver 
med inerande figurer ab J, W. Palmstruch. - 
holm. Octavo. 


ble haghly finished drawings. It is the production of a 
» Whose name we are not at liberty to mention, 
jethia year pablahed the peer oo th 
jis year i and third vo- 
i ecatibeorine et Insectorum. 
entitled, Dis- 
ia Cantharidum et Malachiorum Sve- 
“ba sy bey og Fallén, Lunde. 
ransactions of the Ent i. 
eal Society of Le Sater 


And a very interesting work on the insects of Swe- 


1S 
den, entitled Insecla Svecica descripta a Leonardo Gyl- 


Histeey 


lenhal, volume the first, which treats of the coleoptera ; "y=" 


a second volume, on the same order, has lately reached 
this country. The descriptions of the species are far 
more elaborate than any we have yet seen, except Mr 


Kirby’s Monog. Ap. Aug.; and if continued, will be the 
best general work .on the Swedish insects that has hi- 
therto appeared. 


The ninth volume of the Transactions of the Lian Kirby. 


Society of London a pre this year, in which we find, 
« The genus Apion of Herbst’s Natur. System consider- 
ed, its characters laid down, and many-of the species 
described, by the Rey. W. Kirby.”—* Some observa- 
tions on the insect which destroys the. wheat, su 

to be the wire-worm, by Thomas Walford, Esq. with 
additional notes by T. Marsham, Esq.”—“ Descriptions 
of Notoclea,* a new genus of coleopterous insects, from 
New Holland, by T. Marsham, Esq.” 

In 1809, the volume, completing the Genera 
Crustaceorum et Insectorum of Latreille, was published. 

In 1810, P. A. Latreille published an interesti 
work, in one volume, in the French language, entitled, 
Considerations sur Ordre Naturél des, Crustacées, des 
Arachnides et des Insectes. 

In 1811, the second _of the tenth volume of the 
Transactions of the Linnean Society of London was 
published, in which we find, « Description of several 
new species of Apion, by the Rev. W. Kirby ;’—* Some 
account of an insect of us Buprestis, taken alive 
out of wood composing a desk which had been made 
more than twenty years; in a, letter to Alex. M‘Leay, 
Esq. by Thos. Marsham, Esq.” And among the ex- 
tracts the minute book, we find notice ot’ Forficu- 
la gigantea of Fabricius having been taken in Britain. 

in 1813, the first part of the eleventh volume of the 
Transactions at Abe Linen Society of London ap- 
peared, in whi e following entomological 
are given: “ An Essay on the British queniod of the 
eon Melée, with descriptions of two exotic species ; 

y William Elford Leach, Esq. F.L.S.”—*Strepsiptera, 
a new order of insects proposed, and the characters of 
the order with those of its genera laid down ; by the 
Rev// William Kirby, TF’. L. S."— A Monograph of 
the British <pecies of the genus Cholera; by William 
Spence, Esq. F.L.S.” : 

In 1814, commenced a new work, (which has since 
beencontinued in monthly numbers), entitled, The Zoo- 
logical Miscellany, or Descri tions of new, rare, or 

Aly interesting Animals ; Wiliam Elford Leach, 

-D. &c. Illustrated with Colowred Figures, accurate- 
ly drawn from Nature; by R. P. Nodder, animal pain- 
ter. This work contains descriptions and figures of se- 
veral new and curious insects, 


List of Entomological Works not mentioned in the 
preceding pages. 


Latreiiie. 


_ Coquebert (Anton. Joann.) IMustratio Tconographica Works not 


Insectorum 
cem-edidit J. C. Fabricius, - Zabularum decas prina. 
Fol. Parisiis. An. 7. 


Espers Der ischen Schmetterlinge Welcher die 
Tagschmetterlinge. Quarto. pat 
An Essay ing a Supplement of the Aurelian, by 


ee Harris. a on. a - ta 
.. Jacobi Petiver Gazophylaceum Nature et Artis. . 
dini. Folio. 


ee This genus was constructed by Olivier ies before the publication of Mr Marsham’s Dissertation, under the name Pandras. | 


in Muswis Parisenis Observavit et in [u- mentioued 


ore, 


Rn nre 5 


76 


Soe Beschouwing der Wonderin Gods in de Mius- 
—_—— en et of Nederlandsche Insecten. Amster- 
In three volumes, quarto. 
Planches enluminées, par Daubenton le jeune. Folio. 
This work contains of several very rare insects, 
y of the lepidopterous order. 

Ez ides A Cesaree Nature Curiosorum. 
Quarto. 

Erucarnm Ortus, Alimentum et Paradoxa Metamor- 
phosts, par Mariam Sibillam Merian. Amstelodami. 

cr iharh Eusebii Voet Descriptiones et. Icones Coleop- 
terorum. 

Lichtenstein Catal. Mus. Holthu 

x Bele amen d. Gesellschaft’ Ni orschender Freunde 


sellachaft -aage af ‘Hallischen Naturforschenden Ge- 


und Leipzig. Octavo. 
mee Commentaria Petropolitana. Quarto. 


CLASSIFICATION , 


By this term, we mean the distribution of insects in- 
to subclasses, orders, tribes, families, genera, and spe~- 
cies ; and we shall take our outline from the system pro- 
posed by Dr Leach, of which the following is a tabular 


view. 


Susciass I. AMETABOLIA. 
Insects undergoing no metamorphoses. 
Orver I. Tuysancra. Tail armed with sete. 
Orper IJ. Anopitvura. Tail without sete. 


Sunctass II. METABOLIA. 
Insects undergoing metamorphoses. 


Century I. Exryrnroprera. Insects with el 


Conors. I. Ovontostoma. Mouth with les. 
*M incomplete. 
Orpver III. Coteoprera. Wi transversely fold- 


ed ; elytra crustaceous, covering 
suture 


ie wings, with the 


t. 
** Metamorphosis nearly coarctate. 

Orper IV. Srrepsiprera. Wings longitudinally 
folded ; elytra coriaceous, not covering the wings. 

+e M hoses ie: 

Orper V. Dermartera. Wings longitudinally and 
transversely folded; elytra somewhat crustaceous, 
viated, with the suture straight. 

Onver VI. Orrnoprera. Wings longitudinally 
folded ; the internal margin of one hs hada covering the 
same part of the other ; pgs 

Orper VII. yrtoanblh yg wings Vings lotigitadinally 
folded twice or more ; el oe is aman nervous, one 


the other obliq 
Couors. II. rare sdhice out with an articulated 


suture. M 
Century II. Mubuworsen In Teese without wings 


or el ytra.. 
Onver X.. Aprera. Mouth with a tubular sucking 
rostrum. M incomplete. 


Cenrury IIL Gymnoprena. 


nsects with wings, but 
no elytra, 


i 


ENTOMOLOGY. : 


* Se 


Gleditsch ch Bi eran die Fosseciaanaaleih | oa | 
Hamb ar oder gesammlete Schriften 
aus der Naturforchung, &c. | 


Herbst Ge boi 
ey Ce 
—- Maregraaf de Leibstatt Historia rene 


rriiler et Iter per Poseg. 

Nicalan Mabirt Spectr FlchomiBat, w@neis ore sem 
Paris. Folio. 

Neuer Schauplaz der Natur, 

Schmeidleins Taschenbuch fiir Insectenfreunde. 


=~ 


Conors. I. Giossosroma. Mouth with a spiral Auietabilias 1 

Orver XT. Leripoprera. Wings for ae 
naceous, with covered vaumiucae 

Conors. II. any ir oe Mouth with maxillee 

and lip. 

Nt ae shgroneeatenaee four, membra- = | 
Couors. III. Oponrostoma. Mouth with mandibles, 
maxille, and li rte was mre 


Orver XIII. Nevroprera. Four highly reticiila- 
ted wings, generally probes anus of the female | 
without a sting, or compound borer. Nees” 

Orver XIV. Hymenoprera. Four ‘venose win 
hinder ones smallest ; anus of the female with a 
or with a borer or oviduct. 

Conors. IV. SrpHonosroma. Mouth lah, eee 

for sucking. 

Orver XV. Diprera. Wings, and halteres or ba- 

lancers two. 


eee 
Suscuass I. INSECTA AMETABOLIA. | 


Orver I. THYSANURA. a 


Tail furnished with sete, or filaments. Mouth with Taveanu- 
mandibles, palpi, labrum, and labium, 

The bodies of the animals which compose this order, 
are generally covered with scales or hair. Their mo- " 
tion is ee rapid, or performed by leaping. 


Treel. Leprsmipes. a 


Palpi very distinct and prominent, or exserted. An- 
tenn of a vast number of very short joints. 
Tail with exserted seta. | 


Famiry I.. Lepismida. 

Body d , and moving with a ron mo- 
tion. rarer lees nearly equal patie 

Genus I. Lerrsma. Linn Geer, Fabr. Latr. 

Seroura. Brown. dl 

Forsrerma. Geoff. Lamarck. 

Antermee inserted between the eyes. — 
pi slender, composed of five joints, the!laat of whi 
elongate, and very slender. Labial with their 
joints compressed, dilated, andround, “Eyes small and’ 
vemote. 


— 


1. Lepis- 
MA. 


ae 


Sp.1. Sacharina, Body covered with eo scales, Sucharina 
Lepisma sacharina. bien ‘Fabr. Latr. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Ametabolia. Forbicine. Geoff, Hist, des. I 613. 
Sm ee atte ter 


This is the Cg species known, . It is very common > 
wanders about during 


‘the night, I Pposet a been originally, in- 
night, aeee to have i i 
troduced into Europe from America, where it esto 
live amongst sugar. coolutéA den 
Famuty IL. Poeiaaiden rn ’ 


_ Body convex, with an arched back formed for spring- 


. Tail with three sete, the middle one longest. 
ee Il. Forsrerma. Geoff. 

Lepisma. Linn. Oliv. 

Macuitis. Latr. 

body. Manillery inserted or oP 


six joints, the last 
conic, Lai fl with the sex mimbranncos 
Eyes large 


Polypoda. wpa F ipa Sah Mert eetieslibihe etiabes’- vie 
presen cee . Linn. 
Lepisme hari 


2. Fonsr- 
cIna. 


, shorter than the 


PE ti e-h 


BIUSs. 


Genus IV. Popura. Linn. Geet De Geer, Fabr. 


+h deadpan sg ” Geoff. 
Tnhabits under stones. A good figure 
be found in Rowers Genera Insectorum, tab. 29. fig. 


genus V. SMynTHuRUuS. "Tak ? 
Popura.__Linn. Fabr. De Geer, Geoff, 
Sp. 1. Fuscus... Body entirely brown. 
if sh tang se brun enfumée. Geoff. 
Wt eee De Geer, Mem. sur les Ins, vii. 
35, aE 5. fig. 7, 8 


& Surn- 
‘Tavevs. 
‘Buscus. 


a 


17 
Podura atra, Linn,? | Fabr. Ametabolia. 
Smynthurus fuscus. Late, way 
Inhabits Europe, is COMMO OR on ground, and in 
Sp. 2. Viridis. Bod: rod ae Viridis, 
‘odura viridis. Ione Fabr. ! 


La Podure verte aux yeux noirs. Geoff. 


Smynthurus viridis. tr. 
Inhabits various trees in Europe. 


Orper II. ANOPLURA. 


Tail; without: sete» or Slaments. Mouth in‘some fur- 
nished with two teeth, (or mandibles ?) and an open- 
ee en nye 


harmony, and also to render the name more easy of re- 
tention in the memory, ihe choserumnizing dawandron 
the same parts. 

_ Their motion is slow, and their nourishment is deri- 


py emai | &c.) are infested with. several species 


an ak emcee he area 


has pr bes a considerable portion of time, for the 
P 
wi 


us, Fabricius, and Gmelin. The result of his examina- 
tions he does not consider himself as able to commu- 
nicate at present ; but it is his intention, when the sub- 


ject has arrived at maturity, to give'a paper on this or~ 


der to the Linnean Society of London. 
Trine I. Panicuninge, 


. Mouth cofsistinig G6" x thibilose; Very short haustel- 


Genus VI. Prusapa. Leach, 
Pepicouus, . Linn. Redi,\Latr.. Fabr. 
‘Anterior . 


Geoff. 
era eyebrows of men and women, 
E virtue, being common 
pa re A the titles cole unteliss, “ 


Genus VIL. ante Linn. an. Babe, De Geer, Geoff.|7. Pevice- 
Redi, Hermann,.Lam. Lus. 
Feet all armed with a finger and thumb. Thorax, 
of three distinct equal segments. ‘ 
Sp. t. Humanus. Body oval, abate, white, and near Humanus. 
ly homaculate, 
” Pediculus humanus, Fabr, Linn, Jatiads 
Pou humain-du hater Mem. sur les Ins. 
tom. vii. p.) 67. 
nhabite ay oe and of men, ‘and: is: 
~~ the name — rah ea Portugal conti~ 
nent es in it is: 
Jeo pe Meayraciag in Britain ita of edety rare occurrence, 
may have been introduced: from the neighbouring 
pecerbow lg 


Mrtabolia. 
Cervicali 


7. NIRMUS 


Cornici 


8. ManTI- 
CORA. 


Maxillosa. 


78 ENTOMOLOGY. 
Sp. 2. Cervicalis, cinereous, with Inhabits the of Good Hi anil is figured b Metabolia. © 
oh aetna yun trans te Horbets Archives’ tab, 46. fg. i — 
Le pou ordinaire. Geoff. ’ Genus IX, Covtiurrs. Late. 9. CouLt 
Pou humaine de la téte. De Geer, Mem. sur les Ins. Coutyris, Fabr. | URIS. 


vol. vii. p. 67. tab. 1. fig. 6. 
Pediculus humanus var, 
Pediculus cetvicalis. Latr. pf 
Inhabits the heads of man throughout Burepas In 

Britain it is extremely common, especially in the heads 

and upper part of the necks of children, whence they 

sndaeian by means of a fine toothed comb, or are 
ed ty ra calomel, mixed with a little fat, 
poo the roots of the hair: This species has been 


by many authors confounded with the preceding species. ' 


Trine Il. .Nigmipes. 


Mouth with a cavity, and two teeth, or mandibles. 
Genus VII. Nrewvus. Hermann. 

Riernvs. De Geer, Oliv. Lam. ‘Latr. 

Pepicunus. Linn. Geoff. Fabr. 


The character of this genus is given in’ that of the 
tribe. - All the oe ser be it birds. ‘The term ricinus 
having been in botahy'is rejected; and that of Dr 
peri is adopted. 


Sp. 1. Cornicis. ‘ee Whitish’ head heart-shaped ; 
ments of the thorax on each side produced into stot; 
abdomen oval, transversely banded with brown. 

Rivin de la ‘Corneille: Geer, Mem. sur les Ins. 


tom. vii. p. 76. Hi es a 11. 
Ricinus . ‘ 
Inhabit the Coren coir of Lists. 


Suncaites Ul. INSECTA METABOLIA. 
Orper III. COLEOPTERA. 


_.Onver Cotzorrena, Linn. Cuv. Lam, Latr. 

. Crass ELevrenara; Fabr. 

This order is divided. into five great sections; from 
the general number of joints in the tarsi. 


Section f. PentAmera. 

The number of joints in the tarsi is generally five, but 
in some of the aquatic genera the number is less. 

Tris I. CicinpELives. 

M. pi four, the interiof ones two-jointed. 
Meth voel otras ome al 
at their extremities with’ a distinct articulated hook. 
Mandibles with many teeth. Feet formed for running ; 
‘hinder ones with trochanters. 

Mentum broadly notched ; internal side of the ante- 
rior tibia never notched ; antennz not moniliform. 


Genvs VIII. Manticora, a Oliv. Lam. Latr. 
Canasus. De Geer. 
, Clairvilley” 


(Cremoera. Th 

Thorax somewhat heart-shaped. “Abdomen v 
‘age, pedunculated, nearly inversely heart-sha’ 

Elytra a and shielding the whole of the ab- 
domen) co! at the suture: 

Antenne inserted beyond the apex of the eyes, under 
a little ’ Clypeus of the same size with the la- 
brum. Labial and external nprested td , with the 
last joint at the a om 9 an gradually a 


little broader. 
ver Black, x whl eats dijo. 


» Sp. 1. Mazillosa. 

P| icvorea macillosa, Fabré vit VOR 
Manticora maxillaris, Oliv. Late. 
Cicindela ‘Thun. 

Carabe a A ota Men. 7. 623. Salt 
fig. Mei on 2 : 


Cicinpeta. Oliv. 

‘Thorax long, cylindric-conic, ‘narrow, Lebiiastea in 
front. Abdomen long and narrow. Elytra not embra- 
cing the abdomen. 


* With wings. 
p. 1. Lpnaicollings Cyaneous; apex of the elytra Longta 
Prien thighs red. 
Collyris 1 is. Fabr. 


Cicindela longicollis. Oliv. 


Pr Siiecndeunein Latr. Gen. Crust et Int, 1. tab. 


ings. 
Sp. 2. Aptera, Black ; sigsenacomseetl with the Aptera 
middle part rough ; thighs red. 

Collyris aplera, Fabr. 

Cictndela aptera, Oliv. 

Colliuris aptera, Latr. 

Inhabits the East Indies. | 

Genus X. Mecacepuana,.. Latr. 

Gnatuo, Illiger. 

Cicinpeta, Linn. De Geer, Fabr. Oliv... 

Thorax short, cylindric. . El cine wanda. ret £ 
— palpi cael | onger than external maxillary am 


* Elytra connected ; no wings. 
Sp. 1. Senegalensis. Black-green ; antenna and feet rs aaa 


ferrugineous. 
Cicindela megalocephala, ave: ee 


Maowias | Senegalensis, La' 


Inhabits Sen 
tra not connected ; 
rp. 2. Caroling Purple- 


alt 


green ; antenna, mouth, a Carolina. 
(Mt hove feoterctres pomngitentin 
ellowi 


Cicindela Carolina, Linn. Fabr. 
Megacephala Carolinensis, Late. Gen. Crust, et Ins. 


1. tab. 6. fig. 9. 
Inhabits ina, where it is abundant. : 
Genus XI, Crcinpera, Linn. Geer, Fabr, &c. 11. Cicrx- 


Buprestis, Geoff. DELA | 
Thorax short. Elytra flat, rounded. External max. © 
illary palpi as long as the labial. Antenne inserted 


into the anterior margin of the Clypeus shorter 
than the labrum. «i 


- Sp. 1. Sylvatica. Obscure aneous aboye; each ély- Sylvation, ” 
tron with “ external lunule at the base, with a mark 
at the apex, and an ‘intermediate transverse, narrow, 
sinuated band of white; with many impressed pric. 


’ tures near the suture. 


Cicindela sylvatica, yee Oliv. Latr. 
Cicindéle des foréts, De Geer, -Mem. 4, 114. tab. 4. 


habits Europe, Is found on Martlesome Heath, 

Suffolk, occasionally ; near Christchurch, in hones fe 

i it is very common, 

it, 2. Hybrida. -green, or obscure Mesa “Hybrida. 

b above, often with a purple tint; each elytron 

with an external lunule at the base, another at the apex, 

with an intermediate transverse sinuous-toothed band of 

white ; suture cupreous. Am Gilg 
Cicindela hybrida, Linn. Oliv. Fab, Late. bi 

‘ Cicindele iachetée De Geer, Mem, 4. 115. pl. 4, 
8. 

habits the sandy maritime plains “ eh ee 


ENTOMOLOGY. . 


at Cromblyn Burrows, and on the sea-shore 

=—— near vont it is taken in oe By c 
Campestris, Sp. 3. Cam, siris. Green; sides head an 

a with the thighs, coppery-purple ; each elytron 

with four ewtiee ire spots, ‘anda fifth 

ture. Ti} 

Cieindela campestrit. 


Linn. Fab. Oliv. Latr. 
Cicindéle champitre. De Geer, Mem. 4. p. 113. pl. 
4. fig. 1. 


Inhabits the sandy plains and pathways of Europe, 
-- and is vi ie 
pes me II. Carasrpes. 


these thersu- 


M: ‘four, the interiores two-jointed. io : 
bial two. bent at the Keel without a 
distinct joint. *Mandibles rarely with more than one 


tooth, w sth iestoweecls Ce mpess Feet formed for run- 
ning ; hinder ones with a trochanter. 

Mentam broadly notched. Internal edge of the an- 
terior tibiae often notched.’ Antenne filiform, some- 
times moniliform. 


I. Body:oblong, or ovoid, Labial i, inserted at 
the inferior sides of the lip. (Observe. insects of 
this division do not live in the water.) 

A. Anterior tibia notched in their internal edge. 

* . a, Labial and maxillary palpi abruptly terminated, 
with a joint Se a er aa the others, 
Antenne 


12. Norn!- _ Genus XIL. vans ieve: Dumeril. 
Crcrnpexa.’ Linn. Marsh. 

Exapurvus. Fabr. Latr. Mlig. 

je: maxillary external and labial, with the last 
rearer the preceding are “and somewhat 


@PHilLus. 


interval near the suture. 
Reece Fabr. Latr. 
aquaticus. 

Inhabits pathways and the banks of ponds. Cicin- 
dela semipunctata of Linné, Elaphrus semipunctatus of 
Fabricius, &c. is the same species. There is a variety 
& of Paykull which has been taken in Norfolk and on 
the shore near Porto-Bello, Scotland, having little of the 


biguttata. Marsh. 
aie alus. Fabr. 
» Genus XIII. Exarnrvs. Fab. Latr. Dum. Ilig. 
-_Gremepet ‘Lim. Marsh. palpi we 
Labial external maxillary last 
init than the . Pater cylin- 
convex and i ual, 


a with 
os os the 


Sp. 1. Riparius. Green or brownish bronze ; "elytra 
with impressed spots having a pur- 


with 
ee Ee ee 


Sp. 2. Uliginosus.. with round ci- 
em uliginosus. Fabr. Latr. ; 


719 


don, and in the banks of wet ditches onthe borders of Metabolia- 
the Links near Edinburgh, in great numbers. —— 
Genus XIV. Bemerpium. | 
Bempipion. Latr. 
Crcinpeva. Linn. Marsh.» 
Carasus. | Linn. Marsh. Fabr. Oliv. 
Evapurvs. Fabr. Illig. Oliv. 
: Ocypromus. Frolich, Clairville. + ; 
Roa 1. pom a og Thorax somewhat narrower than Flavipés. 
broad and long, with very prominent 
as body aly above, black-green beneath. Elytra 


wets. Pal with two im sed dots in each 
pind ae suture. alpi, base of antenne, and feet, yel- 


14, BEMEr- 
DIUM. 


owish. 
Cicindela Linn. Marsh: 
Elaphrus flavipes. Fabr. Oliv. 
Bembidion Latr. 


Inhabits the oniidy shores of ponds and rivulets, but 
is not common in Britain. 

Sp. 2 Litiorale: Thorax somewhat broader than 
the |, truneate-obcordate, punctured and excavated 
at the angles. Body zneous black. Elytra with punc- 
tured stria, and ech iheiositmunstiealent) another at 
the apex, and. with the feet rufous. 

Carabus littoralis. Oliv. 

rus rupestris.. Hliger. 

Bembidium littorale. Latr. 

Inhabits France and Germany. . 

Observe. This. genus contains a vast number of spe-- 
cies, which require some distribution into sections, 

&. Labial and external, maxillary ‘palpi not abraptly 
terminated & joint distinct from the rest in size. ‘An- 
tenne s'! 

* Lip prominent ; mandibles v 

‘3 nal edge prominent suitactie 


+ Elytra not trunecte: 
Genus XV. Scarites. Fabr. Oliv. Lam. 15. Sca- 


Antenne moniliform, third: joint much longer a RISES 
the second. Mandibles dentated:on their internal 
Lip short and broad, without auricles. Tibi,’ scitebior 
ones palmated. 

Sp. 1. Gigas. Black, shining. Thorax lunate, behind Gigas. 
on each side with one dent. lytra smooth, shoulders 
one-dentate. Mandibles meena with the internal pro- 
cess , dentate, with the apex acute, 

Searitas as. Fabr, Oliv. Latr. 

Inhabits Barbary and the south of France. . 

Genus XVI. Cirvina. Latr, 

Scarites, Fabr. 

Teneprio. Lim. 

Carapus. Marsham, 

Antenne moniliform, second joint longer than the 
third. Mandibles without teeth on their internal edge. 
“ily nanteaats with two auricles. Anterior. tibie gene- 


* Anterior tibiw externally dentate. 
Sp.1. Fossor.. Blackish or ‘brunneous.. Thorax Fossor. 
somewhat quadrate, middle of the. folat: impressed; 
Elytea with | strie. 
Tenebrio, 
Scaritas 


Littorale. 


a inn 


16, CLI - 
vina. 


Innit Europe under stones expecially in nics 


crate, Antari bi, with obakete tout. 


vate” Me Gibbe Black brown. Thorax nearly  glo- Gibbs. - 
Elytra with Seep enent: Koay 
pe fag — 


80 
—_Y~ —Inhabits France and England in moist or banks, 
In Battersea fields it is very common — sum- 
mer months. 
17. Mo- Gates XVII. Morton. Latreille, 
RION. Ca moniliform, second joint much shorter than 
Monilicor- Sp. 1. Monilicoriis. Plain, elongate, black, 
nis. ining ; thorax on each side at the pectiier‘englas im- 
; elytra striated. 
Inhabits the American islands. 
18 Arora. Genus XVIII. Avoramus. Hoffinansegg, Latreille. 
mus. Scarires. Rossi. 
cman Ase gone ras wi he sor 
maxi ani i 3 i i 
much — and su’ inte a 
1. Be s. See Rossi Faun. Eirus. 
19. Staa0- enus XIX. Stacona. Latr. 
WA. Cucusus. Fabr. 
Antenne ian setaceous. Mandibles pointed ; 
the internal projecting. Labial and — 
an securiform j 
Rufipes. mail pl em Beonbonts bist ontame: 


ee sulcate ; antennz and feet red. 
Cucujus rufipes. Fabr. 
Siagona rufipes. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. tom.i. p. 
209, tab. 7, fig. 9. 
Inhabits 
20.Sruop- Genus XX. Sruopave: Clairville. 
RUS. Harpauus.  Latreille. 
Carasus. Linn. Fabr. Marsh. Payk. 
Fan ag er with the thin joint much 
m. 1 WI joint, 
saben longer than the lak pee 
Sp.1. Plaka: Oblong, black more shining beneath ; 
elytra with fine punctured stria ; trochanter 3 of hinder 


Planus. 


It is found in cellars and woods. 
The Minmon ate io as absurd, most of the 
Carabides ae white eyes after death, but never 


whilst livi 
Genus XI. Stomis. Clairville. 
Harpatvus. Latr. 
Caranus. Illig. Panz. 
Antenne not moniliform, with the third joint not 


longer than the following articulations. External maxil- 


line, and a little groove on each side behind ; elytra with 
striae. 
Carabus pumicatus. Panz. 
Inhabits France, yr te and ingles under 


Genus XXII. Harpawus. \Latre) ‘. ‘a 
Carapvus. Linn, FabroMarsh) 2) 9 ow) 


22. Han- 
PALUs. 


horns: Head ‘and thin bind 
brown, downy, purictilate, “stri 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


thorax without foveole behind ; antennm and feet red. = 
Carabus ruficornis. Oliv. Panz. Marsh. 
Harpalus ruficornis. Late.» a 
Inhabits pepe under stones ; the most common 


of the 
Genus XXIII. Bivsbe: Claivitle, 23. Za 
Harpatus, Latr, snus. 
Caranus. Fabr. 
Antenne not moniliform. External maxillary 
with the last joint shorter than the one before it. | 


Sp. 1. Tardus. Black above, somewhat fascastaibe- T. 
Toenemeeet ee ieee 
‘ov er margin w 
tured ; ‘a with punctured strie. 
se tardus. Latr. 
Carabus gibbus, Fabr. 
Inhabits the ae of France and Italy. 
Genus XXIV. Trecuvs. Clairville, Latr. 
Carasus. Linn. Marsh. cHUs. 
Antenne not moniliform. Mandibles Ex- 
terior maxillary acd labial pap filiform, formated by 


24. Tre- 


a ted joint, 
Gl Meridieene uiaiiedall 
enus XXV. Licrnus. | Latr. 25. Litcre 
Carasus. Fabr. pS ee 


Antenne not moniliform. Mandibles. very obtuse. 
Labial and external snaxilary pales leseeeayee 
a E neat Obseure black ; el ( ith Rane 

1. Emarginatus, wi 
out the aid of a lense) axiioath..1 — 

Carabus cassidens. Fabr. 

Licinus emar; s. Latr.. 
i. g ioe 199, tab. as fig. 8. 

; but is very rare. 
Genus XXVI. Banister. Clair, Latr. ) en 
Carasus.. Fabr. L ae 
very obtuse. 
pi filiform ; the labial aa ter- 
minated by a thick chatt-ovaid joint. 

Sp. 1. Bipustulatus, Black ; base: of -aarbemnees! feet, 
thorax, and wing-cases, red, the latter with a sutural lu- «us 
nate mark of black. 

Carabus bipustulatus. » Fabr. 

Badister bipustulatus. Latr. 

Inhabits France, Germany, and Britain. 

** Elytra truncate at their extremities. Head-and 

corselet narrower than the abdomen.» 

Genus XXVII.. Antu. Web. Fabr. Latr. , 

Carasus. Oliv. Linn. 5 

Thorax cordiform. Head not narrow behind. Neck 
not t. Palpi filiform. Lip projecting in the = © 
a horny tongue. A oval, convex. | 
Sp. 1. Decemguttata. Black ; coleoptra with mine Nessmgut 


Crust. et Int, tom 


: { 
26. Bapis- 
TER. 


Bipustula- 


27. An- 
THIA. 


and ten white ‘ 
o Caral tar eengetca Lin Ob. 
Gach 2 Latr. 
“claeaies the Cape of Good Hope, where it is coms 
pe ie XXVIL Grarmprenus. Late.» mY 99, Ghast 
Crcmspera. De Geer. iw ouee pmere 


Antu. Fabr. + si? starr flee 

\ pave ‘ae Li see 
not ai t Pa Lip w 
the ‘membranaceous, and eo 
ty. ! orn orbicular; “Deeksha 

mt 

en codtaapige obese 
white tomentose ; thie 


bidentate within. +5 Nal ve 


ENTOMOLOGY 


Metabolia.  Carabus mulligutiatus. Oliv. = ~ Path 
—\— = Anthia variegata. Fabr. . 
i mulli Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. 


tom. isp. 186, tab. 6 fig. 1 
its 
Genus . Bracuinus. Web, Fabr. Latr. Clair. 


Carasus. Linn. Marsh. 4 
Thorax cordiform. Head not narrow behind. Neck 


i ce itans. 
ot wate 


MUTHUS. Carasus. Linn. Marsh. Fabr, 


; knees black. 
ates on: 
p. 191, tab. 6, fig. 12. 

Inhabits under the bark of trees, and on hot 


y banks. 
81. R1s0- pe Sea Risopuitus. Leach, 
PMILUS. Carasus. Linn. Fabr. Marsh. 


stria- by a large 


8h 


Inhabits E -under the bark of trees 38. Cr. 
Genus I. Cymunpis. | Latr. wa 


MINDIS. 


- Carasus. Fabr. Oliv. Marsh. 

Tarus.. Clairyille. 

eck va Som E wales palpi filif _ 
Neck not ent. Exterior i i filiform ; 
labial terminated by a large scooniinete joint. 
Body Tarsi with entire joints. 

Sp. 1. Humeralis. Black, punctate ; antenne, mouth, Humeraliy. 
thorax, lateral margins of the elytra, the shoulders, and 
feet, red ; elytra striated. . 

Carabus humeralis. Fabr. Oliv. Payk. Rossi. 

Ichabits France, Sweden, ‘Germany, and England 

its France, Sweden, $ 
but is extremely rare. 

Genus V. Zurn. Late 

Carasus, Ross, Oliv. 

Gacerita. Fabr. Clairv. 
ieee woracreeent | Hicormehcacalonyster toed 
palpi terminated by a large nearly obconic joint. Body 


very much 

ep. 1. Oleus. Red, minutely punctate; head (mouth oteus, 
excepted) black; elytra brown, obsoletely striate, with 
common red. spot at the base, and another at the apex. 
woe oleus. Rossi Faun. Etrus, i. tab. 6, big. 2, 


34. Zoe 
PHIUM. 


ium oleus. Latr. 

I its Italy and the southern parts of France. 
Genus XXXV. Gaenrva. Fabr. Latr. 

Carasus. -De Geer, Oliv: 

Thorax cordiform. Head narrowed, and lengthened 


Sp. 1. Americana. Black; first joint of antenne, Americant. 
thorax, and feet, fe i ; elytra black-blue. 

Galerita Americana. Fabr. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. 
tab. 7, fig: 2. 


ay my om ee very well figured by 
Drury, in Uustrations of Insects, tom. i. pl. 42. fig: 2. 
Genus XXXVI. Drvypra. Latr. Fae md 
Carasus. Ross. Marsh. 
Crcmypena. _ Oliy. 
Thorax cylindric. Head not narrowed or 
ed behind. Mandibles munch el 
minent, Exterior and 
nearly obconic joint, (maxi 
Lip linear, with: two auricles. 
 F ata. punctate, villose; mouth, Emargins- 
antenne, ad na) pac cane pire rpyereage al 
itudinal line ; elytra pened strie ; apex 
the frst, and mid of the third. joint of the antenna, 


emarginata. Fabr. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins, 
tom. 1. p. 197, tab, 7, fig. 3. 
Cicindela emarginata, Oliv. 
Carabus dentatus. Ross. 
Carabus ¢ 


¢ 


82 


Metaboli. Genus XXXVII. Opacantua. Payk. Fabr. Latr, 
Py oP Arretasus. Linn. 
earn Caranus. Oliv. ao" 
Thorax cylindric. not lengthened or Satria 
ers in any great degree. Mandibles not remark- 
long or Sromltaale. Palpi filiform. 
Pe The structure of the mouth and the 


gi gs remain pi pn 
elanura, Green-blue; first joints of the 


ae tpy eh 
and widely punctures 
Lachichhinatasiaaede ot gral 


Aitelabus melanurus. Linn. 
Odacanthfa ee Payk. Fabr. 
cidahnaithaation Tn Britain it oceurs near Swansea, 
in considerable abundance. 
38 Acra. Genus XXXVIII. Acra. Fabr. Latr. ; 
Thorax nearly conic. Head much narrowed behind 
and Palpi filiform, the labial ones with the 
last joint oval-round. 
P ion. In the structure of the mouth, this 
prea a near to Lebia, from which ‘it 


Melanura. 


: ** All the joints of the tarsi entire. . 
Surina- . 2, Surinamensis. -Brunneous; head and dhotax 
nam, '; antennee intersected with white and’ ‘black ; 
elytra striated, with their apex bidentate ; fect ted, 

ages surinamensis. Latr. hes 00 

Surinam. 

Sp. 3. Pi ica. Black; elytra red, ‘wich pee 
tured striz at the base ; marginal spot, another’ on the 
suture, and the tip, black ; feet red ; knees black. 

Inhabits Pennsylvania. © 

** Lip not prominent ; mandibles small, their inter- 

nal neither toothed or prominent. © 

Genus X. Panacaus. Latr. 4, 

Carasus.. Linn, Fabr. Marsh. 

Thorax orbicular. Head narrower than the sbaeesén, 
with very rant globular eyes. Neck distinct. 
Abdomen Binks 
Crax-major. 7 1. Crem oeijer. igen pence =n 
and a cross, and ‘tipe 


ret apg | ney 8 a 


Nailiddonondenen Linn. Fab. Marsh. Pana. 
teeter Latr. 


Siebel toeauemeiliites i with the last 
joint cy See ih a 

Benes Sie Loricera, Latr. 

Carasus.. Fab. Marsh. 

Antenne incurved, the first joints differing’ in size 
end in proportion from the thers)" Mandibles witli the 
back notched and unidentate. Thana pieriy eine. 
Spiden diii ytra. with punctured: th 

1. strie ; the 
ieetinamtatrens the caveat iatadnen. 

- Carabus pilicornis. Fab. Oliv. Marsh. 

Loricera anea, Lat. Gen. Crust, et Ins, 1. Tab. 7, 


6 habits France, Germany, and England. 


Pennsylva- 
Tce 


39. Pana- 
SAUS 


40. Lonti- 
ERA. 


Enea 


: Sent the intervals obsoletel 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


B. pened bm not notched on eo ote A 

a, Lip very short, not beyond : 
joint of the pall ndeset beve See maxille 
remarkably ciliated. Abdomen mote or less thick, 

Genus XLL Cycuavus. Fab. a ae 


Caranvs. De Geer, Oliv. Marsh. 
Fenesnio, | t. 


external 


aca 1. Rostratus, Dik atm hry penton Restrateds 


Cy hrus rostratus. Fabr. Latr, |" | duiete To 

‘enebrio rostratus. Linn. yf é etiqut? 
(abate orope Ta" Enfient i a ented! 
Inhabits Europe. In it is uncom- 
cane aalt aicl dear NN 
stones, 


Genes XLIL. Carosoma. | Webs Febr. ord 
Canranus. Linn. De Geer, Oliv.’ >. 
Mandibles neither very narrow or | 
nearly orbicular. Abdomen nearly’ te. Taba 
and external fon gh om yadh +0 notre reo DP 
wien 1. Spophend able: lytra gold ‘or fe 
1 cophanta. lolet- e ‘ 
a Psa an th about sixteen punctured striae ion, S7erebani 
‘intersected 


transversely, 
the fourth, eighth, and twelftl ‘from: the’! mesic — 


some 
- Carabus Sycophantay Linn, - 5 6 ( deals 
Calosoma Sycophanta. Fabr: Latr. ° © wi, 
Inhabits the European woods. There are bat fewin- omev ag 
proeraph nie ose Saga Rye eri amd ntry,'six'spes ag | 
cimens onl ‘being known to us that have ‘been ¢leatly . 
ascertained to be British. T:wo of these’ from” Ireland 
are presetved in the collection of Mr Sow Fone) in 
theleollection of 'W. J. Hooker, Esq. ‘of : 
another in the museum of S, Wilkin, Esq. which’ was 


taken in the coun of Norfolk with the preceding 
cimen ; a fifth Setwred in Devon, near Ki re 
which is now, with another specimen, in the bs 
of Dr Leach. ileal) 
Calosoma Inquisitor of Fabricius is obit talien 
near London, and it has been taken by Dr Leach néar 
Tavistock in Devonshire; but it must be esteemed a 
rare British insect. It is said sometimes to’ occur |in 
ploaty near Windsor, on the white thorn: neniges, ‘feed. 
ing on the larve of lepido insects, | 
Genus XLII, Carasys. Linn. Fabr. Oliv. Latr. 43. Cane 
Paniz, Marsh,’ ylo det ; ay ld gus, 
Mandibles neither very narrow or ig: Thorax 
— truncate; and ° notched behind. Abdorten 


"Obe! Ab the British epéciés of this genus hive toon 
most sadly confused, we shall describe the species, for 
the purpose of correcting the errors of nomenclature, 
which Mr Marsharm bas terided not a little to inevease. 
Sp. 1, Violaceus. Black ; of the thorax and yictaceus: 
elytra violet-copper ; elytra’ cae a ‘somewhat 
smooth ; abdomen el 
Carabus violacens, Linn. be Oliv. ‘Marsh, Latr. 
Inhabits Europes) * panies) ere 
Carabus purpurascens is said to linve: been taken in 
Britain ; but we have not been ee to ene it 
with certainty. 
Sp. 2. Cabenylittilis : Black ; » ‘of ‘thorax: and Cateniiti’”™ 
Siyika violet ; thorax broader ‘than on ong, deeply emar. tus 


“ENTOMOLOGY. 


siete behind each 9 with, abt fourteen atte ; 
fourth, ith, 
rupted ; 


‘ . a - 
F abe, Lete..s; mur ‘ 
Oliy..; oh "sixes bak wrad 
oman rar ag Britain 
» times with 


Te ia are rer petal in Ireland, 


the two, foumer 


Sp. 3. Intricatus. Black violet above, black beneath ; 
Seer ta ve ee res elytra 
~ irregular striae, Interv punctate-ru, 
each elytron with three elevated eatenlated lines 

Corals s. Fabr. mane hy 


p. 4. Ne of the elytra and 
sien of the thocex:xiolet ; elytra checare copper, rugu- 
lose, wi i rows of excavated. spots. 

Carahus nemoralis. MNlig,.Latr. 


Carabus hortensis. Oliv. Marsh. Fabr. 


y- 
meets: Brassy-green or violet-black above, 

ean ofan elytron with about fourteen eleva- 
: ted lines, two in the middle more distinct than the 


» Marsh, 
- France, and Germany, It varies 
in sculpture, lines on each side of the entire line 


beneath ; each elytron with three ribs, one at the 
-suture ; the interstices with a catenulated line, and on 


alaiasiieenameonteentede bck broze 
stones. 


men Coy 


Inhabits Germany, Sw and England. 
4. Lip projecting as far as the first joint of the palpi ; 
exterior base of the poet isti ciliated ; An 
men generally v. ; Lavf 
a XLIV. He Latr, 4 
Cananus. Linn. Fabr. Marsh. Schénher. 


Lip nearly quadrate, not. projecting as far as the | 
brum, nor tricuspidate at its extremity ; labial palpi not 


83 


twice as Sa as 1 oe head ; mandibles but little dilated Metabolia. 


Sp. 1. Pale-yellowish; elytra paler, Cogito 
striated with two transverse bands, composed of black 
Carabus us. Linn. 


Carabus arenarius. Faby. Oliv. 

Nebria arenaria.” Latr. Gen, Crust et Ins. vol. i. p. 
221. tab. 7. fig. 6. 

~Inhabits the sandy maritime shores of France, Ger- 
many, and South Wales. 

Sp. 2. Brevicollis. Black shining antenne ; palpi, Brevicollis. 
tins, and tarsi, brown ; el with punctured strie. ’ 

. Carabus brevicollis. F: . Schonher. 


Inhabits Europe; is found under stones and under the 
bark of trees. - 

Carabus Gyllenhalli of Schnher, which was discover- 
of aa mtive of Britain b Dr Leach, at the base of 
Ben Lomond in Scotland. since been taken in some 
Ea near Edinburgh, by the late Richard Rawlins, 

one of the most rns <A hay weedy of our 
eit Bic radt cg Ww.s ae Sota “eS 
in ire, b pence, 
** Back eervaat Gen. Herosium, rag RNa 
. 8. Multipunctata. Black-brassy above, b' be- Multipune- 
ail 3 middle of each elytron with impressed diluted tata. po 
spots, in a double longitudinal series ; the intervals 
tus. 


somewhat catenated. 
Linn. Fabr. Oliv. Marsh. 
Nebria mullipunctata, 


Carabus 

Helobium multipunctatum. Leach’s MSS. 

Inhabits the northern parts of Europe. In England 
it occurs near London occasionally, especially in Batter- 
sea-fields. It should be placed, in a natural series, next 
to ELarurus, to which genus it approaches in habit 
and econom 

Genus XLV. Pocowornorus. Latr. 

Carasus. Linn. Fabr. Oliv. Marsh, 

Leistus. Froelich, Clairville. 

Manficora. Jurine, 

Lip elongate, even to the labrum, the extremity with 
three €3 ; labial palpi twice as long as the head ; 
mandibles with their external base much dilated. 

Sp.1. Ceruleus. Blue above ; antenne, mouth, ti- Ceruleus, 
bia, and tarsi red-brown. 

Carabus rbis. Fabr. Panz. 

OF ar cone saa ceruleus. Latr. Gen. Crus. et Ins. 1. 
if 

Inhabits England, France, and Germany. 

palpi Body short ovoid, nearly rica labial 

i inserted nearly on the su side of the lip. 
t: These insects live near the water, and 
way to the following tribe.) Anterior tibie 


45. Poce- 
NoPHo- 
RUS. 


ed. 
Genus XLVI. Omopnron. Latr. » ° 46. Ome- 
. Scorytus. Fabr, Clairville. PHRON. 
CARABUS Oliv. 
Lip very small ; labial palpi inserted on the superior 
margin of the lip. 


1. Limbatum. Pale-ferruginous; vertex of the Limbatum. 
a spot behind the thorax, a humeral spot on the 
elytra, and the suture with two bands of green. 
tus limbatus. Fabr. 
ron limbatum, Latr. 
Carabus limbatus. Oliv. 
Inhabits France and Germany, in moist situations. 


84 


—— 


Tare III. Brecon 


This tribe is at once di from the Carabici, 
by the superior length of Oo hinder lage, wid are 


I. OTT Labial weed eternal vipa Sass og tow Am hese 
A. All the tarsi with five joints, last of which is 


47. Dette Gres XLVII, Dytrevs. Geoff. Tig. Latr. 
_ Dyrtiscus. Linn, Fabr, Oliv. Lam. 

Scutellum distinct ; anterior tarsi of the male patelli- 
pl el of the female sulcated ; external maxillary 


the last two joints equal. 

Marginalis. 1. Marginalis. Ovate, olive-black above; lu- 
Bp he he of the same colour 
with the elytra ; whole of’ the thorax, 
ad bender of the red clay-colour ; bifarcatur of 
the sternum lanceolate. 

Inhabits E 


Linnaus considered the sexes of this insect as dis- 
tinct species, under the names Dytiscus semistriatus 
and marginalis. 

Dyliscus circumflexus of Fabricius, the ellatus 
of Latreille, is very abundant near London. It is diss 

tinguished from marginalis by its more elongate shape, 
byte bifurcate Bo igen of the sternum being spine- 
oat and na by th e colour of the scutellum, which is in- 


“ENTOMOLOGY. 


Genus LIL. Hyenyprvs. eniggeapevtiae 74h 
Hypracuna. og ed ‘ 
Dyrtiscus. Linn. Marsh 


‘  aaaly givhaan ib -<tiligha einebing te _ 


Sp. 1. F acaie ctigtbas, teat Fou 
tate ; the base of the elytra ene hea 
base of the suture. ~ 
iscus ovatus. Linn. 


' 5%. Hy- 
 Paypaus, 


= tatoo! Sed a . 

drus ineus. tr. y 
inka ee ooh a eli 9 
ci differs from from the “the abe Laatvata a more 
shining colour, in si hyieetasio distinct~ 
ly and widely p not the above be but | 
sexual distinctions? Such is the opinion of Dr Leach, | 


who-could never find the sexes of each Kind. 


pote aa with a scutellum. 
48. CoLYM- bar in XLVIII. Corymerres. | ‘Clairville. - Genus LIII. Pxuontus. Schénher, Leach, 53. Pate. 
wETED. Dytiscus. Linn, Fabr. Gyll. ‘Hycrosia. Clairville. BIUS, 
Dyrticus. Latreille. Hyrnyprvs. Latreille. 
Scutellum distinct ; anterior tarsi of the male dilated, Dyrtiscus. - Marsham. wih 
but not patelliform ; ‘d of the female not sulcated ; Hypracuna. Fabricius. _ 
exterior maxillary palpi with the last joint longer than ‘canines fst ao ews Sots Nerdiges sti WiicRter Pha 
the one before it. the rest. 
Bupustula- “Sp. 1. Bupustulatus. Oval, depressed, black ; finel Sp. 1. Hermanni. Black ; head, transverse band on Hermanni. 
tus, striated above the elytra with impressed poitits, whi the thorax; base and border of the elytra and feet 
are obsolete ; antenne labrum, two frontal spots; an- ferruginous. 
terior tibiae and tarsi obscure red ; i gray. a! Hermanni.. Marsh. Oliv. 
Dytiscus bipustulatus. Linn. Fab | Hepliras Hermanni. Fabricius, . 
Dyticus bipustulatus. Late. gro Hermanni. Latr. Gen. Crust. a Ins. 
liscus carbonarius. Il. 
Inhabits the European waters every where.  Takabite the marshes of France and Jand. The 
9. Lacco- Genus XLIX. Laccopuius. last segments of the abdomen, when against the 
PHILUS. Dytiscus. Linn. Marsh. G ped a hres a noise. 
Scutellum, none. Antenne, setataceous. Palpi, fili- I]. External maxillary and labial i subulate ; 
form, hinder thighs covered at their base with a shield- 7 
Minutus. Sp. 1. Minutus. Greenish-testaceous ; legs yellow- — plate. 
ish. enus LIV. Hauiretus. [Latreille. 54. Hati- 
iscus Minutus. Linn. Marsh. ‘Gyll. Hopuitus. Clairville. PLUS. 
Laccophilus Minutus. Leach. Cyremipotus.  Illiger. 
Inhabits it waters. Dytiscus. Geoffroy, Marsham. 
50. NoTE- sat L. ciel oy, . Latr. pore grs , hone ; - oval, co oniiradieibir ie 
RUS. tTiscus. Fabr. Mars 7 8 ish or’ . Impressus, 
Dyticus. Latr. with some lete abbreviated punctured strie, and 
Scutellum, none. Antenna, with a fifth or seventh ‘with blackish lines'and spots. 
joint dilated. Labial palpi, bifurcate. Inhabits France, England and Germany. 
Crassicor- Sp. 1. Crassicornis. Oval, convex, brown; ‘head ye Re Ey, . 
nis. and thorax ferruginous ; elytra ed with impress- f 
ed dots ; antenne of the male thick. - Internal palpi com’ compoced of a An- 
Dytiscus crassicornis. Fabr. Oliv. tenne very short. Eyes divides soas to 
Dylicus crassicornis. Latr. Four hinder feet compressed, fSobiaceteen Reeiasil for 
Germany and France. Thorax in each sex, swimming. 
with margined sides, with an impressed longitudinal Genus LV. Gyninus. Linn. Fabr. Latr. Gyll. 55. Gyrt- 
line, Sp. 1. Natator. Oval ; elytra with punctured strice ; pe 
B. The four anterior tarsi, with four’ joints ; > ries Nace op — 
scutellum, rinus Natator. Gyll. 


51. Hy- 
DROPORUS. 


Genus LI, Hyproporvs. Clairville. 


its stagnant waters. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Tare V. Burrestipes. _ 


alpi filiform. . 
Genus LVI. Buprestis. Linn. Fabr. Latr. 


tra. ‘ 
Pls ‘blue-green beneath ; 
8 3 apex of the elytra 
on each side of the suture, 


Buprestis 

Trachys minuta. Gyll. Fabr. 

Inhabits the nut-tree and elm. 

Genus LVIII. Apuanisticus. Latreille. 
Burprestis. Fabricius. 
Antenne massive. 

Sp. 1. Emarginatus. = 
II. Palpi termmated by a thick F seo 
Genus TX. Mexasis. Oliv, Fabr, Lam. 


and the south of France. In 

Fkaeens 5S has been goon wens Vy Se Selep Carte of 
“oe 2 - Jogi 

Genus LX. Ceropnytum. Latr. 


Genus LXI. Exarer. Linn. Fabr. Geof. De Geer, 
Fabr. Oliv. Lam. 


last joint of the antenne with the 80 
abruptly acuminated as to give the appearance of « 


1 
Thorax, with 


Thorax 


85 


** Last joint of the antennz oval or oblong, not abrupt~ 
acuminate. 
1. Body not linear, but three times as long as broad ; 


FC NS IO AEE 
A. Antenne (of male at least) pectinated or 


Sp. 2. Castaneus. Antenne of the male pectinated; Castaneus, 
colour -black ; hhead-and: thbrax:xed-tomentose ; elytra 


yellow punctate-striated ; black. 
Elated Castaneus. Linn. Fabr. Panz. 
Inhabits Europe. be 


Inhabits F Is common on thistles. 
2. linear, nearly four times longer than broad; 


Sp. 4. tus. Black ; front retuse ; antenn®, yfargina 
Pore ame dove-omaer prt Asa — 
ee eee een ee 
outer margin of the elytra, black. 

Elater marginatus. Linn. Fabr. Oliv. Marsh. 

Inhabits Europe. Is found on various herbaceous 
plants in fields, 

Trise VII. TeLepxoripes. 
Tarsi with the last joint but one bifid. Antenne 


filiform, of ten joints. Elytra soft, flexible. 
— uadrate, or nema ye 
enus LXII. Avrora, Pa , Fabricius. . 
Curysometa. Linneus. c ASA 


Cisteza. Olivier. > 

Criocerts. Marsham. 

Dascrivus. Latreille. 

Maxillary palpi filiform, with the Jast joint some- 
what cylindric ; labial palpi not bifurcate. ovate. 


Feet all si 

ce tor Dy — Black, with cinereous down; ane Cervina.. 
tenne, 7 elytra, yellow. 

Atopa cervina. Paykull, Fabricius. 

Dacillus cervinus. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins, i. 252. 
tab. 7. fig. 11. 

Inhabits E 

Genus LXIII. Cypnon. Fabricius, Paykull, Gyl- 63. cy-. 
lenhall. PHON. 

Exopes. er ga Le 

Maxillary filiform, somew! 


“Cyphon pallidus. Fabrici 
. Fabricius. 
tie pallida, Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. i. 253. 
. 7. fig. 12. 
Inhabits Europe in moist places. 
Sp. 2, Fuscescens, Seatiwhat rontesovite, yellowish- Fuscescens, 


86 ENTOMOLOGY. 


Metabolia. red-fuscous or blackish, pubescent; thorax short, trans- Maxilla with one process, _Thorax 
sa =? — anterior nearly strait; feet and base of De bot oie an pon gel rd at 
antennee 
Maden falensete: Latreille. Sp. 1. Suturalis, black ; thorax with a double excava- Suturalis, 
Inhabits France, in Petit-~Gentilli near Paris. _ tion or fossula behind ; clyheashleotised, with the su- 
64 Scim- = Genus LXIV. Scinres. _ Illiger, = black, deepl, ply punctate-striate, 
7s Cypnon. Paykull, Fabricius. : Omalisus ee Oliv, Fabr, Latr. “ 
Exopes. Latreille. Inhabits German 
CurysomeELa. Lineeiiiecchions. Genus LXIX, Esanen. Lina. Gat He Ger, 3 Lame 
ues Ili yelp, bifureote filiform, the last ee oer Fabr, Oliy. Lam, 
lindrie; labs Mandibles pointed at their tips, _ and entire. 
with cones Pet ith i erp Fagin pr anege arth ee len 
with a strong = thighs ened and pressed, same as the following 
formed for joints, the second small, . Head concealed by the tho- 
Hemnispho- Sp. 1. H ica. Black, smooth ; thorax short, rax. Mouth small. Maxille with a double process. 
transverse, anterior margin somewhat concave ; tibie, Masilley, i, with the last saint, elena 
teat Sand Laat SOS ere eee ene. apex acute. Byes NOR RD, 
arg hemispharicus. Fabr. Payk. soft, of the male, with ol pire, sn wings ; of female, 
Chrycomela: hee Marsham, ms vomit Oblnn ‘brow of the 
i Linn. ? yp. 1, a ge n; margin Spendidla, 
Inhabits F. Inbobite Premee, England, and Sweden, thorax livid-yellow, anteriorly with a transparent 
65.Cures. Genus LXV. Cures. Fabricius, Latreille. on each side; abdomen with the margins of the = 
Palpi equal, the last joint truncate; maxillary palpi pa anus and feet ellowish ; , uceae reddish, 
with their joints thick. Antenne, cylindric, simple. sonia aah 
Maxille, with a double process, the external linear, thy Fee apenen tamg lee peg ' 
internal small. Mandibule with their ts notched. — LXX.  Texernorus. Schef. De, Geer, 70, Teyx- 
Lip bifid. _ Body linear, solid, rigid. Feet short. Oliy. Lam. Latr. THORUS. 


Capitata. Sp. 1. Capitata, Obscure fuscous, hestsinanesd red«  CAnruanis, Linn. Fabr. Marsh, Gyll. “ 
dish-yellow. Mandibles, with their apex acute aa entire, An- , 
Cupes roe Fabr. Latr. Gen. Crust..ef Ins. 1. tenne distant. Joints cylindric, elongate... Maxille “a 
255. tab. 8. bifid. Body soft. Palpi, with their last_joint securi- 


66.Dritvs, Genus L iI. Daitus. Oliv. Lam, Latr. form. El the length of the abdomen., 
Prminus. Fabr. Geoffroy. Sp.1. Fuscus. Cinereous-black, mouth,, base of an- prseus, 
Canruaris. Marsham. tenn, thorax, back of the abdomen, sides of ‘iii . 


Maxillary palpi with their apex acute ; labial short, ly and anus, red ; thorax with a black spot. 
somewhat cylindric. Antenne with their internal edge Cantharis fusca, Linn. Fabr. 
peciateedi- Maxille with one Mandibles Telephorus fuscus. Latr. 
notched at their points. Body ~iaian anteriorly arcuate, Int Harpe inte >ring end begining 8 the 


Flavescens. $y. 1. Flavescens. Black, 4 nga pecan coinee LXXI. Mazturnus.. Latreille. saute Th. Basi 
flavescens. Oliv. Canruaris. Linn, Fabr. Marsh. : THINUS. — 
Cantharis serraticornis. Marsham. Teveruorus. Oliv. De Geer. rs 
Inhabits Europe. Is found in Darent Wood, Kent, Antenne distant, joints elongate, cylindric: . Maxil- 
amongst , in tolerable abundance. le bifid. Mandibles with their points entire, and very 
67. Lycvs. © Genus LXVIL. Lycus.  Fabr. Oliv. Lam. sharp. Body soft. Palpi with their last joint ovate, 
Canruanis. Linn. acute. Elytra shorter than the abdomen. Head atte- 
Lampyuis. Geoff. Marsh. nuated behind more or less, 


compressed, more or less serrate, inserted near each behind ; thorax not broader than lon distinctly mar- 
other. Palpi of the maxille, with the last joint some- ed behind ; body blackish ; black ; two 
what triangular, having their points er. Head, age joints of the antenna: and "thorax red ; elytra with — 
with the mouth Hes ae into a kind of rostrum. Max. some obsolete striae towards the suture, the apex and 
illee with one process. Elytra nearly of equal breadth. two pectoral spots yellow ; base of the feet, anterior 
Thorax somewhat quadrate, the anterior margin trans- ighs, and tibia, and knees of the middle feet, iia . 
verse, strait. of the anus reddish, , 
Minutus. me 1. Minutus. Elytra with four elevated lines ; Malihinue ruficollis, Latr. 3 | 
thorax black, with — margins much elevated; last oe France. 


; 
Mandibles with their entire end pointed. Antenne Sp. 1. Ruficollis, Head not Very much attenuated Rufitollis, 
. 
: 


joint of the antennz 2. Marginatus. Head but little dead oa be- Marginatus. 
Lycus minutus.. GyNenhall, hind thorax broader than long, margined round ; 
Lam Mal wee Marsham. * body "blackish ; base of the ener, aie of 
ket i corginiy De Gewts Lange range tenet pte |), ar 
trunks. It is certain 8 7 a somew yellow at eir points "ye 
corselet tout noir. Vol iv. p. 46 oan feet and knees pale ; abdomen with the sides and mar- 
68.Omatt- Genus LXVIII. Omauisus. Geoff, Oliv. Fabr. gins of the ‘segments red- ellowish, : P 
SUS Lam. Cantharis bigutiata. Panzer, 
. Mandibles with their apex pointed and entire. An- _ Inhabits France and 
tenne approximate, the Neante. lindric-eonic; the se- Sp. 8. Flavus. Head much attenuated eh: . Flavus. - 
cond and third smallest. i with the last rx nr tag, marta eyo ul - 
4 


joint cylindric-ovate, apex truncate. exserted. the middle longitudinally impressed ; body yellowish ; 


Metabolia. Seema rote aera and dorsal mark of the 


thorax, b! with punctured roe ae 
.- at their 
T minimus. Olivier. 


Malihinus flavus. Latr. : ake 

Inhabits France and England, in the wate. 

Sp. 4. Collaris. Head muchattenuated behind ; tho- 
rax not broader than long, mere margined behind, 
and with a short ead behi gc mererae anten- 
ne (hese excepted) behind, mi of the thorax, 

; smooth, somewhat fuscous, base dark- 


Gexus LXXII.  Metynis.. Fabr: Oliv, Lam. 
Head ovate, much inflected under the thorax. An- 
tenn with the second and third joints nearly cylin- 
dric, the former elongate; the fourth and followin 
or conic. Tarsi with the outer nails 


eof Good Hop 


Sp. 1. Oblonga. Red; \linsillatd elgtrn blue de bike. 
wn ae Fabr. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. 1. 


264. tab. 8. fig. 3. 
Inhabits Syria and the ym. of Murcia in Spain. 
Genus LXXIV. Dasyres. Faye Fake, Latr. 
Me vynis. Oliv. Lam. Illi ' 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


87 
Sp. 1. ZEneus. Brassy- 3 head anteriorly red- Metabolia: 
oon elytra blood~ with the base and. half the a 
suture brassy- 


Malachius eneus. Fabr. Label Oliv, yl. 

Cantharis. enea. Linn ‘Marsha. . 

Inhabits Europe. 

Genus LXXVI. Hyuecztus. Late 

Canruanis. Linneus. 

Lymexyion. Fabr. Oliv.;Paykull. 

Antenne serrated, the fourth, fifth, and following 
joints nearly equal. Elytra covering the back of the 
abdomen. Thorax broader than long. Head vertical. 
bor eT lindric. 

Therseosieides Pale red ; eyes. and breast, oad 


1. 
beck or black elytra brown-black ‘or testaceous with des 
a black apex 8 argereg Dagmegeoner 


* Latr.’ 
its Germany. 
Prag pips fee peedlray nope Ol 
ed as distinct, species, See Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. 


16. HYLE- 
CATvS. 


1. 266. : I atteo 
Posh bate LXXVII.-. Lymgxyton. Fabr.. Oliv. pa oh 


pe acme Linn. 
ELaTERores. Bad 


sa Fabr. Oliv. Latr. 
‘antharis navalis of pantie who (as we have al- 
mentioned in our history of ical wri« 
ters) wrote a on this destructive insect. 
The male, Fabricius has considered as distinct, under 
tasliel the oak of hich it destroys. . 
I its in urope, W| So 
Genus LXXVIII. Arractrocerus. Palissot-Beau- 78. ATrac- 
vois, Latr. TOCERvS. 
Necypauis. Linn. 


By 1, Ne > Head and therex fusogus,jeith Necydaloi- 
a longitudinal yellowish line. des. 
Atractocerus eenegreniien ne, Ralieecte OA Latr. 


Necydalis brevicornis. 
Tepmtaylenabir eeiaieaty Fabr.. 
Inhabits Guinea. |. 

Tree TX. Titrives. 


Antenne thicker at their extremities, serrated in some; 
solid in others, Elytra eovering the whole abdomen. 
‘Wah cylindric. Thorax Suppoen behind. 


Famuy EF. Tillida. 
Tarsi, with the first joint very apparent, longer than 
one Are 

~ Genus LXXIX...Enortium. Latreille.. 

Tittus. Oliv. Panz. Fabr. 

Dermestes. Rossi. 

abner) Antenne, with the thc last joint 
much dilated, serrated, 

» Sp... Serraticorne.. Black. 


79. Eno- 
PLIUM,. 


SO. Tittes. 


Maxillary palpi filiform. Labial securiform. 
Antenne nearl serrated, lin- 
Pen toe Bere ween e 


2. Unifasciatus. red 


Fabr. Oliv. 
Latr. 


Formicari- — Sp. 1. Formicarius. Black. Thorax and base of the 
uy elytra red. ~ tr ag ft pee pt mga 


ay a ong poo 


Settle Berepoter eens 


Famuy II. Clerida. 
Tarsi, with the first joint short, the w 
concealed Gruslitwetadininkae tT 
62. Orne, Genus L Il. Opus. Latreille. 
Arretasus. Linneus. 
Crervs. , De Geer, Olivier. 
Noroxvs. F 
Evrocus. _Illiger. 
securiform. Antenne with the ninth and tenth 
joints obconic, the last oval, truncate. Eyes 
not notched. narrower behind. 
Mollis, Sp. 1. Mollis, Fuscous, Base and of 
the elytra, and a middle transverse band, with the un« 
der of the thighs gray. Abdomen red. 
otoxus mollis, F 
Cleras mollis, Oliv. Marsh. 
Attelabus mollis, Linneeus. 
Opilus mollis, Latreille. 
Inhabits Europe, under the bark of especially 
of willows, apt pd og 


pee 
with the three last joints ‘an oblong triangular 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Eyes Metabotie. 
iy ately ee re ol 


Sp. 1. eT! Elytra red, with three Apiarius, 


Genus L . Necrosta." Latreille, Olivier. 
Dermestes. Linneus. 
+ ac abi , De Geer, Marsham, 


84. Necne- 
Bla. 


Corynetes ruficollis. Fabr. q 


Inhabi 
Trise X. Srvpurwes. ; | 
Antenne gradually thickening towards their extre- . 
mities, or terminated by a solid oS the abd . 
Elytra covering the greater portion . 
Body oval, or parallelopiped, . 
Fammy I. Silphida. 
Palpi very distinct. Mandibles, with their ap entire. | 
Genus LXXXV. Necropuacus. Fabr, Oliv. Lam. 85.Nrcno- 
Sitrpna. Linn. De Geer, Marsh, PHAGeh 
Dermestes.. Geoffroy. | 
ina in a 
strait line, the external margin not canalled or keeled. 
Body long, quadrate. ; | 
Sp. 1. Black. Antenne ferruginous at Spinipes. 
their points. with their external margin, and a 
peer ra MEE TR pee Trochan- 
ters of hi thighs into a spine. 
Tnhabite Mea ala ts A ae o | 
N orus vespillo is readil ished from this | 


Genus LXXXVI. Siena. Linn. Fabr. De Geer, 86, SizPay 
Oliv. Lam, Latr: Marsh, 


Pextis. Geoffroy. oe 
Sirpua, Necropes, Oicroproma, THaNnaToPHiLus. 
Antenne a little longer than the thorax. with 


, oval. Thorax orbicular. Apex of 
ly truncate. Hinder thighs of the 
male thicker than 


Genus Necropes. Wilkin’s MSS. Leach. 
ae Mae LO am i on ~ onan about the 


We have sdepeid takaoaa 
Soli icy sea 


. Littoralis. Black. ad @intheee Littoralieg 
the two ones connected } 


Silpha littoralis. Liew, Fabr. Late, Oliv: Marsh, 
2 : 


on the shores of the sea, = so 


Hi 


ts 
8 
f 
aes 
ct 
E 


aE 


iG 
fi 
pe 
si 
i 


; 


i 
f 
: 
i 


He 
i 
tle 

; 


88. Sca- 
PHIDIOM. 


} with an abrupt club composed of five some- 
inh ie-joint Radbtietrer. 


= 5 ip te A toe 


+ The genus Tuanatornites of Leach, which contains. 


VOL, IX, PART 1. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


“tra truncated. Palpi filiform. 


_ for 


‘1. Castaneus. Shining, smooth, moutli and soles 


“club 


punctate, 


#89 
Genus LXXXIX. ScAputsoma. Leach: _Metabalia. 
Scapnipium. Fabricius, Latreille, Olivier. at rent 


Antenne, with a club composed of five somewhat 

oval joints. Body acuminate at each extremity. Ely- 
Scutellum none,” 

Obs. The hinder margin of the thorax at the middle 
produced intoan angle. ° 

Sp. 1. Agaricinum. Body black, shining, very smooth. Agarici- 
Antenne, apex of the elytra, and feet, pale brown. num, 

ge Smee agaricinum, Fabr. Latr. Oliv. Panzer. 

Scaphisoma agaricina.  Leach’s MSS. ©, 

Inhabits the’ Boletus versicolor, and other fungi. 

Genus XC. Cnotera. Latreille, Spence, 

Carors. Fabricius, Paykull, Gyllenhall. 

Promoruaaus. Illiger. 

Morpetta. Forster, M 5 

Hetors, Panzer. , 

Cisteta. Olivier, Fabricius, 

Lurerus. Frdlich.. 

Denrmestes. Rossi. - 

Antenn straight, with a five-jointed club. Maxillary 

i with the last joint subulate, conic. Labial palpi. 

with last joint obtuse. 

Obs. This genu has afforded the subject of a learn- 


PHISOMA, 


90. CHO- 
LERA , 


‘ed and i ing monogragh, by W. Spence, Esq. 
blished by the Linmeas Society in the Gera yo- 


ume of their Transactions, to which we refer the reader 
descriptions of the speci 

Sp. be . Narrow, oblong. Thorax narrow- Oblongas 
er behind, the hi angles obtuse, the middle slight. 
ly foveolated, Antennesomewhat filiform, ° 

Cistela augustata, Fabricius. 

Choleva Latreille, Spence. 


La, cisteloides. ~ Frélich, 

Inhabits moss, and under stones. 

Genus XCI. Mytacuvs. Latreille. 91. My- 
Cators, Paykull. LACHUS 
Cuoxeva. 


Antenne incurved, shorter than,the thorax, the basal 
joints distinctly thicker than the rest ; club five-jointed, 
the joints transverse, Palpi of the maxilla, with the 
last joint subulate. Labial palpi, with the last joint ob- 
tuse; | pire 


Sp. 1. Brunneus. -ovate, black-brown, fine- Brunneue, 
ly but widely pimctate, sli — pubescent. 
Catops brevicornis. Pa 


P. 
Mylachus Brunneus. Latreille, Gen, Crust. et Ins: 
vol. ii. p, 30. tab. 8. fig. 11. 
Choleva brunnea. ce. 
Inhabits France, Sweden, and England, in which lat- 
ter country it has oceurred but twice. 
Genus XCII. “Cryprornacus, Herbst, Paykull, 92. Crxr- 
Gyllenhall. TOPHAGUS, 
Ips. Olivier, Latreille.. 
Dermestes. Fabricius, Scopoli, Panzer: 
Body depressed, back plain. Tarsi with elongate 
slender joints. Antenne with a compact three-jointed 


p.1.° Cellaris. Testaceous. ferrugineous, widely ¢.yJ,:;.; 
m i /Padedx finakelapcuiead. on 
ctly unidentate, anterior angles dilated, 
rounded, ending behind in an obsolete an 

Ips cellaris. Olivier, Latreille, 


sinuata of Fabricius, differ: this di merely in having.tl 
oavijseaUtselad Wr tha Semnths dongs torte j-eetete et are s from this division merely in githe 


“= calaris. "Pes Gylenhall. 
Crpeiptoge crenata. Herat 


rc ietren). | 
Fy ee Se vastus ahihibiek Sigeepdinaiag 
63 Exons. MGeves XC E-xois, Paykull, Fabricius, Gyllenhall. 


Re Olivier. 
Baty depressed, bask with 
n. Antenne with a three- 
jointed toeek club. Tarsi with the three 
first joints short. 


Mumeriis, Sp. 1. Humeralis. Elliptic, black, shining, te; 
antennw, head, thorax, humeral on the ytra and 
feet red, approaching to blood- 

Pagis humeralis. Paykall, Fabricius, Gyllenhall. 


Baas Sect esr 


EAT er as wmmanti, Bo- 
Nitiduln rufifrons Marshom is scarcely distinct. . 
S. Care Genus XCIV. Catopicus. Lurreille. 

nicee, Neriputa. Rossi. 


Denmesres. Fabricius, Paykull. 


cake Me back plain. Antenne with a two- 
Mouth covered as with a hood. 
oe. M obseure blackish ; 


antenna, So thorax, and elytra, fus- 
cous- ; elytra with punctured stria. 
‘Nitidule hirta.. Rossi. 


Colobicus marginatus. Latreille. 
Inhabits the south of France, under the bark of trees. 
two lines. 
genus XCV. Tuymatvs. Latreille. 
oro ‘Tacha Miger, Aer gyrne Fabricius. 
OMA. 


Margina- 
tus 


95, Tur- 


Beus, thorax with i punctures ; orate 


when neo 


—_ Fabricius, Mlliger. 


ae ey daliattin Waahad oka 


96. Nive Bn XCVL bare Linn, Fabr. Payk. Oliv. 


Pele 


"Mandbles prominent Body short, depressed ; back - 


generally broad. Antenne with the 


Et rie ing tc club abrupt and. 
; immediately bebna the 


Grwvus XCVIL. Ips. Fabricius, Herbst, Gyllenhall. 
Nerrovta. 


© Gravenherst has written an admirable 


monograph on this Micropterorum. , the 
astious author of Menogrophia sApim dnglios la about to publish c'paper'on this rateosting teloe of insert . san 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


, and much bent at their the 


Sp. 1. Ferruginea, Red-castaneous punctate j- the Betas 
punctures ofthe elytra running together st the suture; egg. 
mandibles hack et Sel Beep dame 


Ait ner Fabr. Payk. Panz. ! ; 


pe jewus XCVIL. Brrenvs. Latr. 


. 


Latreille, 
Inbabits Europe, on the flowers of the ranunculus, 
rose, &c. 
Genus XCIX. Carereres. Herbst, Illiger. 
Bracuyprerus. 
Dermestes. Linn. Fabr, 
Srroneyius. Herbst. 


Niriputa. Olivier. 
Antenne with the third and following 


ae. 


Fawy TI. pramgy Ter" 
Labial palpi scarcely distinct. hina sed in 4 
an excavation of the thorax. Mandibles with their 


arcuate and acute. 
: 100. M1. 


ee of but one joint. Snor™- 
i pi with the last joint subulate. 
ere 


Fh 


Seas berrieay 
more. Body long, and more or less narrow. 


Division I. : 
of the head the mandibles) F 
with ie alight ben it che | 

tin 5 
Soh sete ee ue se 
serted below the oniddle + mot - Shots atm 


line. Thorax long. N Bod long 
and narrow. Elytra a a a Y portion of 
abdomen. 
Genus CI. Astrapxus. Gravenherst, Latreille. 
Srarnyuinus. Fabricius, Olivier, Rossi. “a 


Palpi terminated with nearly securiform. 
Pi phere bl pn yo geceg iy 


Anterior 


101. As- 
TRAPACS 


— 


aa 


— Aappey mwa 


: 


—— 


10. Sta- 
PHYLI- 
Nus. 


Politus. 


103. La- | 


THROBI- 
UM. 


ENTOMOLOGY: 


Rail, with somewhat globéee-conie joints. ee 


ba. dat Rossi 
pn cra Fabricius, 
Takats bits Italy and the south of France under the bark 


of the 
wanes CII. Sraruyuinvs. Linn. Fabr. Latr. 


, the breast and a double series of 
; poeta, each side of the abdomen, golden yellow to- 


epee erythropterus. Linn. Latr, Fabr.; Grav. 
in dung. 
heal 


2. Polituse Black; fiead and thorax brit! black; 
, DARFOWEE than the thorax, iny with 
some distant dots: thorax with six or eight impressed 
eign “ a TS ga longitudinal series ; elytra 
Slaphylines sol” Gravenherst, Latreille. 
Genus CITI. Larunosttn: Gravenherst, Latreille. 
Pzperus. - Gravenherst, Fabricius, Olivier. 
Srapuytinus. Linneus, Geoffroy. 


Palpi subulate, with the last joint acicular and mi- 
nute. Antenne nearly filiform, joints aoe conic, 


Ruficorne. 2. Ruficorne.  Black-fuscous, pubescent, wide 
but punctate ; mouth, antenne and thorax, red; 
elytra and feet yellow-red ; antenne moniliform ; 
rax quadrate ; line 

Pederus bicolor. Gravenherst, Olivier. 
Lathrobium ruficorne. 
Inhabits France under stones 

' Drvision IT. 


Anterior margin of the head circumscribed 
ved line, the prone Seon me 
, Sabapan El 


a cur- 
level 

ering half the abdomen or more. 
F longer ai broad. ert hing 


a mae 


OS eat ean irons Body li. 


one foas!bneel joints 


‘91 
Head witha distinct)neck, Thorax orbicular or _Metabolia 
near. a 


Peannnellt Fabr. Oliv. Latr. Payk. 104. Px- 
Lam. Graven, 


DERUuS. 
© Svapuyoinus. ‘Linnens, Geoffroy, De Geer. 
_ Antenne inserted before the eyes, sensibly thicken« 


oylindrie:; 
Genus CIV. 


ing towards their extremities ; rel eee 
Eyes moderately large. ie 
Sp. 1. Riparius. Body red, ; head, anten~ Riparius, 


ee ») apex of. the abdomen, 
and knees, black ; elytra blue, with wide i dots. 

Pederus riparius. —_ Latr. Oliv. Graven. 

. zeus. 

Sage eto ee 

Genus CV. Srenus, © Latr. Cuv. Lam. Fabr, Payk. 105. Stx- 
Grav. NUSs 

Srapnyimvs. Linn, Marsh. 

Papers. Olivier.- 
__ Anitenna: inserted at the interior margin of the eyes, 
abruptly thicker at their extremities, the inferior joints 
Seatet the outer ones conic-globose. Eyes nearly 
z i 

Sp. 1. Biguttatus. Black, with grey down, minutel Biguttatus, 
punctate, somewhat 3 vertex of the head wi 
an elevated line ; thorax behind with an impressed little 
line; each elytron with a reddish round spot. 

Staphylinus guttatus. Linnzeus, Marsham. 

Fabr. Payk. Grav. Latr. 

” Tnbabtte Rearope i in'moist places near water, as on the 

banks of streams or ponds. 


Subdivision 2. 


M sip ae much Yonger thes the: labial not 
thicker at their extremities ; the last joint distinct. 
A. Maniibles strong, with their mternal edge with 
one or more teeth. ead free. 
~ ‘a. The second, third, and fourth joints of the tarsi 
Saney Ev onto as the others united. 
nus CVI. Oxyrorus. Oliv. Lam. Grav. ee Oxy~ 
Us, 
a Limn. Geoff. De Geer. 
Antenne scarcely longer ‘than the head, terminated 
by a pérfilinted ene. 3 Maxillary palpi filiform ; the 
labial ones terminated —. a me Ps teen ade norm me, 
i pg? and of the el ufus. 
S; 7 suture e R 
sare oa a yer, 


Genus CVII. Oxyretus. Grav. Latreille. 107. Oxy- 
Antenna? somewhat broken, incurved, thicker ex- 721s. 
be ret with the el mer foliate above; the extreme 
se globose ovate basal joint very long conic. 
alpi subulate. Anterior tibiae very spiny, with their 
extremities notched or narrowed externally, with their 
tarsi capable of being reflected from their- sides. 
Sp. ‘ Cornates!” Black, shining, disti and Carinatus, 
widely impresso-punctate, front unequal, somewhat in- 
clin to rugulose, the anterior space between the 
yr smooth ; thorax impressed on ‘each side ; 
middle with three grooves and four carine ; the two 
middle ones joining ogee) feet blackish ; tibiae with. 
very short little spines 
Oxytelus carinatus. “Gravenherst, Latreille. | 
I its the dung of men and other mammalia. 
Genus CVIIL. Omatrum. Gravenherst, Latreille. 
Srapuyvinus.. Geoffroy, Fabricius, Olivier. 
1 


108, Oma- 
LIuM, 


ae 


92 ENTOMOLOGY. 
Menbelia Palpi filiform. Antenne thicker towards their extre- ax somewhat transverse ; abdomen with the extremity . 
1" mities, the last joints rounded, somewhat : é‘ — 
Thorax transverse quadiate, the anterior . round- Toolaperme ohana Gray. Late. aad 
zyporus fae: a ASC 
River, Sp. 1. Rivendare. Miata petites Netasiee Staphylinus chrysomelinus. Linn. Marsh, | 
anton wena icon rw a or en approxima maya at the 7 
3 marginated, at ntenne more or ie Pe oe ; 
ths Mader angien, back with twa senavely elytratwice anterior internal margin of eye, fifth and following . 
as long as the tharax ; obscure brown, joints broader than long. Tibie not spiny, 
- Omalium rivulare. Graven. Late. Gevus CXIIL. Aveocuara. , Graven. La- 113. Aree 
Staphylinus rivularis. treille. : : CHARM 
Inhabite France and Staravian Linn. Fabr. Geoff. De Geer, Oliv. | 
arsi wii the last joint shorter M ! 
than the others wey pe Head with the hinder part received into the thorax. aaaor 
10% Aw. Seat crx. weenie Graven, Poss This genus certainly should be divided into raime 
teerasoem = STAPHYLI br. Paykull, Olivier. ree or more te indie. avs 
Can ag ae M ae * Head aout as broad at the ee somewhat tri« 
Antenne nearly filiform, the second and following angular; n distinct, very slender ; 
jeints obconic. Palpi filiform. Thorax elongate, some- thorax quadrate, with rounded angles insome; 5 


minutely and finely punctate; antenne and feet obscure 
rufous. 


P Telstiee Poa weld England ; in the last 
rance ; in it 
must be considered as of rare pena mg 
Genus CX. Proreinus. _ Latreille. 
Antenne evidently thicker towards their extremities. 
Palpi subulate. Thorax transverse. 
ip. 1. Brach , flat, black, shin- 
ing, smooth, silky above; mandibles, basal joint of 
the antennw, and feet, brown red; head a little nar- 
rower than the thorax, triangular; thorax short, smooth, 
anteriorly a little narrower, the sides somewhat round- 


ed, very slight! i the hinder margin twice as 
broad as the anges slightly prin ent and some- 
scu 


iE i 


what reddish ; um very small; el elongate 
quadrate, externally inate ; the hi and exter- 
nal margins rounded ; with the four last joints 
naked. - 

Proteinus brachyterus. Later. 

Inhabits France and England. 


B. Mandibles without denticulations on their in- 
—a Head inserted into the thorax more or 


a. Antenne wide inserted before the eyes the 
fifth and following joints, longer than broad. © Tibie 


IL Tan Games CXI. Tacutyus. Graven. Latr, 
— epee ni Fabricius. 
aruyiinvs. .Linné, Geoffroy, Olivier, Paykull. 
Palpi filiform. im 
Rufipe. Sp. 1. Rufipes. Black, shining, smooth ; antenne 
prem a err Riewas external apex 
ytra paler. 
inus kull, 
rien ope 
Ce Fabricius ? 
nhabits the of oxen and horses. 
112 T. . Gewus CXIl. Tacuyronus. Grav. Latr. 
cavresee = Staruyiines. Linn. Oliv. Geoff. Marsh. 
Oxvronus. Fabricius, 
Palpi subulate. 
—, Spb. Ch inus, Black, shining, smooth; tho- 
vax, elytra excepted), and feet, red yellow; tho- 


somewhat orbiculate, as broad as the elytra be- meres “4 
Sp. 1. Canaliculata. Red fuscous, feet paler ; head Canaliculee 
and the two last joints, save one of the abdomen, black; ta, . 
elytra together transverse quadrate ; back of the tho- 
rax excavated with an impressed longitudinal line in 
the middle. 
Aleochara canaliculata, Grav. Latr. - | 
Staphylinus canaliculatus. Fabr, . 
Inhabits sandy banks and under stones. ’ - 
** Head globose, behind removed from the thorax . 
with a very distinct slender neck ; thorax so 
what globose, or somewhat cordate, rounded 
fore, narrow, truncated behind, and narrower 
s repnecse. Reddish, head black, thorax with Impressa: « 
2. Im . ¢ with Impressa, + 
eoaning and with two impressions behind ; base of 
the elytra with two little impressed lines. 
Aleochara impressa, Grav, Latr, 


Genus CXIV. Lomecuusa. Gravy, Latr. 114 Lo-.. 


Head disengaged from the thorax behind, with an xecnvss. 
inconspicuous neck or none. Thorax transverse, the 
sides rounded. Antenne distinctly perfoliated, 
Black, somewhat silky, thorax pBipunctata, 


vette 
vow 


terior 
Aleochara bipunctata. Latreill 
Inhabits horse dung. 


Larus. should probably be 


Terme XI Scypmanines. 
Body ovoid, rounded at each extremity. Palpi | 
. Tarsi short. iytri hand, bovertig the dbtlecte, . 
Antenne gradually thicker towards their extremities, 
Genus CXV. Mastacus, Hoffmansegg, Latreille, 115. Mas- 
Hellwigg: TAGUS. 
Prinvs. Fabricius, Olivier. ’ 
Antenna filiform, (or nearly so), composed of long 
ints, geniculated. Maxillary palpi the two last 
Joints forming an oval mass,© == , 
Sp.1. Palpalis. black. ~~ Pallpalis. 
Inhabits Portugal ; was discovered by Count Hoff- 


| 


. In Dr Leach’s 
cimens which were said to have been taken in Britain, : 
Genus CXVI. Scypmanus. Latreille, — : gus 2 
5 


Psenapuvus, Illiger, — 
Antuicus. Fabricius. 
Antenne thicken towards their extre- 


Papas eligi Herbs, | Paykall, iliger 


Si Te 
seer bli, ate and under moss. 
t of the maxi 


behind Body deep castaneous, pubescent. 
Godarti. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. 1. 282. 
tab. 8. fig. 6. 
Inhabits France. : 
Troe XII. Prrnwes. 


Antenne much longer than the head, filiform, or ter- 
ens. PY S000 TER te Sts ne inte, 9 Fanos, 


Division I. 
Antenne uniform, not terminated, with three joints 


‘than the rest. 
genus CXVII. Prinvus. Linn. Fabr. Latr. Lam. 


4. Pr 


Bus. 


Whiciead' bitween tha eyec 


pproximate, 
_ Eyes Thorax hood-like. Abdomen near] 
vai yt acted to Sane 3 
Sp. 1. Fur. Red oon Thorax with four tuber- 


oth at ry 
ith two 
wine eae hd ae 
body with oe ee, yellow hairs. ~ 

n. Fabr. Latr. Oliv. 
Inhabits houses, committing horrid devastations in 
museums. 


: Reng hens guneh Sm is merely the male of 


this 

Sp. 2. Srdilac Fuscous. Thorax with four tu- 
: transversely seriated ; with short, obscure-red 
. hairs, hinder part contracted and marginated. Abdo- 
amen quadrate ovate, base straight, transverse, (not nar- 
rower. El (oe rep ter rap dlamerader SE wih 

; the shoulders ent. Antenne 
joint of the same magnitude with the 


7 Fabr. Latr. 
Ptinus elecans. . Fabr. 
Inhabits ses, the other. 


Genus CXVIII. Grinrum. Scopoli, Latr. 
Brocnus. Geoff. 

Primus. Fabr. Oliv, 

Scorias. Czenpinski. 


* Antenne inserted before the , simple, and seta- 
ceous. Eyes not not hoodlike. 
Alndshgan benty lobular. Elytra united. 

Sp. 1. Scotias. Castaneous, ing, smooth, antenne 
and feet pubescent, 


EMEOMOLOGNS 


98 


Ptinus Scotias. Fabr. Oliv. Metabolia. 
Gibbium Scotias. Latr. Sree 
Inhabits the museums of southern E 


urope. 
ge CXIX. Prininus. Geoff. Oliv. Lam. Fabr., 119, Print. 


NUS. 


Anosrum. wakiie 
SERROCERUS. vs, Kugellan, 
Prinus. arsh 


Antenne brags before the very much 
- ftinated in the males, serrated in te facies 3 

Body long ovoid, nearly cylindric. Thorax some-« 
what globose. 

Sp. 1. Peetinicornis. Body blackish. Elytra ob--Pectinicer- 
one. brown. Antennz an 


feet reddish: Thorax nis 
Elytre punctate. 


oe ilinus pectinicornis _Fabr. Oliv. Latr. 
Ptinus pectinicornis. Linn. Marsh. 
Dermestes pectinicornis. Linn, ? 
Inhabits old trees and houses, perforating them to de- 
struction. Ptinus serraticornis, Marsham, is the female 
of this insect. 


Gexus CXX. Xyretinus. Latr. 

Priuinus. Iliger. 

Antenne inserted before the eyes, serrated in both 
sexes. Body short ovoid, 

Sp. 1. Levis. 

ilinus levis. Tiger. 
Xyletinus lavis. Latr. 
Inhabits Europe. 


120. Xyze- 
TINUS. 


dake 


~ 


Divison IT. 


Antennz terminated by three joints different from 
the rest in size. 
te CXXI. Anosium. Fabr. Oliv. Delamark, 191. axo. 


. BLlUMs 
Prinus. Linn. De Geer, Marsham. 
Brucnus. Geoff. 
Antenne eleven-jointed, with the three last joints 
abruptly thicker than the others ; the ninth and tenth 
joints obconic ; the tenth oval. 
* Thorax short transverse. 
1. Tessalatum, Thorax bilobate behind the la~ Tessalatum. 
sid} margins reflexed, Body fuscous, sprinkled with 
villose, obscure Inteous Elytra not striated. 
Anobium tessalaitum. Fabr- Latr. 
Ptinus tessalatus. Marsham. 
Inhabits Euro 
Sp. 2. Molle. Thorax, with the lateral margins not yj, 
marginated, acute. Body rufous-fuscous, smooth, 
Eyes black. 
Amobium molle, Fabr. Oliv. Latr. 
Ptinus mollis. Linn. 
Inhabits Europe. 
iH e Thorax not much broader than long. 
ip» 3. Striatum, Fuscous, with ish ad 
orax with a gibbous protuberance, ek above, — 
with h the angles compressed. Hinder margins some- 
what marginated. Ely tra | a iad punctate, ~ 
Anobium striatum. Tate, Olw. I 
Anobium pertinaz. Fabr. Pepeull” 
Inhabits 
Genus XX. Dorcatoma._. Payk. Latr. Fabr. 99. non. 
Antenne nine-jointed ; the three last j joints sanwe, cave 
the seventh and eighth triangular, and much dilated 
their internal side. 
Sp.1. Dresdense 
Thaveet yma Dresdeten; Fab, Latr, 
Inhabits Europe, ~ 


Drestlense. 


94 


Metabolia. 


—— Tape XIV. Denwestipes. 


Antenne slender, longer than the head, and termina- 
ted by a large ovoid mass. 


Famuy I. Dermistida. 
Sternum not produced to the mouth, or over it like a 
neckeloth. Tibix spinose. 
183. Dee. © Genos CXXIII, Denmestes. Linn. Fabr. Latr. 


=eetes = Marsh. Herbst, Oliv. 
er pec me nr fear arg ob 


CEP os ne se 


base of the elytra with a 
Dermestes lardarius. pints Latr. Marsh. 


Inhabits 
Dermestes, 2. ulpinus, 8. er tp 4. Tesselatus are 
the other 3 ay species is genus, 
Wh Arte = Genus CXXIV. Arracenvs. Latr.* Leach. 
— Meoatoma. Herbst. 
Deamestes. Fabr. Linn. Latr. Marsh. 
club, the last joint 


the posterior margin narrowly and acutely lobed. Max- 


illary exserted, longer the maxille ; the last 
lindric, v long in some. 
Pellio. Sp. 1. Pellio. Black ;m of the antenne: andof p 


the tarsi obscure red; hinder satgin of the thorax. with 
three spots, and the ‘elytra with a spot on each side of 
the suture vellose-white ; antenna. of the male with the 


erbst. (Variety of the ‘male. 
is found prado nex on 


Dermestes trifasciatus. Fabr. Latr. 
Inhabits rey Saene Penny 
Sweden, and in 


Famuy II. Megatomida. 
over the mouth, like a neckcloth. 
Tibi not or but sli i 


, tly spined. 
125. Meca- Genvs CXXV. Mecatoma.t Herbst, Latr. 
roma. Denmestes. Linn. De Geer, Fabr. 
Body narrow-oval. Antenna ‘with an oval or oblong ini. 
club, with the internal edge simple. 
1. Undatum. Black ; sides of the thorax and two 
bands on the elytra, white-villose. Tarsi 
obscure red. 
Megatoma undulata. aay 
Megatoma undatum. 
Dermestes undatus. Linn, Fabr. Oliv. Panz, 


Taiwe XV, Byrnuipes. t 


Body ovoid. Feet entirely or semicontractile. Ster- 
num anteriorly produced to the mouth in the form of a 


Sternum 


@ndatum. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Diviston I. 
Tarsi with five very distinct articulations. i 


Subdivision : 
a sig ga 
"Geoff Fabr, Oliv. 126. Aw- 


Feet perfectly contractile. Mandibles 
at all, prominent. 
Genus CXXVI ANTHRENUS. 
Lam. Latr. THRENUS, 

Byreuvs. Linn. Marsham, 

Dermestes. De Geer, 

Antenne shorter than the thorax, with the club so- 
lid. Palpi filiform, short. Body orbiculate ovate. Scu- 
tellum very minute 

Sp. 1. Scrophularie. Black ; sides of the thorax, and serohulae 
three transverse bands on the elytra, 3 suture and rie, 
cuiaroal tomegial of the eae eta margin of the 
thorax, red-lutescent. 

Anthrenus Scrophularia. Fabr. Latr. 

Byrrhus Scrophularie, inn, Marsh. 

Inhabits its in Europe. 

Genus CXXVII. Turoscus. Latr. 

Exarer. Linn. Olivier, C 

Dermestes. Fabr. Paykull, 

Antenne as long as the thorax, with the three last 
joints large, forming an oval club. Palpi short, with 
presed joint securiform. on ellipse, narrow, de 


belongs to the tribe Exa- 
ae ge structure of 


127, 


Obs. 
TERIDES, gat whi it di 


its antenne. 
Sp. 1. Dermestoides, Brown, with grey-yellowish Dermestoi- 
down ; elytra, with strive. mw 


Elater dermesioides. Aine. mS Sane: 
Dermestes adstrictor. ‘a Illiger, 
Thoscus dermestoides. Latr, 


Inhabits E ts ; is rare in Britain. 
Genus C hoe yrruus. Linn, Fabr. vay lar. 128. Byn- 
Latr. Illig. Gy ce 


CIsTELa. Marsham. 
Ciera. Geof, Geer. 
Peay man Birra sl 24 cr rite oe 
our or five joints 
ed. Palpi short, the gti ery longest, thick, somes 
what ovate. Body somewhat ovate, very cumretibare 


gs a 
5 vet ia pital 
Linn. Fabr. &c. 
She chchete of Marsham is merely a variety of 


Me OXKIX, Cneonantum, . Fabr. Latr, 

Antenne seven- 
gest. Palpi with 
more convex below. 

Sp. 1. Beauvoisi. 

Chelonarium atrum. Fabricius? 

Inhabits the Island of St Domingo. ‘ 


Subdivision 2. 
Antenne elbowed or geniculated, not inserted in the 


Pilula. 


129. Cas. 
last joint securiform. Body ovate, 


‘ 


inted, the two last somewhat lar. o%4RUm 


Beauvoisi. 


Metabolis. cavity of the eye. Feet perfectly ‘contractile. Man- 
rm" dibles very inent. 5 

130. Hus- Genus C Hisrer.* Linn, Fabr. &c. 
TER. Arteranus. Geoffroy, 

: Body somewhat quadrate. Thorax transverse. Scu- 
‘ Elytra shorter than the abdomen. Breast 


ic, obtuse. 
exceeding the height. 

Tibiz cm eco Tarsi short. 
a. Body not very much. 


ister unicolor. Linn. Fabr. &. 


. Hister striatus, abr. Herbst, 
y Inhabits the dung of oxen and horses. 


Subdivision 3. 
Antenne strait, not inserted in the cavity of the eyes. 
semicontractile. 


Feet 
131. Noso- Genus CXXXI. Nosopenpnron. Latreille. 
BEXDRON. Byrruvs. Olivier. 
Spuzripiom. Fabr. ay by 
Antenne terminated ly by a three-jointed per- 


“6 


T 


ng ee ee Eye gee 
i g 


elms. ; 
—— Genus CXXXII. Lrunivs. Miiller, Gyllenhall, Me- 
Dyrtiscus. Panzer. 
Curysometa. Marsham. 
* Evmis.  Latr. 
what oval. 
1. Volckmari. 
i Voleckmari. Panzer, Faun. Ins. Germ. fas. 7. 


Bu Subdivision 4, 
Antenne inserted in the anterior canthus of the eye. 


183. Pan- Genus CXXXIIL Pannus. Fabr. Illiger, Marsh. 
us. Dermestes. Geoffroy. 
Evater. Rossi. 
Dryoprs. Olivier, Lamarck, Latr, 
Auricula- 1. Auriculatus. 


* This 
+> This singular genus has the lip and maxille 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


95 
Metabolia. 
Tarsi with four distinct joints. 
Genus CXXXIV. Hererocervs. Bosc, Fabr. Ilig. 134. Here- 
Latr. Marsham. BOY Ut 
Antenne of eleven joints, the seven last 
forming a dentate or serrated mass. 
Sp. 1. Marginatus, Blackish, villose ; sides of the Margina- 
thorax and abdomen, with spots on the elytra, mar- tus. 
gins of the abdomen, and feet, pale luteous. 
pa aging marginatus. Fabr, Bosc, Iliger, Panzer, 
Inhabits marsh b ing in the mudd 
- y places, burrowing ly 
Genus CXXXV. Gronissus.¢ Latr. 
Pimetia, Paykull, Fabr. 
Antenne nine-jointed, the three last joints forming a 
r Py solid mass. 
1 igmed. 
Fimelia pygmea. i Fabr. 
Georissus pygmeus. > 
Tree XVI. Hypropuiipes. 
Antenne terminated by a club. Maxillary pales ¥ P 
ie Chin or mentum clypeiform. Head wi 


t rounded, cowl-shaped. eet formed for swim~ 
ing. Tarsi with the first joint shorter than the second. 


Famity I. »Helopherida. 


psoas without teeth at their srommnitiet Maxil< 
palpi generally much shorter antennz. 
Body oblo , somewhat quadrate, or nearly 
semi-orbi , or somewhat cordate-truncate. Tibi 
slightly shines. Tarsi filiform, not ciliated, with two 
strong, acute, entire nails. 

Genus CAXXVI. Hetornorvus. Leach, 

Exopnorus, Lliger, Fabr. Latr. Olivier. 

Hypropuitvs. Geer, Marsham, 


Cl entire. i with the last joint oval, thick ; 
maxillary palpi pO i a sang shy 
* Body elliptic, agama ovate. Thorax broader 
ong. 


135. Geo-~ 
RISSUS, 


Pygmea, 


136. Heto- 
PHORUE, 


Aquaticus. 


rus aquaticus, Fabr. Olivier, Latr. 
Inhabits ditches and stagnant pools of water. 
** Body nearly linear ; thorax elongate-quadrate. 


Sp. 2, Elongatus. 
Riphores ngatus. Fabr, Latr. 


Inhabits stagnant waters in England, France and 
Germany. 

Genus CXXXVII. Ocuruesius. Leach. 

Hyprana. Latr. Illiger, 

Hypropsitus. Marsham, 

Exornorus. Paykull. 

Clypeus entire. Palpi with the last Yop slender, 
acuminate; maxillary ones shorter than the antenne. 

po 1. Riparia. 


rena riparia. eg vi , Latr. 
prygmaus. ykull. 
minimus, F: 


Elongatus, 


137. Ocu- 
THEBIUS. 


Riparia. 


Marintia. 


genus seems to constitute a peculiar wy and might be divided into some very natural genera. 
Helophorus ; the general habit of Byrrhus 3 and the tarsi of Heterocerus. 


96 
Mewbolia, =F. Margipalleus. Latr. 
—— phe 7 lens. Marsh. . 
| rrinart” Paykall. 
198. 1 Genes CXX oul oh K Leal 
on Etornenvs. _ 


arma, 


with the last on acuminate teach etre 
mir las longer than the antenne., Clypeus 
1 ongipal- Oe Ie I. pis. 
po Hydrophiles ipalpis. Marsh. 
Inhabits running water. 
Famuty IL. Hydrophilida. 


Mangibles with their points bidentate. Thorax trans- 
verse, Body hemispheric-oval, Tibie sim ‘ 
or = Tarsi Cliated or simple. Maxillary 


138. Sree. bar fre 4 CXXXIX. Srencnevs. Fabr. Latr. Schén. 
= Hypaoruus. Illiger, moet. 


Sternum sim C emarginate. Antenne 
six- Tibia sim ly spined. 
140. Hr- exus CXL. Heaters. Leach. 


paepits. Hypnornivus. Latr, Fabr. Marsh. De Geer. 
Dytiscus. Linn. 
Sternum simple. Clypeus entire. Antenna nine- 


jointed. Tibi terminated by strong el veg 


Dytiscus luridus, Linn, 


Inhabits t waters. 
141.to-e GexvsCXLL Lroawesivus. Leach. 
BABIOD Hyprorunvs. Marsh. Gyllen, 
Sternum. simple. entire. Antenne nine- 
jointed. Elytra truncate at their extremities, 
Iophilus piscinus. Marsh. 
piscinus. | 
Ieatte drains and springs. 
142. Hy. Genus CXLIL Hypnopuiius. De Geer, Latr. Fabr. 
SeOrELLUSL : 
eerie aed ced cl 
um u into a lypeus entire. 
Antenne nine-jointed. Anterior tarsi of the male sim- 
filiform. 
Caraboides. 1. Caraboides. 
a. oped caraboides. Fabr. Latr. Marsh. 
waters, 
143. Hy- Genus CXLIII. Hyprovs. Leach, from the Lin- 


saovn nean MSS. 
Hypnornivs. Marsh. Latr. Fabr. 
Sternum produced into a spine. Clypeus entire. 
Anterior tarsi of the male patelliform. Antenne nine- 


ed. . 
Ptrophie piceus. Fabricius, Marsham. 
Europe in ditches, 
Tae XVII. Spuanimines. 


Antenne terminated by a club. Maxillary palpi very 
long. Mentum large, aie Head with the front 
rounded, cowl-shaped. Feet formed for walking. Tar- 
jae” the basal joint as long or oy ab tn 


* Insects of this genus are sculptured on the Egyptian monuments of antiquity, seaancion ska SAA eg a tencste the 


gallery of the British 


Museum, 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


_dentated, Mentum not very large. Mandibles mem~ 
Maxille membranaceous. 


- Genus CXLIV. Spuanipivm. _Fabricias, Olivier, 
Lamarck. rs 


=i: Set _ 


rmestes scarabaoides, ”Marsham, Linn. . 
Inhabits dung. - 


Trine XVIII, Coprives. ok 


Antenne eight or nine jointed, terminated an 
abrupt lamellated mass... Anterior tibie ee dl 


branaceous. 
cireular, _ 


bi semi- 


Fay I. “Coprida. 


Labial hairy, the last joint smaller than 
the p niet Seutelluns none, or very obscure. Wing< 

cases taken together, not longer then Posterior - 
feet situated near the anus, , 


Division I. 


The posterior, and sometimes the intermediate, tibie 
elongate, — little or not at all dilated at their ex- 
tremities, nearly cylindric. 

Genus CXLV. A co reg Web. Fabr, Mig Late 145. A 

Corris. © CHUB. 

AcTINOPHORUS. Sturm, ji a 


Scarasaus. . Linn, De Geer. 


Antenne nine-jointed. bry ee 
ken ogee oa anne’ not abru 
behind the shoulder: Hae tes 
than the body. Labial | palpi 
3. S a« , 
y aes sacer. Fabricius. - : ‘f 
Scarabeus sacer. Linn: nor ; 
Inhabits the southern of Bubope and Africa sa 


i, with cs benolijoioe 
Grxus CXLVI. Gymvorteurus. “Illiger,— 
Artevcnus. Latreille, Fabricius. ; , pete 


Antenne nine-jointed. Body | RUS 
quadrate ; their external - dient. Osage 


abruptly and Pica dic sinuated. Hinder feet not much 
longer than the ty gg Labial palpi with their basal 
joint somewhat q 


r ree 


a-4ae A 


_ Anterior thie deers three 
strong teeth externally. wea Mba 
Sp.1. Flagellatus. . . 
teuchus flagelldtus. Fabricius, magna 
Gym s flagellatus. 
Inhabits southern Europe ere a 
Genus CXLVII. Sisyrnus.. Latreille, co 
Arrucnus, Illiger, Fabricius,);».-i  gepeeak 
Copris. Geoffroy. ALO re wr 
Scarapaus. Pe alias dled a 4 
Antenne ei, join! Co coptan amiga tale: e. os 
Feet elongate; binder ones much longer than the body, 


Body with the transverse and 


thighs. 
—— i diameters nearl 
Schafferi. bp. 1. i or Zi 


: Diviston II. 

The four hinder tibia short, or but little lengthened ; 
much dilated at their extremities. 
Subdivision 1. 

Labial palpi, with the last joint, very distinct. Tho- 


rax much shorter than the elytra; much broader than 

wee OXLVIIL Core «Geoffroy Illiger, Fabri- 

- 148, Co- enus CXL . Copris. iger, i 
vain cius, Lamarck, Latreille. ; 


Scarasazus. Linn. De Geer, Olivier. 


Subdivision 2: 
Labial i with the last joint not distinct. Thorax 
longer than the elytra. Tibi all terminated by a tar- 
sus. 
150. On- Genus CL. Ontuoruacus. Latreille. 
auornacus. Copris. Geoffroy, Llliger, Fabrici 
SP 1. Vacca. 
Copris Fabric ee ree 
vacca. us, ; 
vacca. Latreille. 


Tnhabies dang ; is very common near London. 


Famity II. Aphodida, 
! el Feet all pmersin on Ligh a 
y ly eet 
eh im distant from the anus. Scutel- 
um 
en rw ei ae 
vivs. treille ‘ 


Scaranzvs. Olivier, Marsham, Linn. 
2 hs Rufipes. uM 

phodius rufipes. Fabriciusy’ | 
Searabaus rufipes.. Linn, Marshiam. 
Inhabits dung. dest 


Rufipes. 


ri] 


+ Aphodius 
entire; 3. Clypeus 
VOL. IX. PART TI. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


- vier, Illiger, Lamarck, Latreille. 


97 
Metabolia. 


« Tre XIX. Scaraszives. : : 


Genus CLII. Lerurus. Fabricius, Scopoli, Oli- 152. Lera- 
RUS. 
Lucanus. Pallas. 
Antenne terminated by a conic club, obliquely trun- 
cate, the ninth joint infundibuliform, including the 
tenth and eleventh joints. Head produced behind the 
oe: Abdomen very short. Hinder feet inserted at 
anus. Scutellum very small. Coleoptra united, 
forming a triangle with the apex rounded ; their sides 
involute inflected. 


Sp. 1. Cephalotes. Black, elytra smooth. Cephalotes. 
hrus Fabricius, Olivier, Latreille. 
Lucanus apterus. _ Pallas. 
Pp a scarabeoides. Act. Soc. Berol. vi. 347. tab. 
8. fig. 7, 8. 
Bulbocerus . Archav. Act. Suec.1781, p.246. 
tab. 5. fig. 3—12. 
Inhabits eastern and southern E 


Genus CLIII. Scarasaus. Linn. Geoffroy, Fa- 153. Sca- 
bricius, Olivier, De Geer. RABAUS. 
Grotrurss. Latreille, Dumeril, Lamarck. 
Antenne terminated by an oval lamellated club. 
Thorax shorter than the abdomen, not horned, Hinder 
feet distant from the anus. Head not produced behind 
the eyes. Scutellum obvious. 
Sp. 1. Slercorarius. 
stercorarius, Linn. Fabricius, Olivier. 
Iahabih Bere boring indi holes beneath d 
ng cy ung, 
and flying about in the cerning se dusk. 
Genus CLIV. Typuaus. ’s MSS. 
Scarabeus. Fabricius, Gyllenhall, Marsham. 
Antenne terminated by an oval lamellated club. Tho- 
rax shorter than the abdomen ; one each side in front 
with a long which extends along the sides of 
the head. Hi feet distant from the anus, 
behind the eyes. Scutellum obvious. 


'yphaeus. Fabricius, Gyllenhall, Marsham. 
Inhabits dung of horses on heaths ; is found in spring 
ay Weer a ips gar amg Reco goa 
Scarabaus pumilus of Marsham, is merely a stunted 


or accidental variety of this species. 


Stercora- 
> rius. 


154. Tx- 


PHAaUS, 


Vulgaris. 


Tre XX. Georrupipes. 


Scarapaipes. Latreille. 
Antenne ten-jointed, (in some nine), terminated by 
a lamellated M corneous in part. Cly- 


ee lar or quadrate. Anterior tibiz large and 
not large. 
Famity I. Geotrupida. 


No scale between the posterior angles of the thorax 
andthe exterior base of the elytra. 


Division I. 


Thorax. almost quadrate, more or less transverse. 
Mandibles entirely corneous. 


* Onitis meris, Latreille ; and Onitis clinias, Fabricius; have a scutellum, and should constitute a peculiar genus.’ 
may be divide, for the sake of convenience, from the clypeus; 1. Clypeus smooth, emarginate ; 2. Clypeus smooth, 


N 


98 ENTOMOLOGY. 


Uietioae 
Metabetia. Geotrupes nasicornis, Fabr, : Metaboli. 
——_ Subdivison 1. : Inhabits Europe iniold wood. a 
prominent even the meen Genus CLIX. Purmeurus. Late, women 
peepecion ardeae rwencroane Lae Ss 
ae E ee araneaing EOTRUPES. fort iA 
Pepe tea de Antennae with:thellainella- of the clap Yong and pli 
Lah Bes i ey CLV. Hous. came catile. Body ovoid, depressed. Mandibles 
ane Arnopivs. — external oles 7k Strat ne Fata 
Puaspeanes. dentated. with its sides dilated and rounded. 
am hg the head ; composed = Sp. 1. Dydimus. Dydimus. 
se ity which is + ney lindric and a lit- Geotrapet ee aon 
Vee ith bi- hil rus limus. ’ 
teary Bo ae * age, oo CLX. Lies Giechie 160. Gro- 
Globo. 1. °Globosa. Black, shi ; head lated ; arnaBzus. Linn, Oliv. Lam. : TRUPER 
cyt rated punctate ae! ae) Aptounys ith the ens empnnesbiat Hae Mit 
Aphodius globosus. ew. ; lamella. Body oyoid, convex. Mandibles with their 
Mpioridice’ Laiediie. external edge crenulated or toothed. Maxilla corneous, 
ialia globosa. dentated. in 
1 the sandy shores of ‘the sea, ye Punctatus. __. Panetatus. 
156. Tacx. Genus CLV. non. Fabricius, Olivier, Lamarck, scion panciniey. _Fabr. 
Latreille. Scarabaus punctatus. Latr. 
“ the eect on ena the io apparent. Cl 
pone telat cma ang ; com _ 6, Labrum the anterior e t ly- 
of ten joints, the first obconic and very hairy. y peus quadrate. Sctto re" (Cso vars oh 
ovoid. Maxille with asimple hook. say) 
Sabuloms,  Sp- 1. Sabulosus. xternal edge of the mandibles prominent, | 
Tres stbaleene, Fetstichas, Latreille. sed, with the sides cutting, crenulated, or 
Scarabeeus sabulosus. Linn. ted. Body short ovoid, o somewhat erica: 
Inbabits sandy places. a um generally la hs short, broad : 
ee «@ um a anterior] * 
Subdivision 2. Genus CLXI. Hexovon. Fo nts a 161, Hex- 
Labrum not projecting beyond the cl Body Mandibles with perm wit ir exterior Sie OPO, 
not globose. Elytra not embracing the si of the abe Base nencly cstinles exbcalae. Eyre with th :ir exterior 
domen. ntenne 
a. Labrum entirely hidden. Clypeus: triangular. ps ts pray ream alh. yom: aes 
Maxille coriaceous, or horny ; enegete or nage der, Tarsi with very small: nails. 
Mouth very hairy. Scutellum very small. (Colours Sp. 1. Reticulatum: _, ; gy 
% dente wiewe ot 
7 Genus CLVII. Srnopenpron. ‘Fabr. Latr. Don. J ts 4 - , 
poe na Scananzus. Linn. De‘Geer, Olivier. Genus CLXII. Rurera. Latr. 162. Ru- 
Lucanvs. Marsham. Scaraszus, _ Linn. De Geer. Ar nate ee? 


eS Se nN Oe Fe ee te Ceronra. Fabr. . 
g folded ; the lamella very short, resembling the Bengt ‘Fabr. aE 
pee take Body limdite. Maxille coriaceous, more or ah ec tit exe 
bilobate. Ms side = dilated or channell aa Rate 


" 1, Cylindri Black, lub d obl 
Lange ON amir es ear the ume dibles wish thee pots having thee ie Mn 


bili ‘Male with a con . "Tarsi 

Sheen come al om Tani with undivided nals; Phe ils Giegadd ia. 
Sinodendron cylindricum, Fabr, Latr ovan, Sp. 1, Punctata. Punctata. 
a cylindricus. es De Geer, Olivier. Melolantha punctata, abr. te 


Tahabiteschd tases pre gall a theash. Isveryabun- Inhabits America, 
inaee and near Plymouth, in decaying '* * Tarsi with undivided, equal-sized nails. _ 
168 Oxve. Genus CLVIIL Onveves. | Hliger, Latreille. setonia lineola, . Fabr. 
ves. Scanasaus. Linn, Geoffroy, De Geer, Olivier. Retela lineola. ao jist ‘ 
Grorrures. Fabricius. f 


tatile. Body ovoid, convex. Mandibles-with their ex- (Seutellam pa 
ternal without teeth or folds, Maxille coriaceous, pip — L = "* Chrysis. 
— Thorax with the sides dilated, and a little. wen eeaate Fabri { | 

chrysis. Late. — 


Nesieornie. . 1. Nasicornis. Fuscous-eastaneous, shining ; Ten habits America, 
< one horn ; elytra polished finely, and distant a Mandibles not, or but ie, rin Withivud 
any ¢ nat res or le in their a Tad 
ps ap , small or modettely ined) ae 


ee 


ENTOMOLOGY: 


Genus CLXIII. Meuorontna. Feteicias, Olivier, 


ernal 
"apap ee chee mah 
reload) te 


Sp. 2. Solstitialis. Summer cockchatfer. ) 
Melolontha solstitialis, Fabricius, Latreille. 
Scarabeus solstitialis. Linn. 


Vitis. - 3. Vitis. 
Horticola. 


Elytra with their external ns Kaas Tibia with 
obscure spurs or heels, 
Pulveru- 1, Pulverulenta. 


Subdivision 1, 

Mandibles entirely corneous. 
sictrase,petalnass. “Sonia chvtltd eohinessxAb- 
domen’ uadrate. 

Genus CLXV. Gtapuyrus. Latreille. 
ScaraBzus. Linn: 
Metontua. Fabr. Oliv. 
Antenne terminated by a rounded knob, the two 
last joints received by the ninth joint. 
TF Maurus. 


maurus. Linn. 
Melolonitha cardui. Fabr. 
Melolontha maurus. Oliv. 


mene hese ace Latr: 


Genus Gano CLEVE Ampuicoma. Latr.. 

Scanapzus. De Geer, Pallas. 

Metotontua. Fabr: Oliv. 

_Antenne with an ovoid club, having all the lamella 


Sp. 1. Melis. 
Melolontha melis. Fabri . 
icoma melis: Latr. 


Inhabits Barbary. 
Subdivision 2. 


Labram not prominent. Mandibles entirely or:part- 


Genus CLXVII. Antsonyx. Latr., 
Scarnapzus. Linn. m9 
Metouontua. Fabr. Oliv. 

Antenne withthe first joutnot very large. Clypeus 


165. Gia- 
PHYRUS. 


Manrus 


166.. Au- 


rnicomsa. 


Mois. 


ly 


167. Awe 
Sor yx. 


99 
i very slender, Matshetin. 


ese ee ee BO Cred ews 


g, terminated by a cylindric: joint. 
der large. 


Crinitant. 


Scarasaus: Linn, Geoff: De Geer; Maseham, 
Ceronia. Olivier: 
aaaeond with the: first: joi 1 Ears 
oT a IM tish thistedast otek onal) 
with equal 


© Body almostentirely: (above at least) smooth. ._Hin- 
=~ feet, with the ch wearers of almost equal 


Nobilis. 


Latreille, Fabr. Fasciatute 
Cetonia fasciata. “Olivier: 
Scarabeus us. Linnaeus, 
on. umbelliferous flowers. 

CreMAsTocHEILus. awe La- 

169. Cas- 

Ror a the: first joint’ very: large. Te 
tire. Palpi short, with the 


dric, the ps es eee hPa 


Faony IL: Cétonida: 


seale i ‘between the’ 
thorax, and ‘the exterior of the base 


Ouida CLXX. Go.ratuvs, 
Gouarn. Latreille: 

Ceronia. Fabr: Oliv. | 

Maxille corneous, or very hard, Mehtum very —_ 
Thorax orbicular. Elytra’slightly or not at all 

he tenn yee Clypeus with two diverging 


the 


170. Gorta- 
THUS. 


Pol 
& iis eae = 
Sate Ceronta. “Fabri Lat) Oliv? La- 17), cp 10. 


wa. 


Scanazazvus. Linn. Geoff. De Geer, Marsh. 

Maxille almost membranaeeous; or coriaceous. Men- 
tum moderately siged. Elves abrpty with the 
anterior point truncate. Elytra y sinuated at 
their external side, towards the base. 

Sp. 1. Aurata. 

Scarabeus auratus. Linn. Marsh; 

Cetonia aurata, Fabr.: Latr: 

Inhabits the flowers of roses: 


Trine XXI. Loecanrpzs, 


Antenne with a pectinated club. Anterior tibie 
large and dentated, Palpi: four. Labrum generally 


Aurata. 


100 
Mandibles very strong, corneous, dentated, 
— Mentum corneous. 
Famuty I. Lucanidg, 
Antenne Labrum not discoverable. 


, elevated, convex. ~ 
Genus CLEMIE L: LaMPRea. Latreille. 


Lucanvs. Linn. De Geer, Fabricius, Olivier. 
Palpi short. Lip smooth. 


—_ ew lethe Fabricius. 


Inhabits rotten trees. 
Genus CLXXV. Lucanus of authors. 
PLATYCERUS. 


Fa ion Lip bifid, very hairy, the lacinie re- 


Cerves Bs oy Ay oe beetle. 
Enc eros. Linn. Fab, Lat ) 
Inhabits Europe. Lucanus inermis. of Marsham. is 
merely the female of this species. 
Famity II. Passalida. 
Antenne not geniculated, simpl bent, very hairy. 
i and v distances: i> ; 


175. Lveca- 
en 


Labrum prominent, 
Genus CLXXVI. petetes A Fabr. Lam. . 


176. P 
sane. " canus. Linn. De Geer, Olivier, 
Maxille corneous, very much toothed. Lip crusta- 
ceous, Abdomen from the thorax by a wide 
Fa a Elytra embracing the sides of the abdomen. 
Interrupts, 1. 
assalus int . Fabr. Latr. 
Lucanus interruptus. Linn. Oliv. 
Inhabits America, 
Sect. II. Hereromena. 
¥ _ Four anterior tarsi five-jointed, hinder pair four- 
Observations. ‘Anterme eleven-jointed,* mever la- 
or furnished with a pecti ~ 


mellated i Labrum 
in all distinct. Palpi four. Mandibles always horny 
or comeous, their internal edge armed. with one or two 

Maxilla: crustaceous at the base, often with two 
iacini, the external one largest, trigonate, or some- 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


what ovate. Mentum crustaceous, distinct from the Metabolia 
lip. Lip coriaceous, ers Marttc* Avene ee 7 


‘Divs My i - id ye oe 7 wits 
Wi erally. wanting. Antenne inserted ‘under 
the prominent mali of the head, + —— 
iliform. Elytra t 
sides of the sboeen” Meili unguiculotea od etr 
internal edge. Mentum large, transverse.) 


Triar I. Pie craves. 


Famuy 1. Pimeliada. seadl 
Mentum large, more or less cordiform. © 


4 “tr ; » fhe 
Division I. 


cree vbr 
ie. 177. Cu 
, Scutel- 


Antenne abruptly terminated 
Anterior tibiae or 
Genus CL VII. Curroscenis. — 


‘Fabricius, Olivier, 178. Eno- 


Genus CLXXVIII. Eropivs. © 
Lamarck. se 


Tenesrio. Linn. 


page been? none. 


Gibt Bee 
Erodins gins Fabricius, Latreille." 
Inhabits southern Europe, 
Division I, 


Antenne not terminated by a elub. 
prcx ef 


beh Kedah’ 


Anterior tibice 
Subdivision 1. 
Body nearly orbicular. “ 
Genus C X. Zopuosis.  Latreille, oo» 
Eropivs. Fabricius, Olivier. ©. wily 
Scutellum none. : ¥ 
Sp. 1. Testudinaria. thi rm Bo: 
rodius testudinarius. Fabricius: ©)! ae 
Zophosis testudinarius. Latreille fos 
_ Subdivision2, ter! 
Body oblong. Thorax convex, ponianeeens or 
shincon orbicular. Elytra convex. 
Genus CLXXX. PiMELta. Fabricius, Olivier, 180. Piun- 
Latreille. uk 
TENEBRIO. 


Abdomen nearly orbicular. ; 
cular, _ Loot - , 
Sp. 1. Bipunctata, Bipunctata._ 
imelia bipunctata, Fabricius. ri ut 
Inhabits southern Europe. d 
Genus CLXXXI. Moturis. Lavelle. ar) 
Tenesnio. De Geer. L 
Pimexta. Fabricius, Olivier. 1 apiendb] 
Thorax narrower than the abdomen, almost cxbien- 


_ lar. Abdomen oval. Antenne gradually enlarging 


externally, the last joint almost ovoid. 


_ Sp... Striata, Striata. 
ja striata. Fabricius, — 
Moluris striata. Latreille, yatcirrdee 
Inhabits Africar PA gee 
Genus CLXXXII, Tewremia, Aatredie. 182." Tex. 


p4 TY RIAL 


° Im oom miemora they exhibit the appearance of twelve true joints ; wile) opunghihiand eidsladihines! ork enkinii-enseammets ‘ 


ee 


a 
ey Gee et 


Interrupta. Sp. 1. 


183. Axis. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Axis. Fabricius. 

Piweuia. Olivier. : 

Thorax almost orbicular, narrower than the abdo- 
men. Abdomen oval. Antenne filiform, terminated 
by two or three nearly globose joints. 


entyria interrupta. Latreille. 
Inhabits the western parts of France. 


Subdivision 3. 
Bod . Thorax flat above, more or less trun- 
pate eden eH 4in, or but little convex. An- 


tenne with the third joint very a 

Genus CLXXXIIL Axis. Hetet, Fabricius. 

Tenesrio. Linn. 

Prmezia. Olivier. 

Elytra united. Thorax with equal diameters, trun- 
cate behii Abdomen oval, the external basal angles 
rounded. Scutellum very small but distinct. 


Sp. 1. p 
Atis reflexa. Fabr. Herbst, Latr. 


Inhabits Africa and southern E 
Genus CLXXXIV. Evrycnora. Frerbst, Fabricius, 


Subdivision 4. 
Body oblong. Thorax flat above, more or less qua- 


185. Asin’ ~= Genus CLXXXV. Asipa. Latreille. 


Macuta. Herbst. 
' Tenesrzo. “ 

Opatrom. Fabr. Oliv. 

Pimenia. Panzer. 

Thorax with the sides arched, reflexed, anterior mar- 
mities. 


1. Grisea, ~eet 
Opatrun erscan abricius. 
achla rugosa. Herbst. 


Pimelia variolosa. Panzer. 

Asida grisea. Latreille. 

Inhabits France, Germany, and Italy. 

Genus CLXXXVI. Hecerer. Latreille. 

Thor quadrete the sides straight reffexed 
4 ‘ ight, not ; 

Antenne filiform. 
. 1. Striatus. ote . 
elongatus, vier. 
Hegeter striatus. Latreille. 
Inhabits Teneriffe. 


Famuty II. Biapsida. 


Mentum small, or moderate} , quadrate 5 
abe y large, q or or 


167. Troe. 
Lire 


Division I. 
Palpi filiform. 
Genus CLXXXVII. Trcenta. Latreille. 
Stenosis. Herbst. - 


101 
’ - Thorax : lindric, Metabolia. 
Plein onioe cory aero Aloe 


Filiformis. 


Akis filiformis. Fabricius. 

Tegenia filiformis. Latreille. 

Inhabits Africa and the south of France. 

Genus CLXXXVIII. Scaurus. Fabricius, Olivier, 198. scav- 
Latreille. 7 


RUS. 


Abdomen oval, with the 
base truncate. Antenna with the third joint slender, 
nearly cylindric; the eighth, ninth, and tenth, nearly 
globose ; the eleventh conic. Anterior feet thick. Scu- 


tellum very small. 
. 1. Striatue 
imelia carinata. Rossi. 
Scaurus striaius. Latreille, Fabricius, Olivier. 
Inhabits the south of France. 
Genus CLXXXIX. Sepmium. Fabricius, Olivier, 189. Ser 
Herbst, Latreille. apches 
Thorax truncated before and behind, the sides pro-~ 
minent. Scutellum indistinct. Abdomen oval; the 
base and apex truneated. Antenne with the third joint 
the tenth obconic, and the eleventh short ovoid. 
ovate. 
Sp. 1. Tricuspi 


; ‘um. Tricuspi- 
pierimien wricuapidato.. Olivier, TatretiiHieatigs 
clus, 


Inhabits Africa and southern Europe. 
Division II. 
Palpi terminated by a thick joint; the last joint of 
the ones securiform, 
Genus-CXC. Misotampus. Latreille. 
Pimetia. Herbst. 
convex. Thorax almost globose. Antenne 
with third and fourth joints of equal length. Scu- 
tellum very minute. 
ek iz. 
rsa gibbula. Herbst. 
anhatae Hoffmanseggii. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins, 
10. ,: 
Inbubite Pertugnl. Discovered by Count Hoffman- 


"eae CXCI. Brars. Fabricius, Olivier, Lamarck, 191. Bias, 
Marsham, Latreille. ; 
Tenesuis. 


Striatus. 


190. Miso- 
LaMPUs. 


Hoffman- 
seggn. 


Linn, Geoffroy. 


Division I.. 

Wings occasionally wanting. Antenne partly or en- 
tirel aba ; inserted under the shebein’ of the 
head. Elytra sometimes united, (in all) embracing the 
abdomen. Mentum small, not broader than long. 

Subdivision 1... 
ee Se serrated or pectinated. Head 


not produced into a restrum bearing antenne. Maxil- 


lary palpi terminated by a large obtrigonate joint. Tarsi 


102 


Neiabotia. with the last juint but one bilobate. Nails simple, en- 
—Y~" tire, or bifid. 


Tame ll. Tenxeorionmpes. 


Mandibles bifid at their extremities. Head more or 
less triangular, et i be A a an 
tion with the thorax. 


Fasrevy T. Tenebrionida. 


aaa ieee A Nganeer aor ee a 
or 
PeGienve CXCIE Pepixvs, Latr. 

Texesmo. Linn, Geof. Marsh. 

Buars. Fabr. Herbst. 

Hetors. Olivier. 

Body oval Mectiary palpi terminated by a thick 

a 

joint. [rail wert AaB raven hate 7 


1. Femoralis. 


492. Peo 


ats. 


 canoralis. 


19% Ore Genus CXCI . Ovatrrum. Fabr:-Oliv..Lam. 


saum. 


Body oval; Maxillary palpi,. with: their last joint: ob- 
i ; antenna gradually thicker,towards their ex- 


tremities ; the last joints transverse, compressed. 
Sabulooum. 1. Sabulosum. 
sabulosum. Fabr, Latr. 


1 sabulosa, Linn. 
E in sandy places, 
19%. Tess» Genus CXCIV. , se  aay Linn... Geof. De 
sara. Geer, Fabr. Latr. 


_ rnarax behind as broad as the elytra, or scarcely nar- 


Antenna: er, 
comms Cok tage, tincalp 
nd per yap transverse ; ee oO 


@decuras 1. Obscurus. 
‘enebrio.obscurus.. Fabr: Latr,,Panzery 
Inhabits Europe. 
2. Molitor. (Meal beetle.) 
‘enebrio molitor, _ Linn. Fabr. Latr. 
Inhabits houses ; the Jarveein. meal. and. flour; it is 
called meal worm. 
Genus CXCV. Uris. Fabr. Paykull.. 
Tenzario. 


Molitor. 


195, Ure 


Latr. 
inhabits Sweden, int the: Boletus fomentarius. 


t An 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


* The Genus Boros of Herbst, the type of whieh is Zypophaus bores of Fabricius, is unknown toss 
artificial family. - 


Famity 2. Diaperida. + “—— ¥ 
Tarsi with entire joints. Antenne not moniliform, ae 
their extremities pertoliated or serrated, 
Division IT. : 
Bod Has, or Seeman 
: by a club, estes 


Antenne terminated 
Genus CXCVI, Toxicum 196, Tox: 
naa terminated by an my compressed club, oom. 

posed of four joints. 
eg Richestanum. Richesi- 
Poxicwn Richesianum. Latr.. ade Crust. et Ins. 2, num. 

Tab. 9. fig. 9. 

Gente CXCVIT. 8 ig. Fabr. 

ENUS ARROTRIUM, 

Hispa. Linn. Marsh. 

Teneprio. De Geer. 

Orvnocervs. Later. 

Antenne eh he ae a ple a ere 
siform, downy mass, 

Sp. 1. Muticum. 

Sarrotrium muticum. Payk. Fabr.. 


Hispa mutica. Linn.. a 
Ort Airticor 


on 

Pym Mow if f yo In sith it is rare,.or, at. 

least very t has been found in gravel. pits.near 

a Hooker ; Sn pm 

Phos. 5-8 in sandy 

shores near Swansea, in Sou fae IB Seana 
dant in the months of June and July. 


4a 
197. Sin 
ROTRIUM. 


Maticum, 


Drivisron II. 


Body linear. Thorax longer than broad. Antenne | 
not moniliform, from the third 


joint 5 jth extras more. or less liated.. Maxillee 

ie, not un 1 : 

Genus CXC ll. Hyporniavus. Fabr.Latr. 198. Hye 
Irs. Rossi, Olivier. _ POPE 


Antenne from the fifth joint perfoliated. ee 
Thorax Usage quadine, ssbehaley . 
te, : 
Sp. 1. Bicolor, ' saris ° 
bicolor. Fabr. Latr.. mite 
Ips bicolor, Olivier. 
Inhabits under the bark of the elm. 


Drviston IIT. 


Antenna not moniliform, oval, or neu 
bicular ; a little longer than Soe 
Subdivision 1. Seinaet 
Antenne not serrated at their extremities. 
Genus CXCIX. Puanenia. Latr.. 

Persereep — ¥ te aa 
nterior tibie elongate-trigonate. -Tarsi short.. An- 
tenn y thickening towards their extremities, 

where are perfoliated. Body oval. hk 
Sp. ‘adaverina, : 
Tenebrio cadaverina., Fabr, he 
Inhabits sandy places. a 
Genus.CC.. Diapers. Gente Fabr. Oliv. sHesck 200. Dia- 
Curysometa. Linn. M _ PERIS. 
Tenesrio. De Geer, 
Antennw gradually enlarging towards their extremi- 


antl ae 
199, Pais” 


Cadaverina. 


> Pe 


ies, from the fourth joint liated. — near! 
Metaboli. ties, from the joint perfo Body y 


, Inhabits the boleti of trees. 
Genus CCI. Evustrropnus. Latr. 


Myceropuacus. Fabr. 


Genus CCIII. Letomes. Latr. 
ANISOTOMA. i . Fabr. 


Genus CCIV. Taacuvsceuis. Latr. 
Mycerornacus. Fabr. 
Antenne terminated by a much oliated 


Pap ay 
Aphodioi- ‘Sp. 1. Aphadioides. © 


. ‘Maxillary palpi, elongate ; 
i iform. Mandibles abruptly attenua- 
ye Depressus. 
depressus. Fabr. Oliv. Hi Latr. 
~ aioe Indies. arte 
Hofimansersil. Latr. 
Barbary ortugal. 
ase _ |, Subdivision 2. 
ena Sastre Se 
Genus CCVI. Exepona, Latr, 


Opatrum agaricola. Oliv. Marsh. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Diapers. Olivier. ; i ve 
rep geal tough Tore rere 
Fianna. ts vaietud Wo out iat 


103 


Ag. pt gc Mig.-Fabr.. Metabolia... 
Inhabits Boleti and other Fungi —— 
Genus CCVIL. BUTRAOD®: | , 4 : 207. Err- 
Maxillary i with joint rges i e. TRaGcus: 

Antenne wi four last joints dentiform. Mentum 
very large. Body elliptic or oblong, Thorax qua- 
drate, or trapeziform. 
1. Fuscus. - Fuscus. 
itragus fuscus, tr. ; 
Thabit Cayenne. 
Genus III. Cropaton. Fabr. Latr. 208. Cro- 


Maxillary palpi with the ‘last joint very large, secu- Paton. 
riform. Antenne with the six’ last joints dentifoem, 
Mentum not very large. Body oval, very convex. 
Thorax transverse. 

Sp. 1. Viride. 
fig viride. Latr. .Gen. Crust. et Ins. 2:tab. 10; 

1, ‘ 


Inhabits the West Indies. 
Drvision IV. 


Antenne nearly or quite filiform, with their extremi-~ 
ties simple. 


Viria 


Subdivision 1. 
Mandibles with their éxtremities bifid. 
Genus CCIX. Hexors. Fabr. Oliv. Lam. Illig. 999 p.. 
Latr. Rossi. Lops, 


i terminated by a securiform joint. 


and the us Hela of Latreille. 
Sp ine Lanipes. 
elops Lanipes. Fabr. Latr. Oliv. 
Tenebrio Lanipes. Linn. 
Inhabits Europe. 
Genus CCX. Pyruo. Latr. Fabr. 210. Py 
Tenesrio. — Linn. THO, 
bya 
= joint. tennz shorter than the thorax. Body 
epressed. Thorax almost-orbicular. 
Sp. 1. Caruleus. Cerruleus. 
Pytho coeruleus. Watr. Fabr. 
Cucujus coeruleus, 
Tenebrio depressus. 


Genus CCXI, Hatuomenvs. Hellwig, Paykull, 211. nus. 
Latreille. 


LOMENUS. 
Dircw#a. Fabr. 
Serroparpus. Lliger 
een ; z 
‘alpi almost filiform ; the last joi t of the maxillary 
ones Te cylindric. , a 
1. Humeralis. Humeralis, 
Paykuil. 
, Col. Bor. 1, 184. 
Dirceea humeralis. Fabr. 
Inhabits Boleti, and under the bark of trees. 
Subdivision 2. 


Mandibles with their points entixe, Tarsi with den- 
ticulated nails. 


104 


Gexvus CCXIL Crefeca! Fabr. Latr. Lam. Oliv. 
Cunveowets. Linn, 


poay onan Antenne serrated. Feet rather long. 


Fasuty 3. Malyandrida. 

Four anterior tarsi with the last but one bilo- 
bate. Maxillary palpi with the last joint large, securi- 
form, or obtrigonate. 

Drviston I. 


Hinder tarsi with entire joints. 
Genus CCXILL, Sexnorarevs. Oliv. Paykull, Mig. 


Dincea. Fabr. 
Antenne filiform. Body almost cylindric, and very 


Striatus. a 2 1, Striatus. ) 
striatus. Paykull, Mig. Latr. 
Dircaa . 


bata. Fabr 
Inhabits E ‘ 
Genvs CC . Dincaa. Fabr. 
Orcuesta. © Latr. 
Hattomenvs. Illig. Paykull, Hellwigg. 
Mecatoma. H 
Morpetta. Marsham. 
Hinder feet formed for leaping. Antenne clavate: 


213 Sea- 
norairvs. 


i Col. Bor. 1. 135. 


Drvistow II. 


Tarsi with their last joint but one bilobate. 
Genus CCXV. Metanprya. * Fabr. Latr. 
CuRYSOMELA. 

Sexnoratrvs. i Tr; Bosc. 


Gewvus CCXXVI. Lacria. Fabr. Oliv. Lam 
Curysometa. Linn, 
Cantnanus. Geoff. 
Tenesnio. De Geer. 


How 1. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


haves CCXVIL. Nutro. ea 
orruvs. Faby. 217, Lia! 
Coccinetta. Fabr. 


nse by Sn core 


Villosus. 
Pritina marginatus, Fabr. 
Nilio villosus, Latr. 4 
Inhabits Ca 


Ww rin 


a CCXVIII. Caropus. Fabr. Oliv. Payhall sd Cue 
itr. 
Cerampyx. Linn. De Geer. 


Antenne filiform, serrated. Body narrow, very much F 


elongated, almost linear. Maxillary palpi Semicnted 
by a securiform joint. 
1. Serraticornis. 


opus serraticornis. Fabr. Oliv. Latr. nis. 
Cerambyx serraticornis. Linn. 
Inhabits northern Europe. 
Trisz III, Pyrocnrores. 2 te 
Head cordiform, 


y _strangulated: at its junc- 
tion with the thorax. jn 


joints all bilobate. nae te depres, or conver 
bas e or convex 
and cylindric. Thorax almost ; 


Divisron I. 


Antenne inated, serrated, or branched.  —_- asta 
Genus CCXIX. Denpromes. Latr. iy” 219. Den. 
Antenne branched. Thorax conic, ' DROIDES, 
Sp. 1. Canadensis. ' Canadensis, 
Bendroides canadensis.  Latr. / r ae 


Inhabits Canada. 
‘Genvs CCXX. Pyrocuroa.  Fabr. Geoff. De 220, Py- 


Geer, Oliv. Latr. Recent: 
Cantuaenrts. Linn. 4 
Antenne or aad hae or a wate 

Aone pci of sr 1 this a 1% and black. 
a 1. Rubens. Rut 
‘yrochroa rubens. Fabr. Lat. Oliv. © deal 
Inhabits Europe. - Sher 
Sp. 2. Coccinea. ip a Ah Ee Coll 
antharis coccinea, Linn. ; "yr ; 
Pyrochroa coccinea. Fabr. Late. iD ka ® 
Inhabits France, Germany, and England, 
. Ditiiee I Toy eee 
a simple. s dine @ hershey 
enus CCXXI. Scrapria. Latr. © eA 
Lae yet by a semilunar, or large tri- a 
an, joint. Thorax ircular, 
1. Fusca. 4 be ee | 
ia fusca, Latr. Fusca, 
I its France. 


. ae CCXXII. Noroxvs. Geoff. Oliv. Uliger, 929. Now 


TOXUS. 


Metis, Linn. Donovan. ie attest: 
Anrnicus. Paykull, Fabr. 4 t ae 
Labial palpi terminated by a small truncate joint. yan 
borin fon” es ie epee 


° Fans SN 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Genus CCXXIII. cage Fev. Tenth. 
Noroxvs. Llliger, Latr. 
Marsham. 


Lyra. 


antherinus. aPagk Fabs 
aeooamean neue, Shanes 


— 


Trise IV. _Morpe.imes. 


_ Head cordiform, strangulated at its junc- 
others) with their penultimate joint entire. Body ele- 
visita! ecd.venp Ie y com ae eee ed by 
a Head v E v or v 
P pointed. behind. Hinder ‘Hinder feet feet large. T: 
prcpetiye 


Genus CCXXIV, — erent ase Fabr. Payk. 
Oliv. Latr. 

eae pt oss Marsh. Si be 

g wi the joints simp’ Palpi almost I~ 
form. H Scutellum 


Se en as ar or flabellate. 
none, .or yee 


ge Wtatiotivoope celgenes 
. Genus 4 reer 64 - Linn. Geoff. Fabr. 


pen sree Mila ae 
Scutellum distinct. 
culeata. 
ordella aculeata, Linn. Fabr. Latr. Oliv. 
Inhabits 
. Genus Awaspis. Latr. Geoff. 
Morpvetta. Linn. Fabr.. Oliv. Marsh, 
Raeneeest the four anterior tarsi bilobate. 
with the. last gp tar vagper sar Scu- 


“ponte Far Oliv. Payk. Marsham., ) 


Re Py em Papa of meabelste 


plants. i 
Subdivision 9. iet 


Head not produced into a rostrum, bearing antenne, 
-Antenne simple. _ Tarai with bifid nails” 


Trise V. Canruarines. - ’ 
cordiform. Neck distinct. oe 


oe conlfrm."Eipter festble Tart gence wih 


‘ f rudr ets oil aie soe ; 


en trem Corot: 
. 


: tsa rts gradual tiskening owe 


ppt vs oA . MOSM avaeed 


105 
Genus CCXXVII. Cerocoma, Geoff. Scheff. Fabr. Meétabotia: 
Oliy. Latr. —— 
Me.oe.. Linn. 227. Cero 


Antenne (of the males) ai cr nine-jointed, the coma. 
last joint very large.  Elytra horizontal. 
» Le Se ; Scheefferi. 
elise . Linn. 

Cerocoma se: i. Latr, Fabr. Oliv. 

Inhabits the south of Europe. 

Genus CCXXVIII. Mytasnis, Fabr. Oliv. Lamarck, 228. My- 
Latr. LABRIS. 

Antenne eleyen-j |, terminated by an arcuate 
mass, ending ina point. Elytra deflexed-subrounded, 
=. 1. Decempunctata. 

labris decooteniiaia: Fabr. Oliv. Latr. 
tohabite southern France, ; 


Decem- 
‘punctata. 


Famuty II.’ Meloida. 

Antennz of equal thickness, ing towards their 
points, ar subclavate, as long or r than the tho- 
rax, Se CoBPTE of globular or S cuiile og 
. ~ Diviston 
~»Penultimate joint of all the tarsi bifid, 

Genus CCXXIX. ihr anes iy Seadanl 10 229. Tx- 

scarcely ly somew! t{ TRAONYS- 
Thorax short, transverse, quadrate, 


iyiksanimasoctonmalatie tar iin San aga 
&e, p. 237 
ot ode) ithe Dovisron Il. 
“‘Tatsi with allvtheir joints entire. 
Subdivision 1. 
Elytra corsring tit whole abdomen ; their suture 


‘Genus ete a Horta. Fabr. Oliv. Latr. 
ante ae se alpi with their last 
fay ack Toi wil thes all nail. denticulate beneath. 


230. Ho- 
come. BIA: 


- Maculaia.. ~ 
Sp. maculata... Fabr. Oliv. Latr. ae. 

Inhabits American islands, 

Pha og CCXXXI. sepeasion h Late. (rejected by this st, Loe 
author by 

Horta.» Latr, Fabr, Oliv... 

Head narrower than the thorax. re rye 
compressed, inserted before es, wi 
last joint oval. ie a ic 

Rg a thick. 
a euamen Latr. Fabr. Oliv. 
Inhabits T 
Genus CC L ‘CEnas. ‘Late. 
Me.ée. Linn, 


Lyrra. Fabr. y 
Canruanis, Olivier. 


be- 


Elytrs covering ouly:a,past if :the abdomen short, 
ombsiwoans & Maan dWingn ate: 


106 ENTOMOLOGY. 


Gexes CCXXXIIIL. Meise. Linn. Geoff.De Geer, 
—— Pabr. Pallas, Olivier, Lamarck, Mayer, LterEebety 
33. Me- Abdomen very large, generally soft. _Antennw va- 


a. 
Sina? Casi, cae she Lin 


Fawuy III. . Cantharida,. 
Senn someones of cylindric or, obconic joints, 


#54. Cax- us ey So ‘Cantaanis, Geoff. De a 
FARIS, — Lamarck, Latreille. 
ELir. 


Cantharis vesicatoria. De Geof Olive Latr. ” 
ee Marsh. F; 
sis Sogut sarthirdiag ‘buts rare in 
cme eters common blist of dtr shops. 
235. Zown. sCOXXXV. Zonrrs. . Latr. - 
. Apratus. Oliv. 


elongate, linear, coveri the ho of 
Pes bron the dides a!thaleistecron® Maxille not 
Antenne with: the first” : of ‘the same 
rey aes: the second a lit a 
conic ; the third and following cylindric’; the: last fu- 
; terminatedl by 4thiee imei 
— ey r oh nad aeoruniesti 
i »Pabr. Lat, a peed 
; peristas at 
2%.Ne. Genus CCXXXVI. Metnenssdaid Tiger, Latr. 
moGxa- Zonrtis. Fabr. 


™ cl ifr, td rv elongate, linear. - ~ Masille very much produ. 


Preusta 


Vittata, : a8) nib AF 
se 8 ae ave 
Nemognatha vittata, Miger.\'e1 4) 
SF. Ase _Genus CCXXXVII. Apaxwsi: ‘Olive Latri Pabr. 
av attenuated ‘tow. their extremity 
Apri. 1. Apicalis. 


is apicalis, % Gin Crt Ini 929. 


Se i wher Fane Set eh 


joints. - See hE yoegrercrer Se mp 

nate joint, Tarsi the-pentltinaate joints bilobate, bay sp 

ale ry) ileq wad ; ran « 
Taine VI, totam br, woo? 

Antenne filiform or setaceous. Rostrum riot very wt 
flat, and dilated at its extremity.) 9) oo) LA 
Genus CCXXXVIIL. Gime ehawee 238. @pr- 
Necypauts. Linn. Fabr. tab. MBRasloA 
Antenne inserted at the anterior. internal of : 

Ey eyes. Rostrum not. : 
the penlinels mee gosh: obiduiiat 
oie - Corulea, re Cerulea, 
coerulea. ‘Latreille, Olivier. a> F 
Inhabits E ' 

Genus CCXXXIX. Srenosrroma. ‘Latreille.. 259, Srr- 
Leprura. Seaman ees NOSTOMA 
inserted on ‘rostrum beyond eyes. 

acute. . Eyes not Elytra 
flexible, oe Mie... — oe last joint 
ey ume 
Sp. 1. Rostrata, ye 6) Restrain: 
ere Fabricius. pone 
ry Gen. Crust. et Ins. 
‘ Latr. Considerat. 217. 
Genus CCXL. oatnesag pron Olivier. 240. Myc. 
RuINoMAcer. Fabr. Latr. | ov of OS pervs. 


My tasris. Scheeffer. .- Lveg 

Antenne inserted before. he are-eu ti tin 
El earns "Palphecth thesast joie eomapseaed ie? 

iytra 


Curculioni- 
‘curculionides. ides, Fabrcas, Late, des, ; 


Mir pri Senta taleea in South 1 


von by Mr J. “Ceanch of Kingsbridge. ~ Ciygeee- 
. | ‘Trine VII. “SALpINoDES, ‘ wn bis 
Antenna» thicker at their extremities, : Rostrum vey 
flat, and dilated at its extremity. ny 
Genus CCXLI. Satpineos.. minh! gel Saxe 
Curcu to. ge betas al, Haze, PINGUS, 
ANTHRIBUS: © Clairville. . rah BP 
Ruinosimus. | Latreille. ’ 1D caasmeasayt ™ 
Antennas inserted before the eyes. i 
sree mags tetioj, sedi silts sitter Ire Heca4 ‘Roboris. 
nuthribus roboris. Paykull, Fabricius, Olairville. | : 
Rhinosimus roboris. Latreilles sow) 6 


Carculio rafal Linnwas, «chi llenw¥. 
InhabiteExrope, beneath the bark of trees. avila 


“—** Seeron TI. Terrimena. ~ 


al 
re ra 7 . 
Division I, Ly ; 
“pts tae he math he 
at r ' 
the rostrum. , 


Aidusath oo Bann, Le Bavewpes. tytul igea¥T 


sohdiovin, with the club RO nor 


y 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


107 


Metaboli — _ Antenne clavate, the club elongate. Eyesmotemar- cordate-subovate, apex emarginate, base rounded, con« Metabolia, 


the anus.above. . ovate- = in front: 
rr eee ae Sees me 
ed a Sete peg ~ iixeinibraget’ Fabricius, Latreille. 
rower before. Rostrum ‘be "iat Inhabits America. 247. Cys. 
rower atthe base. Genus CCXLVII. Cyuas. Fabr. Las. 
Latirostris. Is _Latirostris. 'Brentus.’ Olivier, Fabricius.) 
Sey res latirostris. Fabrici; Latrel, Paykel Mandibles short, the apex bidentate. ‘Mentum sub- 
oo Platyrhinus latirostris _Clairville. orbiculate. Body elongate, narrow before. ‘Thorax 
Macrocephalus la latirostris. Olivier; oe dilated ‘tigen one reeset its stran- 
243. Ax- Genus _ANTHRIBUS, Paykull, Fabricius, vet with the the last jon ot bat one bifid. 
THBIBUS “Sp. #9 Brunneus. Brunneus. 


2. Ratr- 


‘NOMACER. 


245. BRro- 
CHUS. 


Pisi. 


— 


. — 


_ Ranges Olivier. 


Mae oell Paykull, Eebdiies Stel. 
stanoursalinentnetiy 0 


livier, 
Genus phn ee Riuwokacer. “Olivier, Fabricius. 
nes a Latreille. lye 
Antenne clavate, Eyes not emarginate. | co- 
vering the anus above. Abdomen 
Thorax 


He Rig , Latreille, 
Rhinomacer . icius, 
Inhabits pine trees. 

Genus CCXLV. Brucuvus. Linn. De Geer, Olivier, 

‘abricius, Latreille, Marsham. 

MyLanris.: 

Antenne nearly filiform. Eyes for the 
insertion of the antenna. Body short, oval, thick. Ely- 

Gly Fie: ; 

ruchus pisi. Linn. Fabr. Oliv. Latr. 
Inhabits and northern America. 
Trise II. Cuncurioniwes. 

Palpi very conic-subulate, scarcely discernible, 
or ninth clavate, the club regular, the joints 
coriaceous. Head from the eyes more or less narrow- 
ed, produced into a rostrum. Mandibles 


horns. ) 


nhg at the second joint, 


Antenne 
Body of all. from 
cylindric, 

Genus CCXLVI. Brenrus. | Fabricius, Olivier, 
Herbst, Latreille, Lamarck. | 


Curcutio. Linnzeus, De Geer. y 
7 i elgg lm ag poo general- 


ly bidendate.. Body very long, somewhat..cylindric, 
narrower before, ren 


truncate before E igid,, 


gr, ‘thorax, narrower, not 


Thorax elongate-ovate, 


brunneus. Latreille. 
Brees rane Herbst, Fabr. 


Gros CCXL Ti. Arretasus. Linn. Fabr. Oliv. 248. Arrr- 


LABUS, 
pesceenecies elongate, produced ith no neck. 
y with no n 
Tibiz, with their points furnished with a double hook. 
Body ovate... Abdomen quadrate, rounded behind. La 
bium corneous, quadrate, the middle of the ss a mar 


, obtaaely unidentate. ° 
Me Curculionoides. Curculio- 
iolides curculionoides. Linneus, Latreille, Olivier. »oides. 
. Inhabits the nut-tree and willow. 


249, APo- 
DERUS- 


| Genus CCXLEX. Apopervs.: Olivier, Latreille. 

~ Agrecasus.. Linneus, Fabricius, Paykull. 

Head. with: sedans neck, ‘Tibie with one hook 
at their joints., Body ovate. Abdomen quadrate, round- 
ed behind. “abium coreous, quadrat the middle of 


the upper Corgi emarginate, unidentate. 
Coryli, 
diab itelabus coryli Linn. Fabr. Payk. Latr. 
Curculio coryli. _Marsham, 
Inhabits the nut tree. 


250, Rrx-: 
CHITES. 


Genus CCL. Ryncurres. Herbst, Latr. 
Curcuuio. Linnieus, De Geer, Marsham, 
Ruinomacer. Geoffroy, Clairville. 
Arrevasus. Fabricius, Olivier. 
Head behind the eyes, with no neck. Cly- 
peus dentate. Tibie with very short heels. Abdomen 
star hee rounded behind. Body ovate, narrowly pro- 
daoad before. Thorax broader behind, 
(often nace, smal, he pes rounded, Labiam 
mee the apex rounded , entire. 
» Bacchus. *— Bacchiis. 
bacchus. Linneus, Marsham. 
Rynchites bacchus. Herbst, Latreille: 
Attelabus. bacchus. one 
nut and vine. 


Inhabits Europe. 
Genus CCL. yao “Hea Latreille, Kirby, 

Curcvttio. Linnens, Marsham. 

Ruinomacer. Geoffroy, Clairville. 

Artetasus. Fabricius, Olivier: 

Eyes prominulous. Head e behind. Abdo- 
men meses ses Tibie with heels. Labium 


"he. The The Rev. Vi William Kirby has given an admira- 
yA to the Linnean of London on the spe- 
this genus, which is pu blished in’ the ninth vo- 

icine oftheir irenayoticun r Rehae ‘edie, Stpples 
ment, which is published in the tenth volume. 

Genus CCLHI. Ruampuus. Clairville. ' 252, 

Tarsi with the last joint but one bifid, cordiform, Kuam- 
Head 


globose. M1 erry Hinder ‘feet formed ?#US. 
poe leaping. Tibee Ww obsolete heels. Body short, 
oval. : ‘ 


251. Api-~ 
On. 


- 


ENTOMO LOGY. 


“ap wie rags 


es Gexoe = echt. “Tnacnvcanes Oliver, ‘Herbst, 
aoe +a z y'* : 


ales Bod 
lateral. ea 


’ Drviston II. 


(Fracticornes ; geniculated horns.) 
Antenne the basal joint very much 


pee rel woes generally received in a lateral oblique groove, 
hats at leash) or the sides of the rostrum. 


Antennz <¥ clavate, the club generally compo- 
wf etgna in al dav the il (ype Tarsi 
with the las lot butte bid, or emarginate above 
cordate.) 


Subdivision 1. 


Antennz inserted beyond the base _— rostrum, 
larger than the head, the club distinctl attests 
ovate. Mandibles generally obtuse. Ti 
ciliated with spines, in a few terminated by a stiding 
hook. ovate, or elliptic. Colour various. 

Gesvus CCLIV. Curcusio.  Linneus, Sone a 
Clairville, Olivier. 

Bracnyruines. Latreille. 

Body ovate, convex, narrower before. Thorax round, 
or conic-cylindric, narrower than the base of the elytra. 
Scutellum extremely minute. Abdomen ovate-conic, 
subovate, or Lip minute. Antenne eleven- 


2h, Con- 
CC LIO. 


Imperialis. 


Genus CCLV. Lixus. * Latreille, Fabricius! 
Curcutio. Linneus, Geoffroy, Marsham, Fabricius. 
Body elongate-ovate. Rostrum as broad as the head. 


Genus CCLVI. Ryncuanvus. Fabricius, Olivier. 
Concorso. Linn. Geoff. Lam. Latr. 
woe Seay rea Rae a Re 
ot wera re ee nin! 

jen or eight fut jointed beginning at eighth joint, 
ings in 

wt Linneus, Marsham, Latreille. | 

fortriz. 

: + hag Fabricius. 
Sp. 2. Abictis. «~ 


Torti. 


Abus, 


Curculio abietis, “Litknens. Ais ten! minds. 4 
inthe pine TE was dicnere 


Hameton, Sn Soitignd basi MR ge Fo ig 


3. Pini. Lowest maprell . seobet. sever 


Coulis pini. vost abate apegnaerenrtiereney ial 


Inhabits the P sHeawal ff. 
Genvs CCLVIL. Livanvs. O¥"""® ene ts 
4 ‘ 


Curcutio. Linnieus, Latreille ‘Marsham. 


RyNcnanvus, {aay edi 


Inhabits Europe 
a native ‘of Britain’ bY 


ED Pow) why 


R ; 
Inhabits Europe. It ‘occurs tees, fe ier 

and Hastings. - 

sip arte fy — Yar Tage 
Gorcalio eel Marsham, “Latreille, A 4 
ent wos of Marsham, mean oe 
:8H 28s 

me oe Eu . rah. arianog a 
Genus Ears “Civeronexcos Inigee.* 258. Crvr- 
Curcuito. Lin Marsham. rn © romans 
Rynen anus. Fabricitis.” RA EI: SEES FOr 
Body roun 

domen short, tri 

trum applied to 

diameters nowy. joshua, 

leaping. een? weal 

as 3 K Erveime : s not ay -_ _— =e Erysimi 
eee Fabr. tag es a haere 

— Crytorynchus ergsimi- iliger: eae Ne Y AeG 
Inhabits Eu vt 2 ¢ Waly 
Genus CCL Lik. Cronus. Chairvie Latieille, 259. Cx 
Ryxcn ave.” re cate . . Beary i NUS. 

* Curevno..° Linh: eOlineoins od | winter 
Body quadrate-ovate;” “a little Jong than 


broad. Abdomen large, subquadrate, a little % 
and rounded behind. Anus not naked. Rostrum 


lied to the breast. Col convex, as broad‘as long, 
oe behind. Hinder t not formed for leaping. 
1. hularie. : j ar a 
Cir rp i) Ine. 
Rynchenus 7 earites it 
onus’ sc: ; ‘ RED, CO 1 
rome Verbasein ti iat adrenal 


Rynchenus, T) 
a Verbasci ot Fab fas Ber 
Genus CCL. Omieediis. Olivier, OP) 260. On- 
Ryncnanvs. Clairville, Fabricius, ) CHESTES. 
Curcutio., Linneus, 
wate ovate. Abdomen te-quadrate, rounded 
touchin aa Hinder feet formed r leaping. 
anus. ; 
. Alni. 2 insu he ; 
urculio alni. Linneeus, M rah SUT 
Rynchenus alni. racket wt ~<a, aa ie? 
its Europe mr Teaottey f * bowed eft nee 
ae.) SAL gageaii A o~saeany 
oy ot Subdsvision 2s 6 vo) oe’ ¢ om 
Antenne inserted at the base of Bib rose “Tarsi te 
Gene COLXL, Hee, eatalle* 
ENUS 1 +. wesl - ‘ ) 
Lrxvus. Fabricius. ar oem rr) 261, Rip- 
~Cuncutro. Olivier. 905 Jan old quis 


Body oblong cylindric. Feet elongate, especially the 


Metabolia. — 


— 


\ 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


anterior ones. © Tibie slender.’ Rostrum Bpe- 
rect, cylindric, slender; often bearded. . Ft 
». 1. Barbirostris. . - 


45 Ghoniphus 
ndra granaria. Fabricius, Latreille. 
rid. Marsham, 


“ 


Curculio 
Inhabits 
Genus CCLEI III. Costonvs. Clairville, Fabricin, 
Latreille: : 
ne roti Herbst. 
ly very m plant a or subcylin- 
dric, narrow on vering the anus above. 
Tibiz terminated by a hook Selenally. Back flat, de- 


Sp. 1. Linearis. 
Coastnaetindintis Clairville, Fabricius, Latreille. 
Curculio linearis. ull, 
Curculio . Herbst. 
Inhabits Europe. . 
Division IT. 


~ Head wr grmally prolonged into a rostrum, Tans 
not spongy ben 
aie III. Bostricies. 


Body cylindric, or globose. Head globose. Tibie 
the thestlar docs debtsced“Atovam eight 


‘or ten-jointed ; the first joint , the two or Eee 
last j sartig pf mass, ‘Tarsi not poate 
ee Palpi small, generally conic, fili- 


ant 


Division FE. 
Palpi very small, conic. Antenne forming a solid 
mass, shorter, or not much longer than the head 
vom Subdivision 1. 
_ Club of the antenna commencing before the ninth 


joint. , 
Genus CCLXIV. Hytureus. Latreille. 
Ips. De Geer, Marsham. 
Scotytos. Olivier. 
 Tarsi_ with their penultimate joint bifid. Antenne . 
withthe cul commencing atthe eighth joint, very little 
or 


riper Latreile. 


109 


club much a tery is beginning at the seventh joint, Metabelis. 
distinctly annulated. pat linear Nee 
Sp. 1. Phe saa: T 
typographus.  T Linneus, bss 
'ypographe. 


ep hus. Pabricius; to tes 
psn Marsham. 
ee typographus. Olivier. _ 
Tomicus aphus. Latreille. 
Inhabits Europe under the bark of sheet which it 
s into various labyrinth-like passages. 
Genus CCLXVI. Prarypvus.. Herbst, Latreille. 
Bostricus. Hellwig, Fabricius. 
Sconytus. Panzer. 
Tarsi with entire long joints. Antenne with the 
club much compressed, comm at the sixth joint ; 
annulations not or but slightly distinct. Body linear. 


hi indricus. 
Pe oor i Herbst, Lat. 


lindricus. Fabricius. 
i 


266, Pra- ~ 
TYPUS- 


Cylindricus, 


. - Olivier. 
and Germany under the bark of 


Subdivision 2. 


Antenne with the club at the ninth joint. 

Genus CCLXVII. Scotytus.  Gecteey, Scheffer, 967, seg- 
Olivier, Latreille. LYTUS.. 

Hyvesinvs. Fabricius. 

Exxortrocaster. Herbst. 

CoproGasTER. i 

Ips. Marsham. 

Tarsi with their last j 
with the club com: 


int but one bifid. Ayitenhee 
, obovoid, the apex rounded. 
. 1. Destructor. 


colyius destructor. Oliv. Lat. eeeicro 
scolyius. Marsbam. 
lesinus . Fabricius. 
Inhabits beneath the bark of the elm. 
Genus CCLXVIII. Hyvesinus. Fabricius, Lat. 
Sconytus. Olivier. 
Bostuicus. Paykull. 
Tarsi with their penultimate joint bifid: Antenne 
with the club little or not compressed, ovoid, the ex- 
inted. 
Sp. 1 Chenains, 
Hylesinus crenatus. Fabricius, Latreille. 
Scolylus crenaius. Olivier. 
Inhabits Europe. 


268. Hr- 
LESINUS, 


Crenatus, 


Division IT, 
very small, conic. Antenne with the club 
of three leaf-like very long lamine. 
Latreille. 


Palpi 
form 

Genus CCLXIX. Putorrrisus. 

Hy esinus. Fabricius, 

Scotytus. | Fabricius. 

Tarsi with the last joint but one Bilobate. 

Sp. 1. Olew. 

Hylesinus ole, Fabricius. 

Scolytus olew. . Olivier. 

Phloitribus olew. Latreille. 

Inliabits the olive tree in France. 

Drvisron IIL 

Palpi filiform. Antenne with the ‘club perfoliated 
or serrated, T arsi with their joints entire. 

Genus CCLXX. Bostricus, Latreille, Olivier. 

Lieniperpa. Herbst. 

Apate. Fabricius, Paykull.. 

Dermestes. Linneds. 


269. 
PHLOITRI.* 
BUS. 


Olez, 


2702 Bos.-- 
TRICUS, 


110 ENTOMOLOGY. 
Metabolia, = Raxly Thorax elevated, globular, or cubic. Colydinnn Soesioten Hellwig, Herbst. rei 
—o Mase bate ts Europe, e 2 at 
. Drviston IL. TWP Fieik oe 
So wnston I. mS 
. capucinus. Fabricius, Antenne with two-jointed club... 
irtanandtion. prc bie Antenne TET | Latreille, su. 276: Cray. 
Dermestes ; i Rrsareqeue, Herbst. Thao 
: ' Beis oh ~ Thence quadrate, with the hinder 
Pros. Guwus CCLXXI. Psoa. Fabricius, Latreille, Herbst. ‘ly elor ; i 
aa Deamesres. oa war ight, contiguous with te Sytem Abdomen 
ly flattened above. Thorax almost quadrate. not nf 
Mationst Sane Histeroides, s 


AY l. i i . 
Vins’ Sp. 1. Uyctas itroides Fabricius, Paykull, Ranger, 
Poon vies tiennensis. miele * Vebsicien, Latreille, Herbst. y us histeroides, H 
Dermestes dubius, Rossi; Cery isteroides. sn 
Inhabits beneath the bark of sreens ; 
Tame IV, Pavssives. Genus CCLXXVII. Monovoma, Herbst,....) 277. M 
Body oblong and much depressed. Palpi conic- | Ceryton, _Latreille, y optau ab wot laste T 


subulate. Antenne two, or ten-jointed. Elytra trun- 


cated. Tarsi with entire joints. Body , linear. ite ened 
272. Pav- Gexve CCLXXIL Pausus. Linneus, Fabricius, hinder margin distant from the base of the elytra. .Ab- 
~—, Thanberg, Herbst, Aine Donovan, Latreille. domen somewhat pedunculated. Bere 
Degeneres a gre Pa last very large and irregu- ame 1, a And ; or - ware brant, 
a Sp. 1. Microcephalus. = wedi. Ae ee Pe aes, en 
phalus. microcephalus.’ Linnzus, Thanberg, Herbst, uglandis. Juglandis. .. 
Latreille, Afzelius, Fabricius, Zaete juglandis. Fabricius, Paykal, Ranger. 
Inhabits Africa. ‘orticaria taxicornis. Marsham. . borat 
273. Ce- Inhabits beneath the bark of trees. . >a ovheunreha) 


marrerus van, Latreille. 


Fanny II. Mycetophagida, = * 


Macleaii. 1. Macleaii. Antenne eleven jointed. vee little or not at 
macleaii.. Donovan, Latreille, all prominent. 
é mew Division I. 
Tame V. Myceroracipes. Antenna with the club two-jointed. | 
ae ovoid or oblong; in some in others © Gznus CCLXXVIII.. Drroma. Latr, 278. Drto- 
Palpi filiform or bent at their extremities. An- § Brroma. Herbst. Me ‘ 
coum ton &r'elgugn Sobsede-ielundinis averse Gort Lycrus. Fabr. Payk. a op aRe 
extremities, or terminated by a perfoliated mass, Ips. Olivier. “ME 
Famity I. Nemosomida. eben] weet. eee Lie omenete 
Antenne ten-jointed.. Ditoma crenata, Latr. 
Drviston I. Tarias greneten Tit Payks tt of ite 
Antenne with the club three-jointed, Inhabits ; Europe under the bark.of dead trees, 
276. Crs. Genus CCLXXIV. Cis. Latreille. eta D Ir 
Axonrum. Fabricius, Illiger, Herbst, Paykull. TAs ye n't Foud 
Deamestes. Scopoli. Antenne grad: ally Cckaning towards chat onesie 
Hycesinus. Fabricius. mities. Tae wi with the first joint longer than the fol. 
Prinvs. Marsham, _ lowing one. «4 
Antenne twice as long as the head. Body oval, de- es CCLXXIX. Mycerornsovs. _ Fabricius, 270.Mycr. 
pressed. aykull; Oliv. Panzer, Late, TOPHAGUS. — 
Balt 1. Boleti. PR Oe ij wiry 
boleti. Dermestes. oe thunberg. a ™ 
Anobium Fabricius, iliger, Paykull. Sirpnoipes. Herbst. Mg wdoreg eg f 
Anobium bi Boxetaria, Marsh, Veta) wd 
Ptinus boleti. Marsham. Body oval, Antenne with the hast joint elongate, 
Inhabits the Boletus vesicolor. ovate. M penecena: nee —_ 
375. Ne. —— CCLXXV. Nemosoma. Latreille. 3 1. Quadri ~e © Qundripass: ‘ 
Mos MA MESTES. pet tulatus. 
arc a ee 
ybIUM. erbst. Boletaria Marsham,. ea) ~hws 
Antenna not or scarcely than the head. Body —_Inhabits fungi. T om 
linear. Head as long, or as long, as the thorax, —-— 
Eloagatum. 1. Devings mm. | 
‘¢mosoma ’ Latreille. Antenne gradually reonterks their extres 


nits ot wih tre one 


~ 


ENTOMOLOGY. 112 


- lin. Ss Deeg ht a e . a Meta 
—— Subdivision 1. “ Subdivision 1. —— 
Tarsi with the first joint not than thefollowing  Mandibles small. Body long and linear. 
one. Palpi very shat; the illary ‘ones not, or but + Genus CCLXXXIV. Lyerus, Fabricius, Paykull. palate 
little, prominent. Antenne with an ab uptclubofthree - Irs.’ Olivier. v 
,linear.  Brroma. Herbst. 
. Herbst, Corticanta. Marsham. 


280. Cory- — CCLXXX. Corypium. 


DIM. ~~ Antenne with a two-jointed club. Thorax long and 
: riroma. Thunberg. — ‘linear. 
Ips. - Olivier, Rossi. site : Sp.1. Oblongus. . | Oblongua. 
Elongatum. cc Ylak oblongus. Latreille. _ Ans 
ydium we Phe Herbst, Paykull, bate ote sage foes wo Fabricius. 
' elongatus. Olivier, US. vier. 
= ro linearis. Rossi. Hitoma unipunctata, -Herbst. 
Tihahites. Ruvops-dnderise Mark of trees, . , Corticaria oblonga. Marsham. 
uot eid 194 gail Arete: ss Inhabits Europe invold wood. 
_ Subdivision 2. on 
Tarsi with the first joint longer than the second. reer 
Palpi very short, the maxillary ones -but little or not _ Mandibles large. Body elongate, much depressed, 
at all prominent. Antenne as as the thorax or less, ‘nearly. broad. 
281. La- Genus CCLXXXI. Larrinivus.* Herbst. Genus CCLXXXV. Trogosita. .Fabricius, Qli- 285. Tre- 
‘TRIDIUS. Ips. Olivier. vier, Illiger, Latreille, Lamarck. GosITA- 
» Corticarta. Marsham. Tenesrio. Linnaeus, Marsham, Rossi, 
Dermestes. Fabricius, Paykull. . Pratycervs. . Geoffroy. 
mela: Antena withthe bcd ut hrger than he hid ‘Thorax almost separated from the abdomen 
Poreatus. a remarkable interval. moniliform, shorter 
Towtdhengiecia porcatus. Herbst. the thorax, compressed towards the apex. La- 
Latridius minutus. Latreille. brum excerted, coriaceous, smiall, hairy in front. 
Dermestes marginatus. Paykull. 7 Sp..1. Mauritanica. Matititani- 
pre sss ree = ese Sg penken Rossi, as ca 
Sit. genus CCLXXXII. Sitvanvs. | Latreille. ‘rogosita carabotdes cius, Illiger, Paykull, 
pode _ "Tenepnro. De Geer. ee Herbst, Latreille.. 
Dermestes. Fabricius, Panzer. Trogosita mauritanica. Olivier. | 
Ips. Olivier. Inhabits Europe. Dr Leach has seen. it alive in a 
Colydium. yh hart wns box of insects brought from Para in the Brasils, 
ye with the 1 and following joints to the Trine VI, _Cucusipes, . 
eighth joint nearly equal. ; Body _and much depressed, Head, not glo" 
“Waidenta-  Sp.1. Unidentatus. f / bose. Palpi filiform or thicker towards their extremi- 
tos. ' ‘Silvanus unidentatus. Latreille. . ties. Antenne of the same thickness throughout, all 
_ Dermestes unidentatus. Fabricius. _ eleven-jointed. Thorax almost quadrate, generally den- 
Ips unidentatus. Olivier. . tated or angulated. 
Colydum unidentatum. Paykull. D 
‘ det! Ooms vision I, 
- Inhabits under the bark of trees. Antenne moniliform, shorter than the body, . 296. Pas 
Frumenta- . 2. Frumentarius. otter Genus CCLMXXVI. ‘Pananpna. Latreille, . B4NDRA. 
ius. dium frumentarium, Panzer. Isocervs. ur, a 
Corticaria frumentaria, Marsham. ATTELABUS. Geer. 
-(Sifednusfrumentarius, Latreilles «= 9° 7" Tenesrio. Fabricius, Herbst. 
Inhabits Europe. Labrum very small. Palpi terminated by an oval 
ay) 20 it Subdivision 2. — Tardilong.. Thorax quadrate, marginate. | 
Svayre ; 


Sp.1. Levis. Laviss 


’ Thorax. almost cordiform. Eyes rather inent, Gates COLEXXVIL Cucwsus.. Fabricius, Olivier, 297. Bice. 
-Palpi clavate, the last joint sub-obtrigonate, fntgee than Paykull ~y 


a os es hecdligpaded af ’ Rs Cantuaris. Linneus? pats waht ae 
—: Merys rugosa. Latr. Gen. Crustset Ins.xis fig: ¥. oo truncate: ster Tarai short ap bibd. 
wily East Indies, 5 © ) 4) f a 1. 
ase Division IV, 2 : Cucujua arate: Paykall, Olivier, Latreille, Fa- ; 
exeauala cloven-jointed. Mandible prominent ox  Cantharis inolenta. . Linneeus ?: 
Inhabits S len and German y.. 
: wen 


Stl paiertuageaiD Ob Beimgstat fo vk to this genuss 


Ceramayx. De Geer. 
i with the last joint nearly obconie. Body con- 


linear. Thorax without spines. ' 
vex. Tarsi with the penultimate joint distinct] Y vid. $ : 4 Pim 
Thorax almost orbicular, withiat border or teeth. Corambys lineato-collis. ; 
pe og Sp. 1. Buprestoides. Saperda lineato-collis. Leach, Zoolog. Mis. vol. i. 
yen Fabr. Oliv. Latr. Inhabits England. at reontl ; 
inkables Enrope, at the vesttiof’ the pina © Dinstox Th, 
pees Aney ber nutant. ‘ea oe jaa 
Antenne pectinated or serrated, in all longer than ‘Genus CCXCIV, CrramMayx. Linn. Fabricius, La- 294. Cx- 
. thorax. &e. 
290. Pat- Genus CCXC. Prionvs. Geoffroy, Fabricius, Oli- - Srenoconvs. Fabricius. goed o1f sloiw leva 
ores, -: Latreille. ‘ \ae than the body. Pap wit he ns 
enampyx. Linn. Marsham.. joint obconic, compressed. a spine on 
Thorax with the sides gently dentated. An- “ie anus 
tenner serrated, a little shorter than the body ; of the . 1.) Moschatus. (Musk cerambyx.) - a 
male twelve, ‘of the female eleven-jeinted moschatus. Lin. Fabricius, Latreille, &c. 
Cotlarame == Sn. 1. Coriarius, . Inhabits willows in Europe, emitting, whilst alive, 
Cerambys coriarius. | Linn. a fine smell, resembling the flavour of roses. © 
Prionus coriarius. Latreille, Fabricius, Olivier. Genus CCXCV. Srenocorus. Fabricitis. — 
Inhabits Europe. Cenampyx, Latreille, 9 0) 9 
Famuy H. -Corambycida. ay with the ae ne iniith. 
Labrum apparent, of various sizes. Antennie Sel. S icornis. 1 wojert 
inserted in a nitch in the eyes SE See “ae uratay 
Cerambyx icornis, Latreille. pottncz» 
f Division I. Genus CC Cv Ciytus. Fabricius, 
Head vertical. Palpi almost filiform. Cerameyx. Linn. 


ile ENTOMOLOGY. | 
Meiabolia, Gexvs CCXCI. Macnopus. Thunberg. “. 
yr Divistow TT. Prionvs. pro am 
Phe ne ons the body, often longer, composed CeramByx. pdeved Sav ets cial ‘ 
aang ef Lama, Latreille. .. , CRORE 
228. Utee ary, LXXXVIII. eUsniora. Latreille. Body much depressed. ‘Thorax with pele 
seta Ceramayx. Linnzeus, spine on each side, placed on a tubercle, Anterior feet 
Baonres. Fabricius. sa sig fe ) JARI wen =a 
Creevsvs, Olivier, Herbst. De 1. Jy) Lengitna 
porrect, very i terminated vs nina Olivies9 5 fy Rue 
by an almost conic pointed joint, Tarsi_short. Lamia Latr.  jnalt saiviDous 
Flavipes. Sp. 1. i Cerambyx Linn. i, on 
Cerambyr Linnenus. r Inhabit Broa. ep woes t gtd 
Uleiota flavapes. Latreille. Genus CCXCII. Lama, Leach, 4) 
Brontes flavipes. Fabricius. Lamia. Latreille, Fabricius. t .skveartl cnt 
Cucujus planatus. Herbst. Cerameyx. Linn. Marsham, Fabricius, 
o flavipes. Olivier, Paykull. Antenne ten-jointed, longer than the body. 
1 Europe, beneath the bark of dead trees. b Bile tapos teaitietes 
A. Body (Lama, papritey athe: 
Division III. Sp. 1. : 
Head not produced into a rostrum, Tarsi Penta tage Fabsicius, Latveie + ts 
BE deel egyneed PD Corsmapesele. Linn. Marsham. | 6) 9) 
nhabits + HO e 
Subdivision 1 B. Shaan (Lamia, Craaactotm, Fa. 
diction Mahaes or ttoaeiiads : 
towards their extremities. Male ith ne lnent horny Bi Nebulosus. feud 
shook-on their internal sides. crambys nebulosus. Fabricius, Marchama..+ ' 
Lamia nebulosa, Latreille.’ 
Tae VIL Cerampycings. Inhabits Europe. 
Lip much widened at its extremity, cordiform. Bod Sp. 3. Textor Py: 
the Saag iva nite ickenipliaai parasites 
in the eyes. urope. LE) © e* 
PL C. Body linear. Thorax ast spined ote she sites, a 
Famuty I. Prionida. (Sarena, Fabricius.) “) 
Labrum small, or almost none. 4. Oculata. c) 
ae of yyx oculatus. Marsham., mays”) 
Division I. Saperda oculata, Fabricius, 
won wae eaten es nee 2 ineiaeate. Latreille. F 
* Genus CCLXXXIX,. abrici nhabits Eu ne elt oe tadog bidy 
PrLae Latreille. 2 gee grey Genus CCXCIII SAPERDA. Leach. s2) .i ae 
Artetasvs. Linn. CeramByx. M we 


5 


«> Metabolia. 
——— Labial palpi with the last 


pummins Game Cais \ ial a 3 


if 


ENTOMOLOGY. 113 


Catiiprum. Latreille, 


" Clytus arietis. Fabricius. 


Callidium arietis. Latreille. 
Inhabits Ew 


without es, Antenne <n than the 
body ighe cvete 


Genus CCXCVI II. Cauiiprum. Fabricius, Latreille. 
-Marsham. 


CrRAMBYX. 
Labial palpi with the last joint 


Thorax 


orbicular, or but little convex. Antenne 


setaceous, as as the body. Hinder thighs abrupt- 


Inhabits E ee 
Genus CCXCVIII. Necypaus. Linn. De Geer, 
‘abricius, 


Leprura. 


»Motorcnvs. Fabricius. - 


El not ing the wi 
aan sues, entirely covering wings 


Inhabits poet 
Genus CCXCIX, Motorcnus. Fabricius. 


Famuy II]. Lepturida. 


Lakrame any gegen: Antenne inserted between 


the ey: 
Gans CCC. Leprora, of authors. 


Mandibles with their extremities not 


Genus CCCII. Mecatorus. Fabricius, Latreille. 


Antipus? De Geer. 


i 
[ 
tf 


vol, xm PART I, 


Mega nigricornis. Fabricius, Latreille. Gen, Metabolia. 
Crust. et Ins. 3. tab. 11. fig.5. ——~ 

Inhabits South America. , 

Genus CCCHII. Orsopacuna. Latreille, 308, Onso- 


Crioceris. Geoffroy, Fabricius, Paykull, Pater. aaa 
Antenne simple, inserted before the eyes, as long 
as the thorax or less. Maxillary palpi and trun- 
cate at their extremities. Body long. pear ston 
gute. Eyes globose. 
Cerasi. 


Cerasi. 


Inhabits Sweden, Germany, and ‘France. 
Genus CCCIV. Sacra. Fabricius, Latreille, Herbst. va Sa- 
Aurnus. Olivier. 
Tenesrio, Sulzer. 
Antenne simple, inserted before the eyes. Palpi fi- 
liform, the last joint somewhat ovate, apex acute. 
Eyes lunate. Hinder feet, especially the thighs, very 
thick. Body elongate. 
Sp. 1. Femorata. Femorata. 
Sagra femorata. «Herbst, Fabr. Latr. 
Alurnus femoratus. Olivier. 
Inhabits Africa. 
Famiry II. Criocerida. 


Mandibles bifid or notched at their extremities. 

Genus CCCV, Donacia. Fabr. Payk. Hoppe, 305. No- 
Oliv. Latr. NACIA. 

Leprura. Linn. Marsh. 

Antenne with elongate cylindric gees those of the 
base obconic. Eyes not mashed: bdomen elongate. 
triangular, Hinder thighs thick, 

* Hinder thighs dentated. 
Sp. 1. Micans. Micans; : 


Sp. 2. Simplez. , Simplex. 
Lepr simplex. Marsham. : 


Genus CCCVI. Criocents. Geoff, Oliv. Lamarck. 306. Cat- 
Curysomets. Linn, De Geer. coe 
Lema. Fabricius. ‘ 
Avucnent. Marsham. 
Antenne moniliform, with the ion of the basal 

joints which are globose. Eyes n Neck dis- 

tinct. Abdomen quadrate. 
Mtge Mate 


Auchenia merdigera. Marsham. 
Chrysomela merdigera. Linn. 
Inhabits the white lily. 

Trise IX. Curysomenines. 


Lip not cordiform. Maxille with their external di- 


vision a biarticulate us. Body 
less ovoid or Thorax date, or tek Nahges 
than broad. 

Famsty I. Cassidida. 


Palpi very small. Antenne inserted near each other 
between the eyes, at a distance from the mouth. 


EL yf de 


Body rn, cM ‘ 
Genus CCCVIL, acansaael ge wo us, Latreille. nb ALuR+: 


114 
Mesbetia. Hispa. Olivier. 
“—Y~" = Body not spinose. Mandibles terminated by a strong 


Grog 1. 
Fabricius, Latreille. 
S08. bite Genus €Ceviit. Hisea. Linn. Fabricius, Olivier. 
re Catoceanrs. Olivier 
winses, Mandiibles with their points bidentate 
At le gy 


cathy! s Linn. Fabricius, Olivier, Panzer. 


prey This species has been introduced 
into the British ‘auna on dubious authority. 


Drvrsion IL. 


Thorax semicircular. Body shield-shaped. 
Genwn CCcrIx. Hinirsowe. Illiger. 
Imatipiem. Latreille. 
rise exserted, cylindric. Body nearly 


ae. Cas. Ima "Rr Cassmpa. our and Fabr. Latr. &c. 


Antenne thicker towards their extremities, their base 
“Sa mere Body nearly orbiculate. 


Cusdila Cpocstrt 
Fabr. Payk. Panz. Latr. 
Cassida Shidis "Marsham, lliger. 


Inhabits Mentha sylvestris. 
Famity II. Galerucida. 


apparent. Antenne inserted 
poop hn 9 tlie becuatal inten, towards the 
Ie of the face. 


308. Hi 
MATIDI- 
eM 


Dryrston I. 


Feet not formed for leaping. 
Genus CCCXI. Aporium. Fabricius, Latreille. 
Owes. Weber. 
ne ee See tet Seles, bat oon a the last 
re rot eggs” Sadana truncate. Antenne almost or- 
bicular. Elytra with their exterior margin arcuated. 


yA . Fabricius, Latreille. 
] eber. 


Genus CCCXITL Gateruca. Geoff. Latr. Fabr. Oliy. 
Cunysomeca. Linn. De Geer, Marsham. 


Gunns COCK IL. Apron. Schrank. 
Garervca. Latreille, Fabricius. 
_lp wth he to ls jolts 
two last not different in 
belly, the jomt obconic, with the second and third — 
joints shorter than the fourth joint. 
Sp. 1. Nigricornis. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


“—— = 


Calne dist." Lataeilies Fabet 

alni, Latreille, Fabricius. : 
Inhabits be 
Genus CCCXIV. Luperus. Geoff. Oliv, Latr, 514 Lorz- 
Criocenis. abricius. i an | 
Palpi with the two last joints in size, 

the last conic. Fratton i, » the joint 


—— elongate. v 


Sp. 1. Flavipes Flavipes. 
pale . Latreille. t 
Crioceris flavipes. Fabricius. ; 
lotehine? 4 
Sp. 2. 
consttn tations LaMuaatod — 
Inhabits Europe. 

Drvision II, 


Hinder feet formed for leaping, the thighs being in- 
crassated. - 
Genus CCCXV. Hattica. ; 
Attica. G , Olivier, Panzer, Latreille, 
CHRYSOMELA. Linn. De Geer, Marsham. 
Crioceris. Fabricius. 
Lema. Fabricius, 
Anbennn withthe toned Sokal el litle short 
Antenne wi int a 
er than the second. ie 
* Body ovate. 


Sp. 1. Oleracea. ; 4 
Mica oleracea. Latreille, Panzer. . Kat - 
Gallernea oleracea, Fabricius, palit 

Inhabits E avant ndcnde 


315. Har. | 
TICA. 


on Bi Body nearly orbiculate. 
Sp. 2. Teslacea. cna ‘Testacea, 
Caleta testacea. Fabricius. . 
Altica testacea. 
Inhabits Europe. 
_ Famity III. Chrysomelida. 
Maxillary palpi very Antenne: inserted y 
before the eyes, gradually thickening tc towards their 
panes. Head nutant, forming an obtuse angle with 
Diviston I. : 
F 7.62.2 
‘Mandibles short, obtuse, truncated; or term terminated by 
short point. Antenne with the four last joints 
oboe or turbinated. a ‘ 
Subdivision 1 ie 
Antenne with the four last joints turbinated. Body 


or oval. Thorax transverse. 


Genus CCCXVI, Paropsis. Olivier, Latreille. 316. Pa- 


Norociea. Marsham. ROPsIs. 
M pi terminated by a securiform joint. 
Body cal. 
1, Australasia, — pages 
is Australasia. Olivier. 
Inhabits New Holland. 


Genus CCCXVII. Doryrnora. Oliv. Latr. Iliger. 317. Dory. 
Curysomena. Fabricius, PHORA, © 


oe palpi terminated by a re a avy’ 


one before it. Seapnton sie permet 
yeti cs pige wag 
. 1. Punctatissima. Punctatissi-. 
Chrysomela punetatissima. Fabricius. me 


Illiger, Latreille. 
peat ee revi Coenen Lat. Fabr, Oliv. pa eg 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Metaboli — Palpi terminated by two joints of nearly an 
+ Sica as tet sncsoar oven Granade, corsenety cpl 
" _ dric. Sternum not produced. 4: 

- .. * Thorax with the sides incrassated, as if margined : 
{ Body ovate-quadrate. : ‘ 
- 'Sp.1, Banksii. 
; '* Chrysomela Banksii. Fabricius, Latreille, Marsham. 
{ Inhabits Europe. 
** Thorax with the sides not incrassated. Body 
H ovate quadrate. 
} 
7 
v 


Subdivision 2. 

Antenne with the four last joints semi-globose al- 
most forming a club. Body elongate-quadrate. Tho- 
rax as long as broad. 

Genus CCCXIX. Hexopes. Paykull, Fabricius, 
? Prasocuris. Latreille. 


Curysometa. Marsham, a. 
Palpi short, thicker at their middle, the last joint 
short-obconic. 


: Division II. 
Mandibles abruptly arcuated, terminated 
‘strong point. Scclasur ath the te tecnaiean aoa 
gate, compressed, reversed-conic, the last 
elliptic, and terminated by a point resembling an addi- 
320. Co- Genus CCCXX. Cotaspts. Fabricius, Latreille. 
LASPIS Maxillary palpi terminated by a large joint, nearly 


a ee 


\ Surinamen- . 1. Surinamensis. 

, Famuy IV. Cryptocephalida. 

’ Maxillary palpi apparent. Antenna inserted 
before the eyes. Head vertical. 


Division I. 
; brig hte the last joint thick, ovoid. Body nearly 
ov 


321. Ev- Genus CCCXXI. Evumorevus. Kugellan, Weber, 
motrvs. Fabricius, i 

Cryptocepnatus. Olivier, é 
Thorax with a very convex back, which is gibbose. 


. 1. Vitis. 
alus vitis. Fabricius. 
vilis. Fabricius, Latreille. 
its Europe on the vine. 


Vitis. 


Drvisron II. 
. i with the last joint conic-cylindric. Body. short- 
cylindein | join cy y 


- 


us, Olivier, Latreille. 


115 


Genus CCCXXII. Cryprocrruatus, Geoffroy, Metabolia, 
Fabricius, Olivier, Latreille, Lamarck, Marsham. 922. Cr 
Curysomera. Linn. De Geer. pe 


Antenne simple, filiform, about .the length of the ys, 


Sericeus. 
rysomela sericea. Linn. 
ocephalus sericeus. Fabricius, Olivier, Marsh. 
Inhabits the flowers of the Dandelion. ; 
Genus CCCXXIII. Cryrura. Laicharting, Fabrici- 323. Crx- 
: . THRA.- 


body 
Sp. 1. Sericeus. 
Ch 
Ci 


Curysometa. Linn. 

Metotontua. Geoffroy. 

CryprocePHaLus. Marsham. 

Antenne short, serrated, exserted. Palpi alike. 
Chyihs Quadripunctata. 


Quadri- 
hra quadripunctata. Fabricius, Latreille. 


punctata, 


Genus CCCXXIV. Criamys. Knoch, Latreille. 
Ciytura. Fabricius, Olivier. 
Labial palpi furcate. Feet contractile. Antenne 
eens lodged in a rim of the thorax. 
Sp. 1. Monstrosa. 
'hra monstrosa. Fabricius, 
C monstrosa. Latreille. 


Subdivision 1. 
Antenne a perfoliated club. Maxille with their in- 
ternal side unguiculated, 


324. Cra. 
Ys. 


Monstrosa. 


' Trise X. Eroryiipes. 


Famuy I. Erotylida. 

Palpi all terminated by large, semilunar, or securi« 
form joints, 

Division I. : 

Antennz with their intermediate joints elongate, 
nearly pa or obconic. Body much elevated. 
Thorax flat. Tibi slender, nearly cylindric. 

Genus CCCXXV, Eroryius. Fabr. Oliv. Latr. 

Body ovate or oval. 

a 1. Gibbosus. 

rotylus gi . Fabricius; Latreille. 

Genus CCCXXVI. erruus. Fabricius. 

Erotytvus. Latreille.. 

Body hemisplieric. 


Division II. 


Antennz moniliform below, terminated by an ovoid 
club. Thorax elevated at the middle. ‘Tibis elongate- 


Genvs CCCNXVIL Trrroms.® Fabri Oliv. Late. 97 a, 
Body short-ovate, the back elevated in the middle.. ‘55:4, 
Thorax with the middle of the hinder margin dilated 


into an angle. 
8 1. Bipustuatom '__-Bipustula- 
rvitoma bipustulatum. Fabricius, Paykull, Latreille..tum. 
Inhabits Boleti. 
Genus CCCXXVIII. Triptax. Payk. Fabr. Oliv.. 328. Tar. 
Sirepua. Linn. Marsham. _ PLAX, 
Body oval. 
1. Russica. 
Silpha russica, Linn. Marsham. 
Tn russica, Paykull, Fabricius. 
Tritoma russica. ille. 
Inhabits dead trees and fungi. 


325. Ero- 
TYLUuS. 


Gibbosus. 


$26. Mer- 
THUS. 


Russica, 


- 


116 


Measbolia 


—— FPawty Il. Phalacrurida. 


Maxillary palpi filiform, or thicker towards their ex- 


Drvtstow I. 
Tarsi with the penultimate joint, bilobate. Body 
not contractile into a ball. 


Subdivision 1. 
Body linear. 
Gexus CCCXXIX. Lanovnia. Latreille. 
Trocosrra. Fabricius. 


Subdivision 2. 


Genus CCCXXX. Pratacrvs. Latreille, Paykull. 
Sreenmium. Fabricius. 

Denmestes. 
ANISOTOMA. iger, Fabricius. 
Voivoxis. K 


S30. Paa- 


alacrus bicolor. Paykull, Latreille. 

Dermestes calthe. Scopoli. 

Anisotoma bicolor. MWiger Fabricius. 

Inhabits flowers in Europe. 

Division IT. * 

Tarsi with the joints entire. Body nearly globose 
umunusitun : 

Genus CCCXXXI. Acaruiprem. Illiger, Latt. 


SSL. Aaa. 
Axtsotoma. Fabricius. 


THIDIU ER. 
Spnaeiviom. Olivier. 
Votvoxts. Kugellan. 
Antenne with a three-jointed club. 


Sp. 1. Nigripenne. 
Aedllisdinn nigripenne. Illiger, Latreille. 
Spheridium ruficolle. Olivier. | 


Section IV. Trimera. 
Tarsi al) three-jointed. 
Tree I. Coccrneccipes. 
Antenne shorter than the thorax. M palpi 
terminated by a very large securiform joint. Body he- 
Genus COCXXXIL Scvunvus. Herbst, Kugellan. 


Cocerwetta. Latr. Fabr. 
Thorax 


scarcely 
and external margins meeting together. Body ovate, 


Coccinella biverrucata. Fabr. 


narrower than the elytra, the lateral 


Ill. Coccrnettat Linn. Fabr. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Inhabits a 

Genus CCCXXXIV. Crmocorvs. Leach’s MSS. 334. Cur 

Thorax lunate, wi i entire- 

ly mag pete 

Coccinella cacti. Fabr. Late. 

Chilocorus cacti. Leach’s MSS. 

Inhabits Europe. 
Trine II. 


Cacti. 


Enpomycuipes. 
Maxillary palpi 
not terminated by a large joint. Body more or less 
ovoid. Thorax almost uadrate. , 
Genus CCCXXXV. Evmorrnus. Weber, Latr. 335. Eu- 
PAstennae with the ¢hird joint i long. Maxillary 
very . 
palpi filiform. Labial palpi with the two last joints an — 
Late, Glen: Cruse usenet 


Fiero Ki. “4 
Pius iomariginates, Late, Gen. Crass obtins” 


E $ 
Tab. xi. fig. 12. 
foe RKXVL E Payk. Fabr. 
Genus CCXXXVI. Enpomycuvs. * $36. Ewe 
Curysomesa. Linn. De Geer. : nomycuus. 


Inhabits 3 
Genus COCKMEXVIT. LycoperDINA. 


Latr, 
Enpvomycuus. Fabr. Payk. Oliv. -  SOPRRDINA. 
Aacuncaraiielainedls gradually thickening towards _ 
tenn m 
their extremities, the ninth joint ——ee 
a large, almost ovoid. Thighs 
a Thorax with 
the anterior angles a little narrowed behind. 
Mandibles with their points very acute, undivided. 
1, Bovista. nip Boviste. 
bovisite. Payk. Fabr. Si wirt 
Tenebrio boviste. Marsh. 
ina immaculata. Latr. 
I its Europe. 
Sect. V. Dimera. 
Tarsi with two joints. 


Trise lI, Pserapnipes. 
in , 
? 


+ he Remus Clypecster of Anidersch has nine joints in its antenie, and 


thorax shielding the head. 
dyodies exo 09 Gorm dhe eaifjont af 6 paper for the Linnean Seely, by Dr Stophiens, on acute entomlogiet 


ENTOMOLOGY. Uy 


Genus CCCXXXVIII. Pserapuus. Herbst, Pay- 
kull, Iliger, Latreille, Panzer. ¥ ~ 
Antuicus. Fabr. 

Antenne with the two or three last joints larger than 
the rest, the extreme joint ovoid. Labial palpi much 


-eylindric. Maxillary palpi mach porrected. Tarsi 
one nail, 


Elytra short. Antenna: six-jointed. | Mandibles 


ticulate and 
cavation in the front ; eee atounae Waejenied 
common peduncle, composed of very short joints, ter- 
minated pre Age elongate branches, 

# obleng ; wings with nerveures diverging 
like rays, folding longitudinally, somewhat membrana~ 
ceous; elytra as if affixed to the base or coxe of the an- 
aoe linear, a salons , at first 

iverging from the ly; then curving inwards 
again, lastly again recurving, and not in the slightest 
ee covering the — Legs equal or nearly so 
in com . four anterior ones xi= 
mate, the hinder pair remote; all furnished with tro- 
chanters, of which the two hinder ones are shortest. 
Tarsi four-jointed, the first joint largest, the last un- 
armed.” * 
Genus CCCXLI. Srvzops, Kirby. 


superior branch articulated. Palpi first obconic, large, 
compressed ; second, semi-ovate acute, hollow beneath. 
Eyes pedunculated, 


joint notched. Mandibles thicker at their extremities. 
Larva unknown; it resides within the bodies of 
the Andrenides. 
Pura witha fleshy body, bearing a corneous exserted 
head. It is found between the joints of the abdomen 


distant. Antenne inserted in an ex- Metabolia, 


S41. Srv- 
Antennz bipartite; the branches compressed ; the “°** 


of certain Andrenides. 
Orper IV. STREPSIPTERA. Sp. 1. Melitte. Melittx. 
enus CCCXLII. Xenops. Rossi, Kirby. _ 342. Xe- 


Antenne bipartite; the branches not jointed, semi- yops, 


¢ 
: 


I TN 


Mae 
aL 
Du 
HI 

i ie 
mid 

SE TE 


t 
tf 
4 
i 


ATLL 
THEY 
cee 
Fille 
. it 
Ha 
lea 


: 
i 
: 
f 
E 
Bact 


\ 


| 


rounded. Palpi, first joint compressed, flexuous ; se- 
cond ovate, acute. Eyes pedunculated, composed of 
fewer than those of Sytors; the septa thick. 
er, and more elevated. Abdomen exserted, horny; anus 
fleshy. Tarsi with last joint entire. Mandibles thick- 
pay Fe am ne a 

Larva parasitical in the bodies of the Vespides; bo- 
oe Pose age WI SR CATA Na 
Pura i under joints of the abdomen of 


the Vespides. Body linear, y ; head horny and 
Scsartol: lapcanbo ol thpapas deamionnaienticoaies 


dows ery 28 
Sp. 1. Peckii. Sooty-black-brown ; antennz with Peckii. 
the branches more dilute, dotted with white; anus 
pale ; feet lurid ; tarsi brown. 1} line. 
Xenos peckii. Kirby, Lin. Trans. xi. tab. 8. and 9. 
The larva and papa inhabit the of Polistes fus- 
cata of Fabricius, which is found in i 
Body sooty-black-brown, covered with a velvet- 
down, which can only be seen by means of avery strong 


glass. Head between the antennze gp en, ele- 
vated. Palpi with first joint longest. enn Lae. 
er than the ; pale brown, almost diapha- 

with minute dots of white. Thorax 


cinereous-whitish, the mar- 
in thicker, black. Legs cinereous, or ra- 

lurid. Toarsi blackish. Abdomen darker than the 
rest of the body. Anus pale red. 

The branches of the antenne have their inner sur- 
face plain, and are probably, under certain cireumstan- 
ces, applied to each other, so as to form a single colum- 
nar branch. The white dots, Mr Kirby suspects, may 


the detailed character; we must therefore refer to Mr Kirby’s paper, Linn, Trans. 


Metabelia. emit whilst the animal is li ; but he 
Sm Dan tteces crore conjure eo co 


The of ths curious inet i de thea 
siduous of William Dandridge 
oof ee history in Harward University, 
an who sent with 
= eens | 
ted a, 
ate or Kt? his 


«. Your Rating ut ith th semaine of 
ato, 
those of this country ; sgn ave ch leaeess 
one in a of Polistes that is here very 
The of this Polistes is so distort- 
ed by them, that I have no difficulty in knowing them 
the wing int cle with = gauze for- 
SRY Ao a room, permi 
them to fly to the windows, I ae my pcos J 
a wine-glass anda card, fed them with , and thus 
till their parasites were isclosed, I 
not the pleasure to see them emerge, but I found 
. I obtained four in this way, and 
nests of the Polistes into the house, ta- 
in the night, when all the inhabitants were 
the hopes of obtaining more ; adap tig = 


uit 


i 
SF 


_ 


i 
au 


a} 
= 
rf 


pees at oe ee When 
eee it is easy to conceive that it 
turns, with its flattened 


atria parade ro 
inal scuta, and pro- 
ng 


yi TRB, gM Pee 
ike, and I concluded that 
males, from the circumstance of their vibra- 


EbaCE its prison, 
ion, as longas it lived, which wasbutafew 
ip. 2. Rossii. Sachi Intasichds off the anit 


Chis ate, all tanweribe this part of Mr Kirby's paper, with the exception of the terms; which we shall change for those adopted.in 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


of j 


since he merely says, ‘ i 
rum. He takes no notice: of the eyes being placed a 
footstalk or pillar, The el 


isers of the Diptera" | 


fer in colour, Det so ta the I -of the first jomt of 
the i compared with the second, and in the form 
of of the antennz, Rossi makes no men- 


tion of the minute white dots which 


Peckii so v remarkable ; we therefore think, : 
r Kirby is fully justified in them as 
distinet, Should the proportion of the joints sats 


be found in nature to be the same as 

Rossi's figure, theee animale cannot be rafhiesd aves to 

the same genus, but must constitute a new one. at 
Orver V. DERMAPTERA. < 


Ornper Dermaptera. Kirby. 
Orper Coreoprera. Linn. Marsh. 
Orxver Ortuoptrena. Latr. Lam. 


Charaeters of the Order. 


. ate 


£234, t 
- F 


1 spar! 


little body or spine. Tarsi three-} 
Eyes ar-orbicular, and 
Observation. The genera are founded on shiienabel 
ts in the antenne. munis do 
enus CCCXLIIL Forricuza Linn, Fabr. Latr. 343. F 
Lam. Cuv. be OULite 


Antenna com of fourteen joints. rai 

regen agp ter | ew wae "Y 
denticulated, and a little beneath with a tooth on ria. 
side. Elytra yellowish-brown, with the disc darker. r. 

Forficula auricularia of authors, 

Inhabits Europe. Mr Marsham has cuieaiian 
sexes of this ayn - two species, under the names - 
auricularia and n A eh 

Genus CCCXL y oo Oa Leach. et omedveat 

Forricuta. Fabr. Latr. + nt an al 

Per twelve-jointed. bh 

1. Minor. _— denticulated within, 

minor. . Panz. 
Be repay Thee ok dis ouaaaeebane 
a 308 ar or that of the female, which chataster 
Mr M has considered as specific. «© 95. ¢ 

Genus CCCXLYV.  Lasrouna. Lesh; : z 

Forricuta. Fabr. 

eee with about 30 joints. 

Foo 1. _Gigantea. a testaccous-yellow. 


Inti Earp p ae 


It was de ih Bri- 


S44 


~ Minor, 


ah 


~ Orper VI. ORTHOPTERA. 


Ged Ovenbiries: Oliv. Lam. Latr. 
Class Utonata. Fabr. 
Order Hemiprera. Linn. 


Characters of the Order. 


- Elytra coriaceous, the internal margin of one over- 
lapping the same margin of the other. Wings mem- 


branaceous, the anterior margin “abou ce longitudi- 
folded. longate, narrow. 
nally folded. “Papi shor very rarely wit five joins, 


Trige I, Manripes. 
and horizontal ; the latter simply lon- 
gitudenally fold Tarsi five-jointed. Body some- 
mat ela or linear. ree not formed for leap- 


é Famity L Phasmida, 

4 Anterior feet not raptorious, Thorax composed of 

; two segments. 

$46. Passe Genus CCCXLVI. Puasma. Licht. Fabr. Latr. 
Leach. 


MA. 
; Mantis. Linn. De Geer, Oliv. 
t Spectrum. Stoll. Lam. cnt 
lindric, filiform, winged. Thorax c, 
phe sets t much longer than the first. Feet simple. 
Violascens. Sp, 1. Violascens. ge Dil os eget ge of 
the elytra ellowish ; wings, exception of 
shes ‘ccnlacntusitecnny ini violet ; the four hinder thighs 
eer ene. Sieh wea. od 
: ana 
Inhabits New Holland. 
. Spec- Genus CCCXLVII. Spectrum. 
Leach. 


- Stoll. Lamarck, 


: - Inhabits italy nd rr acon parts of France. 
Genus COCXLVIIL. Puyutrom. : Illiger, Latreille. 

Mantis. , Linn. Fabr, Oliv. 

Puasma. Lich. Lam. 

Spectrum. Stoll. 


wing Absdceson Oval ox ellignte depressed, with elytra and 


a Seca “Beg gre Dondvan, Nat. Hist. 


the Insects of India, No8. 3. 
vac tee fie Nt fe. 


_. Famivy Il. “Mantida. 
ni mec paints ow Thorax ve a 00 one 


Gants CCCXLIX. Bustle Mig. ian 
~Mawtis. Linn. Fabr. Oliv. Stoll. Lam. Lich. 


Antenne of the male 
into a horn. Four’ bade foe Heving thas’ inec 
adorned with leaf-processes. 
See Mee 
antis mendica. Fabr. Latr. Stoll, Mant, tab. 12 


fig: 47: * 
Man- Genus CCCL. Mantis. Linn. Latr. Tae Oliv, 
Lam. Lich. Latr. Stoll. 


Em- 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


119 


Antenne in both sexes simple. Head without an Metabolia. 
ye Legs egies Ba 

er iosa. vipers somewhat linear; tho- Religiosa. 
rax the length 


of the elytra, three times longer 


than oases acre with the exception of the anterior 


wee longitudinally carinated teral margins yel- 
owish, denticulated. Elytra linear, glaucous transpa- 
rent green, the exterior margin yellowish. Wings of 
the same colour with the sage rl but paler and more 
transparent, the tips brownish. Anterior legs with 


-denticulated cox. Anterior thighs yellowish within, 


denticulated at the base beneath; the spines with black 
tips. 
Mantis religiosa. Linn. Latr. 
Le Mante. 
pee oratoria var 2. Fabricius, 


Scopoli. 
iit he comin and wastes of southern Eu. 


Tame II. Acueripes. 
lytra horizontal. “Wings Hesigdg wary folded, of 


ten} vedocea beyond the elytra. Tarsi -jointed. 
feet formed for jumping. ‘ 
Fairy I... Gryllotalpida. 
Antenne not than the thorax.’ Anterior feet 


compressed, formed for digging. Oviduct not exserted. 
Genus CCCLI. Grytioratra. . Ray, Latreille. 
Gryvtuus (Acheta.) Linn. 


351. Gnvt- 
LOTALPA, 


Acueta. Fabr. 
Antennz setaceous, composed of a vast number of 
joints, oe Sign ging beinty. Anterior tibie and tarsi form- 
; two joints of the tarsi very ot 


dentin Hinder feet title formed for jumpin 

Sp. 1 aris. Above fuscous, ferruginous-yel- Vulgaris. 
lowish 3 anterior tibiee quadridentate ; wings 
twice the length of the el 


Gr yllus gryflotalpa 


Iebabite Kavos, vulgaris, Latreille. 
The male sings in the evening by 
rubbing the lparet’ 
Sp. 2. "Didaciyla ‘Anterior tibia bidentate. 
Thies ao has been confounded with 
with G. vulgaris 
in stinkin <n: 


Genus CCCLII. Tripacrytvs. ~ Olivier, Latr, $52. Trr- 


AcuHetTa. DACTy- 
arcs ed. ran (very short), ten-jointed, An- '* 


testoe tibia: with thelr} ints onl Hinder feet 
well calculated for rad th caren 

Sp. 1. Paradoxus. Pale luteous ; thorax 
cous, the sides luteous ; elytra *half the 
the abdomen, hyaline externally with white 
tips; wings a little longer than the abdomen, with their 
base white, then brown, transversely striated, 

Inhabits Guinea. It is the Acheta digitata of Coque- 
bert, tab. 21. fig. 3. 


Famuty II. Achetida. 


' Feet not formed for digging. Oviduct exserted. 
Antenne longer than the thorax. 

» Genus CCCLIII. Acueta. » Fabr. 

ris oap Linn. Geoff. Latr. Oliv. Lam. th 

ke Campestris.. Body three times ee m Campestris: 

broad, black, shining. 

ie re campestris. Linn. Latr, 

heta campestris. Fabricius, 
Inhabits the temperate parts of Europe. Is not very 


common in Britain. 


Didactyla, 


e fus- Paradoxus. 
of 


358. 
ACHETA. 


120 
Tawe HI. Locustiprs. 


— Latr. ) 
YLLUS (tettigonia). Linn. 

Hinder feet twice the length of the body. Oviduct 
. Sp. 1. Firidissima. Green ; antenna, vertex, dor- 
va sum of the thorax, and suture of the elytra, fuscous- 
ferrugi 

Locusta viridissima, Fabricius, Latreille. 

G viridissimus. Linn. 

i its E . In the autumn, the perfect insect 
may be found in great plenty near London. 


Tae lV. Grvyuves. 


Elytra and wings oblique. Hinder feet formed for 
jumping. Tarsi with three joints. Antenne filiform 
er pn Oviduct not exserted, 


Famuy I. Gryllida. 


Wings not covered by the scutellum. 
Genus CCCLY. Pweumona. Thunb. Latr. 
Gay.icos (Locusta). Linn. 
Acryoium. De Geer, Olivier. 
Antenne filiform, composed of from 16 to 20 joints. 
Abdomen bladder like, as if inflated. Feet all 
than the body. 
The ies of this curions 


355. Psrc- 
MORA 


are not well de- 


species 
fined ; we shall therefore be silent respecting them, lest 
we add to their confusion. 
as6.Teox. Genus CCCLVI. Tarvuxauis. Fabricius, Olivier, 
ALI Lambert, Latreille. 
Gryv.uws, (Acrida.) Linn. 
eee mgs icasathen: tne: 
Antenne iform. narrow 4 
ee Sen ae angle. Hinder legs longer 
The species are numerous, but are little known, one 
species having been confounded with another. 
Nasatus. Sp. 1. Nasatus. Fabricius. 
357.Gayt. envs CCCLVII. Grytivs. Fabricius, Panzer. 
Lus. py omecaie ge ~ mma Linn. 
Antenne filiform, or terminated maclub. Hinder 
Paes th Goceeeiy, Senger tee ene: 
genus comprehends a vast number of species. 
igrate Sp. 1. Migratorius. Thorax somewhat carinated ; 
_ epantiadies blue. 
This ies has been taken in Britain i ; 


—— year 1748 it 
ights, in several as we have men- 
Geigh inoue tas chan ene isi 


ed England, but i ina short tim: 
before did mock toe aa mi 
Of all the insects which are capable of adding to the 


calamities of the human race, locusts seem to possess 
the most formidable powers of destruction, Legions of 
these voracious animals, of various species, are pro- 
duced in Afrjca, where the devastations they commit is 
bers sey saidhehen salah aided roy a 
; w w er 
cafe he lage yor Soro women 
so-change the anes fiutile poovinces tate a bexsen ide- 


* Locusta verrwcivora of Fabricius, Gryllus verrwcivorue of Linnaus, has lately been taken in plenty near Rochester, by J. Herslow, 


‘Beg. of St Joba's College, 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Some of ies serve as and are eaten fresh 
as well as In the latter state they are constantly 
exposed to sale in the Levant ; but the quantity of nu- 


Famiry Il. Acrydida. 


Wings covered by the scutellum. 

Genus CCCLVIIL Acryprium. Fabricius, Geof- 358. 
froy, De Geer, Olivier, DRUM 

rsa Bula) Linn. 

RYLLUS, 

Terrix. {oreslie 

Sp. 1. Subulata. Obscure testaceous brown, granu~ Subulata, 
lose ; thorax carinated, marginated. 


Acrydrium subulatum. Fabricius, Olivier. 
Tetrix subulata, Latreille, 
Inhabits Europe. It is found in hot banks, and is 
subject to some variation in colour. 
he species of Acrydrium are but little understood. 
We seem to possess three yery distinct indigenous 
species, all varying in size, sculpture, and colour, 


Orver VII. DICTUOPTERA. ~ 


Order Hemiprera. Linn. 
Class Utonara. Fabricius. 
Order Ontuorrera. Latreille. 
Order Dicruoprera. Leach. 


Characters of the Order. 

El coriaceous, nervouse, decussating each other. 

Win y mbeeded with a few inal folds. 
Mani palpi elongate. 

somewhat orbicular. Tarsi with five joints. 


tthe character of the order. Much might be done to- 
wards elucidating this hitherto neglected part of ento« 
mology ; and we trust that some entomographer, who 
has time, will devote some share of his attention to . 


Order Hemiptera. Linn. Lamarck, Cuvier, Leach. 

Class Ruyneora. Fabricius. ; 

Order Hemiprera, Section 1. Hereroprera. Latr. 
Characters of the Order. 


‘ 


the apex membranaceous, 
ie thetic 
‘ Haustellum with nee sete. Ocelli or 


| 


Section I. TERRESTRIA. 
Obs. The insects which compose this section are not 


— os 


; ~iithladhamaa. 
—— 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


distinguished from the second section their 
com erg on eae mie ep ta 


_ tial organs. ‘The antenna of this division are exserted, 
and are very distinct. 


Trise I. PENTATOMIDES. 
of five joints. Rostrum with four 


v ap: airs Tarsi with three distinct 
joints, es liongate. Head trigonate, immersed 
even to the eyés in the thorax. 


’Famity I. Scutellerida. 


Scutellum el , covering the elytra and thewings. 
Genus C' ScuTeLtera, Lam. Latr. Leach. 
Teryna. inet 


ys ome Leach’s Zoological. Miscel- 
lamy, vol, i. p. 36, tab. 14, 

nhabits new 

Genus CCCUXI. Teryra. Fabricius, Leach. 

Scurettera. Latreille. » 

Cimex..Lim. 5 

rn hee aarlianageeeaipiy the sides 
of very narrow in front. An- 
Sp.1. Lineata, 


scutellum niente ee { marginal spots othe 


Inhabits the southern parts of Europe. 
_ Genus CCCLXIL. Tuyrzocoris. Schrank, Leach. 
Scuretrera. Latreille. 


» eond joint very short. Thorax with the anterior mar- 


io 


$68, 2114. 


men, and knees, 
ote 


gin not much narrower than the hinder margin. 

Sp. 1. Globus. 4 Somewhat. triangular, 
broader behind, shining brassy-black, punctate; base 
row of purictures on each side of the abdo- 

yellowish ; scutellum with an im- 

‘on each side of the base. 
lobus. Fabricius, 

7 Cintex dlobue, Wolf. Teou Cim.fus 1. p-3. tab. 1.fig, 3. 

Inhabit southern Europe 


Famuy IL. Pentatomida, 
Scutellum not a. i Aa hia 
Genus COCLATIT ta. Scie 
Cimex. Linn. Wi 
‘Latele, 
tk che margin much 


PenTaToma. 

Body ovate. 
mpesbliek Chit tli Kita Head longer th broad. An- 
* From the’Corevs, Dr yoorehey to te 


arcuate 


121 
tenne with the second joint not 1 r than the third ; Metabolia. 
ber arg tens lateral ofthe head. “v= 


1. Acuminata. _Pale-yellowish, longitudinally Acuminata. 
tine sted with fuscous, impressed-punctate ; a us 
band running down the middle of the back, divided 
by a whitish line ; last joint of the antennee red. 

Cimex acuminatus. inn, 
"Elia acuminata. Fabricius. 
Pentatoma acuminatum. Latreille. 
Inhabits laces.. It is rare in Britain. 
Genus COCLXLV V. Penratoma. Olivier, Latreille. 364. Pex- 
Crmex. Fabricius, Wolff. . TATOMA. 
Body ovate. Thorax with the anterior in much 
narrower than the hinder. Head with nearly equal 


1, Bidens. Body gri above ; thorax with Bidens, 
a spine on cach ‘bide’ behind, 


Cimex bidens. Fabricius. 
~ Pentatoma bidens. Latreille. 
Inhabits Europe. 
Sp. 2. spats: Green above ; hinder angles of the Prasinus. 
thorax without sp 
Cimex Saas * Babricias, 
Inhabits Eu 
Genus CCCLXV. Cypnus. Fabricius, 
Pentatoma. Latreille. Nus. 
Body ovate, somewhat orbicular ; anterior in of 
the thorax narrower than’the hinder. Head near ly ses 
micireular. Antenne with the second j joint longer than 
the third. Tibie spinulose. 
Sp. 1. Oleraceus. Brassy datk green; sides of the Oleraceus, 
esd ina thorax with a oe “sey line, on the lat- 
ter red ; outer margin of the on each, with 
two. spots and the apex of the se scutellum red ; thighs, 
a ie ,) an middle of the tibie yellowish. 
urope. 


Tae It. Corres: 


rena composed of four joints.. Rostrum with » 
four distinct joints, the first three of nearly an equal 
J Labrum very loug, striated. .Tarsi with three 
distinct joints, pray i jet ate. Head trigonate, im~ 
mersed even to the ey the thorax: 

Genus CCCLXVE. “Conzus.* Fabricius, Lamarck, 366. Conr- 
Wolff. Latreille. . vs. 

Crmex. Linn. Geoffroy, &c. 

Antenne inserted above a line drawn from the 
to the base of the labrum; the last joint thick. Tho. 
rax with the anterior narrower than the terior mar- 
gir Body ovate, the sides of the nen dilated. 
ead trigonate ; neck not ap; t. 

Sp. 1. Marginatus. Red-fuscous, obscure ; sides of 
the abdomen elevated, acute ; antenne with their inter- tus, 
= base unidentate, the first and last joints blackish, 


365. Cyp- 


wager . 


' Fubticins, Latreille, 
Linn. 


Cimex mar; 

Inhabits <n on the dock: 

Genus CCCL Beryrvs. Fabricius. 
. Latreille. 

‘Antenne inserted above a line drawn from the 


to the base of the labrum ; g alichit thet ‘itd. 
dle ; the first joint very long, the last thick. Body fili- 


rue at he has named Myctts, the characters of which are vertex with two ocellt 


hee 


—_ the first joint re ios ag Anterior four feet alike 


129 ENTOMOLOGY. 


“Sate See. Head somewhat conic; neck not on Tiees teeta than the Metabolia, _ 
*¢ alike, somewhat : 
Tipabricn ==-Sp. 1. Tipwlarius. Reddish-gray ; antenna as lo SRaicccn. 20 Black. . Pergonatus. 
as the body, with the last joint p aban pba ad Hetevine Fabr. Latr. i 
minate, and produced ; thorax with three elevated lines, Inhabits nrope, de often iauod talib, aid be tid 
which are and longitudinal, two of these are to destroy the common house bug Cimex /ectularius., 
marginal, the other dorsal; elytra striate nervous, im- © Genus CCCLXXIV, Peratocninvs. Leach, _. 37 PE. 
~punctate, spotted with fuscous. Perarocueirus, Palissot de Beauvois, soe heen et 
Cimer tipularius. Linn. Repvvivs. Latreille, ae 
ae tipularius. Fabricius. Body not linear. Rostrum, wee Be middle joint 
Neides tipularius, Latreille, evidently longer than the others. abruptly ele- 
Inhabits vated behind, bilobate. Anterior tibia dila’ too ma 
S08. Lee Genus eccL Ill. ot ga Fabr, Wolff, Latr. oval plate. 
apes Covex. Linn, De Geer, a 1. Variegatus. Body variegated. Variegatus. 
Antenne: filiform, eeuieiheedatesaben ion etalocheirus variegatus, Palissot de Beauvois. =m 


the eyes to the base of the labrum. Body elongate- Inhabits Africa. 
ovate. Head trigonate, neck not apparent. Genus CCCLXXV. Zetvus. Fabricius, Latreille 315. Za. 


Lus. 


Sp. 1. Apterus. Red, with black spots. Elytra abbre- Crmex. Linneeus, De Geer. 
“ viated. ” ~ Body linear. Anterior pair of feet like the others in 
Cimex apterus. Stewart. form ; Plog te ae ware me 
Tagens . Fabricius. S Loaeetet : La —p 
I i longipe®. Fabr. Latr. 
se0.Car- GENUS CCCLAIX. CaPsvs. Fabricius, Latreille, GenvsCCCLXXVI. Provanta. Scopoli, Latreile, veicalabeeec 
sus. Crmex. Linn. Genruis. Fabricius, Schellenberg. 
Head te be pl A Body: flitom K, posterior feet vii: ‘fili 
trigonate, not apparent. Antenne seta- y orm. Four v - 
ones the second joint at thé apex thick, the two last poet lew peri et ey Pt 
hen combined, much sharin th fins set bled . 1. Vagebunda. vara a as 
Ate. be 1. Alter. car black, xerris vagebundus, Fabricius. : 
Inhabits Europe in grassy places every where. Genus CCCLXXVII. Cimex. Linn. Latr. 877, Cr 
370. Mie Genus CCCLXX. Munrs. Fabr. Latr. Acantuta. Fabricius. — 
ais. Crwex. Linn. Geoff. &c, i ressed. Rostra dott Alceodi? Wingsnone. 
Lyexvs, Wolff. Sp. Reddish brown, with short hair. Lectulains, 
Antenne setaceous, the second and following joints Gicah tochelariag Linn. Fabr. Latr. &c. 
= — trigonate. Neck not apparent. paren lectularia. Fabricius. mi sap 
v 1 ans, nhabits houses, sucking blood man. 
Ot Lge Fagen aE bi Cin Be. 4: pA. tah, Tu Gumbe 
16. fig. 153. Genus CCCLXXVIII. Macnocernanus, Swederus, 378. Ma- 
$11. Myo. | GanusCCCLXXI. Myopocna.. Latreille. .  Syrris. Fabricius. pean sth 
pocua. Cimex. De Geer. Acantuta. ‘Schellenberg; Wolff oes 
Head ovoid, with a distinct neck. Antenne slight- - Abdomen with the sides into an angle. An- 
ly aH Tipotlen extremities, terior siggy ots Anteme the last joint = 
Tipuloides. Sede very large, ry ave um the whole un- 
imex ipaaien De Geer, Mem. sur les Insectes, 5, connected with the thorax, covering 
354. tab. 35, fig. 18. of the ar Bee 
Myodocha tipuloides, Latreille. Sp. 1. Cimicoides. * Cimicoides, 
Tune II. Crncrnes. e ros ot re Swederus, Noo Act. Stockh. 
ag i Naan oh ang mga Se ge aogh or Sy tie eee aca, 
very short, not projecting. Feet simple. Eyes not Inhabits and Carolina. 
very large. Genus CCCLXXIX. Puymarta.  Latreille, Leach, 379. Pur. 
F lL Cimici Syrtis. Fabricius. neat Pdoabaine ire comma 
suntv I. Cimicida, Acantuta. Schellenberg, Wolff. Fit 
Feet formed for walking on the earth, with distinct Body membranaceous, lateral margins elevated. Tho- 
nails, rax prolonged into a scutellum behind. Antenne con- 
87%. Na- Genus CCCLXXII. Nanis.  Latreille, tiguous at their base, with the last joint thicker and 
mm Crtex. De Geer. j barges, Svcsiv Sw thy ME son of thas 
Repuvivs. Wolff. rax. Anterior feet raptorious, : ; 
Body not linear. Antenne inserted below the mid- Sp. 1. Crassipes. eas emcee ae 
pe lary Rostrum, with the second joint almost crassipes. Fabricius. Nie rm % 
“Gigs Bs Ew gases pO babies Erancs end Genes: “the 
Cigu. . Brown, obscurel I ranee and German. . 
; ap Gis Wolff, Cin. 12. fig. 113. Genvs CCCLEXK.'  Tinars ido Late, gg 
973. Re- we LXXIIL Reovvivs. Fabr. Oliv. Lam.  Cimex. Linn. Geoff. De Geer. 
DUVivs. Scexerit. 


Schrank, Schellenberg, Wolff. 
ae Linn. Geoff. De Geer. ly depressed, reticulated. Feet all sim- 
Body not linear. Antenne inserted above a line ple. Anette by oral nt the i 

drawn from the eyes to the base of the rostrum. Ros- joint very long. 


e 


- Stegnorum. 


—\—  Tinzis cardui. Fabricius, Panzer, Latreille. 
Cardui. Toa bite thistles. ogg 

380. Ana. | GENus CCCLXXX.*? Aravus. Fabricius, Panzer. 
bus. Cimex. Linn. Geof. De Geer. 


Body depressed. Fost al simple. Antenne with 
cylindric joints, the second articulation longest. 
. 1. Lunatus. . 
radus lunatus. Fabricius, Latreille. 
Inhabits Europe. , 


Famity II. Gerrida. 


Feet very long, formed for walking on the water, 
with the nails very minute, inserted laterally into a fis- 
arms fhe extveapig, of Se. last Joint of the tere 

ssi. Hr.  GENus:CCCL Hyprometra. _ Latreille, La- 
prome- marck, Fabricius. 
TRA. Crmex. Linnzus, Geoffroy. 


AQUARIUS. remmrecrs 2 

Antennz setaceous, the third joint much longer 
the rest. Anterior feet simple. Head elongate-cylin- 
dric, apex thickened. 


A Schellenberg 

ibe Free 
_ Genus CCCLX I. Vewsia. Latreille. 

Crex. ~ Rossi. 

Hypnromerra. Fabricius, 
feet raptorious. Rostrim two-jointed. Head some- 
what vertical. 


Lanatus. 


382. Ve- 
LIA. 


i 


Middle of the under 


Dr spn of that this is 1 
is is is merely the 
state of the Rant a 
[i. Gerris. Latreille. 


XXXII. 
Crmex, gern eae Schrank, Geoffroy. 
ves es berg. 


black. Thorax with an elevated line, extending to the 
middle of the back. Lateral margins of the thorax and 
abdomen with the anus reddish. 
‘um. Fabricius, 
Gerris pa . Latreille. 
Inhabits France, England, and Sweden. 


: «ENTOMOLOGY. 


silky whi 
the abdomen, and its elevated margin, with red . 


123 


The species of this genus are certainly but little Metabolia. 
known ; they are either subject to great variation, or are = 
very numerous, 


Trine IV. ACANTHIDES. : 
Labrum prominent. Eyesvery large. Feet formed 


for Moco g and ing. 
Genus 35 . Acanruna. Schrank, Latr, 384. Acay- 
Crmex. Linnzus, De Geer, Geoffroy. — THis 
Saupa. Fabricius. - 
Lyczus. Wolff. 
Antennz filiform. Rostrum straight, long. 
Sp. 1. Maculata. Black spotted, with pale colour, Maculata, 

canthia maculata, Latreille. ; 

Inhabits Europe in moist places. 
Genus CCCLXXXV. Lerropus. Dufour, Latr, (385. Lep- 
Antennz setaceous. Rostrum arcuate, short. _ POPUs: 
Obs. Of the we know nothing; the genus 

was first observed by Dufour in southern France. 


Section Il. Aquatica. 
Antenne very minute, not exserted, inserted beneath 
the eyes. 
Obs. All the insects of this Section live in the water. 


Trisz V. Betosromipes. 
Tarsi alike, all cylindric, biarticulated, and furnished 
with nails. Body depressed. 
_ Famuty I. Pelogonida. 
Anterior feet not ious. 
Genus CCCLXXXVI. Petoconus. Latreille. $86. Pexo- 
Feet all formed for walking. Tarsi of the anterior ¢0Nvs. 
pair of feet, with the first joint very short. Body orbi- 
culate-ovate. Antenne four-jointed. 
Sp.1. Marginatus. 
’clogonus marginatus. Latreille, Gen. Crust. et Ins. 
3. 143. 
Acanthie bordée. Latreille, Hist. Nat. des Crust. et 
des Insect. 12. p. 142. 
Inhabits the south of France. 


Famuy Il. Belostomida. 


Anterior feet raptorious. 
Genus CCCLXXXVIL Gareutvus. Latreille. 
Navucoris. Fabricius. 


Tarsi =n ihe ‘ biarticulate, cee: with two 
strong eq’ ils. Antenne: sim) — beneath 
the internal angle of the eyes, three.joim 
. 1. Oculatus. 
oculatus. Latreille. 
Naucoris oculatus. Fabricius. 
Inhabits Carolina. 
Genus CCCLXXXVIII. Berosroma. Latreille. 388, Be- 
Tarsi of the anterior feet with a simple nail. An- Lostoma. 
tenne semi-pectinate, inserted under eyes, four- 
jointed. 
Sp. 1. Testaceo-pallidum. Pale, testaceous, eyes ci- Testaceo- 
nereous, 4 pallidum, 
Inhabits, South America, 
Trise VI. Nepipes, 


Anterior tarsi united with the tibia. Body depres- 
sed or linear. 


Marginatus. 


$87. GaL- 
GULUS. 


Oculatus. 


Famuty I. Naucorida. 


Anus without sete. Tarsi of the four posterior feet ; 
distinctly biarticulate, Antenne four-jointed. 


124 
Metabrolise Genus CCCLXXXIX. Navconrs, » Baste oS 
Latreille. 


bricius, Olivier, , 
88. Nac a. ‘Linnaeus, De Geer. — pe Laat 


Assuiial teomaeh Seeealt Goa Ojon! Body ovate, m 


Dis his gnu, able ma apne 


the family Belostomida 
in that division, 
Famity II. Nepida. % 

Anus —. with ay ee Yea of me. four 
posterior feet mae 

Genus COCXC Nera. Linn. De Geer, vane Oliv. 
Lam, Latr. é 

inflected. Body oval. An- 


Hepa. Gass. Goetter. 
een ners er ea al 
1. Cinerea. Dark- -black. 


re a’ rent 

se d'eau scorpion palin: 

Le Scorpion aquatt “at ol gag Geoffroy, 
Inhabits the ditches ttc dleches of 

ua CCCXCI. Rawxatra. Fabr. Schellenberg, 


Nera. Linn. De Geer, Oliv. Lam. ¥ 

Hepa. Geoffroy. 

Rostrum porrected. Body linear. Four hinder feet 
filiform. of anterior feet elongate. 

brown. 


390, Neva. 


Cinerea. 


S91. Rawa- 
TRA. 


Linearis, 


ayy De Geer, 
jon a 


rig. giiboes 
Inhabits the itches ge ponds Bune It is 
ery local in this country. It may occasionally be 


seen neat London in Copenhag Piet and in in ponds 
near Hammersmith. It hans tinawies 


Halesworth in Suffolk. 


Trise VI. Noronectipes. 
Tarsi of anterior feet not united with the tibia. Body 
depressed cylindric, or cylindric-oval. 
Famity I. Notonectida. 


Tarsi all with two joints. 
392. No- Genus CCCXCIL. Noronrcra. Linn, Geoff Fabr. 
TONECTA Oliv. Latr. 

Neva. De Geer. 

Seutellum triangular, large. Four anterior feet with 
strong nails; the hinder pair elongate, ciliated, with 
very minute 

a 1. Glauca. 

‘otonecta glauca, Linn. Fabr. Latr. 
Inhabits fresh waters. of Europe. 


Glauce 


‘Famity Il. Corizida. 
Tarsi of the four anterior feet one jointed, of the hin- 


der pair two-j 
Gexus CCCXCIIL Geoff. Oliv. 
Latr. 
Noronecta. Linn. 
Nera. De Geer. 
Stoana. Fabr. Schrank, Schellenberg. 
Anterior of feet without nails; the other feet 
furni with nails. Seutellum none. 
1. Striata. 


395. Co- 


Corixa. 
RIXA. , 


Lam. 


Suiats, 


ENTOMOLOGY. | ys 


Onpeie IX. ‘OMOPTERA. | ‘ 
Order‘ Hewrprena, Linn. Cuvier, Lamarck, 
Chs Rynootra. Fabricius. . 
Order Hemiptera, Section 2, Homoptera. tate 
Order OmorTera. 


mutesod 


Characters of the Order. 

Rostrum attached to Senne ar ie the neh 
pet or membranaceou ye 
ture FT at ry eee 
second as or longer than the first. Ocelli three. ri Lat 

abi etamorphosis semicomplete, or incom == 
plete. sat 


’ Trae I. Terriconipes. 


Antenne composed of six distinct joints. Ocelli of 
little eyes three. Tarsi with three SOE? 


Genie CCCXCIV. Terriconia. Fabr. — 39% Ter~- 
Cicaba. , Geof. etn Latr. —— 
i of the anterior feet 
1. Hematodes. Body. Slighdly y cilky Racing Hematodes, 
- bloc: anterior segment and margins rete 
sides of the abdomen and nerve athe ey, ot, out 
ginous-red. ay joa 
Cicada hematodes. Linn. Latr. 
Tettigonia sanguinea. Fabr. | 
I southern Europe. 


Trine IJ. CrcApies. — } sscarra 


Antenne three-jointed, Ocelli_ two. Tarsi with 
three joints. 


Famity I. Fulgerida. 


Antenne not inserted in the internal sinus wd. 
eyes ; the two first joints conjoined shorter, than the 


head. 
Genus CCCXCV. Futcora. Linn. ‘Enbr. alt 05, Foe? . 
Oliv. Cuy. 
ee produced into a rostrum. yea globular, _ 
Sp. Lanternaria. Rostrum very 
Elytra ad wings varicaniet 3 en true Too ected. Tia. 
Fulgora lanternaria. 
Inhabits Surinam, the Pasa "of this, (as Sass of all 
other species of the Genus) emits a phosp 
light in the dark. The light phd this species is so rar ne 
vivid, as to enable one to read a aensiebess . 
Sp. 2. Candelaria. Front witha te, ascending Candelaria. 
rostrum. Elytra green, variegated with yellowish, 
Wings yellow. with black tips. 
a candelaria, Linn, Fabr. Donov. a 


Inhabits China, from whence it is very frequently 
sent. home in collections of insects.. 806 Fbae « 
5 ae ag ee Frata. Fabr, sth St aes, . 
ULGORA. ille. 
vertical, not rotated. Eyes ‘Eyes: i 
eee, sivas, 20% , the external 
much. dilated 
“hat fectnies Latr. ‘ 
I its Euro i “ty : 
Genus CCCRCVIL. _ Issus.. Fabr. . 


Front as if truneated, 
“Body broad riage, 
1. Reticulata. 


pitas Fabricius. 
Genus CCCXCIX. TuticomeTra. Latr. 


“a cylindric ; second joint somewhat ovate- 
rompeled, twice na long ea the Srv the apex excavated 


poly Bhan ppt Seedling gee Body ovate 
ae View pc aap eyes; and mouth 


Famity Il, ~ Delphacida, 
eeimemarrpens te et Saesiial atone, ofthe eyes, 
two as or 
LO Sty ia ee 
_ Dexpuax. Fabricius. 
Antenne as long or longer than the thorax, the first 


IN penicg bdown, or obscure brown 
3 of the four anterior. tibie. white ; 
; apex with a fuscous band ; nerves 


ce - Pellucida. rr t gop ees ? 
Inbabits Europe mse tte 
Famity III. Cercopida, 
_ Antenne inserted between the eyes. Thorax not 
transverse, hinder more or less prominent, 


Genus CCCCII. Cerarion. Latr. 
“Lystra. Fabricius. 


Antenne inserted on the frontlet, the second longer 
bsg the first joint, the third joint short conic. Thorax 


*, |. Sanguinolenta. Black, shining; each wing- 
; case wi a pr tthe bu, oe the middle, and a 
flexuous vinta La 


t France, (abo 7 and England 
Genus CCCCIV. any Fabr 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


‘Autorun Stvertnch deh then Eons) healt. tt § ints 
‘equal in length, the first rather thickest, the thi end- 
ing in a long seta. Thorax on each side dilated into an 
auricle. 


Genus CCCCV. Memoracis. Latr. 

Centrotus. Fabr. 

‘Mempracis. Fabr. 
_€reapa. Linn. 

Antenne inserted in the frontlet; the two first joints 
nearly equally long; the third elongate-conic. Tho- 
rax behind. 


Sp. 1. 


405. Mex- 
BRACIS. 


Cornutus. 


Famity IV. Cicadida. 


Antenne inserted between the eyes. Thorax trans- 
verse, hinder 

Genus CCCCVI. Iassus. Fabr. 

Terrticonia. Late. Olivier, Lamarck. 

Front broad, not longer than broad, on each side 
above the insertion of the antenne produced into an 


By = en 


Sassus lanio. Fabr. 
ia lanio. Oliv. Lamarck. 
Inhabits phn 
Genus CCCCVII. Creana. hinds Fabr. Latr. 
eee Olivier, yeep 
ront elongate-quadrate, the a) truncate, convex, 
thickened. ye 


1. Viridis. 
icada viridis. are Ae cae Panzer. 
Latreille. 


Inhabits Europe, 
pick Ill. Psyzurmes. 


Tarsi with two joints distinct. Antenne with ten or 
eleven jot, the lt with two sce Legs formed for 
st Both sexes with wings. 
wus CCCCVITI..Psytia. Geoffroy, Olivier, La- 406, Psvts 

marck, Latreille. 

Cuenwes. Linn. De Geer, Fabricius. 

Antenne filiform or slightly setaceous, as long as the 
body. By a with the Slowish arcuate. 

1. Alni.” Green-yellowi anterior segment of ani, 

ae, scutellum, squamula of the elytra and ner- 
veurs green. 
Chermes betula alni. Linn. 


406. Tas- 
sus. 


Lanio. 


407. Cica~ 
DA. 


Viridis: 


Genus CCCCIX. Lrvra. Latreille. 

Drraputa. Iliger. 

Antenne shorter than the thorax, the base much 
a ta che age en Thorax with the ante- 


segment transverse, straight. 


“Sp > i fees, 
Inhabits Junci, ; 


Trise V. APHIDES., 


mes tve-soutels the first joint very short. Ros- 
sexes. wrtrwsath. yond dnsremheacged 


409, Li- 
Via 


Juncorum, 


Gig Pinte Females generally apterous. 


4tl. A. 
rats. 


412. A- 
LEYRODES. 


helidonii. 


413. Dor- 
THESIA. 


@haracias. 


#14. Coc- 


cos. 


Cacti. 


126 


Famny 1. Thripsida. 


jointed with the last joint vesiculous. Antenne eijght- 
maces minute, vo onan! 2 externally with- 
out rate. : 

tutta, Head ccccx. Tee Linn. Geoffroy, Latreille, 
Lamarck, Olivier. 

Elytra ‘and wings horizontal and linear. 

Sp. 1. Physapus. Black, hairy; antenne, tibie 
and tarsi pale ; middle of the tibia’ pale brown ; elytra 
and wings white. 

Thrips physapus. Linn. Fabricius, Latreille. 


Famity Il.  Aphida. 


Tarsi with the last joint with two nails. Antenne 
six or seven-jointed. Rostrum very distinct, nearly 
Saat with three distinct joimts. Head trans- 
“Guanes CCCCXI. Apurs. Linn. Fabr. Latr. Oliv. 
Lam. 

Antennz setaceous or filiform, seyen-jointed. Ely 
tra larger than the wings, elongate- . Abdo- 
men towards the apex generally tuberculated or horn- 
ed. Eyes entire. 

The animals of this genus are very numerous, and 
are found on almost every plant. The French call them 
Pucerons, the English Plant-lice. The species require 
examination. The females are generally apterous. 

Genus CCCCXII. Axeyropes. Latr, Lamarck. 

Tinea. Linneus. 

Puarana. Geoff. 

Antenne filiform, short, | six-jointed. Elytra and 
wings equal in size. Body mealy. Eyes two, each di- 
“ 1 Cheledonit Body yellowish, wid 

Sp.1 ii. ly yellowish, or powder- 
od with white eyes black ; each elytra w with a punc- 
ture and spot of black. 


Trise VI. Apnipes. 


Tarsi with one joint and one nail. Rostrum in the 
female. Wingsin the male, but no elytra. Female 


Kee CCCCXIIL. Donwoaage Bose. Latr. 
Coccus. Dorthes, Fabr. Oliv. 
Antenne of the female eight-jointed. Abdomen “i 
ge" males very setose behind. 


1. Characias. ; 
characias. Dorthes, Fabr. 

Dorthesia characias. Bosc. Latr. 
> Inhabits the Euphorbium characias of southern 
rance. 


Ons tapenade Coccus. Linn. Geoff. Fabr, Oliv. 


Antenne of the female eleven-jointed. Abdomen of 

the males with two very long sete at the apex. 
Sp. lL. Cacti. 

Cocbus cacti. Linn. De Geer, Fabr. Latr. 

Inhabits fruit-trees, 

This requires a minute investigation, which 
should be conducted by some one possessing a great 
share of patience, and ving a very competent know- 
ledge of entomology. 

Orpen X. APTERA. 

Onpen Arrers. Linn. Delam. 

Onver Suctronsa. Latr. 


Characters of the Order. 
Nody somewhat ovate, compressed, covered with a 


, We MR td os man pabcy endear Go Kaho pron, che GUE Eee ela aie 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


melliform, small, ciliated with spinules, 
their base, inserted in two excavations 
by filiform (compere. of four rounded j 

ly longer than the head, porrect, 

e rostrum. Legs strong, and formed for 
especially the hinder ones. Coxe and thi 
com Tarsi elongate, cylindric, 
five simple joints, the last articulation 
two long, acute, slender nails. 

Larva without feet. 


Get COCCEV: P of authors. 
Genus ULEX, 
_Sp. 1. Irritans. Body brunneous, omnetinis ings $18 Po 


ning to rust-colour. 
common bed-flea. Is found throughout Eu- eee 


Notwithstanding the inconveniences attending - 
little insect, there is something pleasing in thea alt Sn 

ance of the flea. Its ‘motions are. elegant, and all its 1 tl 
The oon with which it is 


a3 


times its own It is remarkable, that Socrates 


was ridiculed for Kg pretended ex SCuatn ent this sub- 
ject, by ‘Aristophartes. ‘Arist. Clouds. act i. scene 2, 
This his circumstance is alluded to in Butler's Hudibras. 


Sp.2. Penetrans. The chig, : 

Iuhabits the West Fg ee the human Penetrans, 
skin, and iting a of eggs within a sac. ° 

The Pefully acnined. "Sinks sees Seeaeat ef 


-Oxver XI. LEPIDOPTERA. 


Onver LeprorTera. Linn. Cuv. ‘Lam. Late. 
Class Grossata. Fabr. 


Characters of the Order. 
Wings four, covered with scales. Tange spiral, fili- 


form. 


Linné divided this order into three viz. Pa- 
pilio (b ects BME Sphine (hawk-moth), and Phalena. 
(moth), whi characterized by the form of their 


antenne ; and these divisions form the three great sec« 
tions of Latreille, as follow. 


“Secrion I. Drorna. 


Wings four ; all, or at least the superior ones, erect 
when the insect is'at rest. Antenne with their 


thicker or capitate; in a very few somewhat setaceous, 
with the extreme apex hooked. 

The insects ofthis section, which constitute the Lin 
nean genus Pa ly by Caterpillars with 
este fet. hrysalis ket, ear generally “i 


Trine I. Parmiowtpes,* 


Hinder tibie with byes en Soran 
Antenne not ungulated or at gre 
Wings al levated when ot 6 se 


ENTOMOLOGY. euhaerecas 


Metabolia, Peli) — int as the preceding: ‘Wings not very nar- Metabolia. 
—=—c Famuy I. Papilionida. - = ae egeeen: a. ited to=———" 
esis dati cylindric. i , admit the abdomen, but not tailed. Feet alike in both 
: alae Tees Gof ln with distinct Ma beng — sexes ; claws unidentate or bifid. ; 


mago ' 
416. Parr. news CCCCKVL Paritio. Fabr. Latr. Leach. Chrysalis angulated, fastened by a transverse thread. 
a : at their points, furnished with a conic- * Anterior wings somewhat trigonate; hinder 
ovate or , somewhat arcuate, club. - ee MH ER COT a o 
: Palpi_ pressed close to the face, - scarcely . 1. Crategi. Wings white, with a faint tinge of Crategi. 
net two first joints of equal Sellemials and black nerveurs. 


nished with distinct but simple claws. Anterior wi . Pontia crategi.  Fabr. 


erally somewhat falcate ; hinder ones often ; Inhabits Europe. In England, it is found near Lon- 
the internal margin excised or folded to admit of free don, where it is.called Black-veined white. 
play for the abdomen. Sp.2. Brassicee, (large cabbage-butterfly). Brassica. 
sa seep ee wens nya Sadayy an Rareibe. Papilio bras — 

4 chrysalis angulated, with two processes before ; it ‘ontia brassice. Fabr. , 
_ fastens itself by a transverse thread. ‘ Pieris brassicae. Latr. ‘ 
rae ee ee an, cotaeten sien saiet Inhabits Europe everywhere. The larva feeds on 
* Apdo pan eS agape dates say “ Siisetie) s 
warmer regions, very occurring in the more tem- 3. , (small cabbage- lye" 8 pe. 
perate parts of the world. Their flight is extremely Papo rape. — 
: rapid. ontia ra " . 
Machaon. § Sp.1. Machaon. Black and yellow ; hinder wings Podsean. Latr. 
tailed ; edges of the wings black, with yellow cres- - Inhabits on cabbages. ; 
cents ; the tips of the hinder ones with a red spot at 4. Napi, veined white butterfly). Napi- 
heir inferior ti Deacon: 
pe scot Linn. Fabr. Pontia napi. F 
Europe ; the larva in the fennel. Pieris na, Latr, 

In England it is called the Swallow-tailed ,  » Inhabits everywhere. “ 
and is very local. It is the most superb of all the Sp. 5. Cardamines, (orange-tipt butterfly). . Cardami- 
tish of this . The caterpillar is green, ‘apilio cardamines. Linn. eg 

with black, marked by a row of red spots, It | Pontia cardamines, Fabr. & 
pee, php std state in July ; and the fly is Pieris cardamines, Latr. 


wo broods are suid to be found ; Inhabits Europe. The larva feeds on the Carda- 


the first in , having lain in the chrysalis or pupa mine pratensis. 

state all the winter. Papilio ice, Linn.; Pontia daplidice, Fabr. ; 
Papilio rius of Linné, which tothis Pieris idice of Latreille, has been introduced into 

genus, has introduced into the British Fauna, on the Bri anes t on very slender authority. 

dubious 2 PS ee 

Doni. us - Doritis. Fabricius. Sp. 6. Sinapis. Wings white, with blackish tips. sinapis. 
Parnassius. | (Wood white ). : 
Papilio sinapis. 
Bay ges meacmemageas Ungues or claws sim- —_—— Pieris sinapis. Latr. 

} rising above the clypeus, very prominent, Genus CCCCXIX. Cours, Fabr. Latr. 419, Co- 
cylindric-conic, with three very distinct joints. An-  Preris. Schrank. L148. 
tenn with a thickened, somewhat ovate straight head. | Antenne short, gradually thickening into an obco- 
inde mage vee reds the internal margin excised, nic head. Palpi much compressed ; the last joint very 
to admit of e play for the abdomen. short. Feet alike in both.sexes, all with bifid, or umi- 

. The smooth, somewhat folliculate. dentate nails. wos anterior, somewhat trigonate ; * 
‘ 1. Wings white, rounded, spotted with hinder rounded, with a groove to receive the abdo- 
3 the lower pair marked with annular red spots. men. 
Papilio Apollo. Gmelin. Serene a transverse thread, 
Parnassius Latr. Sp. 1. Hiya y (dlouded yellow butterfly) Hyale. 
Doritis Fabr. Papilio yale of authors, 
Inhabits y and France. : iho Schrank. 
Larva black, with red, Chrysalis brown, Colias es Fabr. Latr. 
powdered with v Inhabits Occurs in England once in three 
This elegant insect, which has been confounded by mapa Ae » in every part of the country. 
some authors with Doritis Ni and Phebus, is There isa coloured variety of each sex, which have 
mage reapbertngeew >. ce wy ae been i as distinct species. 166. G 
no right or whatever to a place in ritish © Genvs CCCCXX. Gonepreryx. Leach, z's 
Fauna, has been described as such by Mr = Cotas. Fabr. Latr. aigeiv 


it 
Harworth, has been figured by Mr Donovan on Pieris, Schrank, 


the most and unsatisfactory authority, Antenne short, ually thickening into an obconic 
Pox. Genus XVIIL Pontia. Fabr. head. Palpi cee ech yews ; the last joint 
Pieris. Schrank, Latr. very short. Feet alike in both sexes, all with » bifid 


Antenne , with an abrupt, obconic, compres- or unidentate nail. Wings angulated, , the hin- 
sed head, slender, somewhat cylindric ; the last Ti tak Gatal need ete 


128 
went Gi Rhamni. motte mae yellow ofthe fe 
Shateb saale whitish ; with a fulvous spot on each. 
Papilio rhamai. Linn. 
rhamni, Fabr. Latr. 
Pieris rhamni, Schrank. 
. erys rhamni. Leach, 
its Europe in the spring and autumn, Flight 
$21. An- Gaxvs CCCCXXL Aroeynnis. Fabr. Latr. 


Otrxm 


Antenne terminated with a short club, Palpi diva- 
ricating abruptly, terminated with a minute, slender, 
acicular, very short joint ; cay SO PRE Rego hairy. 
Hinder wing orbicular. Anterior feet very short in 
both sexes. Tursi with double nails. 

Chrysalis suspended by the tail. 

ee. spiny. 

Lathonia. 1. Lathonia. 
ta ‘apilio Lathonia. Linn, 
a Re ates ‘ Fabr. oo 
ts Europe. It is rare in Britain. 
Aglaia. sp 2. ieee ~ 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


ably a white margin to the wings. 


Papilio Lucina. Gmelin. 

Melitea Lucina. Fabr: A 
Inhabits borders of woods and. : 
Genus prereset het val 

Antenne terminated 


Inhabits Europe. The larva on nettles. 
Sp. 2. Cardui. a lady.) 
Papilio cardui. Linn. 


Vanessa cardui. Fabricius, Latreille. 


Vanessa Antiopa. Latreille. 2 
Inhabits Europe. The English: vaviety dbs invari 


‘apilio Aglaia. Linn. . 4. To. (Foon oF 2 Be 
Argynnis Aglaia, Fabr. apilio To. ea 
Inhabits Europe. Is common. Papilio Char- Vanessa Io. Pabeide Latreille. iy; ee 
lotta saben tome Erp Meet na aoe Inhabits the nettle. 20 
dental variety of this species. Sp. 5. Polychloros. (Large tortoise-shell) ia] 
Adippe. Sp. 3. Adi apilio Polychloros. Linn. a 
An ‘abr. Vanessa Pi . Fabricius. tii eilel 
pai foo and the borders of woods thoughout Page pg besa er) The larva on the elm. ni’ 
on 6. Urtice. (Small costing aioli ne 
Paphia. ops, Pape ‘apilo urtice. Linne ‘ 
Pe ia. Linn. Vanessa urlica. Latreille, Fabricius. : 
Areynnis Ba Fabr. Latr. Lewy Europe. ¢ 
Inhabits the borders of woods in Germany, England, Calm tec qece gt Lo. te hed 
and France. ks . pe 4 
422. Meu - Genus CCCCXXII. Metrraa. > Fabre’ Vanessa pe Fabricius. “ef sides 
THA. Aroynnis. Latr. Genus CCCCXXIV. Hirrarcnra, Fabricius, Leach. 494. ; 
Antenne terminated ae club. fainw Maniota. Schrank. ; 
hairy, divaricating, with tl t acicular, Saryrus. Latreille. 
length of the inder win abe Antenne with a slender tuhinhhe tedictd Weenae- ~ 
lar. Anterior ey eet ie both sexes. Tarsiwith what trigonate orbicular club, ree. meeting above 
double nails. por? e, with the second joint very much compres- 
Caterpillars ponents with fleshy tubercles. very much longer than the first. Anterior 
Chrysalis suspended by the tail.. pi a egs'shorter than the rest, and often very hairy’! 
Euphro- Sp. 1. Euphrosyne. (Pearly border). eetof the other lege with double nails Hinder 
syne. ilio Euphrosyne. Linn. : somewhat orbicular or orbiculate-triangulate, with 


internal cronvabed0d receives toe alsdhianctoy chi! 


‘apilio 
A is Euphrosyne. Latr. margin 
Melieea. middle cell closed: behind, from: whieh part the ner-' 


Enphrosyne, Fabr. 


Inhabits waste and heaths. vures radiate; the other margin. entire, or: with aeute 
Silene. Sp. 2. Silene. — border likeness). or obtuse i Caterpillar downy, with a glo- 
Melita peal icacr AR ptr 2 Fa gay eds copie the abdo-. 
8 preceding species. men bimucronate behind. engubetd; 
Cinzia, 3. Cinzia. caritios the front bimucromate by the tail. Leach’s 
Poy ‘apilio Cinzia, Gmelin Zoolog. Miscel. vol. i. r 27. CL, Wim 
Melita Cinzia. Fabr. Sp. 1. Galathea. ) 
A is Cinzia. Latr. Papilt Galathea. . Gmelin. - x 
Tnhabits Rare in Britain. Piston Galathea. Fabricius. 
Artemis. 4. Artemis. (Greasy). Satyrus Galathea. Latreille. 
Artemis, Gmelin. Inhabits Europe in fields. | 
Melitea Artemis.  Fabr. Sp. 2. ee (Eyed.) 
Inhabits Europe. » Is common near Norwich in Nor- ‘apilio hus, L PSE: V2 
folk. ’ Hipparchia Hyperanthus. Fabr. © ~~ 
Dictynna. Sp. 5. Dictynna. (Heath). ; Satyrus Hyperanthus. Latreille. © 
Dictynna. Ginelin, ' Inhabits Europe in fields. 
Dictynna, Fabr. Sp. 3. Pamphilus, omy Fh Wwe 
Sebehids: bodies edods Papilio cos of Has ‘apilio Pamphilus. Linn. Gmelin. 
worth seems to be a variety. Hipparchia Pas Fabricius. 
Lucina. Sp. 6. Lucina. (Duke of Burgundy). Satyrus - Latreille. 


RL OL ORY: 129 


as Inhabits heaths. . tracted, obtuse at both extremities. Tarsi with very Metabolia. 
: Sp. 4. Blandina, (Scotch argus.) — small nails. ee 
lio Blandina. . Donovan. © . ey Genus CCCCXXVII.. Turcta. Fabr. ; 427. Tae- 
Inhabits the isles of Bute and Arran. The malehas Potvommarus. Latr. cua, 
* been confounded with bar Hrd of Fabricius, Feet in both sexes all alike; nails hentai medved 
~ to it is vi t ulvilli, w! are. . Antenne 
which Sea. beyond the pulvilli, which large 
Pilosellz:, Pars (Smal meadow brown.) dually clubbed ; the club elongate, cylindric oval. 
; ilio Piloselle. Gmelin. der wings tailed. 
Hipparchia Pileselle. Fabricius. © Sp. 1. Betule. (Brown hair streak.) Betula. 
Satyrus Piloselle. Latreille. ‘apilio betule. Gmelin, ° 
_ Inhabits fields and the borders of woods. Thecla betula. Fabr. 
Janira. ~ Sp.6. Janira, ' Polyommatus betule. Latr. 
apilio Janira, T.inn: Inhabits Europe, frequenting the borders of woods. 
Papilio Jurtina. Linn. Sp. 2. Pruni. (Black hair-streak). Pruni, 
Hipparchia Janira. Fabricius. ‘apilio pruni, Hiibner. 
Satyrus Janira.  Latreille. : ! Thecla pruni. Fabr. 
Inhabits fields. ~ 5.3. Qu borders - bes 8 
Megiera. Sa a (Gate-keeper. 3. Quereiis. ( e hair-streak Quercus. 
Papilio ciera, Gmelin. ) Bapitio querciis. Gmelin, a 
, a Latreille. Thole nits Fabr. 
§ Wo pares Sie} fatctdes auk foeda, fying ont the Riehl Was. 
geria. 8. 7 ‘ood its w on the es 
Pas i is Bogor. Chae poser of the trees. _ Me 
cs ia. Fabricius. Genus CCCCXXVIII. Lycana. Fabr. 428, Ly- 
I borders of woods and fields, 5; pemee hige Latr. CRNA. 
Semele. ae Semele. ce “gre in both sexes ; nails pro Late gees beep 2 
aad ‘apilio Semele. Gmelin, : pulvilli, which are small. Antenne with an abrupt 
Hi ia Semele. Fabricius. club, somewhat ovate, or somewhat oval. 
a rcp aie wastes. nes Leratbdnodieatnnoes tetuioons 
Besides the species of this enume- 1. Dispar. (Large copper + Dispar. 
eek a eee ae have taken in this ilio dispar. ar ag 
country, 


ho ea of Denoras: %. Papilio Papilio Hypothie. Donovan, 
Topher und and, 3. of Haworth : Bar as Inhabits the fens of Cambridgeshire, and has been 


aga Mla ly rte a ess observed near Aberdeen in Scotland, 
sévts, we shall say nothing more subject, but © (Purple-edged copper). Chryseis. 
eee ee era Wy the investigations TC monet Fabr. 
* of ee aitiek: - ee Europe. In Britain it is extremely rare. 
} lot genus CCCCXXV. Limenitis. Fabricius. 8. Virgaurew. (Scarce copper Vi ; 
ial Nyuenauis. Latreille. Lycans i et eae y ot 
Antenne clubbed ; club slender, round- olyommatus virgauree. Latr. 
obconic. P. i ag Jong as the head, with the second Papilio virgaurea. Gmelin. 
joint not very com ; the anterior margin not —_Inhabits Very local in Britain. It is found 
po i ir of feet in both gory ae un vs sae 
sexes very short spurious. not much 4. Phleas. ¢ copper as. 
er than broad Four hinder’ feet with double nal Lycona yj dang Pr 
Larva elongate. suspended yommatus 
> Camila. Sp. 1. Cemilia, (White sdeenobie ) Inhabits Europe; much attached to syngenesious 
‘apilio Camilla. Linn. Gmelin, plants. 
Limenitis Camilla. Fabricius. Sp. 5. Rubi. | oa ape gated Rubi. 
Ni lis Camilla. Latreille. apilio rubi. 
wk i arore. Te pis Dee hire ol ag ‘emcee «gO 
‘ wood, Kent, where it is found in yommatus > 
426. Avs Genus CCCCXXVI. ApAtivna. Fabrict Inhabits Eu 
— pene Latreille. take & Colne with the ior margin entire. 


Antenne with an elongate-obconic thickened club. Chalk- wali 
eter m the second j eae ict not much compreased, the Papilio Corydon Corydon. inn, Gmelin. io ne 
Selene Anterior pair of feet very short § Lycana iommane Ces Fabr. 


Iris, 1, fede € Inhabits iniehie taalky See 
a Tris, a a 7. vdoniee. (Clifden blue). Adonis. 


‘apilio-Adonis, Linn. Gmelin, 


Adonis. Fabr. 
England. : Inhabits chalky districts. 
This insect is called bg emperor, empe- . 8. Dorylas. (Common blue). Dorylas. 
ror of Morocco, &c. a Dorylas. Gmelin? 
Diese oe ida. ms a loara Lewin. 
‘Larva oval, depressed. Pupa or chrysalis short, con« roys ee wo (Selded ae). “Argus. 


VOL, IX. PART I. 


: 


ENTOMOLOGY, 


Metabelia. Papilio Argus. Gmelin. Papilio malo. Gmelin, 
- ‘thes: Fabr Hesperia malve. oe. Ratt Latr, . f 
Rivest Argus. Latr. Inhabits =e Anten 
Tnhabite Gelde and marshes Z Ameer Boye shi 
Idas, 10. Fr Black-spot brown 
Popits Mage ot » ake ria linea, Fabr. Latr. 
ule Fabr. Pepto linea. Gmelin. 
Inhabits Europe Fag igh eis of woods, Bt teat 
Artaserze, = Spi 11. Prarie ic brown)-" . 6. Paniscus. (Scarce skipper). 
apilio Artaxser ] ’ 
ss is Steet, SU Hesperia Paniscus. Latr. Fabr. 
Inhabits Arthur's Seat, and the base of Kirk-hill, one Inhabits meadows. Very rare in Britain, excepting 
ef the Pentland range, near Edinburgh, in great in some parts of Bedfordshire, where it is common. 
len z 
FOR aks sprig Als. {Beto ord blue). Secr. II. Creruscutania. 
Wings horizontal in repose. Antenne prismatic or 
Pees go Fabr. fusiform. 
Polyommatus Alsus, Latr. The insects of this tribe constitute the Linnean pe 
Inhabits Europe. = nus Sphinx, which has been divided by Fabrici 
Argiolus. rn 13. —— oa ue). treille, Scopoli, and Hoffimansegg, into a umber ef 
sme rgiolus, me genera, 
Cymon. S14 Gen Gmelin; Lewin. r Trine I. Spuinarpes. 
Inleabiee In Britain it is very local. It  Palpi short, covered with very short, close scales ; 
is found near Sherborne in Dorset, in great abun- the last joint tuberculiform and very short, 
dance. pie aaa Laornoe. Robey, 
Tans IL. Hespenipes. whee i gaa 
Hinder tibie with two of of Spurs, one aki 
recat a ee ea ia, wil eh 
. middle, er. Ton 
vated when the insect is at rest. par ag Ape: ulated. Palpi onti ous, igen Oe 
Famuy I. Uranida. pe 1. Nate. yaar hawkemoth).. 
Antennae filifi narrower and ben ing ace 
P age a hag ‘oaks. poe vie * aha Fabr. * 
CCCCXXIX. . Fabr. Latr. Spectrum ovellatem, © : 
ad Una- al siae a alae aa 7 Smerinthus ocellatus. Latr. ; ; 
Palpi with the second joint much eoerarcatert the _ Inhabits ee The larva in the willow and pop- 
— slender, somewhat cylindric, almost naked. My 
Leilug 1. Yellns 5 Tilia. Lime hawk-moth). 
Papilio Tatten tees Spins tilie. Linn. Gmelin. 
Urania Lelus.  Fabr, Laothie tiie, Fabr. : 
Famrvy I]. Hesperida. Sheriuhus tiie, Letrelle 
Fmnsp or distinctly terminated with a club. Palpi ~ Inhabits the lime in the illar state: 
ort, thick, and squamose in front. Sp. 3. Populi. freee hawk-moth). 
430. Hes. “Genus CCCCX Hesperia. Fabr. Cuv. Lam. Sphinz populi. Linn. Gmelin, - 
Peau. re yeas i“ popult. Fabr. a ; 
ct 
Palpi with the third joint ¢ylindric, or cylindric- Souiiihad sae mS i 
conic. Inhabits E The larva on poplars and willows, 
‘ ° Fo tome —_ - an abrupt, very acute hook. Genus CCCC I. Spuinx hr Fabr. La- 482, 
‘apilio Comma. (Gana PP on Scopo i iit See 
Hesperia Comma, abr. Latr. Palpi cont rome the tongue. Tongue long, 
Inhabits Europe. In England, near Lewes, in Sus- very distinct, convoluted. Antenne prismatic, thicker 
sex. towards their middle, in the males slightly ciliated. | 
Sylvanus ‘p. 2. —— (Wood-skipper), Abdomen with the anus not bearded. y : 
Hesperia Sphene, “Wks Tits Shine porcells. Gmelin, Pabriicn Larede “Pet 
a cius, 
pee jo ee ie St 
. ip. t haw ‘. 
Tages Sp. 3. Tages. (Ding skipper) Sphinx Elpenor, tint 2 Oca, . 
rai See Teta. "ea Inhabits s 
a = ioe ren Latr. sod has a 8. Linea (Serine wha  Lineata. 
nhabits heaths bank: ink line aes le tive nls 
Malve. Sp. 4. Malve. (Mallow skipper). Inhabits Eprope, 


6, aa Lineata of Pea: 


pts: (sa ENTOMOLOGY. 


131 
' Rs ix distin. is distinct, Nea must be considered as a doubtful inha- Trine ZyGRNives. _ Metabolia, 
bi ; Palpi long, separate, covered with long scales, or 

_ Galii. t Gok” ery tel ellie) 

ee ii. Fabricius. Genus CCCOXXXIV, cers. Fabricius. 434. Eee 
Inhabits Europe urope. Four only have hither- = Srsia. Latreille, Laspeyres. RIA. 
to been taken in Great Britam ; two in Cornwall near Trocuitum. Scopoli. 

E Penzance, elie Feagees e etes eee Antenne fusiform, Abdomen with the anus bearded. 
' near London. : Sede Api bens oom hornet-sphinx. ) Apiformis. 
_ Buphorbie. 8p. 5. Euphorbia. (Spotted elephant.) 

(tee eu Tbe, . elin, Fai Late, _ Egeria opyermis. Fab 
its t is very rare in Britain. e Trochilum apiforme. * 
larya has pens th. Sphine epiformis, Linn. 
Pinastri. . 6. Pinastri. hawk-moth. ) | Inhabits Europe. 
Spine pin pinastri. Fabricius, Gmelin. yo 2. Craboniformis. CeReDee aD RNR), Crabonifor- 
It has been taken near London, sia craboniformis. F abricias. mis, 
vo in Hettid, wood near Edinburgh. Inhabits Europe. 
7. Convolvuli, (Convolvulus hawk-moth.) ' Sp. 3. Vespi ora he hornet-sphinx. ) Mi spegh 
Shi inz convoluuli, Linn. Fabricius, Latreille. Sphing ——. 
Europe. It has been taken in the most re- Inhabits 
ote of Great Britain, even in the Shetland Islands, Obs. Phees ate are several other species of this genus 
but does not make a found in Britain, but their roma have never been 
Ligustri. Sp, 8. Ligustri. Privet hawk-moth. wre ascertained. We Py ot pn my viz. 
)phins i cael abricius, Gmelin. ‘ipuliformis. (net Tipulifor- 
Inhabits The larva feeds on the privet and Shine tipuliformis. mis. 
ash. Sesia tipuliformis. Latreille. 
aAtropos a. 9. Atropos. Geet reece Inhabits . The larve perforate and destroy 
Pie Atropos. a Fabricius, the currant and where they are plenty produce 
ypectrum Atropos. a serious mischief. 
Inhabits Europe. fe nee! must be considered asa value Genus CCCCXXXV. Zycana. Fabricius. 435, Zx- 
able acquisition to the British cabinet, for although it be Spurx. Linn, GENA. 
common in the Sn eam state, yet is it bred = Antenne abruptly flexuous-clavate. Palpi cylindric, 
savelt ; ce eAdery ond rabbeth Ss | burnet, Filiper 
‘wing is much m Sp. 1. Filipendule. (Six-spot itipee- 
Thsrasdeailar cosas Ts potatos felde,and ‘acd sho Seuss aebadia’ Lima : dule, 
to feed on the ine leaves. ipendula. Fabricius, Latreille. Ca 
“Phe deatl’s head hawk-moth ia distinguistied by a’ — Tahabite fields 
Re hae acne saat dat cee Dba, There is. another epecies har but five red 
blance to a From this circumstance, and that spots on the anterior wings, which is and is 
‘of its uttering a sound when handled, it has been vrmaly retanrel to the Pypene toll of Faeicion 
considered, by the , as an animal of ill omen, and Genus CCCCXXXVI. ino. Leach. 433. Ine. 
» as a messenger of fate. The members of a female cén- Procrts. Fabricius, Latreille, 
vent, (as we learn from Reaumur,) were thrown into  Zyomna. Panser, Walckenaer. ' 
great con on discovering one of these insects, © Sputnx. Linn. 
a eae Antennz of the male bipectinate, of female simple. 
windows during the Palpi short. 
423. Sesta. Genus SXXIIL esta. Fabricius. . 1. Statices. .) Staticece 
-Spurwx. " Linn. Latreille. A nz statices. 
Paipl onbtigaas * . Zeer statices. aed Panzer. 
contiguous above ongue very rocris statices. Fabricius, Latreille. 
distinct and convoluted. isl » Ino statices. Leach. 
‘towards their middle, (of the males ciliated.) solaahien thausiantioaataeiislate sain 
ge oe he “Wings nage \ Section TIT. Nocroaia, 
’ 2 . Antenna setaceous, 
_ Stellatarum, f amming ied hank moth. ) Pte: enc nor rat Teat chenehation, 
5 a ea stl Fabricius. Trise I. Bombycres. 
Tubehits Retcne: SN bieleee Raunie edi file, A nemmm et tia meelg atlnahoeseied «. Tongue nate: 
hs of Palpi pet short, cylindric, very hairy. Thorax not 
wing, on honey Wings plants. crested. Wings undivided. 
Sp 2. Bombyciformis. (Narrow bordered bee-hawk- - Fammuy I. Cossida, 
Antenne with a single series of cilix, Wings elon- 
iformis. Linn. gate. 
sl ee lag Fabricius. - Obs. The larve of this family live on the 
urope, on the borders of woods, solid wood of trees, which in every direc- 


ee oe as Broad-bordered bee-hawk-moth.) 
abricius, : 
iformis. Gmelin 


tnabie Europe, Gai the bentsive oe nde 


tion. Sides of the 


salis 
Gents CCCCXXX fe arate Fabr. Latr. 
Puarana (Noctua.) 


Aakotin posi, ertos Gin Soe, home Pal» 


437. He. 
PIALUS. 


pg 
Hawull 


Mappa, 


438. Cas- 
sus 


Ligniperds. 


<9. Zev- 
zeek 


Eeouli, 


40). Sa- 
TURNIA 


Favonia 
. a 


i32 
very small, Resid We a 


Map- swift. 
Ww 
» ( ing ) 


Sp 2 Moy 


Inhabits Britain. Has been taken near Dunstar cas-* 


tle, in Somerset, by Mr G. Sowerby. It may be sy- 
——- with Bombys velleda of Hubner. 
3. Heetus. Sage 

Taian Raaes Fabricius. 

Hepi: . 

Cap 

Obs. We have in Britain several other species, but 
their characters are evanescent, and their names have 
never been determined with accuracy. 

Genus CCCCXXXVIII. Cossus. Fabricius, La- 
treille, Cuvier. 

PHAuana Bomsyx. Linn. 


Antenne as as the thorax, setaceous, furnished 
with a single series of short transverse obtuse teeth. 
Palpi very. distinct, thick, cylindric, and squamous. 
Anterior wings than the posterior. 
Sp. 1. Li Goat 
Praha findabys) S, 
Cossus — Fabricas, ‘Latreille, 
reage orks oar The larva feeds on the internal 
yandash. The celebrated Lyonett 
eenortsload immortalized himself by his laborious work on the 
of the larva, and perfect insect. The cater- 
say fh a scent, by which its residence 
conllies be made known to those passing suc 
trees as are much infested by it. It remains three 
years in this state, when it a strong web, inter- 
mixed with pain of wood, and changes into the 
chrysalis, w 
June the perfect insect starts into existence, 
Genus CCCCXXXIX. ZEUZERA. Latreille. 
Bomayx. Hiibner. 
Hertacvs. Schrank. 
Puacana, (Noctva.) Linn. 
Cossvs. Fabricius. 


ite (in the male pectinated to the 
. 1. Zesculi. (Wood-leopard moth. 
Tame escult, Fabricius, ) 


Bombyx esculi. Hubner. 

Zeuzera esculi, Latreille. 

Phalena esculi. Linn. 

Inhabits Eu In England it is rather rare, but 
may be found in St James's Park, in July, if industri- 
ously sought after. 


Famity Il, Bombycida. 


Antenne of the males with a double series of pecti- 
nations, 

Obs. The larvee of this family live on the leaves of 
trees, Sides of the chrysalis not serrated or denticu- 


Genus CCCCXL. Sarurnia. Schrank. 


Puarana, (Atracus.) Linn, 
Bomnyx. Fabricius, Hubner, Latreille, 
Wings horizontal, Antenne the Joust 
eae bidentate. 
with the 


feet distinct, and resembling the x 
o> 1. Puvonia minor. (Emperor moth. ) 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


it does in the month of May, and i in 


 macula,(Donovan) ; 9. Ceerul ana By 


. 


Phalena attacus pavonia minor. Linn. 
Tanker ia minor, Fabricius. 
Inhabits 

eso ccocKi Lastocampa. Schrank. 


So a 


with the anel Aug. Seieet ood Foon 
os Querciis. Bh ss Fe 


Phat ye as 
sag eae 
Myint. = cA Fabrician 
Obs. The follewing species 
Bombyx are referable to this genus, viz. 2. i; 3. 
Rubi; 4. Crategi; 5. Neustria; 6. Populi; 7. tris, 
The four last are distinguished by their i eng 
more hairy than the rest, and may be considered as 
forming a subdivision. 
Genus CCCCXLUL. Bomayx. Fabr. Latr. ‘Schrank. 442. Bom. — 
Superior wings deflexed, inferior ones reversed. An-®**™* 
tenne of the male very much Bedi er: P: ae : 
duced into a rostrum. naked, with tl - 
feet like ye oefolia (is ssn 
Sp. 1. moth.) 
Phaléena bombyx quercifolia. Linn, 
Bombyx ney abr.Latr. 
urope. 


Hacer: 


Dh the foll di 

ollowing indigenous 

us belong ae 2. Potatoria 
Genus CCCCXLIIL Laria. 


a 


10. Coryli, sree Leman ll. Aig ( 
prominent) ; 1 ser ryt Meira ap poses 


ar he 


ing ae 3. Fascelina, pas wld Sy 4 
common tussock) ; 5. Reclusa, (s 
. Curtula? (large chocolate-tip) ; ss 


ca) 


‘repida, (swallow prominent) ; 
es whose. names are not yet 
Bombyx visicolora of Fabricius, (the Kentish glory.) 
forms a peculiar , viz. Dorvillia, Leach. 
Genus CCCCXLIV. Cerura. Schrank, 
Bomnyx. Fabricius, Latreille, 
PHaLana, (Bompyx.) cennaeey es 
Antenne in both sexes inated, and gradually ac- 
cuminate. Caterpillar, with the anal feet transformed ie 


into a furcate tail. ee 
> 1, Vinula, (puss moth.) ; Ms 
Phateena bombyx vinua. Linneus, = > 
Bomiyz vinula. Fabricius, Larelie 
Cerura vinula, Schrank. wd 


Loiatie ER The larva, feeds in willows and 


es Furcula, ag 5 
Boies furcula. EB us. 
Inhabits Europe ; oF common in Britain. 


445. Anc- 


F 


447. Lie 
THost. 


~ Quadra, 


BRROMOLO GY. 


Tare ll. Arcries. 


Palpi shes ciliated. T: 
or ‘ongue 
visible, but often short, and somewhat membranaceous. 


Vi 
gp. - 1 Vili, (ream spot tyger). 


Inhabits Europe. 

Obs. The other indigenous 
are, 2. , (tyger moth) ; 3. 
‘clouded 5. Mendica,.(muslin) ; aiatebndcies 
ere ete 8. Lubricipeda, 


Bousyx. Fabeicins. 


Europe. 
Obs. Bombyx, 2. Rosea (vedarches) ; 3. Jacobca, 
wie ge ’ - 


Trieelll. Tinerpes. | 


ae a 


Famity I. Tineida. 


Antenne distant from each other. Eyes separate, di- 
vided by a frontlet. aa yo 
Drvision I. 
ongue distinct, Front not very hai 
oe CCCCXKLVIL. Liriosia. Fabr. Latr a 
horizontal. shorter than the head, last 
joint cylindric, distinctly than the second. Back 
my flattened. Antenne simple, or but slightly cili- 
. Quadra, (four- footman 
as (four-spotted ). 


ones much folded, all 


T 


dra. 


Lithosia quasra. Fabricius, Latreille. 
Inhabits Ew 
The other i $ species are, 2, Complana; 3. 


one before it. Antenne simple. 


133 


Rubricollis ; 4. Irrorata; with three species not yet Metabolia. 
ascertained, 
Genus CCCCXLVIII. Yronomeura. Latreille, os 
copay hace Riera 


Tinga. 
Wings rolled, or ry tec Palpi as | 
head, the third joint obconic, as sien i 
er 
ores 1. Evonymella. la. 
halena evonymella, Linneeus. 
Tinea evonymella. _ Fabricius. 
Yponomeuta evonymella. Latreille. 
Inhabits Seer. 
Genus CCCCXLIX. Nemarocon. Schrank. 
-Paavana (Trvea).  Linneus. 
Tinea. Fabricius. 
Auucita. Olivier. 
Wings besodt Tange, 1 he back, Pal 
on the bac i 
cera a Soe the Bay ; the second j nt 
ioe nins the | lest joint almost nak 


yy Tran Fg genus a Faas? . Linneella ; 2. Flavella ; 
8. Roesella, and their congeners, belong. 


Division II. 


T not distinct, short, Front very hairy. 
Genus CCCCL. sts Ferre Latreille. 

Tinga. Fabricius. 

Pyrauis. Hubner. 

Palpi two; the second joint with numerous elongate 


449. Nema- 
POGON. 


450. Eu- 
PLOCAMUS» 


scales, the third naked and ascending. Antenne 
much pected 
, alpcowr guttella, Fabri bags 
nea abricius. 
La we gyielins, Latr. 
Genus CCCCLI. Tinea. Latr. Fabr. Hubner. 451. Trsxs. 


PHALZENA (Tinea). Linneus. 
Palpi four, distinct, 1 stated ones small, inflexed. An- 
tennz simple, or slight 


Sp: 3 onl loth’s cee Pelionella. 
inea pe Fabr. Latr. 

Phaleesa tinea ‘tinea pelionella Linneus. 

Inhabits houses. 


Ols. All the cloth moths, of which there are seve- 
ral species, belong to this genus. 


Famity II. Nemophorida. 


Antennz ‘inserted very near to each other. Eyes 
nearly meetin, aa 

Genus CCCCLII. Nemornora. H 

Aveta. Latreille. Soar: 

Nemaprogon. Schrank. 

Auucita. Fabricius. 

Tinea. Hiibner, 

Spey (Tinea). . Forced 

1 char a m 

Phalistia’ conea De. ¢ via. Gancita 

Adela ella. modi 

Inhabits borders of woods. 

Obs. All the long-horned Tate 
called by English Sillettins, be 


Terre lV. Nocrumes. 


Antenne setaceous, in the males sometimes pectina- 
ted or ciliated. Tongue’ distinct. Palpi much com. 

ssed. Wings horizontal or incumbent, not divided. 
Thorax thick, often crested. 


452. Ne 
MOPHORA. 


moths, as are 
mgr Mota 


134 
eal Pawny L Erebida, 
i with the last joint as long or longer than the 
63 Ear " Gexvs COCCLIIL, © Enssvs. Latreille. 
= Necrus. 
Oderus, Sp 1. igs eapdel. 
ociwa odora. Fabricius, 
ter odorus. Latreille. 
Famity I. Nocluida. 
es with the last joint much shorter than the pre- 
ceding, squamous, 
454. Noe- Gesus CCCCLIV. Nocrva. Fabr. Latr. Hiibner. 


Bomwayx. Fabricius, Hiibner. 


Pracena (Bomeyx). Linneus, 
Puate@na (Nocrva). Linneus. 
Pactua, 


Obs, The genus Nec 
genus Joctua a minute inv 
tion. It contains several ir aeced genera, as 
“Ke in the ay iM 
Conenrtilon ie with sixteen 
half-loopers, their anterior feet mem- 
Dranacen noes Mee gaye! shorter than the others. 


> te ne rast, (i (clifden prepare). 


; Srazini. a 
Ne ‘qumee.. Hobaision, Lavelle 


ociua 
the Pes Nee Noctua, "3. Nupla ; 4, Proabeas 5b. 
Pea 6. Maura, &c. belong. 
“* Caterpillars with membranaceous feet of conform- 
able size. 
1, Wings horizontal. 
ie Fimbria, (broad bordered yellow underwing 


Nevius fimbria. Fabricius, 
Sp. 2. Proauba, (yellow underwing) ; 3. Orbona; 4. 
Janthina, &c. 
2. a ings deflexed. ( 3) ny 
a, Rumicis, (common knot grass m 3 
~~ o moth), &c. ag 
. Ligustri, (coronet) ; 2. Pisi, (broom moth), 


. Verbasci ; 2.. Tanaceti, &c. 
. 1, Batis, (peach blossom * moth). 
be Meticulosa, (angle shades). 


“de Pelbies, | (pale prominent moth). 
a 


i eegi with fourteen feet. 
poe a pam brass moth) ; 2. Festu- 


Praxini. 


Vimbria. 


Tare V. Puarenipes. 


Antenne approximating at their base; those of the 
male often pectinated .or ciliated. 


Famity I. Phalenida. 
Larva with twelve feet. 
Gexvs Laake, Puatana. Linneus, Fabricius, 
Grousrna. Haworth, Hiibner. 
Antennw of the male 
Morgacita Sp. 1. j tabors bewsg emerald moth), &c, 


455. Pea- 
Lana 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Fammy IL. Geometrida. 
Larva with ten feet... > 
Gaexvs wigs Biston. ve ene wt 
Puacana. Linnaeus, Fabricius, je," 
Geomserra, Hiibner, Haworth,  — 
Antenne of tho malo uch pectinated Body thick. 


Pal i, a 
oe fie aloes 2. Betularia; 3. Heol P: 
Cents COCOLVIL Geomerna. ean vie, ‘ 
Puarana. Fabricius, Latreille, Linnaeus, ~~ $51. Gro 
Antenne of the male 

pi but li 

extended, 
Sp. 1. ppc 2. mare ' a 
Gence CCCCLVILL. Ounapreryx: ‘Ckecyion 
PHALaENA, Latreille, Fabricius, Linneus. 


Pe, a 


456. Bis- 
TON. 


, truncate, and denabiantlog « a tail. ~ 
“Sp 1, Sambucaria, (swallow-tail moth). fina) = 
Inhabits Europe. : ia 
Genus CCCCLIX. Apraxas. Lams a Riga ae, Se 


. ee Linneus, Fobeisiey Latreille, Hiibner, Asnaxas 
worth, 
Berar ‘sob ‘eilinhetd? Body slender. Palpi 
" essed hirsute, Wings extended horizontally, not’an- 
os 


or indented. ( — 
jata, (common magpie ‘imoth) ;” Grossulari. 
Uinvir, (scarce magpie moth), &e.. 
Genus CCCCLX. . Bupatus.» Drench » | 460. Bu- ; 
PHALENA. Lenenn Reteicits, peat 22 PALUB.) 
Geometra. | Hiibner, Haworth, ~ 
Antenne nated in the male. Bodprlindons Pale. 


te. Wi mpeg , 
ingultd o aimed gag sm : onl 
1 * Piniaria 


Piniaria. One 2 , 
Phalena piniaria, Fabricius, Latzeilla, Aili 
woods. ihe S09 
Perea CCLXI. Hierarcuus. Leach. dees 
Puatana, Fabr. Latr. Linn. Don Pe 
GromeTRra. acer a, 


Wings extended ob’ elys sd aay 


lower ones. Body 

tenne of the male pectinated. 
Sp. 1. Popshonsha pnb 2. Prunata, &e, 
Famuy III. Herminida. 


Caterpillars with fourteen feet, the anal ons ditne, 
the first pair of membranaceous ones wan 

Genus CCCCLXII. Herminia. 

PuaLana (Pyratis). Linneus. — 

Crameus. Fabricius, Bose. 

Mood coal Hiibner. 


aR 3 
* ria, 


com , often very jure Antenne ciliated. . 
Sp. 1. Proboscidalis, &e. . , 
Jo 


Fairy IV. Platyptericida, eae 


Cunaeie with fourteen feet, anal’ ones wanting; the 
first pair of membranaceous ones distinct. = . 
GenusCCCCLXIII. Puaryrrenyx, Laspeyeres,Latr. 463. Pia- 


ud 
PHALENA. singer ‘TYPTERYX. 3 , 
Anterior wings fulcate. Antenne of the male pec. . 


pare Palpi very short, per 2 py pee’ Tongue - 
ort. 7 
Sp. 1, Falcataria ; 2, Lacertvaring 8 Cultaria, it Falcataria, ] 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


ees Obs, The two last species have their anterior wings 


‘464 Cos. oe oa CCCCLXLV. Curr, a 
Bomepyx. Fabricius. 
PLaTyPpTEnyx. Latreille,, | 
Anterior wings rounded. ‘Antenna of the tnale ec 
see Palpiv very short, somewhat conic. Tongue 


1. Compressa, moth 
Compressa Mop presse, (goose ceg moth). 
Plaijperys compressa. Latreille. 
; Cilix compressa. Leach. 
: Famity V. Tortricida. 
with sixteen feet. Wings, with the bo- 
Secekest short triangle, dilated on each side 
/ anteriorly. 
465. Ton- 


pes ‘CCCCLXV. Tortrix. Hiibner. 
TRIX. aang eae oN oroweee 
pales with the mons joint nt distinctly longer than the 
third, and more squamous ; third joint short, truncate 


tea not recurved over the head. 
1. ¥7 3 2. Chlorana ; 3. Pomana, &c. 
ENus CCCCLXVI. Srcsetars, Leach. : 


eruis. Torrrix. Hubner. 

Pyaauis. Latreille. 

Palpi short, rising, the last joint not recurved over 
denieanlaeatedacundiad joints nearly equally 
long and equally squamose. Inferior wings not com- 
pletely covered by the upper ones.. 


pac dentana. Hiibner. 

| : Pyralis dentana. Latreille. 

Simiethes dentana.» Leach. 

Inhabits E 

Genus CCCC XVII. Nota. Leach. 
aw Hiibner, pepe 

pl short, porrect ; joint 

r head ; the second and third’ joints nearly equally long 
i ov equally squamose. Under wings completely cover- 


the 
“Spel. Pellinlatie 
ln gO Hiibner, Latr. 
Inhale Europe: 
, Trine VI. Pyraurpes. 
Palpi four. Larva (as far as has been ascertained) 
 Famiry 1. Pyralida. 


Phi. odkias ¢ forming with the body a nearly hori- 


F Seo ee Borys. | Latr. 
HALANA bar, Sehr 
, Scopoli, 


P¥RALIS. 
NyYMPHALA. 
Scoputa. Bi eons 
Pyravusta, Senate 
Cramaus. Fabricius. 
Tongue distinct, conspicuous.  Palpi exserted. 
ws Lemncin ker 2. Potamogata. 3. Verticalis. 
rENUS CCCCLXIX. Pyrauis. 


PHALENA (Pynazis). Lina.. 
Aciossa. Latreille. 


or. Nota. 


Pyraa- 


not recurved over the. 


Hiibner, Schrank,. 


135 


Tongue none. Pap be rei, di-p the second joint _— 
Noe fe squamous, th bundles, Pinguinals ais 


Famity II. Tineida. 
Superior wings very long, enveloping the sides of the 


a CCCCLXX, Gatteri. Fabricius, Latr. 470. Gat- 
Puavzna (Tinea). Linn. LERLA. 
Tongue very short. Palpi short: Inferior palpi lar- 

er “aren 3 scales ; wu ones ener by the 


narrow, covering and 
cle e sides of | body. 
lvearia. 


Spat alvearia. Fabricius, Latr. 

Genus CCCCLXXI. Crameus. Fabr. Latr. 

Puaraena (Trvga). Linn. 

Trea. Geoffroy. 

Wings narrow, convoluted round the body. Palpi 
exserted, inferior ones largest. Hebd with abeat Goss. 
ly plied scales. Tongue distinct. 


Alvearic. 


471. . 
Cramevus. 


1. Pineti. 2. Pascuorum. 3. Pratorum, &c. . Pineti- 
ween CCCCLXXIE Tinga. Hubner, Geoffroy, 472. T:- 
NEA. 

er peel Latreille. 

PraLana (Tinea). Linn, 

Yrsotoenus. Fabricius. 

Wings narrow abru ly deflexed, behind and above 
ascending. Inferior palpi with the second joint covered 


with numerous fasciculi of scales ; the last erect, conic, 
naked, Head with a bifid crest in front, 
Sp.1. Nemorum, 2. Vittatus, &e. Nemorum; 


Trise VIL. Auucrrmes. 


Preropuorires. -Latreille. 
Wings divided, or formed of feathers united at their 


base. 
Genus be some Prerornoxus. Geoffroy, 473. Pre- 
Latreille, Fabricius, theater ee 


Auvucrra, Hiibner, Schrank, Scopoli. 

Puatana (Axucira). Linn. 

Palpi small, from their base ascending, not 
than the head, shortly and nearly equally squamose. 


terior wings com of tsvo, posterior of feathers. 
Pupa naked su a by a hair. 4 
. 1. Pentadactylus. 2. Didactylus, &e. Pentadac- 


Gewve CCCCLXXIV. Axverra, Hiibner, Scopoli. ty!s- 


Prenornorus, Geoffroy, Fabricius. gl Auv- 
Paacena (Anverra), Linn, Villers. 
Orneopss. 


Palpi produced much longer than the head; the se- 
cond foint very squamous; the last joint naked, erect, 
i folliculate. 


1. Hexadactyla. Hexadacty- 
Ornesdes hexudactylus. Latreille. sea 
Pterophorus hex lus. Fabricius. 


Phalena alucita hexadactyla. Lim. 
Alucita heradactyla, Hiibner. 
Inhabits Europe, often entering houses. . ; 


Orver XII. TRICHOPTERA.. . 


Orver Tricnoprera, Kirby. 
Orper.Nevnoprera, Linn. Cuvier, Latr. Lam. 
5 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Orpen, Xm. NEUROPTERA. e 


136 
Metabolia 


——~— Characters of the Order. 


Wings much deflexed, with strong nervures, hispid 
or hairy, the lower wings plicate, Antenne inserted 
between the eyes, often very long, composed of an in- 
finity of joints. Feet elongate, spinulose. Tarsi elon- 
gate, five jointed ; the last joint with two small nails, 

Larva elongate, agile, somewhat cylindric, composed 
of twelve joints, the three first harder than the rest, 
and each bearing a pair of feet ; the last segment with 
two hooked It inhabits tubes nenetenged 
of sand, bits of weéod, stone, or grass, glued together 
by a cement impenetrable to roe; 

the perfect insect, shut 


Papa somewhat resembli 
up in the tube it lived in whilst a larva, but having the 
from the water 


wer of motion to its emerging 
Fin which it resides), for the purpose of changing into 
the fly-state. 

Genus I. Purycaneas, Linn. Fabr. Geoff. La- 
treille. 


Obs. This genus Dr Leach has divided. into.seve- 


ral from the proportion of the antenna and 
palpt. We shall give as many examples as we can ; 
t we must refer toa work which he is about) to. pub- 


lish, entitled Trichoptera Systematica, for a more par- 


ticular account, and for the characters of these 
and of others named, 1. Ceraclea, 2. Géera, 3. Potoma- 
ria, 4. ia, 5. Chimarra, 6. Vinodes, 7. Philo- 


polamus, 8. Neuronia. 


era, 


Tree I. Leproceripes. 


Antenne much longer than the whole body. 

Genus CCCCLXXV. Leprocerus. Leach’s MSS. 

Antennz simple, not “denticulated. 

Sp.1. Interruptus. 

Piruaeesd interrupta. Fabricius. 

Leptocerus interru Leach’s MSS. 

Inhabits Great Britain. It is found in great plenty 
near Luss, on the banks of Loch Lomond, -on the mar- 
gins of rivulets at D near Edinburgh, and 
near Carlisle in northern England. It occurs during 
the day time on the smaller branches of trees, and in 
the afternoon flies about in great abundance, in flocks. 

Genus CCCCLXXVI. Opontocerum. Leach’s MSS, 

Antenne with their inner edge denticulated, 


Sp. 1. Griseum. 
ye Leach’s MSS. 


griseum. 
Tohabits Ireland and England. It is common at Dun- 
lough a Killarny ; and near Carlisle, on the 
Eden river. It has likewise been taken 


in Norfolk by Mr Scales, near Cheltenham, and near . 


Plymouth, by Dr Leach. 


Tarse I. Paryoaniwes. 


Antenne: as long as the body. 
ams CCCCLXXVIL. UL, Panwoawes. Leach’s MSS, 


ee 
Diy Linn. Fab 
Pes eee r. Latr. 


Genvs COCCERX VILL, Lowwepuitus. Leach’s MSS, 
Anterior wings slightly coriaceous, nervures hispid 


Order Nevnoprera. Linn, Latr, Lam, Cuvier. 
Class Oponata. Fabricius, 
one Synistara. ° Fabricius. 
ings four, naked, reticulated, | Nm divided oto a 
vast —— of areolz. 


Sect. I, Supuriconnes. A bs 


Antensise subulate, very. —— the last joint setitiem. 
Maxillary palpi very short. pees exehdl horizon- 
tally, or erect, very much 

Meramorpuosis Sus ane. 

Larva and Purz anes pose By 8 ree some the 
perfect insect. 


Trise I, Lipectunipes. i 
* Tarsi three-jointed, Mandibles — strong, corneous. 
Maxille ccvabiens strong. Wings 


cites # Little labgésat theitleands Rtn 
nated with sete or filaments.’ Bynpwvery tips 


Famy I. Libeltutida, - 

Wings horizontal. Head hemispheric, mplieric, witha dittinct 

vesicle, on which the little eyes are’ ina he mad 
ressed, ‘Lip with 


Abdomen more or less dep 
dle lamella smallest.» 
Genus CCCCLXXIX. Lineuiunas Linn. Fs 
Latreille; Leach, sormiuk eter ip wile 
Posterior ba alike in: both sexes, 


< 1. De (on ey 
Libellula Linn. Fabr. Late. yay) 

Sp. 2. Co 4 1 ya) 
ibellula conspurcata. TaleiBone ‘ 

Libellula trifusciata. Donovan. 


Sp. 8. Quadrimacilata. jadtimn 
ibellula quadrimaculata, Linn. Fabr: Donovan. ould, 


Sp. 4. Cancellata. - 
- Libellula cancellata, Linn, Donovan. | 

Inhabits Europe. Is common on the Croydon Canal, 
near London. 

Sp. 5. Vulgata, ; 

Libellula vulgata. Linn, Febr. Donovan, 

Sp. 6. Donovani. : : bed 

ibellula Donovani. Leach. ooaelnatand 
Libellula biguttata. Donovan. 


Sp. 7. Scolica. A 

Libellula Scotica. Leach, Donovan. us : 

Genus CCCCLXXX. Corputa. Leach’s MSS. 480. Con- 

Lipeciuta. ay BU hale Gettnted | Latreille. DULIAs 

Posterior wings in e into an angle 
at the anal edge. 

Sp. 1. Enea. 

Libellula enea, Linn. Donovan, Panzer, Latreille, 

Cordulia anea. Leach’s MSS, — 12 


Fammy II. Aishnidess ae 


Wings horizontal. Head ge 
distinct vesicle for the little eyes, w 
in a straight line. Abdomen oe ac Bain iny 
vate. Lip with the middle lamella not” much smnaller 
ann CCCCLXXXI. Conputsoasren. “Leach's tsi. 

S. 

Lisetiuta. Linn. Donovan. : 

Asuna. Latreille. 9 5 2° 

Hinder wings of the male angolated at their aia 


5 


—— 


494. Ayax. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


‘Metabolis. edge. Abdomen of the male clavate, of the female with 


an acuminated 
iit 


GoemeOoee XXXL ye Fabricius. 
Hinderai faba opis their anal 
at 
Abdomen in both sexes, not clavate. pier. 


1, 
Pictiuts Litelite grandis, Linn. Donovan. 
Zishna grandis. Fabricius. 
Oke There are several European species, which ha 
are w ve 
been confounded with Aishna 
Genus CCCCLKXXXIV. Anax. Leach’s MSS. 


Wings membranaceous, with a rhomboidal stigma. 
Abdomen of the male not armed with a forceps-like ap- 


Obs. We have of this several 
genus indigenous spe- 


cies, not 
Genus XXXVI. Lestes. Leach. 
~ ny see” 


oo mr and 


of the male armed with a 


Genus CCCCLXXXVII. Caxepreryx. Leach’s 
Acrion. Fabricius Latreille. 
without a real stig- 


Wings coriaceo-membranaceous, 
in of which is sometimes 
a rg te 


Obs. This genus comprehends those Agrionida with 
coloured wings. 
Trise I. Eruemenipes. 


much smaller than the others, sometimes wanting. 
winginch wale than th furnished with filaments, 
 eiteaiee anedeste. 
VOL, IX. PART I. 


137 


Fanury I. Buetida. Metabolia. 


Tail with two filaments. 
Genus CCCCLXXXVIII. Bartis. Leach’s MSS. ei BaE- 
Epuemera. Linn. Fabricius, Latreille. 


Wings four. 

Sp. 1. Bioculatus. Bioculatis. 
bioculata. Linn. Fabr. 

Biietis bioculatus. Leach’s MSS. 

Inhabits E 

Genus CCC CLXXXIX. Crozon. Leach. 489. CLox- 

Epuemera. Linn. Fabricius. na 

Pallida. 


Wings two. 
eg heneg 
’s MSS. 


Famity II. Ephemerida. 
Tail with three filaments. 
Genus CCCCXC, Epuemera. Linn. Fabr. Latr. 490-Erur- 
Leach. MERA, 


Sp. 1. Vulgata. Vulgata. 
Ephemera snigule Linn. Fabr. 
Inhabits Europe. 


Sect. II. Frurcorwes. 
Antenne longer than the head, not subulate. Wi 
generally defiexed, or incumbent. _ 
Trise I. Panorprves. | 
Head anteriorly produced into a rostrum. 
Physapida, 


anterior ones somewhat 
ones very long, linear. 


Famuy I. 


Wi extended, 
- gu Jed, the hi 
Ocelli none. 


Genus CCCCXCIL Puysarvs. 
Panorpa. Linn. Fabricius. 
Nemoptera. Latreille. 


rl nel Linn. Fabr. 


Nemopleracoa. Latreille. 
Inhabits Portugal, Spain, and the islands of the Ar- 


491. Pay- 
SAPUS. 


Coa. 


Famizy II. Panerpide, 
ovate-elliptic, one over the other. 
Oumitecan i i 


ina 5 
Genus CCCCXCII. PANoRPA. Linn. Fabr. Lam, 492. Pa- 


NORPA. 

Tarsi with two bent claws, denticulated beneath, ha~ 

ving a spongy pulvillus between them. Palpi nearly 
me hep ar 
with their 


the last joint Mandi- 
ints distinctly bidentate. Abdomen of 
the male with 
wey art” 


three last joints forming a tail armed 
1. Communis. 

Fourie communis. Linn. Fabr. Latr. Panz. 

Inhabits E 

Genus CCCCXCIII. Birracus. Latreille. 

PANnorpPa. Linn. Fabr. 


_ Tirsi with a nail. Palpi of the maxilla dis- 
labial ones ; the second and third 


long. 
Sp-1. Tipularius, Obscure reddish; wings imma- 
Ss 


158 


Metsbalis. culate; external margins ciliated; stigmata obscure ; 
ts of the tibie fuscous. 


Linn. Fabr, 


Tare ll. My /RMELEONIDES.® 


Antenne thicker towards their extremities. Palpi 
six. Bern equal. -Tarsi five-jointed, the first and last 
joints ; claws two, strong, elongate, acute. 

Gexus CCCCXCIV. Myamereon. Linneus, De 
Geer, Fabricius, Latreille, Leach. 

Antenna graduall Pace towards their extremities ; 
shorter than the toy: es entire. Abdomen very 
long, linear. Labial ‘pi very long, apex obconic, 
- . —e 
Libelluloi- "Sp. 1. Libelluloides. ellow, lineated with 

black ; antennae black ; wine: 7 Lean, with distant 
spots and points of blackish colour ; under wings less 
maculated, Pith two abbreviated blackish bands ; feet 


vari 
eleon libelluloides. Linn. Latr. Fabr. 

Inhabits the south of Europe, and all Africa. 

Genus CCCCXCV. etd Geoff. Leach. 

Myameteon. Lim. Fabricius, Latreille. 

Antenne gradually thicker towards their extremi- 
ties ; shorter than the —— Ey ote eee tere 
v , linear. Labi ji wil it in- 
pw fire iform, Pormeceot me atm the apex. 

Formicari- Sp. 1. Formicarius. Wings hyaline, apex acute ma- 
us. culated with fuscous ; <dinal ‘oniadict anal scanbvatiieto- 
moses whitish. 

Myrmeleon formicarium. Linn. Latr. Fabr. 

Formicaleo formicarius. Leach’s MSS. 

Inhabits Europe in sandy districts ; it varies with 
immaculate wings. 

Genus CCCCXCVI. Ascatapuus. pees La- 
treille, Lamarck, Leach. 

Livettoiwes. Scheeffer. 

Myrmeteon. Linn. 

Antennz abruptly terminated by’an obtrigonate club. 
ow composed of two conjoined segments. Abdomen 

than the thorax, ee ceney 

. 1. Barbarus. Bod oe spotted with yellow ; 
abe nervured with golden saan upper ones from 
the base of the hinder margin even to the border, 
blackish, the border broadly paler ; inferior ones with 
the base blackish, hyaline in the middle, the apex black. 

Ascalaphus barbaren' Fabricius, Latreille. ; 

Inhabits Barbary. 

Sp. 2. Tialicus. Black, maculated with luteous ; 
wings obscurely nervured ; superior ones with their 
basial costa, wit with a spot 0 posite to the internal 
noe white, yellow, or sulphur coloured, the inter- 

under ones with the base black, 
the the widale white-yellow, the posterior ——- end 


apex blackish. 
Ascalaphus italicus. Fabricius, Latreille. 


Ms Inhabits southern Europe and part of Germany. 
Tre II. Hesxenonipes. 
Antenne filiform or setaceous. Palpi four. Wings 
equal. ‘Tarsi five-jointed. 
Famity I. Hemerobida. 
_ Oceili, or little eyes, not distinct. 


24. bye- 
MELTON. 


495. For- 
MICALEO. 


196. Asca- 
Paris. 


Tralicus, 


® This tribe probably contains two families. 


‘same breadth as the thorax. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Genus CCCCXCVIL pre meat Leach’s MSS. 


Hemeronws. Linné, , Fabricius, Latreille, aw 
Olivier, me pee sees “ee wt jn 
Antenne (at ‘as eplin. 
dric hens: longer than ee 9 » 
1. Perla. Perla, 


Flemcrob emerobius perla. Linné, Fabricius, Larreilles 5 
Chrysopa perla,, Leach’s MSS, 
Inhabits woods, iichkom my 
Sp. 2. Reticulata. ote ck at Reticulattt 
emerobius chr. Linn. ore ied 
Chrysopa retic Leach’s MSS. ‘ 
Inhabits Europe 
Genus CCCCXCVIIL, Henxnanive.t. Linng, Fo- 498 we 
bricius, Latreille, Lamarck, Leach. - MEROBIUS, 
Antenne as long, or shorter than the bodys joints 


ee 


. Hirtus. ch 3 Hinton 
Pcetnotins hirtus. Linn. Fabr. Late. pou’ > 
Inhabits Germany. => hn taba) 
Fay IT. Osmylida, ¢ tonto _ 
Cea iss Bieta, 8 “95 ew ae 
Genus CCC smyius. Latreille. 49. Osarx- 
Hemerosius. Fabr. Villers, Roemer, Donovan. 5 nee 


Antennz moniliform, . 

Sp. 1. Maculatus. Fuscous; head and fol nee Maculatus.. 
ceous ; wings hairy, the upper ones and the mar 
gin of the inferior ones spotted with black. 


veh 


Hemerobius maculatus. Fabricius, = 

Hemerobius chrysops. tea Donovan. 

Hemerobius fulvicephalus. . 

Inhabits France, ei my a contin ane 


ed with Hemerobius chrysops « einer 


Trine IV, Gonwhnasmad 


Thorax with the first ent , not much longer 
than broad. Tarsi rigs sarge ings of ee size. 


 : resembling each 
“Corgdatida. 


EeeyA :" 

Ocelli three a triangle. Wings incum- 
bent a arsi iwith all the joints entire. 

Genus D. oryYDALIS. Latreille, ornare 

Hemerosius. Fabricius, Olivier. 

Rapurpia. Linn. 

Antenne simple, the joints very short, cpliaahele. 
Mandibles v dango: as-lempgide shan aheees Head 
broader than the thorax. 

Obs. Latreille considers this genus isiakieyt Raphidia, 
notwithstanding the diference oF the tars joints, both 
in number and form. 

Sp.1. Cornuta. 

Hemerobius cornutus. H} 

Corydalis cornutus, _Latreille, Palissot de Beauvos 

Raphidia cornuta. Linn. 

Inhabits Africa, and part of America.’ 

Genus DI. Cnavutiopes, Latreille, Palissot. 

Hemerosivus. Linn. De Geen, Olivier... 

Semputs. Fabricius. 

Antenne pectinated. Mandibles shart. Head of the 
“i nN + ghad 


wade D vtta)h 


th 


Fabricius, Olivier. © 


Sp. 1. Pectinicotnis. 
hee pectinicornis. Linn. 
ctinicornis. Fabricius. — 

Cheuho pectinicornis, Latr. Palisot de Beauvois. 


set 


4 mm la 


+ Hemrrobius phalani ides Dr Leach places in a peouliar genus named Darraxreteayx. : 
Slo the firet volume ef the Zoological Mieellany, is instituted a new genus, named NymrHeEs, which belongs to this family. 
< 3. 


iT ae Tan TSMily II. Sichdg,” een 
Wings deflexed. Tarsi with the last joint but one 
bifid. Ocelli none. 
— DIL. Siatis. re oe 
EMEROBIUS. Geoffroy, Geer, Olivier. 
mere Fabricius. 
; . 1. Niger. 
Flemérobes ic notr. 
Hemerobius ius. . Linneus ? 
Semblis lutrarius? Fabricius. 
Inhabits Europe. _ The larva in water. 
"Tring V.. Mantispipes. 


502. Sra- 
LIs, 


Niger. 


Anterior feet raptorious. Thorax with the first seg- 
ment large, long. Tarsi five-jointed. Wings of equal 
ize, deflexed. 


size, 
Genus DIII. Manrtispea. Iliger, Latreille. 
Rapuipra. Scopoli, Linnzus. 
Mantis. Fabricius, Pallas, Olivier. 
Nerveures hairy. 
Pagana, Sp. 1. Pagana. Pubescent-yellowish ; thorax rough- 


ish ; elytra with a yellowish costa, stigma darker. 


503. Mas- 
TISPA. 


Tripe VL Rapurpives. 
Wings of equal size. Thorax with the first nt 
large. Tarsi with four distinct joints, the last but one 
_  bilobate. Antenna nearly setaceous. Ocelli three, 
ina 
504 Ra- Genus DIV. puipia. Linn, Geoff. De Geer, 
PHIDIA. — Fabr. Oliv. Lam. Latr. 
Head oval, narrowed behind, inflexed. Thorax with 
the first segment very. narrow, and somewhat 
; cylindric, Anus of ‘the with two united 
Seta. 


Ophiopsis. i 1 Ophii is. 
I its Europe. 


Trize VII, Termrrives. 

Wings of equal size, horizontally incumbent. Thorax 
with the firs ent large. Tarsi with three = 
joints, the penulti joint entire. Antenne monili- 
form, inserted before the eyes. Head short, rounded 
behind. Ocellus one. 

The animals of this tribe congregate in numbers, 
and live in societies, being generally known by the 
‘term white ants, a name applied to all the species in- 


405.Tex- Genus DV. Tenmes. Linn. De Geer, Fabr. Oliv. 
aS. Lam. Latr. 
Perta. De Geer. 
Hemexosivs. Linn. 
Lucifugum, Sp. 1. Lucifugum. Black, shining, and pubescent ; 
thorax transversely quadrate, with angles rounded, 


with an impression on each side. of the anterior s 
the intermediate somewhat carinated ; tot mine 
rane, ~ eens of the joints 
the antenna, tibiee, and all i, 

: ( excepted), ne 


Termes lucifugum. Rossi, Latreille, 
Inhabits Italy. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


- Trine VIII. Psocines. 


Inferior wings’smaller than the superior ones. Some 
are apterous. Palpi two, composed of four joints.. 


_Famity I. Psocida. 

Tarsi two-jointed. _ —. : 

Genus DVI. Psocus. Latr. Fabr. Lam. Coquebert. 506. Pso- 

Hemerosius. Linneus. nies 

Wings four, 

ae 1. Bipunctatus. Variegated with. yellow and Bipuncts-. 
black; head above the clypeus blackish; superior ™* 
wings with a small costal mark, and another on the 


. Opposite margin black ; the interjected cords blackish; 


sti white, with a black spot. 
us bipunctaius. Latreille, Fabricius, Coquebert. 
Hemerobius bipunctatus. Linn. 
Inhabits Europe. 


Famiry IT. 
Tarsi three-jointed. 
Genus DVII. Arropos. Leach’s MSS. 
Termes. Linn. De Geer. 
Psocus. _ Fabricius, Latreille, Coquebert. 
Pepicunus. (Pou,) Geoffroy. 
Sp. 1. Lignaria, 
ermes jatorium. 
Termes lignarium. De Geer. 
Le Pou du Bois. Geoffroy. - 
Psocus pulsatorius. Fabricius, Latreille, Coquebert. 
Inhabits old books, often beating like a. watch, 
whence it has acquired the name of death-watch. 
Psocus fatedicus of Fabricius, is referable to the ge- 
nus A but. whether it be a distinct species from 
Alropos ia is certainly very doubtful. . 


Trine IX. Percanripes. 


Inferior larger than the superior ones, wit! 
longitudinal folds, Parsi with three joints. Mandible$ 
distinct. Thorax with the first segment large. , 

Obs. The wings horizontally incumbent. 

Genus DVIII. Nemovura. Latreille. 

Purycanea. Linneus. 

Penta. Geoffroy, De Geer. 

Semeuis. Fabricius. 

Labrum very distinct, almost semicircular, Man- 
dibles corneous. Palpi filiform. Tarsi, with equal 
lengthened joints (the middle one scarcely shorter) not 

beneath, Anus without sete, 

Sp. 1. Nebulosa. Fuscous-black, pubescent ; abdo- Newitosa. 
men and feet reddish-fuscous ; wings cinereous, imma- 
culate, the nerveures darker. , 

Le Perle Brune a ailes pales. Geoffroy. 

Nemoura nebulosa. Latreille. 

Inhabits Eu 

Genus DIX. Perta. Geoffroy, De Geer, Olivier, 509, pen. 
Lamarck, Latreille. LA. 

Purycanea. Linn, 

Semauis. Fabricius, 

Labrum obscure, transversely linear. Mandibles al- 
most membranaceous. Palpi eae setaceous, Tarsi 
with the two basal joints shorter than the third. Anus 
with two long sete. 

Sp. 1. Marginata. 

marginata, Fabricius, 

Perla gs aa Latreille. 

Inhabits Europe. ‘ 

Phryganea bicaudata of Linneus belongs to this genus, 


Atropida. 


507. ATre- 
Pos, 


Lignaria. 
Linn. 


508. NE« 
MOURA. 


Marginata 


140 


Metabolia. 


—_—_— Oapen XIV. HYMENOPTERA. 


Orper Hyuenorrena. Linn. Latr. Lam. Cuvier. 
Crass Prezata. Fabricius. 
Characters of the Order. 
nervured, (the monet hare lomprein 
vines) the ‘inferior ones smaller than the upper. Anus 
fds femslos wih: a ting Sunetibech 


Secrion I. Tereprantia. 


Ovidact lamelliform or filiform, in a few resembling 
“ and valved ; the bivalve, received ina 
canal before the anus, the valves com 
in some compressed lamelliform ; in others ongate- 


cylindric, setaceous. 
Division I. 


Abdomen united to the thorax along its whole breadth, 
without any distinct peduncle. 


Tae Il. Tenrurepinives. 


Abdomen sessile. Oviduct composed of two lamellae 
which are serrated. Mandibles more or less long, ter- 
minated by two strong teeth. Wings with the mar- 
ginal cells complete. 


Famity I. Tenthridinida. 


Labrum distinct. Larve with membranaceous feet. 
Genus DX. Crsex. Oliv. Fabr. |, Latr. 
Tenturepo. Linneus, Jurine, Panzer, De Geer. 


Crapro. 
Cuavertania, De Lamarck. 
Antenne terminated by a distinct club, nearly ovoid. 
Obs. This genus is artificial ; it contains several na- 
tural genera, which may be defined from the joints 
composing their antennz. 
* Antenne with five joints before the club, which is 
nearly solid. 
rey Fenshala: Fabricius, 
Sp. 2. Azillaris. Panzer. 


510. Cime 
SEX. 


Femorata, 


8, 
ots Antenne with four j joints before the club, which 
is indistinctly articulated. 
’ Amerine. Y Fabricius, Panzer. 
5. Marginata. Fabricius, Panzer, 
S c . 6. Leta. Panzer. 
7. Obscura. Panzer. 
pple ome mp Romer alps psn 
which is _——r 
Sp. 8. Faciata. bricius, Panzer. 
*** Antenne with four joints before the club, 
Ba is com of three joints. 
abricius, Panzer. 
Saeeiaien sericea and nitens of Linneus are but 


Sericea, 


$ll.Hyto- Genus DXI. Hyzoroma. : . Spinoli. 
TOMA. Tenturepo, Linné, Geoffroy, De Geer, Panzer, 
Lamarck, Olivier. 
Cryptus. Jurine. 
Ance. Schrank. 
Antenne gradually thickening towards their extre- 
mities, composed of three joints. Superior wings with 


* Some species which are placed in this genus by Latreille, have ten or fourteen joints in their antenna ; these should constitute distinct 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


—" 


fi cells, and cell. 
4 Ee one marginal cell emitting Metabolis. 
Sp. 1. Rose. Rose. 


enthredo rose... Linn. 
Hylotoma rose. Fabricius, Latreille. 
ope Europe. 


cata er Pe lama frat of a 4 ig fetal 


the genuine Hylotome, , by heving having filiform 
pack and sheald constitute a peculiar genus. 
Genus DXII. Tenrurepo.* Linné, Geoffroy, De $12. Tex 
Geer, Latreille. THREDO. 
Attaytus. Jurine. ae > 
Antenne simple, composed nine joints. Superior 
wings with two santinoal and with ae submarginal 


= 
Tonthrede 8 rie. Linn, Fabr. orprres Taya 
Allantus sero ie. Jurine. 
‘ Inhabits Scrophularia nodosa and aquatica: when in 
— 
2. Militaris. Militaris. 
Tate militaris. a leas 
Inhabits places margins wiley! 
Genus DXIII. Doxervs. Jurine, Latreille, 513. Dotr- 
Tenturepo. abricius, a “aoe tens with ye 
Antennz simple, nine-joini wige: 
two oo and three submarginal cells. 
1. Gonagra. Gonagra. 
Toerus ae Jurine, Latreille. . 
Tenthr Fabricius, Panzer. ; ” 
Inhabits Barope arm 
— DXI pcg ted Jogng, Late 514. Nz- 
ntennz simple, nine- MATUS, 
one apr i aaemagheel bee 
l. i 


enthredo seplentrionalis. Fabr. Panzer. 
Nematus septentrionalis. Jurine, Latr. 
Inhabits the European woods. . 
Genus DXV. Pristipnora. Latr.. _ $15, Pris- 
Preronis. x os ae niet le onde 
Antenne simple, nine-join perior wings be 
one marginal, and three Lares rane paren 
bidentate. 
. 1. Testacea. 
Heronus tesiaceus. Jurine. a4 2180? 
Pristiphora testacea. Latr. ; 
Genus DXVI. Cuaprus. Latr. Illiger. 
Tenturepo. Panzer. nok 
Antenne nine-j pero wing with one marginal and 
in the female. Soper ene ee and 
four sul 
Sp. 1. Dij 
ent ° 
Cladius di . Latr. 
Inhabits 5 
Genus DXVII. Lopnyrus. Latr. 
Preronus. Jurine. 
Hytotoma. Fabr. atl y 
Linn. De Geer, Oliv. Lam. iemets i 
Antenne pennated in the males, vrata ni if 
males. Su ior wings with one marginal and 
brea cl” Mandibles tridentate. — 


Pn 


Panzer. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Fammy Il. Xiphydrida. 
Labrum obscure. Larvae with scaly feet, or at least 


not membranaceous. 
518. Ms. | Genus DXVIII. Mecatapontes. Latr. Spinoli. 
catapoy- Tarpa. Fabr. Panzer. 
TES. Crepnatera, Jurine. 


Manible long, slender, and strongly bent. Neck 
ibles , 

not elongate. Oviduct not exserted. Antenne pecti- 
nated or serrated. 


Cephalotes. 


Genvs DXIX. Pampumuus. Latr. Olivier. 
na ae Hs Linn. Lamarck, Panzer. 
YDA. . Spinoli. 

Cepuareia. Jurine. 

Psen. Schrank, 


519. Pam- 
PHILIvs, 


and 
HUS, 


Inhabits German: 

Genus DXX. 

Smex. Linn. 

Astatus. Klug: 

Tracuetus. Jurine. 

Mandibles exserted, longer than wide. Neck long. 
Oviduct exserted. Antenne inserted in the front be- 
tween the eyes, gradually thicker externally, 


See mem 


1. 

Cophus Late, Fabr 
Inhabits 
Genus D 
Srrex. Linn. 


Urocervus. Jurine. 
Hysonotvs. KI 


Fabr. Panz. 


Troglodyta. 
| Pygmaus. 


. Xirnyori. Late. Fabr, Pane. 


141 
Latr. Fabr. Jurine, Metabolia 


522. Orys- 
Sus. 


Genus DXKXII. Onyssus. 


SpuHex. li. , 

Mandibles with their internal edge not dentated. 
Maxillary palpi long and pendulous, Antenne fili- 
form, compressed, inserted under the anterior margin 
of the clypeus. Superior wings with one marginal cell, 
and two submarginal, the last incomplete. Oviduct 
capillary, hidden in a longitudinal groove. 

Sp. 1. Coronatus. 

Oryssus coronatus. Fabr. Latr. Coquebert. 

ssus vespertilio. Klug, Panzer. 
Scopoli. 


Coronatus- 


Sphex abietina. 

Inhabits Europe. 

Genus DXXIII. Unrocervs. 
Lam. Latr. Leach. 

Smrex. Linn. Fabr. Jurine, Panz. Klug, Leach. 

Icuneumon. De Geer, Scopoli. 

Mandibles dentated on their internal edge. Maxil. 

i very small. Labial palpi terminated by a 

very thick, hairy joint. Antenne ually aan. 
i the 


Geoff. Scheff. Oliv. 523. Uro- 


CERUS. 


from their characters, are evidently natural 


* Antenne with 25 joints. Abdomen of the female 
Ae Fn an abrupt horn. La« 
i palpi ith a distinct basal joint. Maxillary 
with two distinct joints sean length. yrocr. 
Genus Urocerus. Leach. RUS. 
Sp. 1. Gigas. Gigas. 


Inhabits Is rare in Britain. 
2. Psyllius. 
trex psyllius. Fabr, Klug. 


U; igas. » 
Soden, Cates 


** Antenne with 21 or 23 joints. Maxillary i 
pews their basal joint = ge A scarcely te 
ound, 
A, Abdomen of the female terminated by an abrupt, 
horn. Labial palpi distinctly triaticulated.. 
Genus Sirex. : 
Sp. 3. Spectrum. 

_ Strex emarginatus. Fabr. (Male 
Sirex spectrum. Linn. Panzer, . (Female). 
Urocerus spectrum. Latr. 

B. Abdomen of the female with the extremity gra- 
dually acuminated. 

Sp. 4. Juvencus. 

Sirex . Linn. Fabr. 

Sirex noctilio. Fabr. Panzer, 


SiREx. 
Spectrum. 


Juyencus. 


pone 


Inhabits E Is rare in Britain. 
Genus DXX 


pal 
jo eaty ack mach very hairy. 


* This tribe, Dr Leach has proposed to divide into two families, the one to contain the genus Oryssus, the other Sirex, Urocerus and. 


Division IL. | 


Abdomen united to the thorax by a slender pe- 
duncle. 


Taser UT. Evanwes. 


Inferior wings with very distinct nervures. Antenne 
with 15 or 14 joints. 

Gexus DXXV. Eyania. Fabr. Oliy, Lam. Ju- 
rine, Panzer. 

Sraex. Linn. 

Icuneumon. De Geer. 


Abdomen small, much , triangular 
or ovoid, ly pediculated, fi. enor inserted Ann i 
metathorax. 


* Antenne with the third joint much longer than 
the second, U; wings with distinct ner- 
poy and cells. bn a ie ro 

truncate-unidentate. i wi 
five distinct joints, the basal joint obsolete ; the 
last joint but one of the labial palpi much dila- 
ted. Superior wings with a tri marginal 
cell ; first submar; po es mage hee second 
open ; three middle open . 
Sp. 1. Levigata. 
Evanie lisse. Oliv. 

Evania appendigaster. Fabr. 

Evania levigata. Latr. 

Inhabits America. 

Dr Leach pe aaa le en on r8 fa, pomea boxes of 
American insects, and he possesses two specimens taken 
at large in London. 

#* Antenne with the third joint much longer than 
the second. Upper hc with distinct ner- 
vures and cells. Mandibles with their internal 
edge distinctly and. acutely tridentate. _Maxil- 
lary palpi with six distinct joints ; the last joint 
but one of the labial palpi not much dilated. 
Superior wings with the marginal cell’ semi- 
ovate ; middle cells two; apex without cells, 

Sp. 2. Appendigaster, } 

vania appendigaster, Panz. Oliv, Latr. 

Sphex appendigaster. Linn. 

Inhabits southern France, Spain, and Italy. 

*** Antenne with the third joint not much longer 
than the second. Superior wings with the ner- 
vures and cells obliterated. 

- 3. Minuta. , 

vania minuta. Oliv. Fabr, Latr. 

Brachygaster minutus. Leach’s MSS. 

Inhabits France and England. pbs 

Gexvus DXXVI. Fasvs.. abr. Latr, Jurine, Panz. 

lounsunon, Linn. Geoff. De Geer. 

~Gastenvrtion, Latr (obsolete). 
Neck ae Hinder tibiw clavate, _ Abdomen a 

. 1. Jaculator, 


525. Eva- 
NIA 


Jaculator. 
Fabr, Panz, Latr, ~~ 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


.treille. Lae te I PRA 
Baacon. Fabr.‘Panger: ““ivereool i i ell 
Thorax much attenuated anteriorly. Metathorax 


Tehneumon j tor. 


Linn. nctelhs daia wet dd 
Inhabits d an S- > ee meee — 
Gexus DXXVIL Pexrcinvs. Late. Fabr. 627. Penx- 
Neck not a t. Hinder tibise clavate. Abdo. omes. 
men slender, long, and filiform, 
Sp. 1. Polycerator.. . ens Polycera- 


elecinus polycerator. “Late, Fabr, ben bial 
Inhabits America. NT , <2) aa 
Genus DXXVIII. Avtacus, Jurine, Spinoli. 528. Ava 
ed yl nele, eeanael the net elev. Be 
i extremity of an elevation 
ere ovary ofaenee! 6 ea 
yA 1, Stiriatus. y tat tons red Striatus. 
ulacus striatus. Jurine, Latr. 
Inhabits the Alps. in 
Trine IV. IcuNeuMoNipes, — a 
Abdomen attached to the thorax by’ a’ part of its 
transverse diameter. Inferior wings with very distin =o 
nervures. Antenna with'2} joints and more, | athe 
Famuty I. Stephanida, whee 
Mandibles’ terminated by an entire point, or with 


but a very obscure notch: Head globose, 
Genus DXXIX. Srepnanus. Jurine, Miger, La- 529. Sree 


lindric, straight or horizontal. Abdomen inserted at 
the superior and posterior extremity of the metathorax, 
ent abruptly narrower than the rest. 
Sp. 1. Coronatus. Am 
Rtephitnts coronates,  Jurine? Latyl een Ne? 
Bracon serrator. Fabr. Panzer, 


Inhabits Germany. ” » ar DeNs 
Gexus DKXX. Xonipes. Latr. 530. Xont- 
Anomaton. Jurine. DES. 
Cryprus. Fabr. Ut am) id ra 
Metathorax with the hinder segment convex; and at = 
the apex rounded. Abdomen distinctly: é 
inserted under the posterior and superior apex of the = 
metathorax. , et : 
Sp. 1. Indicatorius. ee Tndicate. 
orides indicatorius. Latr. i meres 
Inhabits Europe. Lah iz 1 
Wate sata 
Famity II. Ichneumonida,, 


Mandibles bidentate, or notched at their extremity. 


»» Drviston I. ee 

Abdomen with five very distinct segments, read rd 
Subdivision 1. reprise liane eld 

Superior wings with the first subeosrgital inal cell very 

large ; the two discoidal cells situated longitudinally, 
one above the other. — 
Genus DXXXI. Icnneumon. Latreille, 531, Tene 
Maxillary palpi with very unequal joints. Oviduct *EUMON: 


with its base not covered by a scale, ex 
Obs. This genus, which Pan 9 ttentiv 


i exa~ é £ 
mined by Latreille, consists of several natural x a; } 
but the ‘characters are obscure, and are not yet fully 


understood. Under this, head, the following. gé 

or parts of them), posed by Jurine, Ftccas 
anzer, Iliger, and Walckenaer, are fo BA sien anil 
viz. 1, Cryptus, 2. Bassus, 3. Pimpla, 4. Joppa, 5. Me- +e 
topius, 6. Trogus, 7, Alomya, 8, Peltastes, 9, Ophion, 
8. F 


and, 10. Bane: 


etabolia. The following divisions are proposed by Latreille, 
SN ooo etettied ticecinccth to a wrdyubses nie 
7 . © Division A. 


Abdomen but little or not at all compressed, 
Subarysss0n a. 1. 


ara > ow sp id t t 1 


ly truncated ; b = 
1S cylindric, with avery short peduncle. 
- Genus Piwpca of Fabricius, .. 
2. ** Abdomen somewhat ovoid, wi 


t ovoid, with the peduncle 
long, slender, and arcuate. ‘y 
Genus Crayptus of Fabricius. 


sliquely truncated ; oviduct scarcely 


3. * Abdomen cylindric, almost sessile. 
Genus Meroptus of Panzer; Peiasrss of Illiger. 
4, ** Abdomen almost fusiform or cylindric, u- 
ally narrower towards the base ; the cle 
not slender or arcuate. , 
_ Genus Atomya of Panzer. 
5. *** Abdomen elli or ovalate, with the pe- 
duncle and “ 


* Genus Icuneumon of Fabri 


Genus Oputon of Fabricius. 
7. ** Abdomen with the apex pointed, 
Genus Bancuus of Fabricius. 


Genus DXXXII. Acanirus. Latr. 
Crayprus. Fabr. Panzer. . 
Icunrumon. Schieffer, Scopoli, Oliv. 
: Palph wane thats unlike each othe 
] joints not very r. 
Oviduct covered at its base by a large scale, od! 
Sp. 1. Dubitaror. n 
Cryptus dubitator. Fabr. Panzer. 
Accenitus dubitator. . Latr. 
Inhabits Germany. 
Subdivision 2. 
Superi ings with the first inal cell small, 
area er 6 sab rer it 
transverse line by the side of each other. 
. $83. Baa. Genus DXXXIIL Bracon.. Jurine, Fabr. Panzer, 


gow. i inoli, Latr. 
s eller Linn, Scopoli, Schrank. 
Virro. Latr. (Rejected name). 
Mouth into a rostrum. Superior wings 


532. Acx- 
NITUS. 


Dubitator. 


2 desertor. r 
584. Aca- ©° Genus DEXAIV. * AGatuis. 
THIS. Ichweumon. } 
Bracon. Fabr. Spinoli. 
Mouth oe into a rostrum. 
the second submarginal cell very ya 
Sp, 1. Panzeri. 
“Iehacumor panzeri, Jurine, eur 
Agithis ale Latreille. Final 


oder e 


ior wings with 
Panzeri, ; 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


143 


Genus DXXXV. Microcaster. Latreille, Iliger, Metabolia, 
Icuneumon. Linneus, Fabricius, Jurine, Rossi. Oe cas. 
Ceropates. Fabricius. m i’ TER. 
Cryetus. Fabricius. - 
Bassus. Panzer. 
Mouth not produced. Abdomen very small and de- 

Oviduct. short.) Superior: wi with one 

marginal cell nearly obsolete in some, and three sub- 

marginal; the second minute, the last terminal imperfect. 
Sp. 1. Deprimators,.\ « at 
Ichneumon deprimator. Fabricius. 
Microgaster deprimator. _Latreille.. 
Inhabits Germany. 


Division IT. 
Abdomen almost inarticulate, with but three distinct 


Deprima- 
tor. 


segments. 
Genus DXXXVI. Sicatruus. ‘Latreille, Spinoli. 
Spuznopyx. Hoffmansegg. 
Cryptus. Fabricius. 
Icuneumon. Fabricius. 
Cuetonvs. Jurine, Panz. Iliger. 
Bracon. Jurine. 
Sp. 1. Irrorator. 
Sigalphus irrorator. Latreille. - 
Cryptus irrorator.. Fabricius. 
Famity III. Alysiada. 
_ Mandibles tridentate at their extremities, forming an 
square. ; 
Genus DXXXVII. Atysta.  Latr, 
Cryptus. Fabricius. 
Bassus. Panzer. 
Bracon. te « 
Cecuenvs. Iliger. 
Sp. 1. Mase 
Coyeei manducator. Fabricius. 
Bracon manducator. Jurine. 
Bassus manducator. Panzer. . 


Inhabits 


536.S1GAL- 
PHUS. 


{rtorator. 


537. ALY- 
SIA, 


Mandugay 
tor. 


. Trise X. DirLorepipes; 

Abdomen inserted to the thorax by a part only of its 
transverse diameter. Inferior wings without disti 
nervures. Body not contractile into a sphere. Ab« 
domen > eager or depressed. Oviduct filiform. 
Palpi very short. Antenne filiform, straight, from thir- 
teen to sixteen-jointed. 

Famuty I. Diplolepida. 


Abdomen very shortly, or not at all pedunculated, 

Genus DXXXVIIL. Inanta. Latreille, Iliger. . 

Bancuus.. Fabricius. 

Sagaris. Panzer. ., 

Cynies. Jurine. 

Abdomen very much compressed, knife-shaped, An« 
tenn a cylindric. 

Sp. 1. Cult i. 

Ibalia cultellator. Latreille. 

Banchus cultellator. Fabricius. 

Sigavis cultellator. Panzer. 

I its Germany and the south of France. 

Genus DXXXIX. Diptoveris. Geoffroy, Olivier, 
Panzer, Illiger. id 

Cyxies_ Linneus, Scopoli, IMliger. 

Abdomen with the inferior part compressed, triangu. 
Jar-ovoid. Antenne filiform, joints eyindric. 


538. TRa- 
LIA. F 


Cultellator, 


539. Dr- 
PLOLEPIS. * 


144 


LQ fol 
: ak amen 
Genus XL Forres. Latr. Jarine. 
Cyrxirs. Rossi. 
Abdomen with its inferior part 
lar-ovoid. Antenne moniliform, 
extremities. 


Pts wetellr oe Latr. 
eel Gigients 


Fay Ul. Eucharida, 


Abdomen with a very distinct elongate 
Genus DXLL Evcnants. Latr. Fabr. 
Icuneumon. - Kossi. 

Cuaccis. Jurine. 


Sp. 1. Ascendens. 
Eucharis ascendens. 
Inhabits Germany. 
Trive VI. Cynipsipes. 
Abdomen attached to the thorax by a clea 
transverse eas Inferior wings without distin 


Bod tractable into a ball. ‘Abdo. 
ay . Oviduct filiform. Pal- 


triangu- 
towards their 


uncle. 
‘anzer, Spin. 


Latreille, Fabricius, Panzer. 


Famiuty I. Chalcida, 


Hinder tibie very much arcuated. 
Genus DXLII. Levcosris, Fabr. Oliv. Panz. Ju- 
rine, Iliger, Spinoli, Latr. 


Vespa. Sulzer, Christus. 

Abdomen as if sessile, somewhat ovate, compressed, 
thicker above. “cally img? palpi. with the second and 

long. Superior wings longitudinal. 
Serichene the marginal and the submar- 
Vinal elle ditinct, abbreviated, open. 


pS Gigas. tied vi 


Inhabits France and Germany. ‘ 
545. Cual- Genus DXLIL Cuaucis. Fabr. Oliv. Panzer, Ju- 
om rine, Illiger, Latr. 

Spex. Spee 


pve 
[tatibanlihingten, not sessile, terminated by 


i Su sake not folded, with the margi- 
ae iad ohare vane jell pane ox sisaiated Maxil- 


Sais, wah the hast Soler but one shorter than the 
pa i 


ot2. Lev. 
Cosris, 


Gigas. 


Clavipes. 
* ree with a very short peduncle. 
Minuta 2. Minuta, © 
minuta. Fabricius, Panzer, Latreille. 
Inhabits Europe. 
Famuty IL. 
Hinder tibia straight. 


Cynipsida, 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


. Deviston L. 


Anterior segment of the thorax large, a trans- 


verse quadrate, or triangular, with the apex obtuse or 
truncate. 


Subdivision“. 


Mandibles with three « or four teeth. Thorax with the 
Genus DXLIV. Evrytoma. “‘Miger, 1 Latréille. 
Icuneumon. De Geer. 

Ovnirs. Fabricius, Schrank. — 

Dietoteris. Fabricius. 

Evcuants. Fabricius, Pastde? 


Cuarcis. Jurine. 
nares — 
tenne with distinct, rounded joi 
pe fags 5 in the males. ‘aphaner aaah 
presed. iduct moderately exserted, 
- 1. Serratule. nse Serratule. 
ips serratule. Fabricius. 
haris serratule, Panzer, 
serratule. Liatreille. 
Inhabits German 


Genus DXLV. Nita! Geoffroy, Scheff, Fabr. Sate 
Olivier, Walck. Latreille. 


Icuneumon. Linneus. 


Dievoteris. Fabr. Illiger, Spin. 
Cueptes. Fabricius, 


Cuatcis. Cuvier, Lam. Jurine. 


Antenne with A 
cadena cylindric joints. bdomen compres- 


hi 1, Capreee. 
(Soi cope. Fabrics, Laie, 


Subdivision 2. 


; 

Mandibles with three or four teeth. Thorax with 

the anterior segment rounded. Anientise 0% oF Soyen- | 
jointed, branched sometimes in the males. 

Genus DXLV}. Evtopuvs. Geoffroy, Olivier, Latr, 546. Ev- . 

LOPHUS. 

| 

; 

: 


Icuneumon. Linneus, De Geer, Spinoli, 
Dirtoteris. Fabricius, Spinoli. 
Ciepres. Fabricius. 
Cynips. Christus, Jurine, 
een Lamarck, Jurine. 

Ramicsrnis, 


Diplotene ramicornis, es 
ichabies Bae Europe. ~ Poe 


Subdivision 8. 


Thorax with the anterior nt attenuated in front, 
somewhat conic. Mandibles bidentate. 
Genus DXLVII. Cieonymus. Latreille, | 
Drevoreris. Fabricius, Spinoli, 
Icuneumon. De Geer, Rossi. 
Antenne inserted towards the middle of the face, 
Seay palpi hia way labial with three joints. Ab- 


Ramicornis, 


547. CrE0- 
NYMUS, 


5) Depressi 
Diplolepit depre depressa. Fabricius, 


Cleonymus depressus. Latreille, 
Inhabits Europe. | 
Genus DXLVIII. Sparaneia. Latreille, Spinoli. 548. spa. 
Antenne inserted near the mouth. Palpi ‘biarticu- LANGIA. 
late. Abdomen ovate-conic, 


ms Cag Oty, tee 2 


549. Prem. 
LAMPUDS. - 


Violaceus. 


550. Pre- 
ROMALUS. 


Tortricis, 


Sp.1. Nigra. 
porn sing memati 


Drvision HI. 


. 
ro e 


Thorax with the anterior segaitnt very short, cans 


Verse-linear. 


Subdivision 1, — 


Tet 


Mandibes most quadrate with three oF four dis 


tinct teeth. 
Genus DXLIX. Peritamevs. 


pe Datveilig: . 
PLoLepis: °Fabrieius, Iliger, Panzer, ‘pinot. 
Cuatcis. Rossi, Cuvier, poner tes Br) 


Cynips. Olivier, 


Walckenaer, 
Mandibles wraniehy South: vag ot the antennwe 
» fusiform. | nm 


Uv 


ilaheebisestatic) powri a 
ih o “Fabrici 
P eiolacens. Latreiile.; : 


f 


(ALG 


Benvs L. PreromMavus. ener 


Icuneumon. Linneus. 
Diecocerts. et a ot Sa 


Cxiepres. Fabridius. 
Cynirs. omar 


ass semnlaptbrtciol. Baiada 


Subdivision 2« 


Mandibles terminated if @ point, with tewwediore 


lead 


“i 


teeth. 
551. Ex- «Genus DLI. Enoyrtus. Latreille. © 


CYRTUS. 


re 
SETH 


iii 


552. PLA~ 


Ieuyeumon. Rossi. 
Mrra? Schellen 
Mandibles 


with but one tooth. Abdo- 


Sin Sextaii tae Head much compressed 


1. Infidus. 
n 
‘chnenmon infidus. _ Rossi. 


22 Latreille. 
Mira mucora? "Schellenberg? 
‘Inhabits 


Genus DLIL. Pratycaster. ‘Latreille. 


axyoasten. ScErto. 


Rugulosus. - 


554. Te- 
LIAS, 


Latreille, ected name. 
Mandibles ees two teeth. ) Abdomen elon- 


Genus DLIIL ‘Scruro. . Latreille. 
Cerapuron? Jurine; 
Mandibles 


terminated by two teeth. Abdomen elon. 


is ee ae * ssarseallare" pear 


Sek a 


Genus DLIV. Tettas. Latredlin. 


co Agee 


Mandibles terminated by two teeth. Abdomen elori- 


gate, depressed, As ‘twelve jointed. 
ee 
‘Trine VIL. Procrorrupipes. | 


Abdomen attached to the metathorax by a 


its transverse diameter. Inferior 
‘tinct nervures. Body not contractable 
VOL. IX. PART I, 


wil i 


a ball.) Ab- 


ENTOMOLOGY. 145 


domen compressed, or depressed, the hinder extremity Metabotia. 
produced into a point or tubular tail, which is seintlie 


or bivalve. TREE SR eS EES 


Division I. 


Thorax not binodate, the anterior segment transverse, 
arcuate, 


She i. ' 
Antennz with the first joint very 1 ‘iedited to- r 
hesrtna the mouth. ~ , ay ees 
Genus DLY. Srarasion. a oe 
.1Cenarpron. Jurmey res 
Antenne twelve-joimted.  aikeeeiens ellijpties): de. 
pressed, without any very:distinet peduncle. ? 
Sp. 4. Frontale. Frontale. 


; frontale, ‘Latreille. 
. CEraplrn cornulus. Sarine} (fomule: y 
France. : “ 
Genus DLVI. Cekivanost Jurine, Spinola, Latr. pos CERA- 
Antenne eleven-jointed. ar aco oomngeess- lg 
ed, petncelesed distiietly, | wi 
Sp. 1. Sulcatus, Sulcatus. 
ron sulcatus. Juries, spinklhy Latreille. 
Genus DLVII. Anreon. Jurine, Latreille. 55%. Aws 


Antenne ten-jointed. Abdomen very distinctly and 7=°%- 
bee = ge pedunculated, Le easgeerres 2 ae pee 
. Jurineanum: \ 


actin jan ecteans ‘Latreille 
Subdivision 2... 
Antenne inserted telWaniethe wijweof Wied’, or 
" gaven BEI Pa” Jr 


Genus etn Ft SILUS, Caer agra Spinola. 558. Ps1 
Diapers, LUS. 


t Jurineatum: ~ 


Antenne moniliform ; of the males fourteen, Jointed; 
of the females twelve-jointed. ae or elle with no 
cells ; the costal nerve nyt on its 


An: CG ' Cornutus, 
: rilus cornulus. Panzer. 
ia cornuta, Latreiile. © 


Inhabits Europe. ; 
Genus DLIX. Betyta. Jurine, Latreille. 559. BELY- 
Cinerus. Jurine, TA. 


Antenne filiform ; of the male fifteen ; of the female 
fourteen-jointed ; all the basal joints elongate. Supe- 


rior oY ae with the cells complete. 
Bicolor. 
Beigta bicolor bicolor. Jurine, Latreille. . 
“ Subdivision 3. 


Antenne with the ‘first joint not elongate. 
-Gexus DLX. Procrorrerts, Latreille, Spinola. 560. Proe- 
Coprus. Jurine, Panzer. TOTRUPES, 
Enroporvs. Walck. 
Antenne thirteen-jointed. Mandibles without teeth. 

Superior wings ,with three complete cells. Abdomen 

, terminated by a joint more or 


ess 1 
Sp. 1. " Brevis nis. Brevipen+ 
rocttrupes. brevipes Latreille, Gen, Crust, et nis. 
Ins. A. $8, tab. 13. fig. 1 
Inhabits anaes ‘ 
Gewus DLXI. Hexorvs, Latreille, Jurine, 561. He- 
Spnex. Panzer. . LORY 


ok J 


146 

Meubolia. Pepyx. Panzer. 

—Yr"~—s Antenne fifteen 2. ~ 
omen distinctly and abruptly pedunculated, not ter- 
minated in a point. 

Apomab- > 1. Anomalipes. 

elorus avomalipes, Latreille. 
Inhabits Germany and France. 
Drviston IT. 

Thorax binodate, the anterior segment elongate- 
quadrate, or somewhat triangular. Antenne inserted 
on the cl near to the mouth. 

$62. Davi Genus DLXII. Dryivs. Latreille. 

ah Gownaropus. q 

Antenne straight, ten-jointed. Mandibles with many 
teeth. Thorax bi Anterior feet very long, ter- 
minated by two large nails internally denticula- 
ted, one of these 

Formica- . 1. Formicarius. 

I its France. 

563. Be- Genus DLXIII. Beruyzus. Latreille, Fabricius, 

TuYLvs. i eee 

MALUS. Jurine. 

CrrapHron. Panzer. 


Antenne broken, composed of thirteen joints. Man- 
dibles bidentate. Thorax binodate, the anterior seg- 


Trise VIII. Curystprpes. 
Abdomen attached to the metathorax by a portion 
only of its transverse diameter. Inferior wings with- 
out distinct nervures. Body not contractable into a ball. 


_ Famuy I. Cleptida, 
Abdomen semicylindric or semicircular, with five 
segments in the male, and four in the females. Tho- 
Trax attenuated in front, divided transversely by four 


segments. 

#4. Crsr- Genus DLXIV. Cuepres. Latreille, Fabricius, 
The Panzer, Jurine, Illiger, Spinoli. 
Spuex. Linn. Vill. 
—— Olivier. 
ESPA. ‘ 
Sommaee Weak Walck. 
§ hpi Semiaurata. 

s semiaurata, Fabricius, Latreille. 
Inhabits Europe. om 


Famuy Il. Chrysida. 


Division IL. 
tienes with the middle produced into a scutel- 


Subdivision 1. 
Abdomen with the second segment larger than the 
others, Palpi many-jointed. 
566. E- Genus DLXV. iaures, Spinoli, Latreille. 
samres. Cunyer. Fabricius, Jurine. 


Hevyeunum. Panzer, Lepeletier. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


obtuse point ; 


Spinoli, Latreille. 
Curysis. Linn. Olivier, 


» Jurine. 
Mandibles without teeth. A with the third 
segment v rge, slightly dentate behind. ‘ tau 


1. * . a 
Chyna Fabricius, Donovan. 


I 
Subdivisi 2. 
Abdomen with the third or fourth segment 
Genus DLXVII. Parnoprs. Latreille, Fabricius, pal 
Spinoli, Mliger, Lepeletier. 
Curysis. Rossi, Olivier, Jurine. Pilg 


r 


s Drviston II. 
Metathorax with the middle not elongated into a 
scutellum. 


-” 


568. Evcn- 


Genus DLXVIII. Evcuravs. Latreille. 
Curysis. Fabricius, Jurine, ier. + acy 
Mandibles with one tooth on their internal edge. 
Abdomen semicylindric, the last segment with 
a transverse elevation, and a row of impressed dots, 
Sp. 1. Purpuratus. Purpuratus. 
sis purpurala, Fabricius. 
ot gt Latreille. 
Inhabits France. 
Genus DLXIX. Curysis of authors. 569. Gury- 
Vespa. Geoffroy ena 


Mandibles with ‘one tooth on their internal edges. 


Genus DLXX. Hepycurum. Latr, Panzer Spin. 570. He- 
Curysis. Linn. Fabricius, Mliger, Lamarck, Le. pycurus. 


etier. 
Pe tandibles bidentate on their internal Abdo- 
men semicircular, with the extremity 3 all the 
. 1. Auratum. Auratum. 
Chirysia gurata. Fabricius. “1 


Section II. Acuneata. 
eee none. Se a a eee 
ing a communication with poisonous glands. 
mam atached $0 the Chart ter all bap 0 cant oahu ies 


transverse 


Diviston I. 


Subdivision 1. 


Ocelli or stemmata not distinet. Wings often want- 
ing in the females and neuters, — 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Metabolia. * 
—— Trise I, Formicarines. 
Abdomen with a peduncle te eet ap pl 
scale on two knots. Antenne towards their ex- 


tremities, the first joint Sa. snap 
males and neuters. Labrum large, perpendicular, cor- 
neous. 
Obs. These insects live-in societies 
ee nes eae nonce 
wings, the neuters being apterous. 
571. Fore © Genus DLXXI. Formica of authors. 
MICA. Lastus. Fabricius. 
seeiaik gumceoiead Fycselorgieeientr thats: 
Sting not punctorious. Poisonous in 
males and neuters. Antenne i in the front. 
. 1. hes Hor ae 


ni he rope Nous, bing large nest 
572. Fo» : ie OEXXIL Poryercus. Latreille, Spinoli. 


LyERGUs, Sanncis Jurine. 
Le 1 herrea formed of but one simple 


Sting not punctorious. Poisonous glands in the 


of vast 


Herculanea. 


sn nap me Antennae nee the moth, 
me Dolerae referee Late 

573. Pow Genus DL til, Pontes. Latreille, 

NsRa. Formica. Linn. Fabr. De Geer, Olivier. 

; x Peduncle of the abdomen formed of one scale or knot. 
Sting in females and the neuters. 4 
maipedieact tametens never cenees stem 

Tt elo Oponromacuus of Latreille’s old works. Myr- 
_ MECIA,. 


Sp. 1.. Cheli 
si Heeler Latte 
ve of the neuters broad and 


Genus. PoneRa of Latreille’s older works. 


serted. Palpi very short ; siaiilary ones with six dis. 
tinct joints. Head of the neuters very large. 
* Mandibles of the neuters very narrow, and much 
elongated. 
‘ Genus Ecrron of Latreille’s older works; Mynue- 
cra, Fabricius. 
Sp. 1. Hamata. 
7 Myrmecia hamata. Fabricius, 
Aiia fandibles Latreille. 
- Mandibles of the néuters e i much 
longate-trigonate, 


Formica of Lgeetlle’s older works; Attra, Fabr. 


7 7 gh TL atteiNle, Pabitioias, ” 


ese Mandibles of the neuters short, trigonate, scarce- 
ly denticulated. 


+ Gena Formica of Latrellie’s older works, and of 
' Fabricius. 


capitata. Latreille. , 
_ $75. Myx- Genus DLXXV. Myrwmica. | Latr. 
ay MICA. Formica. Linn. Geoffroy, Panzer, 


* Huber has written a work on the 


147 
Manica. Jurine. Metabolia. 
Mvemecia. Fabricius. Soe 
chy fea Morita: paici lon oo 
tennz entire 1 3 Six- 
jointed. RS an and females armed ich g: 
til iil abate very long: Antenne fili- 
Sp. 1. | Forfeata ‘ Forficatae 
+ scares os rsa i 
A rica forte trigonate, anske little elongate: Anten- 
. ne thicker mgr their extremities. 
a. Superior wings three submarginal cells; the 
first and corm perfect. 
. 2. Subterranea, 
ica sublerranea. Latr. gga 
6. Sw wings with two submarginal cells ; the » 
first perfect. 
i ‘ Latreille. a 
lyrmeca * 
Genus DLXXVIL. Crvyprocenvs.  Latr. Fabr. 576. Caye- 


x TOCERUS, 
ormica, Linn. Olivier. 
Manica. Jurine. 
Peduncle of the abdomen formed of two knots. An- 
tennz with the first joint lodged in a lateral ridge of 
agent Newland females armed with a sting 


Created 


Atratus. 
Laat tg Latr. 


Trise I], Murw.anives, 
Antenne filiform, vibratous, the first and third joints 
e€ 
insects of this family are solitary. The males 


are winged, thie feciinlbe pte, and there are no neu- 
ters, 


Famuy I. Dorylida. 


Antenne inserted at the mouth, the first joint very 
long. Head small. Abdomen cylindric, having the 


elevated, or transverse ; rounded above, and se ow 
from the following joint by an incision. Tibie 


not spinose. 
Genus DLXXVII. Lasipus. Latreille, Jurine. 
Abdomen with the first segm 


Latreillii. 


Do lus mediotus of Fabricius is probably to be re- 
Sexedns this i 
Genus DLXXVIIL. Dorytus.t Fabricius, Jurine, 578. Do. 


, Olivier, Latreille. RYLUS. 
bdomen with the first transverse, rounded 
above, and from the following joint by an in- 


rae a wings with two submarginal cells, 
ne helvolus. Fabricius, Latreille. 
Famity II. Mutillida. 


Antenne inserted in the middle of the face. Head 
large. Abdomen somewhat conic or ovoid. Tibix 


Helvolus. 


of these animals. 


economy 
+ The males only of this and the preceding genus are known ; the females are supposed to be aptereus awd solitary. 


148 ENTOMOLOGY. 
Metatehia. “ weal Sp 1. Pedesiris. on Metabolia. — 
—_——_— - Drviston L. ; Res he espe us rae 
< Asoren wth the te st ements naif, pealten 7 goene peone ont ne ale 
S794 bn teow ee es bes tetas sind, vil suit, apes . . 
Pre. LXXIX. Apreroorns.  Latreille. ao 
nowrxa, ional ntsicnn; oF Cnt HD 6 Wp tly, - Gcsllidstinet, smooth, Wings never wanting 
of the females. a little shorter. Mandibles epouppte. Trine, Il, Scouiwes.. wit ort 7 
ae a 3 ‘ Thorax with the first segment edna ensi' 
Otvicri. ‘Sp. 1 Sister © tale ‘ forming an arc. Feet. short, or moderately: long ; the 
ee hinder anes thick, spinulose, o steomaly ited AN ot 
tenn shorter than the head and trunk. Superiorwings 5 
preaibs Tr. with the marginal Solieeiitaghositueds the apen; mat 
Abdomen with the mee ient of the abdomen no- ee np pay re S. mere ome rae 
diform. 4 wings .w three submarginal cells, Fawity Tiphida,. Hg oxlemlt 
Subdieision 1. ‘. Maxillary palpi lopgt ne deka seat 
Maxillary palpi as long or ing thant the maxille. Genus DLXXXV. ‘Tenn FE me » Jar. 885. Tr. 
Antenna longer than the head, firet joint Hot tecci- Spinel. rio" ante as a ~ yo ee 
the second. Spuex. Scopoli, Christus je wits es aboeevitt 
380. Mo- sexus DLXXX. Mutitea. Linn. Fabricius, Panz. © Brtiryiies: Parrzer. + M2 TO SENSE 
viita. Jur. Ilig. Spinoli. ; Without tectlt: nse hant 
Sruex. Geer. thorax in botl sexeg. Abdomen ovate) 
Arts. Christus, Marris. Sp. 1. Femorata. AYA A aye Femorats, 
Abdomen (of both sexes) ovead and pore hee se = Tiphia femorata, _Palse: Fur, mine kee an 9 
cond segnrent large, somewliat companulated. Thorax Panzer. ; bey cer pty <9 te 
of the females cubical, with no transverse sutures I its: ot std *.¢ 2qano Emi 
Europea, Sp. 1. Europea. (SoG DLEAXVE “Penne Tate yon them 586. Tex. 
Mutilla Europea. Linn. Fabr. Panz, Latr. Mandibles with two: teeth: re daeered 
poate ton remy potetsrany rm a tha Bore rede tea. Attn lihear weit 
s81.Mz. Genus DLXXXTI. Mertnoca.  Latreille. hae 1. Sanvitali. uirinde’h sant ome Sanvitali. 
THOCA. Mortitea. Jurine. Tin a sanvitali. Latreille. nd TE ae io diledy 
Abdomen, (af the, females) oveid andopuivex. swith the Inhabits Italy. on Ke or : 
ay ae as ret Sead i» Famay IL, Seolida.,. wot} ers 
Ichneumo- 1. Ichneumonoidess Maxillary i short, join ‘Antenne oh sigae 
bodes, Methoca Ichneumonoides. Late. | the first ry nest" cflindthe = a 
582. Mra. © Gexvs DLXXXIL Myrmosa. ae rane oe : 
sos. Muticna, me" pi Tul cevreetn B. VIX MA WA ane . 
Hveaus, Fabricius. ¢ 60000 sve t Thorax ih te ae. er . 
Abdomen d elliptic in the males; conic in dyate, the hind or but little are ted i 
the females: composed: of two segments, the Grxys Dre IL. Mate Latr. lig. Spinioli, 587. Mr. 
anterior segment transverse. PusrA. Jurine. Tsdigi lt yetor hoo 
1. Melanovephala, us, Pabriciu ; CRA ha, <a 
ee melanceephate, ‘Latr.'\' ' SB: pata. | Fabr. Pisinbet 0100?" 20 40 gabe! 
58. Genus DLX XIIL Scaueroperwus: King: Late: Garret: "hack ate ut 
Scummne- Abdomen of the femalesconic. Thorax divided into Mandibles bidentate. 
weaxus. three segments by two transverse sutures, the hinder Sp. 1. Maculata. Mashitita:’" 
—- “igi Dane iphia aren Fabrictus.. he ; 
Domenti- aoe - age , Mizine maculata, abil shen ear 
cus. domesticus, Klug. Latreille. Sp. 2, Marne = cM : ' ; ' Volvulus. 
e nige 7 ic ealindak 
] Senne: ENUS DUSXXVII § Meri. “tiger, Lae 588, Mes 
sen yl an hn he Bg Antenne  Bevuyius, Fabricius ice: 
the head ; the first segment regei- eth homie *Spinott 0 ! he owe 
ot. Mv Soa DUXXXIV, MynMecopes. Latreille, ti nies mies teats Low 220g) amie 
mccopss, Tirma. F , ~ Slaphylinus 5 wer ; Staphyli- 
Mandibles arcuate, edentulous. Palpi ve- Tacks api. em mG wt ls 
ry short, three or the last joint obso- Meria staphylinus, Latreilles. ins oa tA od 
hete ; mo shorter, visible, somewhat Divisiox If (ii oerere aves tut 
path the head. Thorax vlongeeeat bie, onale nt Thorax with the anterior poe A ent much contract ‘ 
er: gate-cubic, a ; 
rowed behind, composed of three segments meeting tos in the middle, and very much arcuated 589. Sco- 
gether, the first segment largest. Wit»? Genus DLEXXIK. Scona. nel il La 


Bac sete with three submarginal: cells, the 
small ; and-two perfect diseoidal cells: Four 
| hinder tibiae with acute pert ats h. 
Sp. 1. Hortorum. we a09 
** Su wings with ‘ae al cells, the 
last small ; and with three perfeet-diséoidal cells. 
Hinder tibie with rape yr Prete 


- into Loa 
with two submarginal cells, the 


two recurrent nervures: Three 
cells: ete aT eae divi- 


&p.5. Adonai ies 


Tridens. 


aes IV. Sapyoarpes. 


“Thorax with the Bist ent formi: 2G atat. 
ig inriokey © shout slender, 


not ba eel Antenne in both sexes 
as long as the he trunk. Dey wings 
with th ‘marginal ecll not remote ; not ed longitu 
Om Gexvs Dxc. Sapyoa, Latr, Jur,. King, Illiger, 
Aris. Linn. 
- VESPA 
¥ Hettvs. Fabricius, Panzer. 
Sadat BG rte Villers. 2 
4 andibles very strong, trigonate, man: --toothed. 
tenn thicker towards their fod ER 
_Sexpuncta Sp. 1. atus, 
eiering tatus. Fabricius. 
591. Pory- ENuUs D . Potycurum. Sachets 


strong, trigonate, many-toothed. 
Mantle vey 


pPercim. ol 1. fot x preven 
592. Sance Bo DxC L Ti Trent 


3 Turxxvs. treille, Jurine, Donov: 
Mandibles (of the eee narrow, bidentate, arcuate. 


i, Latreille. 
Po ay ey 


: Antenne slender, nearly setaceous. 
Dentatus. Sp. 1. Dentatus. 
> Phynnus dentatne. Fabr. Latr. Donovan. 
New Holland. 
Trive V. Pomprimes. 
Thorax with the first forming an arch, or a 
' transverse square. Feet the hinder ones as k 
y as the head and trunk. slender, formed 


slengste, and slightly serrated joints. Superior wings 

ding longtacinal ; 
Famity I. Pompilida. 
Superior wings with three submarginal cells complete. 
Per- Genus DXCiII. Pepsis. Fabricius, Latreille.. 

_ Pomeiwus. \Jurine, Iliger. 

; the two last joix of the maxil- 

lary ones, of the ones, shorter than, 


the 


hatugs 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


149 
Pepsis stellata. | Fabrieitis, Latreille: : Metabolia. 
Genus DXCIV. Pomrizus. Latreille. bad Fons : 


Maxillary palpi longer than the labial ones, with: the 
last joint thicker, conic-obovate 5 the three last join 
nearly equally long. Labrum»i anaictiae:d!; ity. 
peus. Antenna OF indnaliovidy manne: their 
points convoluted. +) 

Obs. This artificial genus contained follows 
nera, proposed by the most learned posses tl 

menopterous insects, viz.. 1. Pompreus;' Fabr: Panzer, 
Jur. lllig. Walck. Spin. 2. Spwex, Linn. Sedp/ ‘Vill. 
€uv. Lam... 3. IcnNeumon; Geolf. 4: Pepsts, Fabr. 
5. Saurus, Fabr. 6. Cryprocnetius; Panzer. With 
the rejected genus 7. Psammocuwnes of pT 

Sp. 1. Annulatus. 

Pompilus annulatus. Latr. Faby.) 9 

Cryptocheilus annulatus. Panzevs 

Sp. 2. Viaticus. 

slate Latr. Fabr: Panzer. 


PILUS. 


Planiceps. 


Latreille: 
Genus DXCV. Cenorares. Latr, Fabr, Jun canna 595. CERo- 
Spinoli. PALES. 
Brame Olivier, rie, ne, yt cata oo 
i pendulous, longer e 
ene; the tee a fast Base sonloates long, the last joint 


7 en- 
ait eae os in) of pinetdre Antenne 
rei both sexes’ ae thick, ri with the middle spociniedd, 
not convol ss 
Sp. 1. Maculata. Maculatas: 
Coiaelen maculata. Fabricius, Latreille. 


Fammx II. dphorida, 0 


uperior with two lete submarginal cells. ; 
Gincs DXCVI. Aporus. Spinoli; Latreille: 596. Aro 


Superior wings with the second submarginal cell ne. *°* 


Unicolor, 


. Trise VI. Spuecipes. 5 lt, : 

Thorax with the first segment transverse linear. Feet 
long ; the hinder ones-as long as the head and ‘trank. 
Ocelli distinct. Superior wings not folding longitudi- 


nally. 
Fanny I. . Sphecida. 
Mandibles with their internal denticulated. 
Genus DXCVII. Amopnira. Kirby, Latreille? — 97. Aspeu 
Spnex. Linn. De Geer, Panzer, Lamarck, Cuvier, PHILA.. 


Jurine, Illiger, 


Pepsis. Fabebions Spinoli. 


Miscus.  Jurine. 

Antenne inserted about the middle of the face. Max- 
ille and Jabram much, heniins Seemaiene 
middie. Palpi very 


joints. 
SAL tete Salonen of ethene eaiabe 
ae formed, elongate, and twos 
a. eater, wings with the ent submarginal cell. 
not 
. 1. Armata. 


her armata. Rossi. 
‘Aaoghila armata, Latreille:, 


150 
6. Superior wings with the third submarginal cell 


Pepsts. Fabricius, Spinola. 
Cuvonion. Fabricius. 


599. Pro- = DXCIX. Pronzvs. Latreille. 
semetand Dryimus. Fabricius. 
Pepsis. Palisot de Beauvois. 
Antenne inserted at the mouth, 


600.Curo- Genus DC. Cutorron. Latr. Fabricius, Panzer. 
nioN. Spnex. Christus, Cuvier. 
Persis. Illiger. 
Amputex. Jurine. 
ciypeus ?) ?) Masillery pale filiform, Ning cn 
Maxille terminated lobe. Lip 
with ot divisions short, as if qu 
Lobatum. Sp. 1. Lobatum, 
604. De. & eninge. 3 Fabr. Latr. 
: ENUS + Douicuvaus. 
Menwacs = Pisox. Jurine. 


Pomritvs. i 
Antenne inserted at the mouth, (at the base of the 


ia nce Maxillary palpi setaceous, longer than the 


« Alter. 
corniculus. Ne 

Dolichurus ater, Latrei 

Fawiy Il. Pelopaida. ; 
Mandibles without teeth on their internal edges, 
Genus DCII. Poprum. Fabricius, Latreille. 
Antenne inserted below de middle ofthe face Cly- 

broader than Maxille entirely coriaceous. 

ated _ of equal 
R - 

Podium 
603. Pere Genus 
rAavs. 


Latreille, 


602. Po- 
Diom. 


tps | Fab, Late cere 
BLOPAUS, Latreille, . Patizer. 
Spinola. ; ye 

Persis, Illiger. 


4 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Sce.ipnnon, pay 
Spuex. A cdenuiia alion 
se rye ep nd ec Masilloe ith thes 
peus wr 
extremities Maxillary 
than te labial ones palpi 
22; irifex. Spirifex. 
Sphes ap ifex. Linn. 
elopeus spirifex. Latreille. 
Sp. 2. Destillatorius, Destillato. 
ies ae Panzer (Faun. Ins. Germ.) rius. 
estillatorius. Liatreille. 
Pensilis. Pensilis. 
. Latreille. 
4. Tubifex. Tubifex. 
Folopaee lif Latreille. wll 


Obs. The above four species are often confounded 
under the title of Sphex spirifex of Linnzeus. 


Trise VII. Bempecipes. ' 
short or ge Ocal long. exserted, 
ey Br ‘nally distinct. Superior wings not 
fol 
Cuvier, Lamarck, Panzer, Jurine, Llliger, ‘edu = ve 
Apis. Linn. Villers, Christus. 
Vespa. Man 
dentate on their in edge. cae bat 
short, four jointed. Su Se 
See meas only by a very short 
P. 
Inhabits Germany. 
Genus DCV. Moweputa. Latreille, Panzer. 
Bemsex. Olivier, Jurine. 
Stictia. _Illiger. 


Thorax with the first segm 

Genus crv emg Fabricius, Olivier, iil 604. : 
Sulzer. 

Labrum 

and the last su oul aie 

Bembex poetry Fabricius, Panzer, Latreille. 

Vespa. Linn. De Geer. 
ek triangular. Mandibles with two 


or three es on their internal Maxillary _ 
pias long as the maxille, com of six-joints. 
gr with she mega an lt sain 
clldivided by «very sin opce 
. 1. Carolina, Caroling. 


bex carolina. Fabricius. 
Monedula carolina. Latreille. 
Genus DCVI. Srizus.  Latr. Jurine, ican 606. St1- 
Bemsex. Olivier, Fabricius. zUs 
Crasro. Rossi, Fabricius. : 
Lara. Iliger, Fabricius, ye “ae 
Spuex. Villers, ; : 
Meuuinus. Panzer. 
Lins. Fabricius. 
Scouia. Fabricius. 
Labrum short, semicircular. Palpi filiform, maxil- 


ones | , six-jointed ; labial ones acti 
» Ry 
ABE sgt ed 
Monedula ruficornis. Latreille, to 

Triee VIII. Lannipes, 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Metabolia. serted in the middle of the face. Superior wings not 
—_~" folding longitudinally. - 
Famuy I, Larrida. 
| _—r or three submarginal cells 
- com: ~ 


Divistown I. 
Eyes entire, not emarginate. Mandibles without an 
emargination on their internal edge. 


: 
i 
H 


Sp. 1. Quinquecinctus. 
Genu /III. Nysson. Latreille, Jurine, Pan- 


Spincsss = 1. Spinosus. 
; Latreill 
609. Psex. Grae DCIX. Psen. Latr, Jurine, Panzer, Iliger, 


ae Rossi. si A 
ntenne short, thicker tow. ir tips. 
peu divided into three parts by two seapl labia 


151 
ior wings with the second inal cell petio- Metabolia. 
ot wings submarginal cel] petio- 
Sp. 1. Flavipes. Flavi 
Palarus flavipes. Late. ‘ ne 
Philant i Fabr. 


Genus DCXII. Larra. Fabricius, Olivier, Jurine, 612. Lar- 
Panzer, Spinola, Latreille. RA. 

Liris. Fabricius, Iliger. 

Spuex, Villers, Rossi. 


Antenne filiform. Superior wings with the third 


submarginal cell narrow, almost lunate. Mandibles 
without a tooth-like on their internal edge. 
Sp. 1. Ichneumoniformis. Ichneumo- 
Livia ichneumoniformis. Panzer, Fabr. Latr. niformis. 
Genus DCXIII. Lyrops. Illiger, Latreille. 613. Ly- 
Tacuytes. Panzer. RoPs, 
Larra. Fabricius, Jurine. 
Lins. Fabr. 
ANDRENA. Rossi. 
Antenne filiform. Superior wings with the third 
submarginal cell narrow, almost lunate. Mandibles 
with a strong tooth on their internal edge. 
. 1. Tricolor. Tricolor. 
a tricolor. Fabr. 
Tachytes tricolor. Panzer. 
I its Germany. 
Subdivision 2. 
Superior wings with two su inal cells. 
* GENus DCXIV. Dinetvus. Jurine, Panzer, Iliger, 614. pie. 
Latreille. . : Tus, 
Senex. Scheffer. 
Pompitus. Fabricius. 
Crasro. Rossi. 
Antenne, (of the males, ) moniliform, terminated 
, cy ic joints, convoluted in the middle. 
Mandibles Fe oreo! ae on Lo internal % 
the two submarginal cells sessile. 
1. Pictus. Pictus. 


inetus ictus. Jurine, Panzer, Latreille. 
Genus DCXV. Miscornvus. Jurine, Latreille. 615. Mrs- 
joints alike in both sexes. ae CoPpHus. 


Sp. 1. Bicolor. Bicolor, 
Miscophus bicolor. Jurine, Latreille, 
Inhabits France, 

Drviston IIT. 
Eyes notched. 
Genus DCXVI. Prison. Jurine, Latreille, 616. Pr. 
Tacnysutus. Latreille’s older works, SON. 
ALyson. i 


Superior wings with three distinct submarginal cells. 
Abdomen conic, with a very short, almost imperceptible 
Sp. 1. Ater. 
niger. Latreille. 
Alyson ater. Spinola. 
Tachybulus ater. Latr. Gen. yohange foe idk a 
Genus DCXVII. Trvpoxyion. Liatreille, Fabri- g)7, pay. 


inola. 
Spuex. Linneus, Vil. Cav, Bossy Chisan, =, 


Ater. 


152 
Metadolis. vure; the third also obsolete, terminal, Abdomen long 
—rm and gradually pedanculated. _ sntet 

Famuy I. Oxybellida, 
Superior wings with one a submarginal cll 

618, Nt- Genus se Nem pee ee alade than ts a 
Tels Antenne orm fn oe 

head, eee aa 

Mandibles bidentate at their | orb bo not 


Inhabits the south of France. ; 
61%0xr- Genus DEXIX>> ae Latreille, Fabricius, 
eres Panzer, Jurine, pinola. 

Vespa. Linnane Villers Christus. 

Sruex. Scheffer. 

Crarro. Olivier, Rossi. 

Antenne thicker towards their extremities, longer 
than the head, convoluted, the second joint much shorter 
than the third. Mandibles without teeth at their ex- 
net Tibia spinose. Tarsi with large puleiils. 

Unigiumis. 1, Uni; is. 

Pe wniglumis. Linn. 

a Fabricius, Latreille. 
I Europe. 
Triste IX... Crasronipes. 


Thorax with the ag Haga ta transverse-linear, Feet 
short, “ae hae Labrum entirely concealed 
the hed. Ocei i di hang ont dar win 

; ct. 
oe ag mers Antenne inserted at the mouth 
jan eylindtie or conic, er towards the 
voile of the 


Paster I. Crabronida. 


Division I. 


‘Mandibles with their extremities bifid. Superior 
with but one recurrent nervare. 
s DCXX. Crasro, Fabricius, Olivier, Rossi, 
Jurine, Panzer, Ili ' 
Senex. Linn. illers. 
Vespa. Linn Geoffroy.) 
Poo erageery Bog et Spinola. 
Antenne wi e nt and cylindric. Su- 
ie wings with clieeraiate a ame dare 
Fabricius, Latreille. 


620. Ca.- 
BRO 


1. Cribrarius. 

4 Dar cribrarius, 
2. Sublerrancus. 
ee aor, Fabricius, Latreille. 


? : Pewpireto tibialis, Fabricius, 


Obs. 


= Stie- ~ (Gere Dexa Sr 


eek Satine, Laanitiiy’* dvoitn’ 
22. Ceno- cieene Jeri 
5 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Theve thee et ae considered as' the 


» Psen.» Panzer.” ty Wb adNlitns wipe Dees 
PempPuepnon. Febricius. init 


Sriemus. 


Latreille. 
Antenne with the first obeonic, S 
with wo complete rt in oe and three cn 
- Minutus. 
"Sp 1, Min minutus. Fabricius. 
Psen pallipes. Panzer. 


Cemonus minutus. Jurine. ) Toma te" 
Stigmus minutus. Latreille. Ces AN Beth D 
Inhabits Europe. 

DrvuesL.. 349 conoid 
Mandibles strong, many-toothed. Superior “wings ae 


Genus DCXXIIL 
bricius, Spinola. 
Cemonus. Jurine, Panzer, Iliger. eons A 


PemMPHEDRON. “Latreite, Fa- 623. 


Superior wings with the nal edie _ 
rower towards the apex. Antennee "with 
ae thickest. aN us 6% inter 
. 1, Unicolor. ‘Dh fuse ber: 


‘emphedron unicolor. Latreille.” ranmge bbend 
Cemonus unicolor. Jurine. caren 
Inhabits Europe. PT event 


Famity LL Mellinida, ‘aie S 
fire wig an ree 


ee 
: dope tal 
Division I. ‘anil ¢ eanve 
' Antenne inserted at ‘the ‘mouth, filiform. | ‘Clypeus 
not trilobate. 


Genus DCXXIV. »Mecrrnts. | ee Panzer, 624, M. 


Jurine, I RAGS 
rg Goes, Cutt Villers, wea nonegy 
‘Vespa. ‘Linn. ‘Rossi, Harris.” CUE). agus 
Superior with all the su cells sessile, 
Abdomen distinctly pedunculated. ~ ‘arsi- ‘terminated’ 


FAX as ee — 
Nicdines topcorts Fabr. Patiter, ‘Latreille:” “rhea 


Inhabits eee IK 
Genus DCXXV. Atyson. Jurine, Panz. Late, 
Pompitus. Fabricius. 


Su wings with tiie Sdcontlt iat 
gaat Abies with a short” eva a 
with a small pulvillus, , «<8 ee : 

Sp. 1. _Lunicornis. 

om. lunicornis. Fabricius.” ’ 
Alyson lunicornis. Panzer, Latreille, shake, 
Inhabits Europe. ~iget Shri > , 
a : binder Ih + fs si 
ae thicker towards their cxtretiie Sl aaa. 
about the middle of the face. Cl trilobate. 
Genus DCXXVI. Cerceris. - Bi. - Spinola, 

Sprex. Villers, Rossi. © 5 oe 

Vesra. Geoffroy, , Olivier, Harris; 0 9) Uh 

Puantuus. abricius, Jurine, Pane. 

Bempex. Rossi. 

Crapro, Rossi, « daw eanie role 

reese ae cea Pat haat ati 

I; cm Hep 
joint somew: 
on at poets in their internal edge. Su ings 
‘ second submarginal eeBrtaty; 
Sp. \ Major.” y yO ey eves ocas betel: tang Majorsid 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


“Metabolia.  Cerceris major. Spinola, Latreille. 
ne. etl 1. Quadricinctus. 
Quattri- hilanthus quadricinctus, Fabricius, Panzer. 
inca poms nts : ' : Al 
ti ae eae he 
LANTHUS, , Jurine, e ; 
VESPA. » Villers. ~ 
Crasro. Rossi. 
Simpiepuinus. Jurine.  - ; , : 
Antenne distant, abruptly thicker towards their ex- - 
tral edge Superior ihaediiedibeierpahvosrgicnl 
; : * oe ~ . 
e 1, 2 
ee s coronatus. - Fabricius, Panzer, Latreille. 
Inhabits Europe. 


Drvision I. 
Lip without glands at their extremity, divided into 
a Soi ake und yadane divin ‘Mandi- 


 @a8.syxa- Genus DCXXV i1GrwAtohas. Latreille, Fabricius. 


Drviston II, | : 
Lip having four glandular points Pah are . 
parted into three pieces, the i 
or notched at its extremity. 
Subdivision 1, 
Superior wings doubled, three submarginal 
ete. M: i siX-jointed, not very much short- 
i aaa 


629. Rve- Genus DCXXIX, Ryecuiom. Spinola. 
 «cHIUM. Opynervs. Latreille, * 
: Vespa. Fabricius. 
_ ovoid-conic, the first —— not, or 
scarcely, narrower than the second. axillary 
with the last joint scarcely Rea ths tornado, 
cess of the maxilla ; labial palpi smooth, the last joint 
Maxille with their process very long and narrow. 
Foropeum. Sp.1, Europeum. 
hium m. Spinola, 
espa oculata, Fabricius, 
. Latreille. 


7 VOL, 1X. PART & 


153 


_ Genus DCXXX, ; Prernocuiius, Klug, Panzer, Metabolia. 

Opynerus. i . 

Vespa. Panzer. , ; 680. Pre- 
__ Abdomen ovoid-conic. Labium very long; Max- *°™™** 
illary palpi, with the last joint not extending beyond 
the extremity .of the maxille ; labial palpi. batty, the 
fourth joint obtuse, scarcely visible. Maxille with 
terminal lobe narrow and long. 

Sp.1. Phaleratus. 

Pterochilus phaleraius. Klug. 

Vespa phalerata. — Panzer. vise 
Se ene Latreille. 

its - 

Genus DCXXXI, Opynerus. Latreille. 

Vespa. Panzer, Fabricius, 

Abdomen oyoid-conic, the sécond segment; broader 
than the first. Maxillary palpi, with two or three of 
the joints extending beyond the extremity of the max- 
ille. Maxille with the terminal lobe short, short-lance 
shaped. 

Sp. 1. Spinipes. 

y pa eaten Panzer, Fabricius. 

spinipes. Latreille. 

I its a : 

Genus DCXXXIL. Eumenrs. Latreille, Fabricius. 39, ry. 

Abdomen with the first segment cortracted into an menes. 
elongate peduncle, the second segment campanulated. 
Clypeus longitudinal, anteriorly produced into a point. 
Mandibles forming by their junction a Iong-pointed 
rostrum, 


631. Ovx- 
NERUS, 


Spinipes. 


*.- 1. Coarctata. Coarctata. 


umenes coarctata, 
Inhabits Europe. 
Genus DCXXXIII. Zeruus. Fabricius, Latreille. 39, 7:. 
Bes 2) as broad, fig meed an long, brs § any rus. 
ble production t. axillary i short- 
er than the maxille. palp 


Fabricius, Latreille. 


Sp.1. Coeruleo-pennis. Caruleo- 
us ceruleo-pennis. _ Latreille, Fabricius. pennis. 
Genus DCXXXIV. Discacivs. Latreille. b 
Vespa. Panzer. - pd < 
rehartable peutsbenaiee babe “MiG Pe. 
protu “ i long- 
oth he Js 
1. Zonalis. _ 
= oo zonalis. Panzer. Zonalis. 
Discalius zonalis. Latr. 
Inhabits Europe. 
: Subdivision 2. ; 
a pong swith lens thantaie joint 
ete. ~ i wil six jvints, 
sot uc ae 
Genus DCXXXV. Ceramivus. Latreille. 635. Cens- 
Sp. 1. Fonscolumbii. mrus, 
amius Fonscolumbii. Latreille. . hone 
Famizy II. Vespida, 
(Gocial wasps.) 
Mandibles than broad, long- » With 


their extremities obliquely truncated. almost 


quadrate. Lip with the intermediate division a little 


enus DCXXXVI. Pouistes. Latreille, Fabricius, 636. pe. 
iiliger, Spinola. LUSTES. 
espa. Linnzus, G , Panzer, Jurine. 
Mandibles (at least of the females and neuters) with 
their internal edge armed with three equal , the 
u 


4 piformis 


in, predaced 


with a long peduncle. 
Pic gale Fabricius, Latreille. 
Bere DCX XNXVIL Vespa of authors. 


a 
“gp. © 1. ne 
crabro. Linneus, Fabricius, Latreille, &c. 
Inbabits E , building its nest in hollow trees. 
- 2. Vi (Common wasp.) : 
espa vu aris. Linneus, Fabricius, &e. 
urope, building its nest in holes under 


3. Britannica. 
Poapa Britannica. Leach, Zool. Mis. 
Inhabits Britain, and builds a nest suspended from 
trees, 
Trise XI. Masanipes, 


‘Superior doubled longitudinally. Thorax 
with the first segment forming an arc, prolonged behind 
even to the base of the su Antenne ei a 


Genus DCXXX Is) Masa Fabricius, Thee. 
Antenne (of the male as the head and trunk, 
ir the last peg er, obconic. Abdomen 


Rag Fabricius, Latreille. 
Genus “DCXX . CORLONET 


Latreille, Fabri- 

cius, Illiger, 

Masaris. Jurine, Cater, Lamarck. 

Cunysts. 

Vesra. Villers. 

Cimpex. Oliv. 

Antenne eight-jointed, longer than the head, the 
eighth joint wit tie flowing joints forming an obgonie 


club.  daneak a 


Chelmer 


little longer than the trunk, 
. mis. epson Penne, Leen, 


iy and nein of France. 
Diviston IT. 


icin, peg: od ym eeideaai es 
very com elongate-q or 
obtrigonous, Larvae pollenivorous. 

Trise XIL Anprenipes. 
with the apex subcordate or subhastate, on each 


with one auricle ; nearly straight, or slightly in- 


side feith 
curved in im some, reflexed in others, 


Famuy I. _Prosopida, 
Lip with the apex dilated, somewhat cordiform. 


NTOMOLOGY. 


Genus DCXL. Couzetes, Lately Higentipl 


nola, K1 ~ th 
Tea, PR Villers... so 6400 Cone 
ANDRENA. ee ten tefald sree 
Hy.zxus. 23546 At Ad j reat) - 
Evopia. pres chet tony i 
Meuitra. * a. , 


or less villose. cell forming a curved line, eaeee 


Teoderectuaaaieauedaaanie for the 
tongue ; 
construction of its cells, which are ibed by the ac- 
curate Reaumur in the fifth memoir of his sixth volume, 
«dont les nids sont faits @ de ” 
According to this author, make their nests the 
earth that fills the cavities of certain stone walls. 

of them choose a northern sheltered by trees. 
These nests are cylindrical, consist of two to 
four cells placed end to end, each-of which is fo 

like a thimble, the end of one fitting into the. er, The 
cells vary in size. The cylinder runs in.a ho tal 
direction ; but sometimes, the intervention of a 
stone or of some other obstacle, it takes a differex 
course, so that the last cell forms an ith the 
first. The cells are composed of layers of a 


grove gute file TOs irate with eh 


sax conjactanes it tela, oncuation, cen fe Snepch. 


on. Nedhinw 


urope. ° 
Genus DCXLI. Prosors. Jurine, Rabaicions: 4 641. O41 Pao 


, Panzer, oli, 
i pare ay Walckenser. 


Apis. Linn. 
ANDRENA. Olivier. 


Famuty IT. ee if wT 
Lip with the intermediate process lanceolate, acute. 
Division I. mea 
Lip when at rest reflexed. 
Subdivision ¥. 
Conan De Bee ee 


us, Panzer, Iiger, Spinola, Klug, 


“*% 


Latreille, Fabriei- 642. Das 


643. An-- 
DRENA. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


by. Maxille inflexed at their mid- 

Sel sad Senger dich thie Hinder feet, with the 

on gk Sa caper aA 0. nr pete A 
1. Hirtipes. 


small, : 
, Genus DCXLILI. Anprena. Fabricius, Panzer, Ju- 
rine, Illiger, Spinola, Klug. 


Apis. Linneus, Villers, 

Meurtra. **c. 4 

- Maxille bent at their their terminal lobe 
their tarsi shorter than the tibie. Labium or 

little elongate, shorter than its palpi. 


i 
| 


i 
i 
2 
j 
i 
i 


z 
5 
; 
5 


i 
ste 


A 

uate 
sf 
E 


Fe 
fy 
it 

32F 
23 


155 
Sp. 2. Hemorrhoidalis. Metabolia, 
ndrena emery Panzer. Home 
Melitta chrysura. Kirby. ‘dali 
Inhsbits Germany and England. one 


Diviston IL. 
Lip with the intermediate division incurved, or i 
ly straight. Superior wings in all with three comp 


Subdivision 1. 

Lip with the intermediate division nearly straight, 
not twice the | of the head. 

Genus DCXLV. Spuecopes. Latreille. 

Spuex. Linnzus, Villers, Rossi. 

Apis. . 

Pabie he Goa 

Nomapa. Fabricius. 

AnprenA. Olivier, Panzer, Jurine, Spinola, 

Dicuroa. [Illiger, Klug. 

Meutra. ** a. Kirby. 

Labrum trigonate, of the male entire, of the female 
generally emarginate, Antenne of the males long, al- 


645. Spnz- 
CODES» 


most moniliform, arcuated. Abdomen with the greater 
The ies of at first sight, bear a near re- 
semblance to Sphex. They make their nests in bare 


sections of banks exposed to the sun, and nearly verti- 
cal. According to Reaumur, they excavate to the depth 
nine or ten inches, and deposit their eggs in a mass 


Gibbus. 


Subdivision 2. 
Lip with the intermediate division incurved, | 
than the’ lateral ones, and twice as long or more 
“ DCXLVI. H Fabr. Mlig. Kl 
genus DCXLVI. Hyraus. Fabr. Mlig. Spi lug. 646. Hr- 
Aris. Linnwus, Villers, Rossi. amen van 
Awnprena. Olivier, Panzer, Jurine, Spinola. ° 
Hytzvs. Fabricius, Iliger, Klug. 
Meuitta. ** 4. Kirby. 
Hauictvs. Latreille. 
Lip lanceolate, little sericeous. Hinder feet in both 
sexes aan Anus of the females with a longitudinal 
ve e. ; 


es 
Sexcinctus. 


Inhabits § 
Genus DC II. Nomura. Latreille. 
Meaitta. Fabricius. 
Lasivs. Jurine, Panzer. 
ip very hairy, or tomentose. Hinder feet of the 
male with dilated incrassated tibie and thighs, 


647. No- 
MIA, 


1. Diversipes. Diversipes. 
Megilla curvipes? Fabricius. 

Sp. 2. Difformis. Difformis. 
Lasius di, is. Jurine, Panzer. 


648. Sye- 


Taorss. 


#49. Pa 
somous. 


#50 Xy- 
-otern 


156 ERBARMOt oGY: 


Taise XII. Apines. 


with the inflected, thé intermediate: Iacifiia 
wine and very tobge Labial with the two 


Hinder tarsi with the & kj ey saalty tba, 
or gradually narrowing from the base to the apex, the 
second joint originating from the middle of its apex. 


Drvisiow I. 


Palpi alike. 
Genus DCXLVII. Sysrnopna.  Iliger, Klug, 
Apis. Scheffer, Rossi. 
Evcera. 
ANDRENA. - 
Hy.evs. Fabricius. 
Ceaatina. Jurine. 
Antuimem. Panzer. 
bidentate. Sree wings with three 


submarginal cells. “Ocelli disposed in"trans-  « 


verse straight lines. Antenne filiform, elongate; the 
Sa voluted in pA mei of the females elongate- 


Hyleeus spiralis, Fabriciis. 

Anthidium spirale. Panzer. 

Inhabits Europe. 

Genus DCXLIX. Panuneus. a a Spinola, Latr. 
Arts. Scopoli. 

Dasyropa. Illiger, Fabricius. 


Arts. ae. og, 

Enrtops. 

Mamdibles wot dentated. Antenna’ tin both 
sexes, and subclavate. Superior wings two subs 


Division Ik 
Palpi unequal ; the labial palpi setiform. 
Subdivision 1. , 
transverse, or not much. 
lng he than Trad andibles tridentate at their points. 
ith three submarginal cells). 


wi 
ENUS pee Xyocora. Latr. Illiger, Panzer, 


Jur. Klug. Spinola, Fabr, 
Apis. Linn Ge Geoff. Vill, Rosi, Kirby. (** digg). 
Bomovs. Fabr. 


Cenrnis. Fabr, ~ 

Labram transverse, abruptly carinated transversely, 
the emper’ fv fsa J 

iform, with the ; ; " 
Ee 
loured, and composed «substance between merabrane 
ee 

po 1. Violacea, 

‘is vieowe. Li Fabr. Panzer, and Late. 

Linn, 
Inhabits Europe. 


The allowing acount ofthe seonamy of his pete 
aS ker epeeanaei ER 
ter is over; she may then'be met with in gardens, vi- 


siting such walls as are covered with trees trained on_ 


times three or four are bored in the same piece, 
nearly parallel with each other. A 

she enters, or first begins to bore, and.an at the 
end of the pipe. As the i 

in her em she clears away the wood which 
she d 7 ing it out upon the where 
ineupeae like a small var lag ’ othe 

prepared no gent age ton 
wood, mbcieene Rasen beesncelienn AAO 


edge af me “ ceirad ring of the same 
i 1s) B 
Pati ok ny ar 


are about twelve. _ When the assumes the 
placed in its cell, FA tier ra ne 
jae. = ainorons — attained its perfect: 
state, and is from disturbing — 
the tenants of ae si of later date 
each than its su - i —eia 
so as to crea to go “pee world.” 
s DCLI. Cepatina. Late. Jurines; Spi~ 651. Cene: 
nola, Kirby. (** deQea). abi sym!) THA. . 
Apts. Villers, Rossi, she all 
MeEGILia. — Illiger. : wer, “eat 
<p aa Sa eco mirie otlt 
vT! . r, gad ui & 
Come Da x ba vliet he we — 8 
Labrum almost quadrate, 
tenn graduall tekening ovens th ete 


a “ee, . ; Ceafienen 
p aes Villers., Aisles pang ha 


Metabolia. Apis eyenca. 5 ‘- ten ar 
—T— ~~ Inhabits Europe. 
> tn i ‘ 7 Subdi ivis ton 2. TE 
Labrum longer than) broad, inclined - 
ly; c beneath the mandibles, elongate, quadrate. 
strong ; porrected, with the apex bidentate, 
in some ; trigonate, and often multidentate; in others. 
* Labial palpi with the three first joints continuous, 
"the - inserted. under: the external apex of 
652. Ro Ges I. Ropurres.. Spinola, Latr. 
= ee | Maxillary palpi six-jointed. 
nque- = « ois 
653. Cue- » Genus) I. Cuenostoma: = Latr. 
tostoma. » Aprs.’ Linn, Villers, Kirby. (** c. 2. 7). 
- Hyv2xus. Fabr. puts 


:Anturprum. — Panzer: 
Mandibles (of the females) arcuated, their 
dentate or’ farcate, porrect, internally hairy. 


bi- 
axil- 


% slender, and» of the 
SSeS 
and at its base is a horn or When asleep, 
they roll themselves up like an the horn or 
ae ay ee 

in v1 in 
Se 

em » Sp.1. Florisomnis. 


i with the second jo t not longer than 
: 7 Alpi tw. s - *-* t 
Mandibles strong. — boner ubeve) 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


157 


- Inhabits Europes __ je..2 _Metabolia! 
. Genus DCLVI., Anruipiwm. Fabr: Panzer, Klug. ~ 
Latreille. tae yncthisky 


_ Arts, . Linn,-Geoff, Scheffer, Kirby. (** v2. a.) 71" 
Anruopuora.. Iliger. ~ : 
-Megcacuiie.. W: aer, Spinola. 
- Tracuusa. Jurine, | tsi 
Labial palpi with their second joint: not longer than: 
the. first. Maxillary palpi one-jointed.. Abdemen of 
the. females, below, very hairy ; above; convex) ineur~ 
ved; the, base broadly truncate. Mandiblés’broad, 
multidentate, < 
The anus of the males of this genus is always armed: 


with spines. 


Ss 1. Manicatum. Manica- 
manicatum. Panzer; Latreille.: tum. 

Apis manicata. Kirby, Linn. 

Inhabits Europe. 

The following i ing account of the of 


Anthidium manicatum, is extracted:from Kirby's Mo- 
nographia. << Linnzus,” says he, «< observes, upomwthis 
bee, zn arboribus cavis nidos construit ; but he takes no 
notice of the materials of which the nidi were made. 

This i has been supplied by Mr James: Trim= 
mer and Sir Thomas Cullum: The former of these gen- 
tlemen some time since informed me, that having had 
Spee epee of watching the motions of An- 

i = 1 SOAPS Re 9 finding that the female con- 

stantly stachys germanica, agrostemma coro- 
naria, uid. tthen seecliy deapodl plants which grew in 

his he was:curious to know the reason of this - 

ce. It was not long before his .curiosity was 

gratified ; and he discovered that it was the wool;which 

covers the surface of the leaves of these plants, that was 
their attraction ; for he observed the little-animal, with 

her strong “:mandibule,” ing it off with great in- 
dustry ee mere and while these were thus 

=, ing it up, with her fore legs, into alittle 

*; making, all the time, widensiditde hum.) .The 

use to which she) applied the material thus collected; 

Mr Trimmer could never discover ; we only conjectu- 

red that she employed it in the construction of her nest. 

bee conjecture is almost turned into certainty by a 

llowing account given my i i i ir 

Thomas Cullum, to Mr Maiden, of a: neat which he 

found made of similar materials. He thus expresses - 
himself, in a letter to that gentleman. “I 

in a lock of one of my garden gates, that the key did 

not turn easily round ; and. looking into'the'key- 

hole, I saw something white: I-had the lock taken off, 

and it was completely full of a downy. substance,’ con- 


taining the pupa of some.bee, I ude. Upon exa- 
mining the Ph substance, I am certain*it’is the fine 
tris, of which 


pappus or down the Anemone 
two its in m n. I have preserved’the 


whole as I found it ; but the bee has not yet made its 
in its state. I shall watch their 

and send them-to you or to Mr Kirby.” This . 
tter is dated October 10. 1800. Sir Thomas has'sinee 


— the ess to send me the nid walle pashli be 
ill quiescent, (April 2. 1801), and willy pro’ 
not Fe ill after Midsummer. .Upon compating 


it with the anecdote which I haye just related of this 
bee, 1 cannot help being of opinion, ‘that‘it is'thenidus 
of that ies. It is with some ‘hesitation that I ven- 
ture to differ from so accurate an‘observer as‘Sir ‘Tho- 
mas Cullum ; but it appears to me that the»wool which 
envelopes the nest the cells, is fromtlie ; 
leaves of one of the fitst mentioned plants. I gather- 
3. 


( 


657. Or- 
mis 


Corouta. 


2 
: 


i 


i 


i 


I 


% 


ipEhi 
ae 
rE 


i 
Hi 
2 


cell of a pale 
was covered with a eulrot rehaletm 


y pollen 
Dee tod clot onch on ebtias Spheria 
1 and like that fungus distinguished by a 
Sf aes ene impressed. These were 
id, without any regular order, over the cell, and by 
means of them the wool, which formed its exterior coat, 
was made to adhere. It is that this bee 
should em: these materials to cover its cells, which 
ethers use only as food for their larve. At the summit 
of this membranaceous case is a small chimney, with an 
orifice ; and within it contains another cell, which is 
rather coriaceous, strong, and of a brown colour, in the 
Coos anes Sp eer te gr enionsomeereremy ate 
This may be the folliculus or coccoon made by the lar- 


psp tent map cree en 


4 


ly 
ps 
pubes, running from the to the bottom of a 
branch, and shaving it bare with all the dexterity of a 
0 ver. When it has got a bundle almost as large 
as itself, it flies away, holding it secure between its chin 
and its fore A 
Gervs DCLVIT. Osmia. Panzer, Spinola, Latr. 
Aris. Linn. Villers, Kirby. (** c. 2. 2.) 
Antuornora. Fabricius, Iiger, Klug. 
Meoacnie. Walckenaer, 
eer Jurine, 
optitis. Klug. 
Amanys. Klug. 
Labial palpi with the second joint not longer than 


= 


the first. Maxillary four-jointed. Abdomen 
vaxbeoed helapiei females, Mandibles 
1. Cornuta, 


-apambepep 
*pecies selects the hollows of 
a of nidifiating. ws of large stones for 
2. Corrulescens, 
ecerulescens, Kirby, Linn. 
Apis anea, Linn. e 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Villers, 
Antuopuora. Fabr. Iliger, Panzer, 
Tracuusa. J 


Crentnris. 
Labial 


first. Maxi 


i j the first rather ¥ 
lary palpi two-joinied, her long 


ies only,) has conft several species un 
the general tithe of A is centuncularis, and denoted 
it by the orange-coloured hair which cover the under 


ps ce as (and. which 
i inted,) is given by 
a we are acquain' s giv 


nests they construct are cy sometimes six inch« 
es in ” entirely of the leaves of 
trees. usually consist of several cells, each 


which is shaped like a thimble, theconvinWnd tf; 
second fitting closely into the open end of the first, the 


i 
= . 
a 
§ 
2 
if 


: 


side, and that which 
a oe ee eee 
ers, exterior covering being made of larger pi 
than the interior. In coati © thantontensionat 
careful to lay the middle of each leaf over the 
of those that form the first tube; thus the sutures are 
ened. At the closed end, or nar« 


li 


in a horizontal 


eylinder, to which 


Ea 
H 
4 
F 
: 
i 


z 


nf 
be 
! 


i 
iF 
+ 
; 
EL 
e 
| 


ERE 
i 
it 

at 
iH! 
a = 
ge 
e885 


i 


the leaves ing it their bend from the ; 
sn thatthe external contrite fit depostl, a e 
insect could not get between the side of the cylinder 
and of the nest. , 
Sp.1. Centuncularis. re 
centuncularis, Linnzus, eurcroy, Kirby 
Inhabits Europe. Builds its cells with the leaves of 


AntTuHopHora. Fabricius, , Klug. 
Mecacnite. W: 
Tracnusa. Jurine. 
AnTuipium. Panzer. 
Hertapes. Spinola. 
the first, palpi two- the first double 
the length of the second. narrow and strong 


i ENTOMOLOGY. 


159 
Subdivision 8. a 
’ Labrum remarkably longer than broad, inclining 
J rrorsn hanes 2 to the bles, triangulate, truncate. 
andibles narrow, pointed, unidentate on their internal 
edge. Body simply pubescent. Superior wings with 
two submarginal cells comp } 
ret DCLX. Ammonares. Latreille. 660. Am- 
axillary palpi six-jointed. Superior wings with “BATES. 
two submarginal cells, ee 
a 1. Rufiveniris. 
mmobates rufiventris. 
Inhabits Portugal. 
Genus DCLXI. Puiveremus. 
Epeo.us. Fabricius. me 
Maxillary i two-join Superior wings with 
two submar; cells, fas & 
Fabricius, 


on 1. Punctatus. 
P. us. Latreille. 


us punctatus, 
us Kirbyan 
Obs. Latreille has a divison of this genus, in which 
the superior wings have but one su inal cell, 
which character is certainly sufficient. to constitute a 
distinct genus. 


Rufiventris, 


Latreille. 


Latreille. 661. Put- 


LEREMUS, 


Purictatus, 


Subdivision 4. 

Labrum a little broader than long, subsemicircular 
or semioval. Mandibles slender, pointed, unidentate 
on their internal edge. Abdomen not polleni 

* Lip with the lateral divisions shorter ‘Suan’ the 


i. Body simply pubescent. 
Gexbe DCLXI : Nowine, Scop. Fabr. Illiger, 662. No~ 
Klug. Spinola, Jurine, Panzer. pees 


Apis. Linn, Villers, Kirby, (* 6.) 

Superior wings with three submarginal cells com- 
plete. Maxillary palpi six-jointed. 

The hi » economy, and mode of nidification of 
the insects of this genus (all of whom are remarkable 
for the gaiety of their colours) as yet remain a secret. 
Dr has strong reasons for suspecting them to be 

no instrament fo carying pole. The igh 
ving no instruments for i en. ir flight 
allen: unattended by an: iste uent 
banks. Their eyes, whilst living, exhibit through the 
external reticulated covering, a surface of hexagons, 
which — shifting with the light, : 

y A h. Rujficornis. Ruficomis,. 

is ruficornis. Linn. Kirby. 

Noes ore Fabr. Latr. 

Inhabits Ew 

Genus DCLXIII. Eprotps, 
Illiger, Jurine, Panzer, Spi 

4 ris. Linn. ml * 5.) 

uperior wings with three complete submarginal 
calle, Maxileee palpi one-jointed.. 

Me 1. Variegatus.. 

papa? variegalus. Fabricius, Panzer, Latreille. 

[pis varie; Linné. 


% Inhabits Europe, but is very local, (if not rare,).in 
ritain. 
Greyus DCLXIV. Pasires, Jurine, Spinola, 
Brastes, Panzer. 
Nomapa. Fabricius. 
ANTHOPHORA, ror 
Superior wings with two complete submarginal cells, 
Maxillary pi four-jointed: * 
Sp. }. ees . Schottiiy 
iastes schottii. 
Nomada schottii. 


663. Ergo. 
LUs, — 


Latreille, Fabricius, 
Variegatus, 


664. Pasi-. 
TES, 


Panzer, 
Fabricius. 


"160 
serge emo Latreille. 
** Lateral divisions of the lip almost as longs the 
palpi. Body very villose in 
Spinose, Depatice tinge “wi th —enency 
Latreille. 


na! cells. 
Genes DCLXV. Oxma. ‘Klug. 

spt. Flan palpi — very short. 
' King . Latreille. 


Genes DCLXVL. Cobdign: Jurine, Latreille. 
Tuysevs. Panzer. 

Metecra. Fabricius, Miger, Klug. 

er Rossi. 


palpi three-jointed. 
« Histrio. 
electa histrio. Fabricius. 
Melecta histrionica _MNliger. 
Crocisa histrio. Latreille. 
Inhabits Europe. 
'Gexvus DCLXVII. 
Fabricius, Lliger, Spi 
Apis. Linn. K 
Crocisa. Jurine. 
Sym™Morpna. Klug. 
mn eet pa Mary pelpi six-jointed, with five very distinct. 


this genus are supposed to be parisi- 
tical 
Sp. 1. Panctata. 
| Melecta Latreille. 
Crocisa atra. i 
Tensie Earope Ts common near Swansea in South 


Wales. 
Famity II. Apida. 
Division I. 
Hinder feet of the females, with their tibie exter- 
nally, and the first joint of the tarsi very hairy. 
Subdivision 1, , 
i with more than four joints. Lip 
ivisions as- or longer than the Ite 
Antennz of the very long. 


Evcera. Scopokr, Fabricius, 
aa. Latreille, Panzer, K 


Maxillary pap Ki » (** de. :) S 

axi i distinctly six-jointed. ior Wi 

or gt sina ina in cells Lan om Nias 
- alg re longicornis. app Panzer, Latreille. — 


Apis longicornis. Kirby, Linn. 
pane 

Gexvus DCLXIX. Macrocera, Latreille. 
Evcera. 


Maxillary waif a distinctly five-jointed, the sixth j 
very obsolete, or —. Superior wings with 


Histuie. 


O67. Me-- Metecta. Latreille, Panzer, 
sects. 


» (ta) 


Punctata, 


with its 
bial 
66% Evce- Genus DCLXVIII. 


nis. 


Subdivision 2, 
Maxillary with fi ts or more. 
the lateral isons shorter tha he 
wings three su cells comp! 
* Labial and 


ENTOMO 


Meottia. i oe 
jointed. 

Sp. 1. Retusa. 

Lasts . Jurine. 

Megi Fabricius. 

Antho hirsuta.  Latreille. ; 

Inhabits Ew : 

Genus DCLXXII. Saropopa. Lateille 

Mecitra. ili » Panzer. ¢ 

bmn ug. ’ 

Apis. Vb TM a 


Ei ae 


LOGY. 
Genvs DCLXX. MeuittuRon. 7 it 


Genus DCLXXL. » ‘Annnornon ce ort hast 
Lasivs. Jurine. ° , THOPHORA, 
Apis. Linn: Geo. kr (8 de Qa.) 

Popatrarus. © Walckenaer. 


Genus DC i 
Apis, Linn. eave stlat, glad» 
Meera, _ Mliger. | (ayn atin wp age: 
Lasius. Jurine. rae ‘ wi 
Tracnusa. Klug, 

Hemista. 


- Hemorrkoidalis. 
is heemorrhoidalis. rte Late. 
_Inhabits Europe. ' 
_Subdivision® aad Le %. Saienlll 


Genus CLXXIV. Ericnanis. ‘King! lig. Late. 614. Ere 

Centris. Fabricius. > peat 

Sruecee Fabricius. ‘equ cme 
bus. ° Illiger. Y thse Blt A, : ‘ 

Acantuopus. Klug. 

yg ge alias three submerginal cell. 


 iharis Klug. Tiger, Lateille.. 
Division II. 
en ee eee 
gee ees 
hen | , o a t 
Be. 
Hinder tibie terminated by two aparep thesis: Su- 
perior wings with three s cells in all, com- 


, the last neither linear nor oblique. 
ag hi DCLXXV. Evaiossa. Latreille, Fabricius, 675. Eve 
cid inl GLOSSA. 
er vee " Fabricius, ideale ih 
Bremvus. Jurine. 


ie lilnaiaaiias abit 


ai Sp. ls Dentata, 
cenit, Tihec anita, es ‘Fabr. Late, 


Dentata. idiata. 
~ Dimidiate. dimidiata. Fabr. ’ 
- Englossa dimidiata. Latr.__. 
677. Bom: “agg DCLXXVII. Soon ‘Latreille, ine 


‘eel disposed in tanvere, sight Iie \ 
iy nidificate in cavities beneath the 


surface. The fe ‘te im bom. The macs ae 
the salices or willows are in bloom. The males are 
most abundant in the autumn. 

Sp. 1. Terrestris. 

Apis terrestris, Linn. 

Inhabits ‘ 


Terrestris. 


Sp. 2. Muscorum, 
muscorum. Fabr. 


ique or linear. 
676. Aru. Genus $ DELXXVIIL. Aris of authors. 


wings with three submar, cells com 
Gblique and linear. 
ifica of 


Mel ne ge (Hive bee.) 
authors. 
eo the hive bee has en 
the attention of im, Reaumur, Huber, Wild- 
man, &¢. to whose works we must refer the reader, as 
bine of this curious animal would suffice to fill a 
679. Mz- _ Genus DCLXXIX. Metirona. Illiger, Klugellan, 
LIPONA Ane Fabr. y 
Hitslonsdiablsateh Unsks Ueed oleh chtsigonsie’ ches 
sera cw comple man. cl 
-“) i any rem 
. 1. Favosa, 
ae ys is favosa.” Fabr. 
Melipora favosa, Latr. 
680. Tar. Genus DCLXXX. Taicona. Jurine, Latreille. 
Sowa. Mextrona. _Illiger, Klug. 
Arts.’ Fabricius, 
oe Fabr. 
Spinipes 2. Spinipes. ‘ 
Contr spinipes. Fabr. 
Trigona spinigs. Me 
Orver DIPTERA. 


Oraver Dieters. Linn. Latr, &c. 
Crass Antiiata. Fabr. 


The insects | composing Se 
from all other the fo! 
Wit Ste ake, ig y he lowing carte 


* which are common to alm 


Hinder tarsi with their first joint ; Superior 


i6t 
or balancers,) placed behind, and generally beneath Metabolia 
the wings. —— 
Besides these characters, be noted some others, 
ost all dipterous i insects. The 
mouth is for the most | furnished with a rostrum 
having no articulations. Thorax composed of but one 
ra wag always distinct from the abdomen. . 
era are at this time under, investiga< 
tion by — very eminent aatetihese and as the 
Editor is desirous of rendering every part of this work 
as complete as the nature of the publication will admit,’ 
he has resolved to defer giving-the arrangements of this 
order, until the article Insecta goes to press, when the 
most approved rie of Diptera will be given ; in the 
mean time, we merely give a tabular view of the 
arrangement ‘of Latreille, the terminations only being 

, and the term tribe being used for family. 


Section I, Proposcippa. 


Head distinct from the thorax by an evident interval. 
Proboscis (rarely wanting ) univalve. Tarsi with two 


simple nails. 
Division I. 
Antenne with many joints, ; 
Tare Tl, Treucarimes. 
Diyision II. 
Antenne with not more than three joints. 
Subdivision 1. 


Antenne with the last joint having at least four rings 
or annulations. 


Trise II. Srratiomypes. 
Haustellum with two sete. | 
Trive II. Tapanmes. 
Haustellum with many sete. 
Subdivision 2. 
Antenne with the last joint haying not more thax 
three rings, 
‘A. Haustellum with four sete at least. 
a. Proboscis (when at rest) entirely ox partinlay pro- 


. minent. 


* Proboscis terminated by two large lips. 
Trive [V. Raacioniwes. . 


Palpi prominent, cylindric-conic. Wings divarica- 
ting. Antenne generally moniliform. : 


Trise V. Doxycurropes, 


Palpi prominent, lamelliform. Wings incumbent. 
Antenne patelliform. 


Taine VI. Mypaswes. 


Palpi not inen 
te Preboscis vortaihated by very small lips. 
Trise VII. . Astipes. 


soboay Ig Wings incumbent, Antenne threes 


Trise VIII, Empipes. 
jane long. Wings incumbent. Antenne two- 


162 ENTOMOLOGY. 


Taree IX. Awrsnacipes. Tae XIV. Muvuserpes.: | 
sites —~ short. di Antenne distant, 
heap deantes. TY Head'es igh os the ' Proboscis retractile, terminated by a very remarkable 
See say X. Bomoy.inves. 
Body short. Wings divaricating. Antenne con- Taine XV. CEsraupes. 
tiguous, three-jointed. Head lower than the thorax. Proboscis wanting. « 
‘ This tribe is considered Dumésiles 
Toms 31, Mane, tinct division from the tribe "Mice, ie 
eave soperth ren Wings divaricating. An- pion we most thoroughly concur, 
tenn 
hs Rochendad aman aammepnseantae TWekie: Sheen Section II. Eproposciwea. 
~ Troe XII. Syepnives. p “* ead sass from the thorax by ‘Nal ot at cyan 
B. Haustellum with two sete, double or treble. 
Trise XIII. Conopsives, For a farther arrangement of the Distress see In« 
Proboscis prominent, nearly cylindric or conic, with- seca. 
out any remarkable dilatation. 


INDEX OF AUTHORS NAMES. 


+. 
am © 


1 Pork 


A Crellius, p. 62 Gorda, p 73 Latestiow ps The 73,75 Panzer, p. 71, ty 15 p64 
yuo wed Abtheilung, p. 71 Crutzer, Gould, 6 Leach, 75 Paulus Hr ig 
Nome, Adams, Curtis, 67, 69, 10, 74 Grafinn, ‘va Mesian, Locket, 66 Paykul, 71,73 Sepp, 65, 76 
— me Admiral, 63,67 Cuvier, 73 Leeuwenhoek, 61,62 Perrault, 60 Shaw, se 
ilian, 58 Cyprien, 61 a. 61 Leibstaff, 76 Petagna, 69 Sloane, 62 
Btius, 59 Cyrillus, 69, 76 Griendel, 61 Lesser, 63 Petiver, 62, 75 ‘Smith, eat ie us 
Afzelius, 72 c + 68 Gronovius, 65 Leske, 68, 70 Philiscus, 58” <a ty 
Gyllenhal, 75 Lettsom, 67 Piller, 76 pres fo . 
ib. D Lewin, 71, 72 Platevus, 59 Spence, 75 
Albin, 62 Daubenton, 76 H Lidtonga. 72, 74, Pliny,s8 . Stewart, 74 — 
Albino, ib. De Geer, 63, 64 Harrer, 66, 69 Poder, 65 ae es * 
59 Democritus, 58 Harris, 67, 68, 75 Lines, 62, 63, 64, Pontppian, 65, 69 Sulzer, x 
Alexander, ib. Derham, 62 Hasselquist, 64 60, 61 
Anderson, 69 Detharding, 63 Ha » 4 Line, et Proyeles, 70 Swederus, 69 
Aristamachus, 58 Donovan, 70, 72, 73, Hebenstreit, 62 Léflin, 70 . ‘ 
Aristotle, ib. 74 ellwig, 72 Ludolph T 
Avenzoar, 59 Drury, 66,70 Hemiert, 72 Ludwig, 70 Quesnel, 70 Tagebuch, 67 
a he Pad 7 gh bv Hete Gores, 90;16: here R Thunberg, 68, 69, 
vicenna, i 73, T4,75 Herbst, 68, 69, 70, 
Augustin, 64 Dunker, 71 Herodius, 58 Titus, 59 is 
- Dutfield, 64 Hill, 64, 67 7 - 62 o 4 
Hippocrates, 58 arsham, 70, 72, 73, Reaumer, ib. ‘ownson, 7 ) 
Barowsky, 76 E Hoefnagle, 59 » 60, 61 Trallian, 
Ed 63 Hollar, 60 Martyn, M. 69 Reich, 72 Treunera, 62 
Beauvois, 75 Esper, 68, 75 Homberg, 62 Martyn, T. 71 Reise, 69 
Becksteine, ib. Eusebius, 76 H Marwick, 74 Retzius, ib. 
Beckwith, 71 Hoppe, 64, 71, 72 70 Rhazes, 59 Valisinieri, 62 
Bellerio, 61 H Mr M , 69 Rhumphius, 62 
, 68, 69 Polsicis, 3. €.61, 68 H M > G4 Robert, 76 Villars, 70 5 
66, 70 69, 71, 72, 73 Lady + Mentzelius, 61 Roemur, 70 eee a 
Bilberg, 61 Fabricius, Otho, Merian, 61, 62,76 Rondeletius, 59 Voigt, 73 
ib. aeslius, 67 J Roessel, 63 
Blumenbach, $4 Fallen, 74, 75 Jablonsky, 70 Mey, ib. Rossi, 70, 72 Ww 
61 60 Jacobus, 72 » 76 Roxburg, 74 : 
Bocks, 76 Fisher, 68, 69 Jacquin, 68 Mohr, 74 Russel, 63 61... a9 
Boerhaave, 63 d, 65 Illiger, 73 Moll, 69 ey , 
Bamare, 66 67 Johnson, 60 Mollerus, 61 -7 $§ f 
Bonsdorff, 69 Forster, 66, 67 Jones, 71 Morand, 69 alford, 75 
—— = ae oe 15 ii Moe aeeees ee SE oe seemg self i? 
Bosc, rancillon, ungius, ouffet, ras og 2 eber, 73,74 
Bradley, 62 Franzelio, 60 Muller, 65, 68 Scheidner, 70, 71 Webersich: NN 
Brahm, 71 Frenzius, 59 Muralto, 61 Schellingberg, 7 A 
Brown, R. 67 Frisch, 62, 65,76 Kahn, 67 Myrepsus, 59 Schmid, ib. a 
Brown, 64 Fuesty, 67, 68, 69,71 Kalm, 64 69 Wilde, 59 9 
pier ~ ae ae 4 N A ergy vale 64, 67 
- Buodack, Kirkmaj . eoptolemus, Schrank, ’ > 
Gadd, 64 Kleemannir, 64 Nicander, ib. 73 62 
4 c Geoffroy, 65 Kleemannus, Schreber, 65 Watton, 59 
Catesby, 62 Geyerus, 61 Knoch, 68, 73 0 Ke) ; - 
Coderheilm, 72 Giorna, 70 Kinig, 61 - Olivier, 70 Schroter, coon (aad ipa aatat 
a © eden, of 4 Ovibasius, 59 Scope, Oh Chere ee 
Clairville, Gmein P ' cap ; 
Clark, ib. Goedart, 60,61, 62 L’Admiral, 63, 67 P ert a 
Coquebert, 75 Goeze, 68, 70, 68, 69- Pallas, 65, 67,68 Seba, 62, 73 


OAS EP yE8 
= INDEX. ras 


ee 
é : Index. 
index ne A Gen. Sp. Gen. Sp. Gen. S; Gen, Sp. ye 
3 Gen. Sp. Akis 9. 183 bidentatum 274 1 Kirby oT acinia =» ib. 6 
Abraxas, Leach 459 Fabricius 187 boleti, Fabr. ib. 1 Kirby 668 euphrosyne ib. 5 
~ grossulariata ib. I filiformis ib. 1 molle 121 2 Kirby 672 lathonia ; ib. 1 
ulmata - ib? reflexa 183 1 pertinax ib. 3 Linneus 590 | paphia - ib 4 
Acanthia . 384 \ Aleochara 113 striatum ib. 3 Linneus 597 Arpactus . 607 
Fabricius 377 a Gravenhorst 113 ~~ tessellatum ib. 1 Linneus 604 Arczenites +.» 632 
378 bipunctata 1141 Anomalon - 632 Linnaeus 640 dubitata ib, 1 
Wolf  . 379 canaliculata’ 113 1 Jurine. 530 . Linneus 641 Ascalaphus - 496 
Schrank 380 © impressa ib, 2 Anopleura, p. 76, 77 Linneus 653 barbatus . ib. 1 
Schrank 381 Aleyrodes . 412 Antea ot 557 Linnzus. 654 italicus . ib. 2 
lectularia «= ss 378 1 Chelidonii ib. 1 ‘jurineanum ~~ ib, 1 Linneus 658 Arida grisea . 1851 
maculata’ © 3841 Allantus,Jurine 512 Anthia, Fabricius 28 Linneus 659  Aritides, p. 161 
Acantharides, p. 123. scrophularie ib. 1 Weber 27 Linneus 662 Asiraca " 400 
Acanthie bordée, Alomya - 31 decemguttata ib. 1 Linnzus 663 clavicornis ib. 1 
Latreille . 386 1 Attica, Geoffroy 315 variegata 281 Linnaeus 667 Aspen, prominent 
Acanthopus, Klug. 674 oleracea ib 1 Anthicus Z 116 Linneus 673 moth . 448 14 
Acheta 4 363 testacea ib. 2 Fabricius 222 Linneus 675 Astata * 610 
e Fabricius 351 Alucita . 474 Fabricius 338 , Linnaeus 677 Astatus, Klug. 520 
Latreille 358 Olivier 449 Paykull 223 Olivier 674 Astrapzus, Graven- 
Coquebert 352 Fabricius 452 antherinus ib. 2 Rossi 646 horst e101 
campestris 353 1 Latreille 472 fusca... ib, 1 Scheffer 648 ulmi . ib. 1 
digitata . 352 1 Hubner 473 helwigii 116 1 Scopoli 649 Ateuchus . 145 
gryllotalpa 351 1 la 4741 Monoceros 222 1 Villers 643 Illiger 147 
Achetida, p. 119 Alucitida, p. 135 Anthidium . 656 enca.—C«G57 2 Latreille 146 
Alurnus - » 807 Fabricius 654 amathea 680 1 flagellatus ib. 1 
~, ~ Aerocerides, p. 162 ~ Olivier 303 Illiger 655 bicornis, Kirby 657 1 sacer » 451 
Acrydida, p. 120 femoratus ib. 1 manicatum 656 1 centuncularis 658 1 scheefferi 147 1 
- 358 grossus 307 1 spirale . 6481 coerulea 651 1 Atopa ° 62 
DeGeer 355 Alyria . 537 truncorum 654 1 cerulescens 657 2 cervina . ib 1 
DeGeer 353 ib. 1 Anthophagus 109 conica, Kirby 659 1 Atractoceros . 1% 
> subulatum 3581 Alyriada, p. 143 punctulatus ib. 1 conica, Linn. ib. 2 necydaleides ib 1 
Actinophorus, + 625 Aanthophora 671 cyanea, Kirby 651 1 Atropos. . 507 
Sturm ° 145, Spinoli 616 Fabricius 653 favosa . 679 1 ‘ lignaria.... ib. 1 
Aculeata, p. 146 ater ib. 1 Fabricius 659 florisomnis 6531 Atta . . 574 
Adela + 452 lunicornis 625 1 Hiiger 664 longicornis 668 1 capitata . ib 3 
452 1 Amblys, Klug. 657 hirsuta, Lipn. 671 1 manisata 656 1 cephalotes ib. 2 
Adimonia, Schrank 313 Ametabolia, p. 76 “ 4-dentata 659 1 mellifica 678 1 » » dbl 
alni . ib. 2. Ammobates 661 retusa gw «SGT IL punctata 667 1 Attaginus + 124 
nigricornis ib. 1 rufirentris ib. 1 Anthracides, p. 162 4-dentata 650 2 pellio . ib. 1 
Adorium,Fabricius311  Amophila, Kirby 697  Anthrenus, Geof. 126 nificornis 662 1 trifasciatus. ib. 2 
- bipunctatum 1 arenaria ib. 3 schrophularie ib. 1 terrestris 677 1 Attelabus _. . 248 
Zcophora, Latr. armata ib, 1 Anthribus variegata 663 1 DeGeer 286 
Zgeria, Fabricius 434 campestris ib, 2 Paykull 244 violacea 650 1 Fabricius 250 
apiformis ib. 1 Amphicoma 166 la 242} Apius,Jurine «518 Geoffroy . 130 
crabroniformis ib. 2 melis ib. 1 rhinomacer 244 Apoderus, Olivier 249 Linnaeus 37 
tipuliformis ib. 4 Ampulex, Jurine 600 seabrosus 243 1 coryli ib. 1 Linneus. 91 
vespiformis ib. 3 ee 226 «6A - $02 Aporus . 596 Linneus 92 
2Xgialia, Latreille 155 ib. 1 Antliata; p. 161 unicolor ib. 1 Linnaeus 93 
globosa «ib. 1 Anax, Leach 484 3 287  Apotamus, Lat. 18 Linnaeus) 195 
Zgithus . 325 imperator 4811 Olivier 235 rafus . ib, 1 Linnwus 289 
_ Fabricius 217 + 643 apicalis 237 1 Aptera, p. 76,126 Olivier 251 
marginatus ib. 1 Latreilie 644  Apate, Fabricius 270 Apterogyna . 579 apricarius, Lin- 
Zilia, Fabricius 363 Olivier 645 capuzinus ib. 1 Olivierii ib. I naus +» 931 
acuminata ib. 1 Olivier 648 Apatura, Fabricius 426 Aquarius, Schellen. 381 bacchus .. 250 1 
¥salus, Fabricius 173 646 iris . ib. 1 Schellen 383 buprestoides 289 1 
scarabeoides ib. 1 Rossi 613 Aphanisticus 58 um 381 1 Attelabus.ceramboi- 
Zshna - 481 Rossi 642 natus» $8 1 Aquatica, p. 123 des, Linneus 195 1 
_, Latreifle 483 heemorrhoi- Aphida, p. 126 ‘ curculionides~ 248 1 
annulate 4813 dalis . 648. 2 Aphides, p. 125, 126 lunatus «ib, 1 formicarius, 
shades, p. 136 .) tricinetor 4 Abbodide, send iat | a. vis, DeGeer#26. 
a ial ida, p. ca iveab, 2 levis, DeGeer 286 1 
Agathidium, Iliger331 _ Andrenida, p. 154 Aphodius, Fabricius 151 chrysorrhiea’ ib. 2 melanurus . 37 1 
nigripenne ib. 1 Panzer 4155 lubricepeda ib. 8 mollis . .” 921 
Agathis + 584 Aoshdies, globosus ib. 1 mendica ib. 6 Auchenia, Marsh, 306 
gion, Eatrallg 400. Anis 167 Aphorida, p. 149 eer cenpitiie i Auteetie “28. 
§ . pl + ib. 7 Autac! . 528 
Pinguinalis ib. 1 crinitum ib 1 A . 67 ib. striatus . ib. 1” 
Agra, Fabricius == 38 ' 102s Apion, Herbst =—251 plantaginis. ib. 3 Azure blue butterfly 
@nea. = ibe Ls abricius 381 = Apis, Christus 580 - ib 4 428 13 
_¢ayennensis = ib. 1 _ Iliger Christus 642 salicis =» ibe 
Pennsylvannica ib. 3 - bicolor 1 Fabricius 679 villica + jib 2 Badister . . 26 
surinamensis ib. 2 nigripenne 1 Fabricius 680 Arctides, p. 133 bipustulatus ib. 1 
Agrion + 485 picea © 102 t Geoffroy 645  Arge, Schrank 511. Batis, Leach. 488 
Fabricius 487 piceum’ ib, 1 Geoffroy 6Y1 Argynnis + 421 bioculatus . ib. 1 
Agrionides, p. 337 Anobium 121 Kirby 650 Latreille 422 © Banchus © . 531 
Agyrtes, Fratlich 97 Fabricius 274 Kirby 651 adippe + 4218 Fabricius. 538 
castaneus 97 1 Illiger 119 Kirby 655 aglaia  » ib 2 cultellator . ib, 1 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


164 
Coe. Gen Gen. Gen. &, ’ Gen. §; Index.) | 

Banus . me Hijiner . 445 wy _ Linnwus . 32" unicolor . " 
Panzer . 335 Latreiile . 443 , Pom} | Linnwus 39° Centrotus 405 
Paurer . 537 weuli . 4391 biguttata . 56 1 Linneus . 42 cornutus . ib 1 

manineator S37 1. chrysorrhaa 445 2 emarginata . 58 1 ‘Lionaus = 44—sCCeenttris— 673 - 

Redford blue but- compressa . 464 1 minuta §. (571 Marsbham 16 ‘Fabricius 650 Beng Aas 

terfly 408 12 eratmgi «44! 4 Burnished brass moth Marsham’ . 36 Fabricins G58), ‘ 

Bee hornet sphinx 434 | dispary. 443 1s Marsham 109 

Detita e $59 domtnula . 446 | “Ryrrhides, p. 94 Oliviens 5 927 5 wrt 

bicolor SM furculas). 444 2 | Byrrhus ae 126 Olivier . . - 374 |= Fabricius 6754, 

Relostonts - %86 + 463, Linnaeus 128 Olivier. .» 96 ~ 

testaceo pallidum lanestria | 4417 Olivier . 131" ' | Rossi 2) 34 dimidiata..« 675 2 
ih neustrias i iby 5 fascicularis *. ib. 1 arenarius. » 44 1 hemorrhoida- 

Belostormida, p. 193 phworrhea . 445 3 pilula. . 1281 arvensis ~ . 43 7 t Usyocnh4 678 1 

Belostomides, ib. pint =. | 423 schrophularie 126 1 atricapillus, 311 spinipes. + 680 2 

Bembes . Got - 4416 Byturus P 98 | . bipustulatus) 26 1 Cephaleia, Jurine $18 
Fabticins’ 605" . . 4422 tomentosus . ib. 1 © bdrevicollis . 44.2 || ° Jurine ~ 519 
Olivier. 606 quereifolia |. ib 1 c 1 cassideus 5,525 1 Cephus « +). 620) 
Rosi . G26 quereus . 4411 Calioxys.  . 659 catenylatus 43 2 pygmaeus . ib 2 
carolina . G05 1 rosea =. s | 446 2 conica,;. «ib. 1 catenulatus, _ | troglodytes, 1 
rostrata . 604 1 rubi e 441 3 Calobicus . p 94 g Marsham. ib. 5 iy Leach X 
Bembicides, p. 150 trifolil. .' ib. 2 marginatus |. ib. 1 chrysostomos, » Cerambycida, p.112 

Bembidion, Latr. 14 versicolora 443 = Calandra, Clairy.’ 262 Maysham . 361 bycides, ib. : 

Gavipes «ih 1 villica, ©.) 445 1 © «granaria’..| ib. 1 ©; complanatus). 44 J him 296 
littorale . ib 2 vinula «| 444.1 Calepteryx, Leach, 487 -crepitans;,. 291 *« Geer, 289 
Bembidium §. ib. O Bostricides,p. 109 Cailidium, =... 296 erux-major | 391 | Latreille .. 295 
flavipes ih. Bostricus -.0" 270 Fabricius » 297 “eyanocephalus 30 1 Lipneus 288 
Uittorale  . ib 2 Fabricius’ 265 arietis.. 296 | Carabuscyanus, Fab. 43 5 Linneus 290 

Berytus . 367 Hellwig . 266 violaceum. 297 1 decemguttatus 27 1 Linnenus “ 

ti 2 368 1 Paykull . 268 Callimorpha.. | 446 dentatus . 36.1 Lin % 

Bethy - $63 capuzinus. 270 1 dominula 9. ib. 1 dimidiatus . 109 1 Prine sa r - 
Fabricius 588 cylindricus . 266 1 jacobem . ib 3 distans . (161 Marsham _ 
Paneer . 585 typographus 265 1 rosea ib. 2 gibbus eee 2S 1 Marsham 296 _ 

cenopterus 563 1 “ Calopus «. 218 granulatus, + ; Marsham 297 
fencoratus 585 1 lemnata. . ib. 4 serraticornis + ib. 1 Marsham 43 6 emdilis  . 2921 
Biastes . . - 664 potamogata wed os a . 42 gyllenhalli, - ay ' sarietis.., 2961 « 

Schottii . ib 1 purpuralis «i quisitor, ib. Schanker - : coriarius —. r : 
Biston, Leach 156 verticalis» . ib. 3 sycophanta ib. 1 } ied! ie  limeatocollis_ i 
- ib. 2 Brachinu» . (29 Camberwell beauty 423 3 Marsham, ..43 4 ° longimanus 291 
hirtaria =. ib. 3 Clairville,, 30  Cantharida, p.196 - humeralis.... 33 1» morchatus . | 
prodromaria ib. 1 crepitans 4 29 1 Cantharides, p.105 _ infidus, Panzer 442 | nebulosus. __ 2 

Ritoma . . 284 © Brath Oliv,.253 Cantharis . 234 intricatus, Lin. 433  » oculatus. . ie, & 
Herbst . 278 girus so Gb Geoffroy . 216 intricatus, planatus . 288 1 

crenata . ib. 1 Brachygaster ©. 5 Linnwus . 67 Marsham. _ ib. 2 serraticornis, Lin. 
unipanttata 284 1 minutus —. ib. 1 Linnwus . 70 locapthabaanny 30 1 i Leamiabuea’S ene 

Bittaeus - . 493 Brachypterus . 99 ». Linneus . 75 limbatus . 461 | spinosus .. 295 1 

tipularius . ib. 1 Brachyrbinus. 254 , > Linneus . 77 Jittoralis .. 142 — , violaceus 297.2 = 

Block-arches moth 443 2 argentatus . ib. 2 Linneus . 230 monilis, Fabr, 43 5 Ceramius . 6355 | 

Black-bair streak imperialis + ib. 1 Linneus? 281 morbillosus, Fa- . _ floriscolumbii “ibe I 

botterfy .. 427 2 Bracon —. 533 Marsham 66 bricius . ib. G6 Ceraphron.... 856 

Black-spot brown Jurine . 587 Olivier. 232 multiguttatus 23,1 _ durine .. 653 

~~ 428 10 Spinoli . 534 nea. - ,,761 multipunctatus 44. Jurine . 555 

Blaps . I91 desertor . 533 1 biguttata... 712 nemoralis, Latr.43 4 Panzer * 
Olivier . 186 manducator 637 1 coccinea, - 220 2 oleus . wt cornutus .- 

@longatus . ib. 1 Bremus . . 675 fuscus ,. ) 701 | pilicornis , 40 _ heleatus ie : 
femoralis . 192 1 Jurine «677 navalis .. 771 planus.) 201 a ee 04 
laticollis . ib, 1 Brentus, Fabricius 246. sanguinolenta 281 1 pumicatus, « 211 emer S| 
Mortisaga . 191 1 Olivier. 247 serraticornis, _ purpurascens 43 1 Ceratina #jpt GORD) 

Biatta anchorago , 246 1 Marsham . 66.1 4.maculatus, 321 . coerulea . 651 1 

orientalis . ib. 1 brunneus . 247 1 vesicatoria . 2341 rostratus . 411 Cerceris  . 626» 
Body-lowse . 71 Brondsbordered bee.  Capsus . $69 -ruficornis . 221 | major . 6271 
Boletaria, Marsh. 279 hawk moth . 433 3 ater - ib. 1 _ rugimarginatus, 2 + 6261 

4 pustulata A 1 Brond-bordered yollan, i Carabe a theca 81 ouiuinertee, . ? p12» pe 
Boletophagus . underwing moth Carabides, p. i nibarbus .. Cercopis fiom 

agaricola ib. 1 Brontes, Fabricius 288. Carabus .. spiniger . 201 |. . sanguinolenta 403 1 

Bombus +. 677 flavipes .. ib 1 DeGer 8 paphyiionies ite 1 Cerocoma,. . 227 » 
Babricius 650 Broommoth . 454 De Geer . 35 sycophanta _ 1 Scheefferi . ib, 1 
Iliger . 674  Brown-hair streak De Geer 41 violaceus . 43 1 Cerocomatida, p.105 =~ 

Muscorum . 6772 butterfly *% 4271 Fabricius . 23 Carpenter bee, p. Ceropales + $35. 
terrestris . ib. 1 Brown tail moth , 445 3 Fabricius. 24 soe ,  Peciciee, «594 

Bombylides, p. 162 Bruchides, p, 106 Fabricius. 25 » equestris 310 1 nlata . 594 1 

Bowmbycida, p. 132 . 118 Fabricius 26 - ib 1 Cerophytum. . 60 

Bombycides, p. 131 33 / ides. 60 1 

Sombyz . = 442 40 - 
Fabridus 440 45 furewla ied 2 

\ Fabricius _ 21 5 Letiee 1 
Fabricius fasifitee ced 
“Fabricius . 445 _, Latreille 
Fabricius 446 histeroides.. 276 1" 
Fabricius 454 nN A 
Fabricius 464 jae 10°" 
Hibmer . 439 _ Fabricius 162 


ee OD 


Oliyier 168 
cuepeis "10a. 
* fasciata’-.. 168 2 
lineola . 162 1 
nobilis - 168 1 
polyphemus 170 1 
Cetalion . 402 
reticulatum ib. 1 
Chalcida, p. 144 
Chalcis oni S43 
Cuvier .,. 546 
Fabricius. 558 
Jurine -., 541 
Jurine. 544 
Lamarck, 545 
ees 
clavipes + 
minuta .. 543 2 
Chalk-hill blue but- 
terfy .. 428 6 
Chaulioides _ 501 
pectinicornis 501 1 
Chechenus, Illiger 537 
Chelonarius . 129 
-atrum? . ib 1 
» Beauyoisii . ib. 1 
Chelonites : ae 
Chelonus, Jurine _ 536 
Chelostoma .- 653 
_ florisomnis . ib. 1 
Chennsium =. S339 > 
bituberculatum ib. 1 
Chermes, Linnaeus 408 
betule alni ib. 1 
alni, Fabricius ib. 1 
Chilocorus, Leach 334 
yeacti » oe ib. 1 
Chimarra, Leach 471 2 
Chiroscealis - 177 
* bifenestrum . ib. 1 
Chlorion —- 600 
_» Fabricius oe 
cg a 
“prunnea . ib. I 
oblonga age 
Chrysidida, p. 1 
Cu icin Bas 
: Fabricius 
Fabricius 568 
- Linneus 566 
Olivier . 564 
-. Rossi . 639 
Rossi . 567 
. ib, 
Panzer". 865 
Cormowbricius | S17 
_ . Linnaeus . 62 
Linneus . 90. - 
Linneus, 200 
Linneus 212. 
Linneus 215" 
Linneus 216 
Linnaeus 315 _- 
. Linnaeus 322 
Linneus 323 
Linnaeus 336 
. Marsham = 64 
Marsham 132 
_ Marsham 306 
Marsham 312 
ais 
r a 
“sen, 088,2. 


ENTOMOLOGY, 

; Gen. Sp, » aa) Gen. Sp. .w% auld Gen. Sp. 
Banksii .° 318 1 - De Geer .° 371 ; fossors,» io! 161 
Beccahunge 319 1 DeGeer 372 ) gibba. 4) | ib. 2 
boleti F 260 1 Fabricius 364 Clothes- Wot, 457 1 
buprestoides, Marsh- Geoffroy 376 Clouded buff moth 445 4 

am, Yee 182 1 Linneus 360 Clunipes . . «| 152, 
caraboides 215 1 Linneus 361 scarabeoides, 152 1 

“ceramboides. 212 1 Linneus 366 Clythra -. 323 
cervina . 62 1 Linnzus 368 Fabricius, 324 
' coccinea » 336 1 Linneus 369 monstrosa., ib. 1 
elongata, . 901 Linneus . 370 ° quadripunc- 
] 64 1 Linneus) 373 : tatav.«» | 323 1 
hirta §. 2161 Linnzus 375° -Clytus 8 296 
litura . 318 2 Linnzus 380 arietis sieedb. 1 
marginella ib. 3 Linnwus 381 .; Cnemidotus, Iliger 54 
merdigera,Lin,306 1 Linneus 383 Cnodalon «208 
_ punctatissima 317 Linneus ,. 384 © viride | «ib b 
4punctata . 323 1 Rossi... 382 Coccinella > . 0333 
sericea, Linn. 322 1 Wolf... 3602 Fabricius, 217 
Tanaceti . SIS 1 Wolf 363..', » Linnaeus . 332 

Chrysomelida, p.114 acuminatus. . ib. 1 Marsham 334 

Chrysomelides,p.} 13 apterus; . 367.1 biverrucata 332 1 

Chrysopa, Leach 497 virens » 3641 cacti % $34 1 

| perla, . ib. 1 globus. 362 1) septem-punc- 
reticulata. ib. 2 lectularius . 377.1 ; tata “ 

Cicada ws, SD lineatus. . 361 1 Coceinellides, p. m6. 
Linnzus, 403 marginatus. 366 1 Coccus “ Al4 
Linnzus . 404 « 364 2 cacti ‘ ib. L 
Linneus, (405 stagnorum . 381 1 characias,.... 413.1 
Linnzus . 406 tipularius . | 367 1 Gockchaffer, come’ | 
Linneus . 407 tipuloides.. S71 1 mon ein 6S 1 
Villers. . 397 Cimicida, p. 122 summer . . ibs 2 

cornuta . 4051 Cimicides, ib. Codrus, Jurine . 560 
hamatodes 394 1 Cinnabar + 446 3) Colaspis ‘ 321 
lanio. . 406 1 Cinetus, Jurine 559 » | suranamensis. ib. 1 
sanguinolenta 403 1 Ciopus, Clairville 259 Coleoptera, p. 76, 
viridis . 407 1) scrophularie ib, 1, 78,118 | 

Cicadida, p. 125 Cis, Latreille .« (274 Colias ° ALD 

Cicadides, p. 124 . bl Fabricius. . 420 

ac il Cissites, Latreille 231 hyale  . 419 1 

Clairville 8 testacea . ib. 1 thamni... 420 1 

De Geer 28 Cistela . 100 Colletes " 640 © 

Linnzus. . 10 Fabricius | 212 fodiens » +) ib 2 

Linneus 12 Marsham_ 128 Mmeeincta . ib Ll 

Linneus . 13 Olivier . .62  Colliuris 9 

Marsham =s«i14 augustata . 100 1 aptera. .,; ib. 2 

Olivier. . 9 ceramboides 212 1 longicollis, ... ib. 1 
aptera «ib, 2 undulata, Mar,128 1) Collyris, Rabricius ib. 
_biguttata . 12.1 Cixius, Leach 398 aptera .. ib 2 
se aga 113 nervosus . ibe} longicollis . ib. 1 

- 10 2) Cladius . 516 Colydium, Hellw. 275 
ata,Ol.861. difformis .. ib. 1 Latreille 280 
+ 1 Clamys, Olivier 324, Colydinm, Payk. 282 
ot Bok monstrosa ib. 1 elongatum . 280 1 
reien + 112 Clmwionapirere . 93.1, fasciatum . (275 1 
longicollis, Oliv. 9 1 Clavellaria, Lam, 510 frumentarium281 2 
megacephala | 10 1 Clavicera, Walck. 651 planum ... ib. 1 
riparia. 131 Claviger . 840 unidentatum | ib. 1 
semipunctata 121 Clavigeres, p. 117 Colymbetes .. | 48 
sylvatica . 111 Cleone . 489 bipustulatus ib. 1 
p- 78 , pallida. ib. 1 Common butterfly 423 7 
Cicindele 211 3 Cleonymus . 547. ~ Common blue but, 
des forets ib. 1 depressus . ib, 1,  terfly . » 428 8 
' tachete + ib. 2 Cleptes ° 564  Conoprides, p. 162) 
Cilissa, Leach 644 Fabricius, 545. _ Convolvulus, hawke 
tricincta .« ib 1 Fabricius. 550 moth * 431 7 
Cilix, Leach. a ‘ cule ta + 564.1, poe sod 96 
» compressa . . p- ib. 
~Cimbex . . 510 CCleroides, Scheffer 911+ Copris . 148 
_ Olivier . i Clerus, Fabricius — 90 Fabricius 150 
_ amerine .. Geoffroy .. 93 Geoffroy. 145 
axillaris . ih 2 Geoffroy . 94 Geoffroy, 147 
fasciata . ib 8) Marsham, 91 lunaris . 148 1 
: nee ° a » | Marsham ri racca. a 2 
a8 ‘ . fasciatus . ah 1 . 
Jeucorum — ie 3 formicarius . ib. 1 CordulegasterLeach4$1 
marginata. ib. 5 mollis . 921 annulatus ib. 1 
| obscura. ib 7 unifasciatus 90 2 Cordulia, Leach 480 
sericea + ib, 9 Clifden blue butter- wnea etyaie 1 
Reg tata BEG SS 428 —_ Coreides,p. | 21, 
vier, rd 1 Clivina +. :16 ° Coreus ‘ 
Cimx wt. SID, ees a | 1 


165 
2, Wak Gen. S: 
Corixa,.; 5 393. 
' Bestriata ~~. ib. 1 
Corixida, p. 124 : 
Cortiearia . . 284 
_. Marsham... 281 
» frumentaria ‘ib. 1 
oblonga,» |. 284 1 
staxicornis . 278 2 


€orydalida, p. 138. 


Corydalides, ibe... 
Corydalis . 500 
cornutus ibs 1 
Corynetes _ . 94." 
- vuficollis «. ib 1 
Cossida. i + Pp 131 
Cossonus . 268 
linearis... ib. 1 
Cossus . tan? 438 
Fabricius 439 
escyli «».).,cib. 1 
) ~‘ligniperda 438 1 
Cossyphus; .... 205 
depressus ib. 2 


; » hoffmanseggii. ib. 1 
Crab-louse, .p. 77 
620 


Crabro” 
Fabricius 608 
Geoffroy 520 
Olivier . 519. 
Rossi. , 627 
Rossi . 606 
Rossi .. 611 
Rossi... GIA. 
Rossi . » 626 
cribrarius . 620 1 
subterraneus ib. 2 
tibialis . ib 8 
Crabronida, p. 152 
Crabronides, ib. 
Crabs, p. 77 


) histrio |... 666 1. 
Cryptocephalida, p. 115". 


iF 


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£ 


788 

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# 28° 


ik 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Gen. Sp- 
Christus = 546 
Fabricius 544 
Jurine . 538 
Linnewus 539 
Linnwus S41 
Olivier 549 
Olivier 550 
Rossi . 540 
capree . 545 1 
quercus-folii, 
Linnaeus 539 1 
serratulae 5441 
seutellaris, Rossi 
540 1 
Cynipsida, p. 144 
Cynipsides, ib. 
Cyphon . 63 
Paykull 64 
fuscescens 63 2 
hemispherica 64 1 
pallidus . 63 1 
Dacillus, cervinus 62 1 
Daene, Latreille 93 
bumeralis ib. 1 
- 642 
hirtipes . ib. 1 
lobata . 649 1 
plumipes 642 2 
Dasytes ° 74 
ater - ib 1 
Death's head hawk 
moth . 9 
Delphacida, p. 125 
Delphax 401 
clavicornis 400 1 
pellucida 401 1 
Dendroides - 219 
canadensis ib. 1 
Dermaptera, p. 76,118 
Dermestida, p. 
Dermestides, p. 94 
Dermestes 123 
De Geer 98 
DeGeer 126 
Fabricius 102 
Fabricius 94 
Fabricius 99 
Geoffroy 95 
Geoffroy 128 
Geoffroy 133 
Linnenus 94 
Linneus 119 
Linnaeus 125 
Linnzus 144 
Linneus 965 
Linneus 270 
Linnaeus 275 
Marsham 124 
Paykull 281 
Rossi oo nae 
Rossi - 100 
Rossi - 271 
Scopoli 330 
Sad Ts 
un 79 
adstrictor 127 1 
boleti + 2741 
calthe . 3301 
capuzinus 270 1 
cellaris » 1021 
dentatus - 791 
dubius . 2711 
furmatus 98 1 
fungorum . 102 1 
tardarius . 123 1 
marginatus. 28] 1 
murinus 123 2 
pectinicornis ? 
Linnaeus 119 1 
pellis ’ 141 


Dorytida, p. 147 
_Dorylus 


Gen. Sp. 
rulicollis . 941 
scarabwoides 144 1 
tomentosus 98 1 
trifasclatus 124 2 
typographus 265 1 
undatus . 125 1 
unidentatus 282 1 
vulpinus 123 2 
Diaperida, p. 102 
Diaperis + 200 
boleti . 200 1 
Diapria, Latreille 558 
cornuta ib. 1 
Dichron . 645 
analis . ib. 1 
Leach, p. 120 
Dimera, p.-116 
° 614 
pictus . ib. 
Dinopherus, I 211 
Diptolepida, p. 143 
Diptolepides, ib. 
Diptolepis « 839 
Fabricius 544 
Fabricius = 547 
Fabricius 549 
Fabricius 550 
Illiger 545 
Spinoli 546 
quercus folii 539 1 
violacea 549 1 
Diprion, Schrank 518 
Diptera, p. 76, 161 
Diraplia - | 409 
Dircea Fi 214 
Fabricius 211 
Fabricius 213 
barbati- . ib. 1 
humeralis . 211 1 
nusans - 2141 
Discelias ° 634 
Zonatis . 6341 
Ditoma - . 278 
crenata ib. 1 
Diurna, p. 126 
" gonagra ib. 
Dolchorus 601 
ater - ib 
Dolychipodes, p, 161 
a 122 
dresdensis ib. 1 
Doritis . ALT 
Apollo Fikes | | 
Dorthesia . 413 
charachias ib, 1 
Dorvillia’  . 443 _— 
Leach . ib. 


- $878 
helvolus ib. I 
D ryphora . 3817 
punctatissima ib. 1 
Drilus, Fabricius 66 
flavescens 66 1 
Dryinus - | 562 
Fabricius 599 
eeneus 599 
formicarius. 562 
Dryops, Olivier 133 
auriculatus ib. 1 
> 36 
beac ay 4 
e jurgundy 6 
Dyticides, p. 84 
Dyticus, Geoff. . 47 
Dytiscus, Lin. . ib. 
Linnaeus 140 
Linneus 142 
Marsham = 48 


flavo-scutellatus, 

fusculus » 611 
hermanni . 53 1 
luridus, Lin. 140 1 
marginalis 47 1 
minutus . 491 
ovatis, Illiger 52 1 
ib. 1 


Echimuthus - 30 

Leach ib. 
alus ib. 1 

Eciton, Latreille 574 

Egger moth . 441 1 

Ekk + 267 

Elampus. - 565 

panzeri 4 1 

Elaphrus . 

Fabricius 12 
Olivier . 14 
aquaticus . 121 
biguttatus . ib. 2 
flavipes - 41 
riparius . 131 

uliginosus . 

Elater  - . 61 
Linneus 59 
Linneus 127 
Rossi . 133 

buprestoides 59 1 
- 612 
dermestoides 127 1 
ferrugineus 61 1 
- ib 4 
murinus . ib 3 

Elaterides, p. 

Elateroides, Schaef.’ 77 

Eledona’. 206 . 

agaricola . ib, 

Eleutherata, p. 78 

Elis, Fabricius . 587 1 

interrupta . ib. 

Eliris, Latreille 132 

- ib 1 

Elodes ° 63 

, Latreille 64 
' fuscescens . 63 2 
hemispherica 64 1 
Riophore Gylieas'198°" 
lo yllen. J 
Pheriger: 136 
Paykull 137 
~ aquaticus . 136 1 
elongatus ib, 2 
grandis . ib. 1 
_ longipalpis, Mar- 
sham 138 1 
Marinus © 137 2 
minimus ‘ibe I 
ib. 1 

Elythroptera, p. 76 

Endomychides, pe 116. 
y chides, 

Endomychus bas $36 

Fabricius 337 
boviste . ib. : 
coccinea. 3 
ee + 8 
humeralis ib. 1 
Eaoplium  . =79 


serraticorne i, 2 


Gen. 
weberi . “os 
, 
tion of, p. 57 
history of, p. 58 
importance of the 
science, p. 57 
uses of, ib, 
Epeolus -. 663 
, Fabricius 661 
punctatus ib. I 
variegatus 663 1 
Epistragus . 207 
fuscus . ib, I 
Ephemera . 490 
Linneus 488 
Linnaeus 489 
bioculata 488 1 
Telgata: - 
Ephemerida, p. 137 
pear cera ig ; wn 
picharis . 67 
dasypus ib, t 
Eproboscidea, 162 
Erebida, p. 134 , 
Erebus ~ . 453 
odorus — . ib. 1 
Ertodorus, Walck. 560 
Eriops  . 649 
Erminemoth = 445 6 
Erodia ‘ 640 
640 1 
Erodius A 17s 
. Fabricius 179 
gibbus . 1781 
testudinarius 179 1 
Erotylida, p. 11 
lides, 
Erotylus 325, 
ib. i 
Olivier 93 
gibbosus . 325 1 
Evania . 525 
Olivier . 595 
Fabricius 525 1! 
appendigaster, 
‘Panzer _— ib. 2 
levigata ib. 1 
minuta eT ae ib. s 
Evanie - ib 
lisse, Olivier ib. 1 
Evanides, p.142 
Eucera Daye 668 
Panzer ene 
Scopoli 6 
antenuata 669 
6638 
Eucharida, p. 144 _ 
Eucharis)  . 541 
_ Fabricius 544 
- ascendens 541 1 
serratule 544 1° 
Euchrenus . 568 
‘ us ib. 1 
E a Xe 551 
infidus . ib L 
Euglossa . 675 
dimidiata ib, 2 
Eumenida, p. 153 
Eumenus . 632 
Bane "935 
t Nyetlicn 321 
med oe 
vitis ‘sat 
Euplocamus ¢ 450 
| hihte iger 
upocus, r 
we - ibd 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Gen. Sp po Gen. Sp. Gen, Sp. 
Eurychora «184 Fabricius 158 ' wuficornis . 221 galatea 424.1 
| ciliata. . it. 1 Fabricius 159  tardus, Latr. 23 1 hyperanthus | ib. 2 
Serratule . ib, 1 didymus 159 1 ‘large. 4243 megera ib. 7 
Bustrophus . 201 nasicornis. 1581 Hedychrum . 570 pamphilus. ib. 3 
dermestoides ib. 1 punctatus 160 1 Panzer . 565 pilosell ib. 5 
Eyed butterfly 424 2 Stercorarius 153 1 Hegeter . - 186 semele sxanib. 8 
F 97 = eee at or 1H . 308 
Figites ; 540 Geotrupides, ib. eliophilus, Klug. Marsham 197 
Spinoli 544 Getrida, p. 123 Helobium, Leach . 44 atra . 1 
Scutellaris 5401 > 383 multipunctataum mutica 197 1 
Figure of eight ib. 1 ib, 3 Hister . 130 
moth . 443 9 Ghost, Swift . 4071 Helodes . 319 planus. ib. 1 
Filicornes, p. 137 Gibbium . 11s Phellandrii ib, 1 striatus, Pabr. ib. 3 
Flata’_. . 396 © scotias . ib 1 Violacea. . ib. 2 sulcatus ib. 3 
‘Fabricius 398 Glanville butterfly 422 3 Helophorida, p. 95 unicolor ib. 1 
nervosa ib. 1 Glossostoma, p. 76 Helophorns -. 136 Homoptera, p. 124 
reticulata’ 396 1 yros gS 165 aquaticus . ib 1 Hoplia . 164 
Feenus : 526 maurus ib. 1 elongatus . ib. 2 pulverulenta ib. 1 
ib. 1 Gnathostoma, p. 76 Helops . . 209 Hoplitis . 657 
Fr ¥ 1° Golitthus . 170 Olivier . 192 | Hoplitus, p.84 
Geoffroy 2 pelyphemus ib. 1 Panzer . 100 Horia . 230 
Forbicine cylindrique2 1 Gomphus . lanipes . 209 Latreille 231 
- 1 vulgatissimus ib. 1 Helorus : 561 maculata 230 1 
F p- 77 Gonatopua, Klug. 562 anomalipes ib. 1 * testacea 231 1 
Forficula + S43 Gonepteryx . 420 Hemerobe aquatic noir Hornet sphinx 424 2 
‘Fabricius 345 rhamni ib. 1 512 Humming bird, 

' Marsham = 344 Gonius, Jurine 611 Hemerobida, p. 138 hawk moth 423 1 
auricularia 343 1 Gorytes ‘ 607 Hemerobides, ib. Hybonotus, Klug. 521 
=— 3451 . Hemerobius . 498 ib, 1 

: . ae tatus . - 1 ge red 501 dromedarius m 2 
neglecta - Graphipterus Geer 502 Hydrachna . 

. Joriee or Greasy Po ; ms r4 . 52 
fritillary gibba . 521 
Linneus 573 Green-veined Linneus 505 hermanni 53.1 
Linneus 574 butterfly . 4184 Linneus 506 Hydreana . 138 
Linneus 575  Grylllida, p. 120 Olivier . 500 Illiger 137 
Olivier 576 ~—— Gryllides, ib. bipunctatus 406 1 Latreille ib. 
crassinoda’ 573 2 Gryllotalpida, p. 119 chrysops, Don 499 1 longipalpis 138 1 
herculanea 571 1 - S61 chrysops, Lin. 497 1 margipallens 137 2 
formicarius 1 Org ast opkains. 4003 yasehiue, Leech 140 
. fulv H Leach 
Formicarides, p. 147 Linnaeus 351 hirta .. 4981 luridus ib. 1 
Forrester  . 4361 Linneus 353 lutrarius . 5021 Hydrometra . 361 
Fulgerida, p. 124 Linndus: 354 maculatus, Fa- Fabricius 382 
Fulgora - . 395 Linneus 356 bricius. . 499 1 Fabricius 383 
' Latreille 396 Linneus 356 pectinicornis 501 1 currens 382 2 
 Latreille 397 Linneus 358 pela . 4971 383 1 
Panzer 399 campestris 356 1 Hemiptera, p. 76 rivulorum 382 1 

eandelaria =: 395 2 | didactyla 3511 stagnorum 381 1 
lanternaria 395 1 a em ib. 1 Linneus Hydrophylida, p. 96 
virescens 399 1 357 1 Hemisia . 673  Hydrophylides,p 95 

G religiosus,Scop-350 1 Hepa, Geoffroy 390 Hydrophylus 142 

Galerita . 35 subulatus 358 1 - 487 Rotahens 136 

Fabricius = 34 Viridissima 354 1 Schrank 439 Marsham 137 

Americana 35 1 vulgaris . 3501 hectus + ib. i Marsham 138 

; se 312  #Gymnoptera, p. 76 humuli. . ib. Marsham 139 

‘Latreille 313  Gymnopleurus 146 mappa. ib. 2 Marsham 140 

alni . ib. 2 flagellatus re 1 Heriades . 654 ; Marsham 141 

‘ nigricornis, Gyrinus. . . truncorum ib. Marsham 143 
’ Latreille L* = p natator : < 1 Herminia . 7 ‘ caraboides _ 1 
‘tanaceti . yrodroma, Kl proboscidalis elongatus 36 2 
Galerucida, p. 114 H ~ Hesperia . 430 impressus 137 1 
Galgulus «+ 8387  Halictus - 646 comura « ib. 1 longipalpis 138 1 
oculatus ib. 1 sexcinctus ib. 1 linea + 4 . luridus . 4 : 

Galleria . Haliplus  « 54 malve . piceus . 

alvearia ib. 1 impressus . ib. 1 paniscus . ib. 6 picinous «= M41 1 

Gasteruption, Latr. 526 Hallomenus . 211 sylvanus ib. 2 Hydroporus 61 
Gate keeper butter- ' Panzer 214 tages. ib. 3 fusculus ib. L 
cole, ior Sccmeidies: irate, reed 2 Xb 1 

* ib, . 

{Haworth 465 } : ib. 1 Heteroceros « 134 . 53 

' “Haworth 456 micans . 2141 marginatus ib. 1 Hylacetus . 76 
' \ Hubner 460 = Haltica ‘ 315 Heteromera, p. 100 dermestoides' ib. 1 

'.°°Hubner 461 oleracea . ib. 1 Heteroptera, p. 120 Hyleus .: 640 

dolabraria 457 2 testacea . ib. 2 Hexodon _. | 161 Latreille 641 
Tunaria «=, = ib. 1 s~Harpalus . . @3..:' reticulatum ib, 1 florisomnis 653 1 
Geometrida, p. 134 Latreille 23 Himatidium . 309 maxillosus ib. 1 
Gcorissus =. 135 Latreille 20 leayanum ib. 1 sexcinctus 646 1 
pygniaus «ib, 1 Latreilie 21 WHipparchia + 424 spiralis.» 648 1 

Geotrupes . 160 leucopthalmus 20 1 blandina ibs 4 Hylesinus 268 


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ENTOMOLOGY. 


Ca. , ) Gen. §) ) Gen, Sp.» Gen, Sp. 
éifformis ay . emarginatus 25 . Fabricius 278 Mastagus, Hoff. 116) 
pilipes «671 1 Ligniperday Herbst 270 canaliculatus 264 1 ! . palpalis ib 1 
lL sthrobium 103 © eapusinus «ib. 1 crenatus 278 1 Meadow brown but- 
clongatum seb 1 Lime hawk-moth 431 2 _ histeroides 276 1 || terfly - 4245 
: rufcorne «Ib. 1 Limenitis.. . 425 jugiantis 277 2 Meal beetle —* 
Tron prominent moth Latridius ©. 281 Fabricius 2684 | Medamoptera,p. 
minutus © «ib. 1 camilla. ib, 1 Lyda' . +...» 519  Megacephala 10 
Teocerus, Miiger 286 poreatue . ib. 1 Limnebins, Leach 14l erythrocephala ib. 1 carolina — ib. 2 
Jesus, Fabrictas ‘ sr picious —. ibe 1 Lygwus . 3.8 —carolineysis ik 2 
Latreilie 30 —Limbephilus,Leach478 Wolff . . 369 . senegalensis © ib. 1 
Latreiile $1 rhombica . ib. 1 bef " ay : paper = ‘ 
Kentish glory = - atricapilla’ . ib 1 Limoius, Mulicr 132 ("). ceed centune 
Knot-grass, com- i eyanecephala. 20 | Volckmari> ib, 1 apterus . 368 1 Megalopus _. 302 
mon . 454 quadrimaculataS2 1 Liparus 257 vagans. . 370.1 nigricornis' ib, 1, 
Ledra ° 404 germenus . ib, 1 Lymexylon . 77 Megatoma .. 125 
Fabricius triguttatus . ib. 2 Fabricius 76 Herbst. —-124 
Leistus, Frelich 45 Liris 8 66 Fabricius ha] nigra ss ib. J 
Labidura, Leach 345 Lema . 306 Fabricius 612 abbreviatum ib, 1 -undatum 125 1 
Pabricius 315 Fabricius 613 flavipes wr S7 undulatum ib J 


merdigera . 306 1 ruficornis - 606 1 navale «A721 Mi cottomiiac a 


Leoides . 203 = Lithosia . 447 ~~ Lyrtops . 613 np % 
cea - ibd complanas ib 2 | tricolor . ib. I cephalotes ib. 1 


pi 
Lepidoptera, p. 76 frrorata & ib. 4 Lystra ° 402 Megilla .. 672 
Linavcnen quadra’ =. ib, Ls | _ reticulata ib 1 ‘Fabricius. 647 1 
e 1 rubricollis.. ib. 8 Lytta . 234 curvipes 1. ib © 
Fabricius? . 3 = Livia . 409 Marsham 223 pilipes . . 671 1 
Linneus «2 juncorum 407 1 antherina ib. 1 rotundata 672 1 
polypodu? Fabr.3 1 Lixus pried 28g. "1 fusca». i IP Melandrya . 218 
polypoda, Linn 2 1 Fabricius 261 vesicatoria 224] — serrata. ib 1 
saccharina, Lin. 1 1 barbirostris~. ib. 1 M Melandryda, p. 104 
saccharina, Vil. 2 1 paraplecticus' 255 2 Machilis . . 2 Melasis . ... 89 
Lepismida, p 76 sulcirostris . ib. L polypoda, Lat. 2  buprestoides ib. 1 
Locusta «| 354 Macbleg Harbet:sivI85 i 
Leptocerides, p. I36 viridissima ib. 1 . rugosa . b in j 
: 475 Locustides, p. 120 Macrocephalus 378.) ‘histrio. .. 666 1 
interruptus. ib..1 Lomechusa «. 114 i pone “A _ _ histrionica_ ot 1 
Leptopus  . = 385 bipunctata . ib. 1 livier )  * punctata . 667 1 
+ 300 Lophyrus  .) 517 cimicoides 78.1, Melipona -. 679 
Fabricius 239 pint «. ib 1 latirostris 2421 © favosa, . ibl 
298  Loricera, Latreille 40 ‘‘scabrorus. 243 Lb Melitwa . . 422 
»  Latreille» 301 ' \ gnea $ ib. 1 Macrocera «+ 669 . artemis 422 4 
Marsham 305  Lucanida, p. 100 antenuata ibe fy) | ocinxias sD S 
elongata . 3001 Lucanides,ib. ©. lossum ss 4833. dictynna ss ih & 
inquisitor . 301 1 Luecanus- ~ 175 steliatarum ib. 1 | eupbrosyne- ib, 1 
micans & 3051 - De Geer 174 - (291 lucing =. ib 6 
rostrata . 239 1 Linneus | 176 longimanus 291 1 silene. . 2 
simplex . 305 2 Marsham 157 Malachius aa) b-78 Melitta © «i. 
Lepturida, p. H3 Pallas . 152 @neus .. | 751 - Kirby 
Lethrus 2 182 Panzer. + 173 | Mallow skipper 430 4 ‘Kirby (643 
Fabricius 172 Schreibers 172  Malthinus ©. 71 ee 644 
aneus = ib. 1 weneus » ib Ll | — collaris - b4 _ Kirby. 645 
cephalotes 152 1 apterus . »152 1 flavus .. ib} 3 © Kirby | 646 
Lestes . 486 caraboides 17441 | ib. 2 chrysura - 644 2 
Lestiva panctulata 109 1 cervus.. 175 1 ruficollis ib. 1 ‘fodiens . 6402 
Leucospis . 542 cylindricus 157 L Manica, Fabricius 575 gibba . 6451 
wld $b. interruptus 176 1 Jurine. 576 _  swammerda- 
Libelloides, Scheeff. 496 Luperus + © '814 = Maniola, Schon 4245 > - mella.. 64221 
Libellula - 497 Frelich 100 M . ; tricincta 641 
Donovan 481 flavipes . 3141 maxillaris ® 1) Mellinus . « 624 
Latreilie ib. rufipes . ibs 2 maxillosa +» ib Ll | Fabricius 607 
Linneus 482 Lycena « 428 Mantis ben 350° Fabricius 608 
Linnewus 483 Adonis. . ibe oT! Fabricius 503 Panzer 605 
Linneus 485 Alsus- 4) ib. 12 ‘Linneus ©3487) raficornis «= 624 1 
mnea. . 4801 Argiolus © ib. 13. Linneus 349 Melliturgia ©. 670 
annularis 4811 Argus. . ib 9 Linneus ©» 350 | clavicornis ib, i 
boltoni, Don. ib. 1 Artaxerxes ib.11  / mendica .~ 349 1 ‘ Melée o way 88S 
cancellata . 479 4 Chryseis ih 2 oritoria © . 350 1° . Linneus 332 
conspurcata = ib. 2 corydon ib 6 pagana » 603 1 Linneus 234 
depressa . ib. I cymon ibs 14) | {persas sib LY Linneus 287 
Donovani . ib. 6 dispar ib, 1) -religidsa .. «350 1 _ -Linnzus 222 
forcipata, Don. 482 1 dorylas ib. 8 | siccifolia, Don. 348 1 afer ©.» (2322 
grandis =. 483 1 phlaas ib 4 Mantispa. «© 603  monoceros 222 1 
quadrimacu.- rubi /.. ib) &! pagana. . ib. 1 schefferi 227 1 
lata + 6793 vi ib -S Mantispides, p. 139) = vesicatoria §=—- 234 3 
Scotica’ «ib. T Lycanidm, p. 129 "Marbled butterfly 424 1 Meloida, p. 105 
Vulgata’ «ibs 5 Lycoperdina " » 397 Masaris . . eo} ‘| Melolontha .. 168 
vulgatissima 9482 1 ‘immaculata ib 1) Jurinés) Fabricius) 162 > 
Libellutida, p. 136 ‘ bovista =. 4b 1 ‘apiformise: 638 1 =) Fabricius 0 
L.ibelulides, ib. "  Lyctus +. 276 vespiformis. 639 1 -. Babr 
Licinws = 25 | Pabricius 277 = Masarides; po S#. >! ‘Fabricius 


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Gen. Sp. 
Neuronia . 508 
‘Leath, p. 136 
_ nebulosa * 508 L 
Nenroptera, p. 76 
~  - Linnzeus, p. 136 
Nilio i 217 
* villosa” . ib 1 
Nirmides, p. 78 
Nirmus, Hermann. 7 
"4s ¥ 
Nitela : 618 
ib. 1 
Nitidulas . 95 
Latreille 96 
Olivier 99 
Rossi . 94 
bipustulata 95 1 
hirta . 941 
’ linearis + 961 
Nitidulida, p. 89 
Noctua é 454 
Linneus 437 
batis é 454 
camelina ib. 
chrysitis ib. 
festuce . ib. 
fimbria . ib. 
fraxini . ib. 
hecta~ . 487 2 
humuli «+ ib. 1 
janthina 454 
Noctua Ligustri ib, 
maura heat | 
™Meticulosa ib. 
nupta . ib. 
Orbona” . ib. 
pacta . ib. 
palping . ‘ib 
pisi é ib. 
promissa ‘ib. 
pronuba ib. 
psi . ib. 
rumicis . ib. 
sponsa » ib 
tanaceti . ib. 
verbasci «ib, 
Noctuida, p. 134 
Noctuides, ib. 
Nocturnia, p. 131. 
Nola . 467 
palliolatus ib. 1 
Ni ay 64AT 
difformis ib. 2 
diversipes ib. 1 
Nomada~ . 662 
Latreille 645 
gibba. ib. I 
ruficornis 662 1 
schottii . 6641 
Nonpareil, Clifden 454 1 
Nosodendron . 131 
fasciculare ib. 1 
Noterus é 50 
‘crassicornis ib. 1 
Nothiophilus . 12 
aquaticus . ib. 1 
biguttatus ib. 2 
Notoclea ° $16 
Notonecta + 392 
Linnzus 393 
glauca « 1 
striata. i 
Notonectida, p. 124 
Notonectides, p. 124 
Notoxus . 222 
ib. 1 
Nymphala, Schrank 
‘ 468 
Nymphales - 425 
Latreille 426 
camilla + 4251 
tris . 426 1 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


* Gen. Sp. 
N: . 608 
spinosus «+ ib I 
Oo 
Ochthebius = 1387 
marinus «= ib. 2 
s ib l 
Odacantha ax! 3ST 
"  melanura ib. I 
Odonata, Fabr. p, 136 
Odentocerum’ 476 
griseum - ib 1 
Odontomachus, Lat- 
reille - 5 
Odontostoma, p. 76 
- 9 
europeus ib. 1 
phalceratus 630 1 
spinipes - 631 1 
@demera - 238 
ceruleaa - ib. lL 
Gdemerides, p. 106 
~ 232 
afer - ib. 1 
strides, p. 162 
0 - 96 
thoracica ib. 1 
Oides - S11 
bipunctata ib. 1 
Omalisus . 68 
saturalis ib, 1 
Omalium ‘ . 108 
rivulare ib. 1 
Omalus, Jurine 563 
Omaphron ° 46 
' limbatum ib. 
Omoptera, p. 76 
Leach, p, 124 
Onitis > 149 
sphinx » ib I 
150 
vacca ‘ ib. 1 
Opatrum - . 193 
Fabricius 185 
Illiger 192 
Marsham 206 
agaricola ib. 1 
femorale . 192 1 
femoratum ib. 1 
griseum 185 1 
Ophion . 531 
Fabricius _ib. 
. 92 
mollis . ib. 1 
Orange tipt butterfly 
418 5 
Orneodes, Latreille 474 
ib. 1 
- ees oan 
chlorotica ib, 1 
Orthoptera, p. 76 
Latreille, p. 118 
Latreille, p. 119 
Latreille, p. 120 
Oryetes  . 158 
nasicornis ib. 1 
Oryssus > 522 
coronatus ib. 1 
vespertilio ib. 1 
Osidromus . 14 
Osmia ° 657 
Dicornis « 6571 
ceruleseens ib. 2 
eornuta , + ibd 
Osmylida, p. 138 
Osmylus . 499 
maculatus ib. 1 
Saapmeyess stages 
sambucaria’ = ib. 1 
. 665 
flaveseens. ib. 1 


Oxybellus , 
uniglumis 619 1 
Oxyporus 106 
: Fabricius 111 
’ Fabricius =112 
chrysomelinus ib. 1 
Tufipes . W111 . 
rufus . 100 t 
Oxytelus ©. 147 
carinatus ib. 1 
Pecilia, Schrank 464 
Pederus . 104 
Gravenhorst 
; 103 
Olivier 105 
bicolor « 108 2 
elongatus ib. I 
riparius 104 1 
Pezlobius ; 63 
Hermanni ib. 1 
Patrobius,.Leach 3 
maritimus ib. 1 
Painted lady butterfly 
423 2 
Palarus ° 611 
flavipes ib. 1 
Pamphilius . 879 
erythrocephalus 
$17 1 
Panageus ss 39 
erux-major ib. 1 
Panorpa 492 
Linneus 491 
Linneus 493 
com - . 491 1 
communis 492 I 
tipularius 493 J 
Panorpida, p. 137 
Panorpides, ib. 
Panurgida, p. 156 
Panurgus' . 649 
lobatus - ib t 
Papilio 416 
Adonis - 428 7 
Adyppe 421 3 
Zgeria » 4248 
Aglaia =. 421 2 
Alsus - 42812 
Antiopa 423 3 
Apollo + 4171 
Argiolus 428 13 
Argus « ib @ 
Artaxerxes ib.11 
Artemis 422 4 
Atalanta 423 1 
betula « 4271 
Blandina 424 & 
brassiex 418 2 
C-album 423 7 
Camilla » 425.1 
cardamines 418 5 
cardui . 423 2 
Chryseis . 428 2 
Cinxia « 422 3 
Coruma . 43801 
Corydon . 428 : 
crategi + 418 
Cymon . 428 14 
Daplidice 418 
Davus . +424 
Dictynna = 5 
dispar . 1 
Dorylas . ib ®& 
Euphbrosyne 422 1 
Galathea 424 1 
Hero . 424 
Hipothoe, Don.428 1 
Hyale . 4191 
Hyperanthus 424 2 
Janira, Lin, ib, 6 


Icarus, Lewen.428 8 


Gen, Sp. Teidex. 
620 nn 


170. 
lin. aaead 
BS eenty aes 
Is *. 428 
. ee 
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ENTOMOLOGY, 


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Cen. Gen. ’ Gen. Sp. + 
i me nts ig yg 
96 ’ , 
95 460 1 Peres: 2 175» Prionida, p. 12. 
a rei Platygaster a ange 1 
Pemphredon 623 quercifolia ee | ON i 
Fabricius 620 quereus 441 t raficornigs, ib. 1 coriariugs 290 1 
Fabricius 622 virula - 4441 Platyptericida, p, 134 _ longimanus 291 1 
minutus ib. 1 Phalenida, p. 134 Platypteryx, 463 ~~ Pristiphora _ 895 
tibialis . 620 1) Phalenides, p. 134 _Latreille 464 testaceas $15! 
unicolor 623 1 Phasma ‘ compressa ib. 1 Pro-apis, De Geer 
Pentamera, p. 78 Fabricius 347 cultraria 483. 3. Proboscidea, p. 161 _ 
Pentatoma . 366 Lichtenstein348 » falcataria ib. 1 Procris . 
Latreille 363 rossil o ith lacertinaria. ib. 2 Statices jb. I 
Latreille 365 violaceus, 461 Platypus. Proctotrupes —~ 4 
accuminata 263 1 Phasmida, p. 119 cylindricus — ib. 1 brevipennis ib. 1 
bidens . 3641 Philanthys . 611 — Plesia, Jurine 587" ~—Proctotrupides, p. 145 
prasinus ib. 2 Fabricius, 626 = Plojaria’ = ~~, 376 ~— Prominent aspen 443 14 
Pentatomida, p, 121 Fabricius 627 '  Wagebunda ib 1 iron. ib, 12 
Pentatomides, ib, coronatus ib, 1 Pneumora  . 355 pale... 454 
Pp ~» $03 flavipes 611 t Podalirius  . 671.- Pp - 43.14 
Fabricius 597 Phileucus é 661 Podium : 602 swallow ib, 15 
Fabricius 598 Kirbyanus, Lat. ib. | rufipes ib} 1 Proneus ..° 599) - 
Iiliger 600 punctatus ib} 1 Podura . . 4 @neus . 1 
Illiger 603 Phileurus . 159 Linneus 5 Prosopida, p. 154 25> 
Palisot de dydimus 159 1 atra . ib} 1 Prosopis =. 
Beauvois 599  Philopotamus 1 , Viridis . ib} 1 Proso og 1 
arenaria 197 3 Leach 477 plumbea 41 Proteirus  . 4110 
flavipennis. $98 1 Phloitribus . 269 Podurebrun enfume 5 1 brachypterus ib, 1 
maxillosa ib. olee 4 1 YS ~ : Psa «94 
Pensylvanica. ib. | Phryganea « n ronde Psammodius . 155 
aaean 593 1 * Linnefi® 508 De Geer ib, - : $. ib. 1 
Perilampus «549 Linneus 509 grise commune 41  Pselaphides, p. 116 _ 
violaceus ib. 1 bicaudata 509 I ib. uphus - 338 
Perla : 509 grandis 477 1 plumbee 41 — Helwigii «116 E 
De Geer 505 interrupta. 475 1 DeGeer ib. , impressus 888 1 
Geoffroy 508 rhombica 477 1 verte aut yeux Podh' chet <td eae 
509 1 Phryganides, p. 136 rT oe _ Panzer 622 
Perlarides, p. 139 \ Phymata  . 379 ‘ 636 _ Panzer - 561 
Petalochirus . | 374 . crassipes ib. 1 ib. 1 Schrank 519 
tus ib. 1, Physaphida, p. 137, soa ak. . 591 3 ater. == 609 I 
Phalacrurida, p..116 Physaphus = - ydun pallipes . 622 L 
Phalaerus  . 333 coats ib. 1 Polyergus + 572° Psilus |. 558 
bicolor ib. 1 Pieris, Latreille 418 rufescens ib. 1 -cornutus . ib L 
Phaleria + 199 Schrank 417  Polyommatus 428 - Psoa gitar” 
cadeverina ib. 1 Schrank 419 .  Alsus . i me ae viennensis. - ib, 
Phalana os , 455 _, Schrank 420 _ Argus. ib. 9 Psocida, p. 139. 
Fabricius - 456 brassicae 418 2 Corydon + ib. 6 Psocides, ib. 
Fabricius 461 cardamines ib 5 . Phiwas . ib. 4 Psochus . - 506 
Fabricius 463 crategi ib, 1 robi ss ib. 5 Fabricius 507. 
Latreille 457 Daplidice ib, virgaureee ib. 3 bipunctatus 506 ¥ 
Latreille 458 Hyale - 419 1 Pompilida,p. 149 — fatedicus - ape 
Linneus 437 Pieris napi . 418 Pompilides, ib, pulsatorius - ib. ¥ 
Linneus 435 ~ ‘ ib. 3 Pompilus . 594 Peylla ., 408 
Linneus 439 rhamni «4201 Fabricius 608 ani «iD 
Linneus 440 sinapis «(418 6 Fabricius 614 —_Psyllides, p. 125 
Linnaus 443 Piezata, p. 140 Jurine . 593. Prerochilus . 630 
Linneus 444 Pimeia’ 180 1 Jurine . 625 - phalevatus ib, 1 
Linpeus 448 Fabricius 181 Spinoli . 601 Pteromalus —. 
Linnaws 449 Herbst 190 annulatus 594 I tortricis, + ib 1 
Linnwus 451 Olivier 182 bicolor . ib. 3 Pteronus - . 515 
Linneus 452 Olivier 183 corniculus 601 1 Jurine 517 
Linnaeus 454 Olivier 184 dispar . 5944 © testacea - 5151 
Linneus 459 Paykull 135 » unicornis 625 1 Pteropharites, La- 
Linnaeus 460 Panzer 185 plumipes $94.5 — treille, p. 135 
Linneus 462 Rossi . 188 viaticus ib. 2 Pterophorus + 478 
Linneus 465 bipynctata 1801 Ponera a § Sy a . 
Linnwus carinata ie _ _ chelifera ae didactylus - 473 2 
Linnawus 469 ciliata. . crassinoda 2 hexadactylus 472 ~ 
_ Lioneus 471 *  gibbata 190 1 Pontia =. 418 ee ae 
Linneps 472 glaber . 1821 brassicae ib. 2 Pthirus =) 
Lipnaus 473 pygmaa 135 1 cardamines ib. 5 inguinalis. = ibe t 
Linneus 474 reflexa .. 1831 erat - ib 1 Ptilinus + 19 
aescpli + no 1 _ striata 181 H daplidice . > 4 _» Fabricius 66, . 
cossus 1 variolosa 185 napi . . » , Allige. ~ 
Degeerella 452 1 Pimeliades, p. 99 - ib S davis +. ibd 
dispar . 4431 Pimpla .. 531 sina + ib 6 | pectinicornis 119 1 
evonymella 448 1 Fabricius’ b. , Poplar hawk moth 481 3 Ptinus ©). = | 11%» 
hectus,Gmelin437 3 Pine hawk moth 4326. Potomaria . 1 Fabricius 118. 
a 4741 e 616 Pou bumain dela, , |) Latreiile 121, 
mappa, 437.2 » Jurine 601. thte, De Geer 7 2 Marsham — , 
'  margaritaria 4551, eiumable A hi ducorps, ->. Marsham 119» 
pavonia-minor, «> niger, Latr. 616 1 at boleti tty 41 
Lingeus 4401 Pit » 681 » Geof, 7 2 elegans, « i172 


ENTOMOLOGY, a7 


Fndex, - Gen. Sp. > Gen. Sp. 28 #2 Gen. Sp. ~ Gen. Sp. >. Gen. Sp. Index, 
——— fur» 117 1 Ricinus cornicis. » 7 1 pS Ee 168." -pectinicornis 601 1 Spectrum - 3470 yee 
ib, 2 Risophalus, + 31° | | pumilus 154 1 Sepidium =~ +» 189 Scopoli 431 
mollis - 121 2 : | atricapillus | ib. 1 punctatus 1601 | tricuspidatum ib. 1 | Scopoli 432 
. — pectinicornis 119 1 Rophites - - 652 '» tufipes - 151 1 Serroceros, Klug. 119 ~. Stoll 346 
_  seotias - 1181 quinque-spino-— .  sabulosus 156 1 Serropalpus. - 213 Stoll - $46 
tesselatus . 121 1 8@. « ib 1 _sacer,  - 145 1 Illiger 2i1 7 atropos, Scop. 432 9 
testaceus,Mar.117 1 Rutela .- 162 | scheefferi 471 - Illiger 215 ocellata, Scop. 431 1 
+, 100° ~~ chrysis = ib 3 solstitialis 163 2 caraboides ib. 1 * populi, Scop. ib. 3 
rufescens .« ib. 1 lineola + ib. 2 | | Spiniger, Mar. 153 1 humeralis - 211 1 rossii + 347 1 
Pulex ‘ 415 -punctata - ib. 1 ‘stercorarius, “ micans) + 214 1 \ tilie +.) 431 2 
irritans . ib. 1 Rynchites - 250 - Linneus ib. 1 © Striatus = 213 1 Sphecodes ~ » 645 
| penetrans ib. 2 Bacchus + ib. 1 stercorarius, Sesia: 433 gibbus - ib, I 
Punaise d’eau score .' Rynchium - 629 Marsham ibe 1 ’ Latreille 434 Sphzridides, p. 96. 
pion aquatique 390 1 | | Kuropeus + ib. L Typheus 154 1 apiformis. - ib. 1 Spbheridium - 144 
d'eau scorpion ; Rynchophori, p.106. vitis -~ 1633 bombyciformis 433 2 Fabricius 131 
allongé - $91 1 Rynchophorus, Herbst, t « vacca» .» 150 1 crabroniformis 434 2 ~ Fabricius | 330 
Purple edged. cop- > : 262 Scarites . - 15 fusiformis, 433 3 Olivier . 203 
eo. 42¢ 2 Ryngota, Fabr. p. 124, ’ Fabricius 16 stellatarum ib. 1 Olivier 831 
emperor 426 1 Ryzophagus  - 276 arcuarius ib. 1 tipuliformis 434 4 fasciculare 131 1 
high-flier - ib. 1, histeroides_ ib. 1 gibbus .- ib. 2 Setoura , « 1 . tuficolle. - 331 1 
» chairstreak . 427 3 ' ; ; gigas - 15 1 Siagona . « 19 Scarabeoides 144 1 
Pyralida, p. 135 ° afb ae Scaurus, - 188 rufipes + 191 Sphzrophyx, Hoft- 
Pyralides, jb. Sy Sagaris .-  « 688 striatus - ib 1  Sialida, p. 139. mansegg - 636 
: Pyralis *. 469 § — cultellator ~~ ib. 1 Sceliphron, Klug. 603 — Sialis ns 502 | Spercheus +. -139 
_ Hobnee 462 Sagra . - . = 304  Schlerodermus 583° niger. = ib. 1 Sphecida, p. 149. 
Hubner 467 femorata ib. 1 | domesticus ib. 1 Sigalphus. = | 536 —‘Sphecides, ib. 
Hubner. 468 = Sagrida, p. 113. Scirtes - 64 irrorator = ib, 1 Sphex - 598 
Latreille 465 Salda, Fabricius | 384 hemispherica ib. 1 Sigara - 393 - Christus. 600 
Latretle 466 Salius, Fabricius 594 - 589 striata. + ib. 1 Cuvier + » 617 
_ dentata ib. 1 Salpingides, p. 106. Fabricius 606 Silpha % 96 De Geer 580 
- 4671 Salpingus - 241 Rossi. - 587 Linnwus . 95 DeGeer 597 
pinguinalis 469 1 _ roboris - ibl abdominalis 589 3 Linnaeus 193 De Geer = 624 
Pyrausta, Schrank 468 a 293 hortorum - ib. L Marsham 328 Linpeus . 525 
Pyrochroa - 222 ' lineatocollis ib. 1 interrupta ib. 2 obscura «96 4 Linneus 543 
coccinea - ib 2 oculata ~ 2924 tridens - ib 4 russica + ==. 328 1 Linneus p64 
,-rubens, -» ib, 1 Sapyga -; - 590 Scolida, p. 148. sabulosa, Lin. 193 1 Linnzus © 594 ” 
Pytho, p. 103 _ sex-punctata ib. 1 Scolides, ib. thoracica + 96 3 Linneus — 608 
+ gerulens - 210 I Sapygides, p. 149. Scolytus - 267 _—Silphida, p. 83. j Linnaeus. 620 
- 672 Fabricius = 46 Silphides, ib. Panzer 561° 
rotundata jb. 1 4 Fabricius 269 Silphoides, Herbst 279 Panzer . 603 
Ranatra, po124 Sarrotrium - 197 Olivier 241 Silvanus - 282 Rossi - GOT 
linearis, - . 391 1 muticum ib. 1 Olivier 265 frumentarius ib. 2 Scheffer 614 
a 504 Saturnia - 440 Olivier 268 unidentatus ib. 1 Scheffer . 619 
Linneus 500 pavonia-minor ib. 1 Panzer 266 Simaethis ~ 466 : Scopoli $22 
Scopoli 503 - Latreille 424 crenatugs - 268 1 dentana- ib 1 Villers . 590 
cornutus 500 1 ib. 1 cylindricus 266 1 Sinodendron ~ 157 Villers 608 
mantispa - 503 1 Hyperanthus ib, 2 = 2671 . cylindricum — ib, 1 Villers 610 
6041 Janira - ib. 6 ligniperda 264 1 Siphonostoma, p. 76. Villers 612 
terfly > > 423 rim yp - ib 5 lex - 2691 Jurine . | 524 anomalipes 561 1 
Redurius += 373 Seaphidiy - 98 typographus 265 1 Linnaeus | 520 crmebdlomten 525 2 
Latreille 374 Marsham 99 . Scopula - 468 Linnaeus 521 ' ) armata. - 597 1 
personatus 373 1 agaricinum | ib. 1 Scorpion aquatique Linnaeus 523 flavipennis 4938 1 
Rhagionides, p. 1 1 quadrimacula- & corps. allonge, camelus = 521 1 . spirifex, Lin: 603 1 
um - Sol tum + 981 Geoffroy - 3911 Columbe < 524 2 spirifex, Panz. ib. 2 
* inquisitor ib. 1 Scaphisonia - 99 Scorpion aquatique emarginatus 523 3  Sphingides, p..130.  - 
Rhamphus - 252 agaricinum _—ib. 1 & corps ovale, fuscicornis 524 1 Sphinx .- 9482 
4 flavicornis ib. 1 Scarabaoides, P- 97. Geoffroy - 3901 | gigas, Linnaus523 1 Linneus 431 
| Rhina - 261 Scarabeus 153 Scotch argus butter- juvencus «ib, 4 Linnxus . 433 
barbirostris . ib, 1 Fabrictus 154 fly «x 4244 mariscus « ib, lL ! Linnzus 434 
ig Rhinomacer + 240 Lipnevs 145 = Scotias, Czempin- noctilio + ib. 4 Linbeus 435 
. Geoffroy 261° Linneus 148 sky + lls psyllius = ib. 2 Linnwus 436 
: : . brentoides 101 1 Lipneus  1él | gibbus - ibe t Pygmina -. 5202 * apiformis «434 1 
Rhinosimus. - 24] Linneus 157 Scraptia ° 221 spectrum = 523 3 » Atropos » - 432 9 
: -roboris + ib. 1 Linneus 159 fusca - ib. 1 Sirtes, Fabricius 378 chrysorthaa, 
he Ripiphorus . 224 5 Linnaeus 162 Scydmznides, p, 92. Fabricius 379 Donovan 434 3 
it | paradoxus + ib 1 Marsbham 164 Scydmanus - 116 crassipes ~ | ib. 1 ‘ convolyuli | .432 7 
Rhynchenus. - 256 Marsham = 166 Godarti - ib. 2 manicata ~ 378 1 Elpenor ib. 2 
: Clairville 260 Marsham 168 Hellwigii ib. 1 Sisyphus 147 Euphorbie — ib, 5 
» Fabricius 257 ’ 71 tellera = ri ib. 1 filipendule 435 1 
| Fabricius 258 | Olivier « 149 Latreille . 1 Sitaris « 237 fuciformis, 
_ Fabricius, 259 ~ auratus «. 711 Latreille 362 apicalis fib, 1 Gmelin 433 3 
abietis - 256 2 cylindricus 157 1 nigrolincata 361 1 Smerinthus - 431 faciformis,Lin, ib. 2 
P aint . + 2601 148 1 sexmaculata 360 1 ocellata - ib. tl ¢ . galii - - 4 
Erysimi . 258 1 fasciatus . 168 2 Scutellerida, p. 121. Populi - § ib 3 ligustri «ib. 8" 
4 _ fusco-macula- foreatus, Mar. 153 1 Tilia ib. 2 | Jineata - ib 1 
Fl ~ tus, Fabr.» 257 1 . horticola 1634 |. biverrucata ib. 1 Smyntburus 4 ocellata -« 431 1° 
ni » «5 2563 longipes 167 1 - 502 Uscus . + ib. 1 pinastri - 432 6 
schrophularia 259 1 lunaris = --:148 1 Fabricius 501 viridis = ib. 2 \ populi 431 3° 
thapsi . - ib, > mauras - 165 6 Fabricius 508  Spalangia - 548 porcellus 432 2. 
{ [tortrix 256 1 melolontha 163 1 Fabricius 509 nigra . * ib 1 | (wtatices. «486 1 
verbasci - 259 . mutator, Mar. 153 1 lutrarjus 502 1 Sparasion — « 655): stellatarum 433 1° 
Ricin de la Corneille 7 1 nasicornis 158 1 marginatus 509 1 frontale - ib, 1 tiie  . 431 2 


— ee ee ee ee ee 


i; 


if 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


- 2 Gen. Sp. ; Gen. Sp. > Gen. Sp. 3 Gen. Sp. 
Tclephorus . = 70 + 399 pomana , 4653 phalerata 6301 
Olivier 7 virescens ib. 1 Toxicum . 196 spinipes . 631 1 
Scheffer . 75  Tetramera, p. 106. richesianum — ib. 1 unigiumis 619 1 
fuses. 201 . Trachelus . 520 vulgaris =. 637 2 
minimus 13 ectomaculatus, ib. 1 Trachusa  . 642 — zonata . 6341 
Telias + 556 Telratoma . 202 Trathys - . 57 = Vespida, p. 158 
brevicornis ib. 1 coy oem ib. 1 | ‘minuta -. ib. 1 Vespides, ib, 
Tenebrio © « 194° Tetrix, 358 Trachyseclis « 204  Viuppo. +9 583 
DeGeer isl - Mb1 aphedioides. ib. 1 Ulleiota . 
DeGeer 197 = Tetyra - 861 Trechas - 24 ho 1 
De Geer 200 Fabricius 360 meridianas ib. I ete 4 
DeGeer 216 Fabricius 362 Tremex = 524 F p.120 
De Geer © 282 globus ~~. ib. 1 columba =~ ib. 1 Vi + 330 
Fabricius 199 lineata + 861 1 -| | fuscicornis . ib. 1 3311 
Geoffroy 185 neata, Trichius «  :168———dUpis - 193. 
Geoffroy 193 Fabricius — ib. 1 fasciatus. . ib, 2 - ib. 1 
Latreitle 195 Thanasinus . 81 nobilis  . ib 1 Urania . 429 
Lionwus 841 formicarius ib. 1 Trichodes, Herbst, 93 Leilus ; ml 
Linnwus 178 Thecla : 427 apiarius . ib. 1 Uranides, p. 180 ~ 
Linnwus 1} betule . ‘ib 1 Trichoptera, p. 135.: Urocerides, p. 141 
Linnaeus 183 pruni-  . ib. 2 Tridactylus . 352 Uroceros —. $23 
Linnwus = 191 quercus os ibs 8 ib. 1 Latreille 521 
Linnaeus 192 woseus + 127 ~=—s Trigona ° 680 gigas . 5231 
Linnwus dermestoides i, 1 amalthea . ib 1 geese ‘ib..2 
Linnaeus 210 Thysocuris 362 spinipes - . ib. 2 vencus —_ ib, 4 
Marsham 285 globus ib. 1 Triplax . 328 psyllius =, ib. 2 
Marsham 337 Thryps 410 russica = gS E spectrum ib. 3 
. 3371 physapus . ib. 1 Tritoma 9. 327 w 
199 1 Thrypsida, p. 126, ; | Geoffroy 279 _ Wasp hornet : 
ceramboides 195 1 Thymalus ~~ 95 Thunberg 280  — sphinx . 4348 
+ 3361 ferrugineus ib, 1 bipustulata 327 1 White spot brown  __ 
210 1 Thyneus 666 russica, Latr. ib. 1 butterfly + 428 11 
192 1 Thynnus 592  Trochilum,Scopoli,434 White spotted = © 
209 1 dentatus ib. 1 apiforme ib. 1 skipper- . 4302 
mauricanica 285 1 Thysanura, p. 76. Trogosite . Wood argus but- 
molitor . 194 2 Tillides, p/87 Fabricius 286 terfy- . 424 8 
mortisagus ? Tillus 80 Fabricius 304 | Wood leopard >=: 
Linneus. 191 | Olivier . [9 Sulzer . 329 ' moth- . 439 1 
obscurus . 194 1 ambularis, Marsh. bicolor - ib. 1 Wood white but- ; 
rostratus .. 41 1 80 - Ss brunneus 286 1 terfly 4 4343 
Tenebrionida, p. 102, elongatus ib. 1 caraboides 285 1 K- i 
ib. serraticornis 79 1 / mauritanica ib. 1 Xenops . 842 
unifasciata 80 2 | purpurascens 286 1 Peckiii . ib ¥ 
- it Weberi « 792 Trogus ©. 431 | Kossii . ib. 2 
Tenthredines, p. 140. Tinea ‘ 472 = Trox ° 156 Xorydes . 530 
Tenthredinida, Fabricius = 448 sabulosus: ib. 1 indicatorius) ib. 1 
- 12 Fabricius 449 Truxalis + 856 Xyletinus . 120 
Fabricius 513 © Fabricius _ 2 nasutus . ib 1 levis . ib. 1 
Linnwus $10 1 rypoxylon . 617 Xylocopa « i 
Linneus = $11 Hiibner .« 452 ' Fabricius 604 violacea , ? 
Linneus 517 Linnaeus = 412 atratum . 609 Xyphydria « ; 
Linneus 519 Degeerella . 452 3 Tussock, common, 443 $3 camelus sity 1 
516 ‘ e es nut tree ib.10 = air nr a 2 
+ ib flavella . scaree wi. 4 ydrida, p. 142 
613 1 guttella . 4501 Typheus . 154 so x ee 
» 122 ee eee pumilus -s Yponomeuta — me. 
+ 609 nemorum vulgaris. 1 evonymella 
$17 1 pellionelia 451 1 v Ypsolophus, Fab. 472 
S11 1 pineti «471: 1 Vanessa =. 2 428 Z 3 
septentrionalis 524 1 reesella . 4493 Antiopa . ib. 3 Zabrus . 23 
- 5109 vittata . 4722 atalanta . ib 1 tardus - tht 
scrophularie 5121 Tineida, p. 133. : C-album =. ib. 7 Zelus. . 875 
Tentyria - 182 — Tineides,~ ib. , cardui sib 3! longipes 2. 1 
interru ib. 1 Tingis « 380 Io . « ib 4 Zethus . 
Terebrantia, p. 140. - eardui . ib 1 Polychloros ib. 5 cecruleopennis ib. 1 
505 — Tinodes, p. 136, urtica  . ib. 6 Zeuzera . 439 
507 «Tipbia =. S85” Veli scum gp ewsculi . ib. 1 
ib. 1 584 currens » ib. 2 Zonitis « 2.) yo . 
lucifugum 505 1 Fabricius 587 rivulorum ib 1 Fabricius 236 
pulsatorium 07 1 Rossi . 588 Vespa - 637 -(prevusta 235 1 
p» 139. femorata . 585 1 569 vittata «236 1 
120. maculata . 587 1 607  Zophosis . 179 
394 pedestris . 5841 Geoffroy 626 testudinarius ib. 1 
Latreille 406  Tiphides, p. 148, Linneus 543 Zuphium = . 84 
+ 403 = Tipularides, p. 161. Linneus = 605 _ @leus ibe 
Olivier . 407 Tornicus . 265 Linneus 619 Zygena. 435 
hematodes 394 1 typographus — ib. -1 Linnewus 624 Panzer a 
406 1 Tortrix - 465 Linnwus 629 —S fillipendula © 485 1 
sanguinea, Fabr. Hilbner 466 Sulzer . 604 statices 436 1 
3941 chlorana . 465 2 abbreviata 6391 “Zygian = . 9 93 
viridis . 4071 dentana 466 1 crabro «= 687 1 oblonga . V3 1 
Tetigonides, p. 124, fagama «465 1 oculata . 629 1 


- Batre- 


oy 


ENT 


~ ENTRE-Dovnro-s-Mrnuo, the name of one of the 
most 3 provinces of Pi , and so called frona 


; and 

ite mountains, the 
sand, and the val- 
As the inhabitants are extreme- 
ly industrious, the soil is well cultivated, and a system 
of irrigation is carried on to such an extent, that the 
numerous wells obtained by ing, give the 


every tree a vine, which over 
its summit, and the even of the hi 
est oaks. The fields are watered ifici 
which communicate an freshness to the air 


fae 
! 
i 


173 


EN T. 


houses, which are ill built, and have. but one story, 
.The are small and inconvenient, the wik, 
dows have in general no glass, and the floors are so bad 

Their only furniture 


; that one can see 3 
consists dk areeeh weenie ion oan A 


pass called Portela de Homem. The hi 

eee aia Ramee He: cape ge: Caldas, to- 
w ontalégre ; the highest peak, which is between 
3000 and 4000 feet high, is named O Murro de Burra. 


i the ula: 
flesh is much esteemed ; the skin 3d weld ab. cone 


snakes abound in this range ; 
Lacerta agilis of Linnewus, and 


the 
and the v of Covide, appear 
the remains of an old mountain fort, which the inha- 


ruins. . 


Entre- 
Douro-e+ 
Minho.. 


es 


EPA 
ro The princi 
the Douro, the Lima, the Neiva, the Cavado, the Ave, 
&e. allof which run westward into the Atlantic. 

The province contains three cities, 25 towns, 223,495 
houses, and 900,000 inhabitants. of. 

ENYDRA, a genus of plants class 
sia, and order 
p- 312. : ; 

EPACRIS, a genus ref ko of the class Pentandria, 
and order M ia. Borany, p. 141, 170. 

EPACT. See Curonorocy, vol. vi. P- 411. 

EPAMINONDAS, acelebrated Grecian general, was 
born at Thebes in Baotia ; and was descended, by his 
father Polynmis, from the ancient sovereigns of his 
country. He was educated in his father’s house, along 
with Philip of Macedonia, under the Pythagorean phi- 
losopher Lysis ; and, from an early age, devoted him- 
self to the study of philosophy. Nor was he inatten- 
tive to the more ornamental accomplishments ; and par- 
ticularly applied himself to those athletic exercises, 
which at that time formed the chief amusement of the 
Grecian youth. While he was distinguished by the 
most amiable dispositions, and mingled pra F with 

persons of his own e, he was remarkably re- 

am in his manners. io dgake seldom, even to his 
intimate friends; but the few words which he occa» 
sionally uttered were so uniformly pertinent and judi- 
cious, that, when he was only 15 years of age, it was 
eaid of him by Spintarus of Tarentam ; « I never knew 
a man who understood so much, and spoke so little. 
Though thus accomplished and admired, he was one of 
the t citizens of Thebes ; and no solicitations of 
his friends could ever prevail upon him to accept of 
riches, or to alter his frugal mode of life. Anxious to 
correct the luxurious manners of his coun! en, and 
to inspire them with that virtuous spirit, which might 
enable them to maintain their public liberties, he omit- 
ted no opportunity of resisting their dissipated habits ; 
and, when once questioned, at a public festival, why he 
shad appeared in so plain a dress, and with so pensive 
an aspect, he sarcastically replied, “ because I wish, 
that one person may remain to watch over the safety of 
the city, when you are all drowned in wine and de- 


bauchery.” Having attracted the esteem and affection 
of Pelopidas, one of the wealthiest and most illustrious 
of the he inspired his friend with similar sen- 


timents ; and, by their united influence and example, 
they revived among their fellow citizens that love of 
sobriety and virtue, which laid the firm foundation of 
their — eminence. These two friends, having been 
appointed to join the troops, which were sent to the as- 
sistance of the Lacedemonians, in the war against the 
Arcadians, gave the first signal proof of their own mi- 
litary spirit, and raised the character of their country 
among the neighbouring states. At the battle of Man- 
tinea, they sustained with heroic e the hottest of 
the fight, and Pelopidas, having fallen covered with 
wounds upon heaps of slain, the desperate exertions of 
Epaminondas for his rescue, restored the victory to the 
routed Lacedemonians. When the Spartans, a few 
years afterwards, jealous of the rising power of the The- 
bans, had treacherously made themselves masters. of 
their city, and when Pelopidas, with the other exiles, 
had formed a sc e for the liberation of their country, 
Epaminondas, whose obscure station and love of study 
had saved him from banishment, privately seconded the 

with the utmost 


pe na ts ¥ 4° the exe- 
cution plot, openly a) am ie assertors 
of Vie independence of Thebes. Sacrificing his love of 


neipal rivers are, the Minho, : 


Ss 
ygamia Segregata. ied ceaes, tage 


mended a general resistance to the overgrown power of 
the Lacedemonians. The er ty ing excluded the 
Thebans from the league, war was declared against 


‘them as the enemies of Greece. Epaminondas was 
paar yr 104 coon to ae the affairs of Thebes mn 
and, having selected six of the principal citizens as hi 
associates, to whom he gave the ‘ation of Beotarchs; 
or governors of Beeotia, he aaemel with 6000 infantry 
ie 5 small body of cavalry, to op the Liacedemo- 
nian king, Cleombrotus, atthe heed of. 10,000 foot and 
1000 horse. The hostile armies met at Leuctra, a small 
town in Beeotia, B.C. 371. . Epaminondas, by the cou- 
rage with which he inspired his troops, and the new 
plan of attack which he adopted, gained a complete vic. 
tory over double his numbers; and cut off the Spartan 
commander with the flower of his. army. The victo- 
rious chief rejoiced in the exaltation of his country ; but 


declared that his highest personal gratification consisted 
in having ye. ired so great. while his parents - 
were alive. Two years after this memorable success; 


he entered the territories of the Lacedemonians, where, 
for the space of 600 years, an-enemy’s camp had never 
been pitched; and, at the head of 70,000 troops front 
different states, overran all Laconia with fire and sword; 
advanced to the very walls of Sparta, which on one oc- 
casion he had it in his power to destroy ; laid waste its 
suburbs in the sight of its kings, and, having te- 
ly humbled that formidable power in the sight of all 

reece, returned to Thebes with an army crowned 
with victory, and loaded with the spoils of the enemy, 
Entering his native city, which he had raised from the 
lowest humiliation to the height of political greatness, 
he found a factious party prepared to accuse him and 
his colleague of treason against the state, oe baring re: 
tained their office as Beotarchs four months beyond the 
term prescribed by law. An assembly of the ungrate- 
ful e was ready to condemn the two. friends to ca- 


pi ishment, when Epaminondas, anxious to save 
the iit e of 


Pelopidas, acknowledged the breach of the 
law which he had committed, and took upon himself 
the whole of the guilt in having advised the measure; 
« The law condemns me,” he exclaimed. before his 
jadges, “and I consent, if it must.be so, to suffer as 
an example ; but permit me to make this. single re- 
quest. I suffer for having led you into Laconia, where « 
no enemy before you had dared to penetrate ; [suffer 
for having carried into their towns and territories, the 
desolations which they first brought upon our misera~ 
ble country ; I suffer for gaining your victories and en- 
larging your power. Behold the crimes for which I 
am condemned ! let them be engraved upon my tomb, 
that, when posterity shall hear of my punishment; 
they may also be informed of the cause.” _ This speech 


; possession 
time stations at Rhodes and Chios. But the growing 
power of Thebes having excited the jealousy of the 
other states, he was called to make head against a for- 
midable of the Mantineans, Athenians, and 
Lacedemonians. 


to retreat by the re- 
-and his son Aeertr pcg 
then hastened to make a similar attack upon Mantinea ; 
but, contrary to his calculations, found it prepared 


Anxious to retrieve his own fame, 


off by the force of the blow, was left in his body. 
Carried to-his tent, he heard without emotion the de- 


w He first asked his attendants if his buckler 
had saved ; and when it was brought, he 

it to his breast as the ion of his exploits, He 
next i event of the battle ; and, 


para saaaemanirsdhibertipss:.«) Mesto: mers otal 
advise A ee are ude a peace!” One of 
his intimate fri lamenting his death, and -his want 

to revive his name; “ you mistake,” 


175 
and instantly expired, B.C. 363. The glory of his- 


_ measure, their former splendour,. 


EPH 


country perished along with him, and his distinguish- 
ing greatness consists in this, that he inspired an ob- 
scure and se with his own exalted senti- 
ments. He has justly been regarded as one of the most 
distinguished characters that any age or nation has ever. 
produced; and was equally eminent as a philosopher, a 
y ssgre a —— e sak virtuous an See 

‘orn. Nepos; Plutarch’s Lives, Agesil. and Pelop. ;, 
Justin, b. ix.; Pausanias and Xenophon’s henna: 
Greece ; Polybius, b. ix.; Diod. Sic. b. xv. and xvi. ;. 
Anacharsis, vol. ii.; Univ. Hist. vols. v. and vi. ; and 
particularly M. de Folard’s. Life of Epaminondas, §c., 
vol. ii. (q) | 

EPERUA. See Panzera, Botany Index. 

EPHEDRA, a s of plants of the class Dicecia, 
and order Monadelphia. See Borany, p. 339, 

EPHEMERA. See Enromorocy Index. 

EPHESUS, a celebrated city of Ionia, and once the 
metropolis of Asia Minor, is affirmed by Pliny, Justin, 
and Orosius, to have been built by an Amazon, whose 
name also it is sup to bear. It was then possess-. 
ed by the Carians and Leleger; but was occupied by 
Androclus, the son of Codrus king of Athens, who con- 


on vac iancten he 
Beige ain who usurped the sovereign power, and 
who 


ourished before the birth of 
Under his successor Pindarus, who ruled with an au- 
thority equally absolute but with moderation, 
Semmes was Ps by Croesus King LA Lydia, who, 
respect to the tute! goddess e place, re+ 
stored to the citizens heie asia: liberty, and confer 
red upon them numerous marks of his favour. . Pin-. 


have again fallen under the dominion of tyrants. Of 
these, hi has mentioned Ath i , Arig. 
starchus, ias, the last of w was expelled 
by Alexander, w he defeated the Persians on the 
banks of the Granicus, and a democracy established in. 
— After his death it passed into the hands of- 
several of his successors, and J zeae: of Lysima-. 
chus, who caused the ancient city to be ed, and, 
built a new town in a more commodious situation, and 
nearer to the of Diana, which was about seven. 
stadia from the walls of the former. From this period, 
the Ephesians were subject to the kings of Syria, till 
the Romans, when pay eve liberty to the Greek states, 
in Europe, extended same privileges to the Greek, 
colonies in Asia. Reinstated in their ancient rights, 
they became the allies of Rome ; but were afterwards, 
pemeiae by Mithridates of pea to take part with 
im against their protectors, even to massacre, 
without distinction, all the Roman cites ee their 
ates. For this barbarity they were sev punished’ 
by the victorious Sylla, who suffered his iers. to live 
upoh them at discretion, and almost reduced them to 
the heavy contributions which he sapepedts 


_ but by the favour which they experienced from the 


future emperors of Rome, they ina 
enjoyed for many. 


Eperua: 
Ephesus. 


EPHESUS. 


the elm had stood, and the sacred image placed within it. fphesus. — 
This temple seems to have been several times (Pliny “Y= 


many magnificent edifices. 
stituted in honour of Diana, n 
attended so late as the reign of Caracalla. It is cele- 

been the seat of the most flourishin 

i apostle Pau 
for three years, where the evangelist John 
resided during the latter of his life, where Ti- 
mothy was the first bi Under the auspices of Con- 
stantine and Theodosius, the Christian faith made rapid 
progress, and numerous churches were erected on the 
ruins of the Pagan tem Under the reign of the 
emperor Alexis, the fi of Anna de Comnena, it 
first fell under the er of the Saracens, from whom 
it was retaken Greeks in 1206, but was again 
lost in 1283, from the commencement of the 14th 
pw Pde eee a part of the Turkish dominions. 
the extinction of the Greek empire, Ephe- 
sus fallen into general decay; and a new town and 
citadel having been founded at Aiasoluk or Ajasoluk, 
about two miles distant, the ancient city was soon to- 

deserted. 

was known in ancient times by a variety of 
names, Alopes, Ortygia, Morges, Sm Trachea, 
Semornion, and Ptela; and is described by ancient 
as at once the ornament of Asia, and the 
most uented emporium of that continent. Its ci- 
tizens, in addition to their mercantile eminence, were 
liberal patrons of the fine arts, and their temples pos- 
sessed many of the most celebrated productions of an- 
cient genius, Their architeeture was conducted prin- 
cipally by Pharax, whom Vitruvius mentions with 
much commendation. Agasius the son of Dosotheus 
was one of the most eminent pipe oon Parrhesius, 
Apelles, and Ephorus, (the master of the latter, )all hold- 
ing the first rank as painters, were natives of Ephesus. 
Artemidorus the historian and geographer, Hera- 
dlitus the melancholy philosopher, were also born with- 
in its walls. The esians were equally noted for 
their luxurious and licentious manners; and are said 


to have banished one Hermodorus solely on account of 


. virtue. ng = apiauae Works, vol. i. p. 7. 
were m i to superstition, sorcery, an 
aia arts ; whence arose the proverbial expression, 
« Ephesian letters,” to denote those spells or sentences, 
which they used to write upon their girdles, or to im- 
print upon different parts of their bodies, as charms 
ainst evil, or as sources of supernatural power. 

But the great boast of the Ephesians, and the principal 
ornament of their city, was the celebrated temple of their 
tutelary goddess Diana. The original object of their 
worship was a small statue of elm or ebony, made by 
one Canitias, though commonly believed in those 
to have been sent down from heaven by Jupiter ; but, 
ye is Fm ony mane it had no resemblance to the 

t huntress Diana, and was merely an Egyptian 
sMerogly phic, with many breasts, representing x hsm 
dess of Nature. As the original figure became decayed 
gl i Raghteton by two rods of iron 

spits, which, even its renewal, were religi- 


ously in the substitute. It was at first placed 
apon a block of beach or elm wood, but in later times 
was in a shrine adorned with all that wealth 
and us could contribute. As the veneration for the 


among the inhabitants of Asia, a 
temple was constructed on the spot where 


says seven times, lib, xvi; ¢, 40.) ruined and rebuilt, a 
circumstance which may help to reconcile the discre- 
pancies which occur in ancient writers, as to the dates: 
and descriptions of these successive erections. One of 
them is expressly affirmed by Livy ee ‘to 
have been completed in the reign of us T 
who flourished at the latest 570 years before Christ. 
Another is described which was originally designed by 
Ctesiphon, a Cnossian architect, 541 years: the 
Christian era, whose was continued by Demetrius, 
a priest of Diana, the whole at length completed 
by Daphnis eee om a citizen of — This 
temple is said to have partially destroy: fire 
on he day when Sucrmenrwar pelodiod doe pase Oe Cc. 
and again $56 B. C. by the philosopher Herostratus, on 
the day when Alexander the Great was born, Diana, 
says Timeus the historian, being then absent at the de- 
livery of Olympias. The incendiary confessed, upon 
being put to the torture, that his only motive for the 
sacrilegious act, was a desire to immortalize his name ; 
and though an assembly of the Ionian states passed a 
decree condemning his name to oblivion, the prohibi- 
tion served only the more to its remem- 
brance. According to some accounts, nothing 
four walls and a few columns escaped: the orehebilites 


flames; while others relate, with 


that only the roof, and some other parts constructed of 
timber, were destroyed. The Ephesians had begun its’ 

tion, when Alexander, in hi expedition inst’ 
the Persians, offered to a iate his ils to the 


completion of the work, upon condition that his name 
should be inscribed, as its restorer, upon the front of 
the edifice. This they accounted it 

ful for them to accept ; but secured the forgiven 
the conqueror by the flattering 


style in which their re. 
fusal was conveyed : 


sates Poheuka ds is not rere for ner ten g 
5” sai ian deputy, “ to decorate the tem- 
Ed of another.” The women of Ephesus, besides work- 
ing at the materials intended for its ornament, devoted 
their jewels to its restoration ; and all Asia contributed: 
to its . Cheiromocrates, who assisted in build-' 
ing A dria, and who had proposed to cut Mount 
Athos into a statue of Alexander, was the architect em- 
ployed at its commencement; but 220 years (says Pli- 
ny, lib. xxxvi. c. 14.) or even 400 years (says the same 
author, lib. xvi. c. 40.) were spent in completing the 
building. It is di to determine whether the de- 
scription of the temple given by this writer applies to 
its appearance prior or ior to the conflagration in 
356; and it is impossible to make it in any measure 
intelligible, by supposing, with the Marquis de 
Poleni, that its dimensions were exactly the same both 
before eget prabes eee and that it 
was mere ; with greater magnificence 
and rohan its former state. It was built on a 
pre A that it might be more secure from the 
effects of earthquakes ; and under its foundations was 
laid a bed of charcoal firmly rammed, and ‘above that 
another of wool. The whole building was 425 feet 
in h, and 220 in breadth, su by 197 pil- 
lars of Parian marble, and of the Ionic order, each 60: 
feet high. Those pillars were furnished by so many 
princes, and 36 of were curi earved by Sco- 
pas, while the rest were finely poli Along the’ 
flanks of the cell was a double row of columns, 15 on 
each side. Itis considered as'the first instance in which, 
according to the Ionic style, the fluted column and 
5 


ess of 


EPH Han OY EPI 


capital with volutes were: introduced ; it is calculated or baths, inhabited by $0 or 40 families of Turkish Ephesus 
that each pillar, with its capital and base, contained 150° herdsmen. Its name is considered by some as a Turk- beg 
tons of marble. ‘The doors and panneling were made ish word, signifying the temple of the’moon, in refer: [PCS 
Eo pehageerns om ge and shining ; and the stair- ence to the temple of Diana ; but is supposed, by others, . 
bye es Its mp ions were soy HE myn , the modern’ seo 
heightened by ustre of gold, especially by ‘Ayi0s @codAoyes, referring to the residence there 
m i rae artists of aie evangelist John. Even the vale of Ephesus has under- 
: statue’ of Hecate, by Scopas; gone a total change; and the town could never be sup- 
a picture of the goddess Diana, by Timarete, the first by an observer ignorant of its y, to have 
female artist upon-record; a painting, by Apelles, of had a free communication with the sea. e Cayster, 
sping a 20 formerly navigable, is now choked with sand, and flows’ 


talents of g The shrine was adorned by Praxiteles tale Bhiledtich which render it almost invisible. ' At- 
and his son isodorus ; and the walls by Parrhasius talus Phi us, king of Pergamus, in order to im- 
and A in the temple prove the port, which was shallow and incommiodious, 
virgin os was by an architect to construct an exten- 
voted to-inviolable chastity. They were eligible only sive mole; but, by the interruption thus given to the 
from the higher classes of the citizens, and enjoyed a current, the earth brought down the river has de- 
great revenue with numerous privileges, in addition to’ stroyed the port, and even encroached some miles on 
the presents received from the crowds of worshi the dominion of the sea. 
who flocked to the annual festivals. Their luxurious When the city was taken by the Turks in 1300, “ the 
mode of living, and particularly the cost of their dyed desolation was so complete,” says Rycaut, “ that the tem-' 
vestments, are ancient writers in the most ple of Diana, and the church of Mary, will equally elude 
extra t terms, The s mentioned by Luke,. the search of the most industrious traveller.” See Ans 
xi. 31.) were the princi Officers chosen by the cient Univ. Hist. vol. vii. p. 416 ; Anacharsis’ Travels, 
the Asiatic cities, to preside over the vol. vi. p. 188 ; Vitruvius, |. viii. ; Plin. Nat. Hist. 1. xvi. 
Seed ites anne Soe c. 40, and 1. xxxvi. c. 14; Strabo, lib. xiv; Pococke’s Tra- 
ve 


w been priests of the tem vels ; Sandy’s Travels ; Voyage Pittoresque de la Grece, 
Among other privileges, the sacred edifice afforded en maT: Dalla 's Constantinople, p. 209,211. (q) 

um to those who its protection. The invio- EPHORI. © Sparra. 

space at first xten one furlong, and was after-- . EPHIELIS. See Botany, p. 199. 

wards increased, first by Mithridates, next by Mark EPIBATERIUM. See Botany, p. 325. 
Antony, so as toi a part of the city; but, in EPIBLEMA. See Borany, p. 317. 
of the disorders which a the exer- pe Re ag See Portry.  _ wv 
a pri it was entirely revoked by Ti- RUS, a celebrated losopher ancient’ 
elect that etn the attay itself Greece, and the founder Pade which flourished 
i under his name, was born at Gar s, a village of At- 
tica, in the 109th Olympiad. He was the son of Neo- 
cles and Cherestrata, of the illustrious family of the 
Philaides at Athens, At the age of eighteen, he com- 


ah 
See 


i 
tn 
ui 
i 
a 

8 

if 
iH 


> 
i) 
E 
§ 
: 
5 
= 
g 


f 
as 
E 
2 
i 
2 
iE 
A 
oF 
: 
e ’ 
iH 
af 
i 
g 
ef 


i 
a 
. 
H 


at 
if 
a 
if 
iF 


; Having acquired an high reputation for natural ge- 
nius, extensive learning, and parent investigation, when 


raised by the Greek out of the ruins of E about thirt of instituted, at Athens, a 
sus. A highs wall, ab the carevier eid oFte etilioes new philésaplical schéol, ind jiropiaided Novediwdlea 


entire, bit is also made up of of former build. tial points, from the doctrines that were taught by the 
i pete. its origin toalaterage. Two most jar sages of those times. For the grand out- 

a theatre or a Naumachia, and some lines of his theory of the universe, indeed, he was in- 
walls of brick, faced with large marble slabs, supposed debted to the previous labours of seobicss b ae 
to of Di i ers; but from 
of the church of St , form the incipal ob- the sublime conceptions and ie genius of Epicu- 
jects of any magnitude. t Aiasoluk or Ajasoluk, once rus, these broken and discordant features first acquired’ 
the rival of the parent city, and the residence of the such a rational form and consistency, as entitled them 


Saraconic princes in the 14th century, is a large portal, to the name of a system. 
formerly leading to the citadel, wholly built with Ro- _ His theory Mattel wall ad thuch © to the 
man tiles, and faced with polished marble. Over the rigid maxims of the Stoics, as his life and. coriversation 


the a sys in that celebrated school. a aio AS 
ingi of Patroclus to delightful Epicurus enjoy é society of his 
. comb iia ;, ieeae otk dan his instructions to his numerous 
it the Gate of Persecution, and believe that it ; whence the institution was denominated the 
the n i itself is of the Garden, as that of Plato was called the 
: 0 Peg pete ree) none acta. « 

small square of brick, the ruins of oratories Porch, and that of Antisthenes the Cynosargum, 
Zz 


Gears atdgeus, arcane contrasted with the ascetic habits of the disciples of 


—_Yr rate 


178 


. His manners were easy and affable ; his life tempe- 
virtuous. Having devoted his days to the pro- 
of science, he died of an in ion, occa- 
sioned by a stone in the bladder, after suffering the 
most excruciating pain with admirable composure and 
patience, in the 127th Olympiad, and the seventy-se- 
cond year of his age. 

It is unnecessary for vi gh at pan eer inp 

discussion respecting principles incul- 
Suis Epicurus, as we have ae exhibited a view 
of his ical hypothesis in a former article: (See 
Aromicat Pamosorny.) But whatever objections the 
combined lights of reason and revelation may have af- 
forded us against the principles of that system, it must 
wn be acknow to have new the ntspring ct a 

, Vigorous, and. scientific mind ; and it is, perhaps, 
the only rational profane: , on the subject of cos- 
mogony, which has had sufficient merit to attract re- 

disciples in modern times. 

The moral principles promulgated by Epicurus have 
age theme of reprehension to Jud ascetic philoso- 
phers of all 3; and, by a sin miscon ion 
of the So ent alters of his opiniens, age 
name of that illustrious sage has been converted into an 
epithet expressive of every thing that is unprincipled, 
licentious, base, and grovelling, m human conduct and 
manners. Having assumed, as the basis of his ethical 
system, the principle, that pleasure is the chief good 
of man, it has been unwarrantably sed, that his 
doctrines give countenance to habitual intemperance, 
and even recommend the unrestrained gratification of 
every illicit passion, Nothing, however, can be more 
unjust than such a representation of the moral theo- 
ry of Epicurus, His system, indeed, as we have al- 
ready a tte was directly opposite to that of the 
Stoical school. _ He rejected the eel doctrine of fa- 
tality, which constituted the foundation of the philoso- 
phy of Zeno, and boldly contended for the free 
of man: a principle, without the admission of whi 
it were vain to attempt to erect any rational system of 
morality. Disclaiming the external aid of gravity in 
speech, and of any singular austerity in dress and de- 
meanour, and being himself arses. endowed with 
an affable and cheerful disposition, he deemed it not 
necessary for a wise man to be morose, but ht his 
disciples, on the con , to look for pleasure in the 
pursuit of wisdom, and to consider 
concomitant of virtue. ‘ Wisdom,” says 
self, in his epistle to Menwceus, “ is the 


icurus him- 
ief blessi 


of philosophy, since she gives birth to all other, vir- 


tues, W unite in teaching us, that no man can live 
happily who does not live vials: conscientiously, and. 
j ; nor, on the other hand, can he live wisely, 


conscientiously, and justly, without living 


for virtue is inseparable from a life of iness, and 
epris virtue.” 


Such principles, whether resulting from correct } 
of human nature or not, po yh be pe ail ; 


‘ 8 
as holding out any encouragement to in te cons 
or indulgence in illicit pleasures, ‘“ Those,” says 
of his disciples, “ whom we call lovers of pleasure, 
real lovers of goodness and justice ; are men 
practise and cultivate every virtue: for no true 
can exist without a good and virtuous life. 

e assert, then, that pleasure is the chief 
felicity of man, we do not mean the plea- 
idi the pleasures 


$18 


4 


Ad 
ai 


: 


2 
: 
F 
: 


2 
u 


those who wilfully mistake our opi- 
y assert ; but what constitutes pleasure 


nappiners asthe that th 


EPICURUS. 


with us, is the pessmsion.of a hedy euneept framnanias 
anc « mind deren Ahegiaanelaty ” &e. Th 
bonum of Epicurus, ore, was nothing . 
the mens sana in corpore sano of the Roman poet; he 
proposed to conduct mankind to happiness, not. ’ 
the deceitful labyrinths of sensual. gratification, but 
along the plement pette of knowledge and of virtue... 
Among those, i |, who controverted the doctrines. 
of Epicurus, there were some who ventured to arraign, 
his personal character, and who had recourse even to 
falsehood and forgery, in order to vilify and degrade 
him in. te egenoa et soe people. . These attempts, it. 
must be confessed, however unjustifiable, have been too, 
successful ; as the vulgar prejudices of mankind, from 
the age of that philosopher down to the present times, 
sufficiently evince. But the. malicious _ whi 
were industriously circulated, and too ally. believed, 
A ig the moral character of Epicurus is disci-. 
ples, are abundantly refuted by the concurrent testimo- 
of the t res ie authorities,—of men who,. 
ough tley might dissent from. his. principles, yet. 
bore witness to. the virtuous tenor of his life, and to the, 
purity and excellence of his preeeyts- Sess 
In reality, both the Stoic and the Epicurean profes- 
sed temperance and virtue, though from opposite. prin-, 
ciples. According to the former, virtue consisted ina. 
total subjection of the passions, and in the constant and. 
habitual practice of austerity and discipline. The Epi- 
curean, on the other hand, assumed pleasure as the chief. 
good, but, at the same time, sought. this pleasure ina 
restraint of the desires and passions, and in the 
attainment of wisdom, and the exercise of virtue... Pain, 
according to the Stoic, ought to be considered as an ob-, 
ject of indifference, beneath the regard of a wise man ;, 
with the Epicurean, on the contrary, it was a great evil, 
and to be avoided by all means. The . of the lat. 
ter sect preserved the influence of the social.and moral, 
affections entire; while that of the former. evi 
tended to produce ascetic and indifference, We 
shall hove ne reeset. - fore, poauaran mith She ethi- 
stem of Epicurus, if its principles under- 
Fat g in the nos sense in which ns seems a in: 
culcated them, To teach mankind the true road to hap= 
piness, has been the professed object of almost every 
theory of morals ; and of all those means by which we. 
can promote our happiness, it will be admit 
t there are none more efficacious than the cultivation. 
of temperate and virtuous habits, and the exercise of our 
intellectual faculties, and benevolent affections. _... 
The doctrines of Epicurus long continued to be fa- 
voured by the Romans; and his school was. found to 
flourish under the emperors, after other institutions had 
begun to decay. The most celebrated adherents to this. 
system were the elder Pliny, Celsus, Lucian, and, Dio- 
genes Laertius. The Epicurean theory, however, was, 
not at Alexandria, which, after the decline 
of Grecian learning, became the chief seat. of literature 
and science ; where the eclectics; who still continued 
to call themselves Platonists, superseded every. 
school. In the earlier ages of the Christian church, i 
fell into utter neglect and obscurity ; but, during the 
15th century, the doctrines of Epicurus again began to 
sare some Ee pigs eyr Bem 3 and ae ane, 
uently revived in the 17th cen writings. 
ndi, Du Rondelle, and aie - See Di $ 
Laertius X. Gassendi and Rondellius, or Du Rondelle, ~ 
Couturis, Sur la Morale. 


se) 


«i 
-- 


ee 


EPICYCLOID. 
- EPICYCLOID, in Geometry, is pects ireeat 


pe. foe int in the plane of a moveable ci 

1er on the inside, or the outside of the circum- 
ference of a fixed circle. If the circles be both in the 
same plane, the curve generated will be the plane epi- 


If again the moveable and fixed circles be in different 
planes, and the former be the base of a right cone, that: 
rolls on the surface of another right cone, the base of 
which is the latter, so that the vertices of the cones are 
at the same point ; then, in this case, the curve 


179 


death of Galileo, which happened-inr 1642, his disciples Epicycloid.. 


Torricelli and Viviani, were more successful ; the for- 
mer found the area, and the latter the method of draw 
ing tangents to the curve. The claim of Torricelli to- 
= porte of his discovery Maric omy “sin te 3 
t the charge of plagiarism, whi ght against 
the Italian reaabotadticien, has not been believed by his 
countryman Montucla, who has discussed the contro- 
versy in the second volume of his History of Mathe- 
ties, second edition. . 
The cycloid, the source of so much contention, and 

on that account compared to the golden apple thrown 
by Discord among the gods, was again brought into. 
notice by Pascal. This philosopher, not: less celebra~ 
ted for his piety and zeal in defence of the Christian. 
eligion, than his mathematical invention, took the cy- 
cloid as the subject of his meditation in those sleepless 
nights which he passed, in’ consequence of bad health ; 
and he soon extended his discoveries beyond what was 
then known. He was not of a disposition to boast of 
his discoveries in ; but some of his pious 
friends su that it would be useful to have it 


known, the man who had defended religion and 
Christiani inst infidelity, was perhaps the most. 
profound thinker, and the greatest eter in Eu-. 


his problems, 
of the first 


the celebrated H s; and Sir Christoph 
who discovered che Seebcaton of the curve. Pascal, 
published his own solutions in the beginning of the. 
year 1659, in a work entitled Letters from A. Detton- 
ville to M. de Careavi: In the same- year, Dr Wallis 
published a work on the cycloid, and other curves, in 
which he resolved some of Pascal's problems by his 


Arithmetic of Refiee ; and, in the following, La- 
louére also published a treatise on the cycloid ; and an- 
other work about the same time from the pen 


of P. Fabri, the jesuit. 
The cycloid is remarkable, as well on account of its. 
mechanical. as its ical properties ; and Mr Huy- 
s discovered some of the most interesting of both. 
inds. To.the latter class bel the property, which. 
we shall demonstrate in this sri, by which he shew- 
ed how a pendulum inay. be made to. vibrate in an arc: 
of a oycloid ; and to the former, the very beautiful pro- 
perty, that all. vibrations of a pendulum in ares of a, 
cycloid, are performed in. equal times. See Mecua-~ 
NICS. 

The very curious problem, eee John Ber 
noulli, 2 Ap * to find the path hich’ body may; 
roll from one given point to er, in the shortest: 
time possible, the points being supposed neither in the- 


Cyeloia. 
—— 


Of the Cy- 
Cleid. 
PLaTe 


CCLUL. 
Fig. 1. 


Figs. 2, 3. 


180 

same vertical nor the same horizontal ” on ac- 
count of its the attention of the most 
celebrated icians in Europe, who found, that 


turned his attention to the theory of epicycloids, while 


be iform ; and that on this ac- 


diminished. 
of 
the force of gravity 


all its vibrations in equal times, 
it described a greater or a lesser arc. But, by 
the hypothesis, and supposing the force of 
gravity to be directed to the earth’s centre, and to be in 
as the distance from the centre, it became a 
oe on nae gd pcm: Taf: ppm 
, 80 a8 to perform unequal vibrations in equal 
times? Sir Isaac Newton shewed that the curve ought 
be an epi - See Principia, lib. i. prop. 51. 


icycloids was treated by 
Herman, in the — volume of the —— of the 

A . It appears thata ician, 
named O re aagyl this problem, “ to 
pierce a spherical roof with oval windows, the perime- 
a of any one of which may be-absolutely rectifiable.” 
Herman beli 


Academy of Sciences of Paris, 1732, where he shews 
that the rectification of. the curve proposed by Herman 
er or ene oe 

e shall now give a brief view of the properties of 
eycloids and epicycloids. 


I. Or rue Cycrom. 


Definitions. 

1. If a circle, EPF, roll along a straight line AB, 
(Plate CCLIII. Fig. 1.), so that every point. of the cir- 
cumference may touch the line in succession ; and if 
i sa hy ot bape vn eters ea 
tact wi straight line at the beginning of the mo- 
Gli, ils tha ‘die nda vention Complete reveling 
the point P will have described a curve line APDB, 
which is called a common cycloid, also sometimes sim- 


A ae aS along a straight line 


lines, a pendulum moving in a cy- ced, 


EPICYCLOID. 
itis called a curtate cycloid, if the point is without the Cyctoit 


circle. e A balay Apa get 
8. In each of the three cycloids, the circle EF is cal- 
ved Tks waraigi lime AB) which oles tha>ppelesatin 
4. The ne joins the points: 
each cycloid, where the motion of the point that de« 
scribes the curve begins and ends, is the dase of 
the cycloid. : : tid: Lect Soni 
5. A straight line CD which bisects the base at right 
angles, and terminates in ‘the curve, is called the azis; 
the point D, in which it meets the curve, is called 
the verter of each kind of cycloid. 5 Ybeirn 
6. A straight line drawn from any point in the curve, 
perpendicular to the axis, is. an ordinate to the 
axis; and the ent of the axis between 
and an ordinate, is called an abscissa. 
Corollary 
be sw 


the vertex 


nitely. 
Proposition I, ih edatona a 
In any cycloid, the base is equal to the circumference. 
o the generating el PB, (Fig. 1.) every point 
n the common APB, (Fig. 1.) every im p 
the cisensstasuct ee aeipeneslalagiedoveticaatieas CLI 


ly touch the base, without sliding along it, while _ Fig. 1. 


circle makes a complete revolution : therefore, the 
Vidi le ee Se eee 
In the 


being the point of the ci genera- 
F os fae ich touches the line a 6 at the beginni 

d end of the motion; and P being the point in the 
revolving radius OQ, which ger the cycloid 
APDB, it is manifest that at the inning of the mo-. 
tion, the line QP will have the positi a A, a perpen- 
dicular to ab; and at the end, it will have the position 
6B, another icular to a6;*therefore aA, 6B 


ab, which again is manifestly equal to the circumfes 


Pror. II, nal 
In the three kinds of eycloids, the axis is equal to- 
Wie Ee ee eee 
generating ci 


and curtate cycloids, Se een 3.) Figs. 2, 3 


EPICYCLOID. 181° 


Con! Avdircle described on the-axis of the commion circumference’of the circle DHC tothe base AB. For  Cycloid: 


get the base is equal to the circumference of the circle. ““\—"—" 


PratTe 
ccuitl. 
Fig. 4. 


Figs. 5. 6. 


cycloid, as a diameter, is equal to the generating circle. 
ie Prop. III. 


Let DHC (Fig. 4.) be the circle described on the 
spoeiendteies and PHG the ordinate; the 
equal to the circular are HD. 


is 
the position of the circle 
when the point in the circumference Set dapecloas the 
baron The \ciecles CRD) RPE axb yeni, se 
lines HG, PI are manifestly the halves of chords 


, however, be in infinite terms, by 


ae 2 


a equation. See Fiuxions. 


i 
" 
i 
be 
F 
i 


fr 
ES] 


a2 
oF 
MP 
FF 
i 
8 
i 
5 
i 
F 


: 
fy 
a 
ih 
be 


Sens bose 
elle fae 
Ue 
af : z br, 
iy 
: 
a 
: 


we 
ll 
=x 
S 
= 
i 
Q 
é 
g 
| 


H 
' 
3 
= 
: 
i 
ad 


. 
t 
5 
= 


straight line PH. Now, from simi- 
TORE ote 
are DH isto the straight line PH as the 


: 


of 
: 


FQE. : 

Cor. 2. Let DG=z, PG=y, are DH=z; and let a. 
be the radius of the circle described on the axis, and 6 
the radius of the generating circle ; then because by 


the theorem Hp=! z, the nature of the prolate and 
curtate cycloids will be expressed by the two equations 


xa — Cos. z, 
CC : z+ Sin. x. 
Prop. V. 


In the common cycloid, if a circle be described on p 
> ecinntir ; and from any point P in CCL. 
the curve, an ordinate PG be drawn to the axis, meet- Fig. 7. 


DC, the axis, as a 


ing the circle in H ; a tangent PV to the cycloid shall 
be parallel to HD, the chord of the arc between the 

he points HD draw the tangents HR, DR, the 

At the points H, D e ts HR, DR, 

latter of which will be el to the ordinate PG: 
draw also another ordinate p h g indefinitely near to the 
former, so that the indefinitely small arcs Pp, Hh may 
be considered as coinciding with the tangents VP, RH ; 
lastly, draw Pq parallel to HA, and join D A meeting 
PGi 


in m. 
Because PH=arc DH, mt heat fo) therefore 
h—PH=arc DH h—are DH, that is, pg = Hh; 
Cie the trimgles 2H, h RD being similar, and AR= 
RD, therefore }H=Hm; hence pq=Hm, and ph= 
Pm; the Pphm is therefore a and 
consequently pV 1s parallel to kD, or to HD. 


Prop. VI. 


The are DP of the common cycloid is double the 
chord DH of the corresponding arc of the generating 
Let the ordinate ph g be indefinitely near to PH ; 
h, meeting in m, and draw Hn perpendicu« 


tohm 

Because the peti br indefinitely small, as in 

proposition, ma’ considered as‘ coincidi 

with tangents to the curves, And because Pp is < 
; Prop. 5.) the figure Pphm isa |. 

m; hence Pp=mh ; but Hm=H/A, as was 

in . 5; and therefore xnm=nh, and mh=2hn; 

therefore Pp=2hn. Now Pp andxh are evidently 

the increments which the oidal are DP and the 

chord DH receive by the ordinate changing its position 

from PG to pg; therefore the increment of the arc is 

always double the increment of the corresponding 


Ss now the arc and chord to be 
i moving _ to itself from the vertex 
, and the increment of the one is double 
the other, the arc will always be double the corre- 
sponding chord. 
Cor. The whole cycloid ADB is four times the 
diameter of the generating circle, or four times the’ 


join D 


z 


Prop. VII. 


If DM be drawn from the vertex of the cycloid pa- pig, g, 


rallel to the base andl Seaman, Beane P in the curve 
be drawn to axis, aiters, © 


geperating cine) in H ; and PL be drawn 
to ; the external cycloidal area D 


is equal to’ 


Cycloid. 
—— 


Pirate 
CCLIIML 
Fig, 8, 


182 
the area contained the circular arc DH, and the 
lines DG, G 


Take a int p in the curve, indefinitely near to P; 
and draw the co-ordinates p Ag and p/: join DH, and 
complete the indefinitely narrow para Gu, 
Lr. Because the indefinitely little arc Pp may be con- 
a a straight linc, which is parallel to DH, 
( ), the triangles Prp, HGD are similar; hence 

rp: Pr: y GD: HG ; that is, Gg: rP:; PL: GH; since 
then the age geen: . 
! are See Gromerry 
Now cae Gv sai tie combiored ered as the incre- 
a of the circular space DHG ; and the rectangle 
Lr as the increment of the cycloida space DLP, cor- 


cependiog a the position of the ordinate 
from PHG to vhg ; bra to th e triangles AH», p Pr; 
they vamsn in 


les: therefore 
the increments of spaces DHG, D ofa pei 
and uentl 


the spaces themselves are opel 
Con. If AM be perpendicular to DM, the whole 


cycloidal space ADM is equal to the semicircle DHC. 


Prop. VIII. 


_ If PHG, an ordinate to the axis, meet the era- 

circle in H, and the chord HC be drawn to the 

of the base, and PK parallel to HC, meeting 

ee base in K; the bounded by the cycloidal ae 
Saeee as PK, KC, CD, shall be trip] 


space bound by the circular are D 
ihe sgh nes HC, cD 
, a tange tangent to the circle, meeti the bese 
in Ne also draw the ordinate phg i teins tee 
PHG, m HC in m; he; draw p L parallel 


tohc, and ks parallel to C or KP. eee 
angles CNH, mh H, are similar, and NC=NH ; there- 


EPICYCLOID. 


—. CH ele 
he. 
a is pir ye 
the pacer ee oy and’ A 
are AY ( 38. ha goo is, to 
TC, or PH, is to the arc 
P is in.a cycloi vot which C CHD ‘is 
circle (Prop. 38. . and therefore it is 
ADB. 
Nore. The rty of the 
proposition was-discovered by Huygens, 
to the motion of a pendulum. Suppose 
to be perpendicular to the horizon, and two 
of metal to be bent into the form of cloide, 
born #02 tions VA, VB; then, if a 
were formed fixing a weight to the end of a 
PXV, and entis to vibrate between the 
wei ht P will, by its motion, describe the cyelc 
is manner of describi erie the eo ADI. 
b Pn emp is unf pe hit ep 
given rise to the theory of involutes evolutes, 
one of the most elegant speculations of modern geo 
oe Pi Fates, ox yee 
or the app cation properties cycloid 
to mechanics, see MECHANICS. 


t 


Or Reitvevehh, Jo 


Il. 


fore hm=h H; and because ph=h H-+are HD=;H 
+PH=h m+tm ; that is, because pt4-th=2 h m+ 
th; therefore pt=2hm. And because / s is parallel 
toom, and kp to ch, therefore ps=hm, 


1. Let AEB be a given fixed circle, and EPF a of Rpicy- 
moveable circle, which vols either on the outside of the cloids. 
pe Caen 10.), -or on the inside (as in Fig. 11.), Pear 

; alsolet p be a given ¥n CCLIIL 


Pig. % 


fod nis 79s 

hence the lelogram  K is double the fb i 
and the quadrilateral pk K ¢ is triple the range’, ks, 
that is hem. Now the former of these is manifestly 
the increment of the SE CD SECeROEOS £2 8 
change of position of chord from CH to CA, and 
the latter is the increment of the space HCD ; there- 
fore the space PKCD is triple the HCD. 

Cor. 1. The cycloidal area DAC is triple the semi- 
circle DHC, 

Con. 2. The interior cycloidal space PDG, is the ex- 
cess of three times the contained by the are HD, 
and the lines HC, CD e the trapezoid PGCK. 


Prop. IX. 


Let AB be the base of a cycloid, ADB and CD its 
axis: In DC produced take CV=CD ; and let a semi- 
cycloid, the same as DB, be put in the position AV ; 
and another semicycloid, the same as DA, in the posi- 


a line drawn from O, the centre of the moveab 
Cuengh 2s a given pointe its circumference ; and at.’ 

the beginning of the motion, let P be at A, the point of 
contact of the two circles, and the point p at a; then, 
while the circle makes one complete revolution, by roll-. 
ing along the are AB, the line ‘Op, will revolve sbout, O 
as a cefitre, and the point p will describe a line. pads 
which is called an epicycloid. 

2. When the generating circle revolves on the 
side of the circumference of the fixed circle, the li 
described is the exterior prerene ‘when the ge 
nerating circle rolls on the iimide of the circumference, 
the line described is the interior epicycloid. 

8. The circle EPF is called the generating circle, 
and the point the ating point. 

A. A t line drawn ugh the centre of the 
fixed circle, and H, the middle nee the base, is called 
the axis; and the point d in which the axis meets the 


pas poke me now that «thread is fastened at V;, curve, is called the vertex. s 
then fit be the curve, so as to terminate at A; 
then, be unfolded, beginning at the point ‘A, its Coxpilat ies to the Definitions. | 
re oqremses * 5a) describe noe epoan cb. Cor. 1. The points a and. b, ome of ee 
w and equal to ; cloid, CA, CB, the radii 
and describe the semiciscle AYR. Let PX, the pat tone para 4 ceseaey™. 


of the thread which has been unwrapped from 


2. This of he epi etl the dram 


meet"AC in T ; drew XZ perpendicalay to AN, meet ference, of the 
ing circle in Y.; and PC ay ay” serenade Scnouium,, areas ot 
ae circle in H ; and join AY, CH. set on the that Chola 
KTP, the part of the thread wifolded, is’ mea csh sevclotinait he abopoe to conti~, 


nue its moti, « eis of pico 


circle ¥i8* 10 


EPICYCLOID. 183 


like the first. Indeed, they may be considered These two equations express generally the nature of Epicyclote. 


Epicycloid. 
a continuous curve, which will go on con- all epicycloids, whether exterior or interior ; because, al- 


=—— ws 


1 


PLaTE 


ec_Lill. 


Fig. 12. 


een ads will come again 


ff 


the circumferences of the and 
or their radii, are incomm a eeeahas be 
that case, the two circles will never come 
into contact at the same point. If, however, the 
commensurable, it is evident that, after a cer- 
genes of revolutions of the generating circle, the 
to. the ts A and 
&, from, which they eet out ; and thus curve will 
return into itself. 

If the point that describes the A pabiaaye be pee 
on the Sislstoke to te circle, as at curve a w 

to the curtate oad: but if ft be with- 

4 Ege ee circle at p’, then the curve ‘a’ p' dB will cor- 
respond to the prolate cycloid ; and lastly, if the ge- 
Fst gl) pat be at P, the curve APDB will be more 
and will iecoapold to the common cycloid: 
Baer. E iawn E 


ce 


e he te nod checks, ea ish Geto also 
let F’H be the circle when it has made ex- 
half a peorrt Then its centre O’ will be 
axis C e t will be at 
Lapa wires generating poin 
now that the 
e arc HE, wafcant + sake 
© GO, mdi the reveléi radius from the position O’D 
to the position OP, while the 
Sar pene See motien. the 


will be the t of the erati 

eno gh erdnders! er gat seg rid 

 Tadtow the ee fe of the. fixed circle origin 
centre as the 

of the co-ordinates, 


though in investigating 
generating circle to be without the fixed circle. By a 
well known principle i in mathematical analysis, we have 
only to change the sine‘of a and } from + to —, there- 
by silicate that the lines which these letters repre- 
sent, are to be considered as having a contrary direc- 
tion to that which they had in the former case, and the 
aig will be adapted to the case of interior epicy- 
In the preceding ms ations, the co-ordinates are 
expressed in terms of the arc, which the gen 
circle has rolled over, reckoned from H, the middle of 
the base, (Fig. 12.) but it will be convenient to have 
them also expressed by the arc described from the be- 
“motion.” Draw a straight line from C 
5 A, 


circles, and et us suppose, 
rolled along 
which was at first atA’, has described the epicycloidal 

A’P. Let Pc meet the circle in N, then the arcs EN, 
EA will be equal. Produce PO, CO to Land F; draw 
PQ, OR icular to CA ; and OT dicular 
to QP. the abscissa CQ=2’, the ordinate QP=y’, 
the are AE=~’ ; and, as before, put CE=c, 


PO=}. . Then the angle OCR, or FOT, is = radius 
being unity, and the angle NOE, or FOL=~, theres 

: av es oe ap 1\,, 4 
foreTOL== += = (44 ae 


Hence CR=(c+p.a) Cos. =, 
OR=(c+a) Sin. z . 
1 BOze—sd Gon: (14+ =) 


Put CK, the abscisse, . . . adherens vam, i 
ORR Ae panting, 2195220 5% ay Ps 81h. cag, PT=b Sin. (+4 >)» 
CE, the rad of fixed cixel CEDDEDED DLL Sg and since s’=CR+TO, and y=OR—PT, we have 
OE, the rad. of ee Pay 


gen. circle, . 
OP, the dist. of gen. point from the centre, : 36: 


Then = is the are of a circle, whose radius is unity, 
which measures the angle ECH= FOM ; and, in like 
manner, 7 is the measure of the angle LOE, or POF ;, 


= (cpa) Cos. —5 Cos.(—+ =) 


y=(c+a)Sin.=— é Sin. (+2) 


From this solution we may deduce the following con« 
uences : 


: 1. These two sets of formule (A and B), enable us 
hence = 4.2 = (14 ~) zis the measure of the an- by the help of de te fa uy ehicrelie Cr eatle 
gle POM: Hence by the help of the trigonometrical tables, To do ths this, 


vt €6 =€O x Cos. BCH =(c42) Cos.£, 
OG=CO x Sin. ECH=(c-+2) Sin. = 
_OM=PO x Cos, POM= Sin(— + + th. 


we must give particular values to the angle <, then 
we must find from the tables the values of the sines and 


cosinesof —, andof (e+ =) =t* = jandfromthese, 


the coordinates of poinjs in dhe 
and, in these calculations, regard 


hs tale dy cand 


“PM=PO x Sin. POM=5 Cos. (++ 1), must Bel of the sines and cosines, as is 
2 explained in a4 mee e Arnirumetic of Sines, 
2. Ife and a be Soames indeterminate 


Now r=CG-+OM, and vy ree therefore 
A) 


. 


c 


1 
a “ 
Seo | Te = +b Sin. i +=): 


_ example, if c 


arc z may be eleminated from either of the formulz 
Oy @)s oon thence an equation may be found, which 


expréss the relation of z toy in finite terms. For: 


sa:t 9% so that 4 <= 
from formula (A), ais 


githen, 


OE=a, 


them, we have supposed the y 


Fig. 13.) the first point of contact of the two prars 
, that the generating circle has CLUE. 
the are PAE, while the: generating oe Fig, 13. 


PLATE 
cCCcLUL 
Pig. 14 


2=(¢-+a) Cos, ~ +b Cos. =, 
: . 5: 
y=(c+e) Sin. = +4 Sin. ae 


Put Cos. 5, = pand Sin, = = ¢. Then, by the 
Anrrumetic of Sines, (Art. 7 , 
Cos. <= 2p'—l, Sin. = =P 
Cos. ganesh ener 


Sin, ae =5q—20q) + 169! ; 
(e+e) (2ptel) +b (1—12 +16 *) 
z=(c+a)(2 pi— q*), 
y=2e-+a Pat ioe— 20g + 10g"): 


these equations, and the equation p*+q°=1, p and 
- may be e " » and the’ result: will be an 
Bai equation equation, involving z and y only, which will 
petael te care 


teal tn ineitary tan spicy ill Bé'en 


bers, the epicycloid will be an 

eri Alda petedalnts aaa ( Scholium to 

Def.) If, however, a and c be incommensurable, the 

of z produces an equation of an infinite from 

number of terms, and therefore in this case the curve 

is transcendental ; and in this case also it never returns 

into itself. 

8. As the order of the curve depends upon the ratio 
of the radii of the fixed and generating circles, it may 
be worth while to: seeing one horse 


"First let us take the case of a circle EPC, (Fig. 14.) 

— rolls on the inside of another AEH, fe edape 

pass through its centre C. erat b=a=—te, 

berwase «lies det in a-cont ; therefore, 

the co-ordinates to the line CA, drawn through 

A, the point of contact of Yo. twocrees, we have 
by the formula (B), ' 


« 8 ye a +8-\ 
Sin. ¥ Sm. (-=) 

Now, if'in_ the formule for the cosine and sine of 
a— 6, a and 6 being any arcs, (Anitumetic of Sines, 


Art. 10.) we suppose a=0, and. observe that then 
Art 10.) Sin. a=0, we shall have Cos, (—b) = Cos. b, 


Sin, (—b)=—Sin. b, and therefore Cos, (— =) = = 
Cos. a iar therefore 


z=c Cos. — =,y=0. 


This value of y shews,. that the int is 
in the axis CA, pee Yr es on ‘zis evi-. 
the cosine of the are z, or AE, the distance of 

the generating from the centre at any time, is the 

cosine of the arc that has then been e@ over. 
in this case is therefore AB, that diameter of 


EPICYCLOLD.  . 


BOR icneinle double the 
; and 2ACE= 2 


nny but FOE 

At we AR. Sm 
= MEAS ; there. ; 
fore arc PE=are AE, and so ‘3s a point 

that would be described b ane ‘the circle E 


pecs 

on the inside of the circle AEH 
4. Next, let us suppose that the circle EP rolls on 
the outside of another AEH, of the same “magnitude, 


Fig. 15.) and that the generating point departs from 
Wk foe pols Ut ciniines 6 dis Sea AMM TASTE. 


In this case, b=a=c, and we have by formula (B), Fig. 15. 
CR=2=2eCos. = —¢ Cos. =, 


PR=y=2c Sin. —< Siny . 


tions i) 


and Sin. 4 v=2 Sin. v Cos. », (Anirameric of Sines, 
=2c Sin. v (1— Cos. v) 
Ay x _ 1—Cos.* » 
Let us put 2—c=z’, so that instead of making C the 
mong it ne 
From these two equations, let by 
the curve ; which Hea lay 
ral remarkable : For , ifany straight. 
and VP’ are each 
A be dra the ew points 
ts wn to curve at i 
Pe, they wl fom orm a right angle at X fete tabs 
pay 4 
case (Fig. 16. pid ty ras ein ve 
from a cylinder or circle AEH, round which it was 


Let v=, then observing that Cos. 20=2 Cos v1; 
Art. 14.) we-have, after substitution, &c. _- 
2—c=2c Cos. v (1—Cos.v) . 6.2. e+ ae ee (1) 
Sin.* v 4 ; 
ri G@—cy Costv™  Cos#o ate tae 
po mare: of the abscisse, we are now to reckon them 
Aj and let Cos.v= >, and we have frm equas 
2cp—2cp* a hie 
Poe +y) i Font 
on method, (Avceana, Sect. Pa} ew 
ition ht aoe (2° 2c2’ +y*)*, 
of tet fousth ocer ’ 
This curve has been called the cardioide; it has seve- 
line be drawn through A, to meet the fixed circle « 
in V, ere ee ake eee 
Secin thaGecrt’ ace, sitais gi 
in the curve, . are , an 
number of points ‘in i By hippy any 
y As a third icular case, let us 
tO bp inthe cireuinieranioouh the 
circle, and its radius shes peg +4 great. 
ag ey roth ond 
E Se of ona is to caesar 
pic ad ap aw PERL, bey ettadiges: 
wound. ; 
In this case, we have b=a= an infinitely great 


The, Suantty; and because, in general, Cos (F-4=) = 


Zz . oe - {z . 
Cos, = omg Bing Seige + 5) 
= Sin. = Cos, = s+ Cos. = Sin. = (ArireMetic. 
pata of Sine) when sisal great then Cou (444), 


5 EPICYCLOID. 


jicycloid. wn ee pee ee phat 
Se = cos. £—+ Sin. =, because = being an indefi 


PLATE 
ccLill. 


Fig, 17. 


Fig. 18. 


Fig. 21. 


i ine i to radius, and its 
SR aes cart can ei Mediates 


rac Cos.—+ Sin. =, 
y= Sin. — 2Sin.— 

ions of the curve. © 

By the squares of « any, we ge T= < 
z, an ion expressing a curve, 
+ in equation property 


is called the involute of a circle. 
Prop. II. 
A tangent to an epicycloid at any point is perpendi- 
dilaton vissight lars, deatn from it; to the point of 


contact of the generating and fixed circles. 


Suppose two A 2, 3, 4, E, &e. N 2, 3, 4, E, 
umber of sides to be described about 


of the proposition 
Cor. 1. Let O’ be the point in which the centre of 
the circle crosses the axis (Fig. 18.), and 
DVI a circle on O’, with a radius equal to OP, 
ee LAT at tT tic sets ok. the 
ie generating circle), and H the point in which the 
generating circle ies the fixed circle, when its cen- 


tre is at O’. Then, if a circle be described on C as a 
centre to meet the epi id in any point P, and the 
circle DVI in V; and PE be drawn perpendicular to 
prctn he meet the fixed circle in E ; the nor- 
mal (Mh nier ebeguadsidettiagy acl 
toH. Let O be the centre of the generating circle 
seatamaritiiecns Fan 2 22 
centre, ) 

join OP, O/V; and because =CO, O’V=OP, and 
V=CP, the ce og COP are equal ; there- 
fore the angles HO’V, EOP are equal ; now HO’=EO, 
ler ee hid dala 
Cor. 2. wfc be FM g Magica 
ference of the generating circle, a tangent to the curve 
at any point P (Fig. 21.) will pass through F, the ex- 
trestity of the age ers Ey ik 
Sr. Pt See the two cir. 
Scuouwm. From this proposition it appears, that if 


185 
parallel rays of 


be 
cle FPE, which ro a circle AEH, havi 
Se ae 
volving circle ; e generati int being sw 
to set out from A, the middle’ of the perpendi- 
cular radius = let me generating ag 3 
any position , P being the erating point, an 
CHF that radius of thecircle DFR’ which pastes through 
pt yeah ow he niet ged Aa tae sg 3 
di bp cen nyh hs set cut tae ge 
touch epicycloid at P, + e angle EF 
at the circumference is half an ang! sh Cie peace, bth 


the same arc, and therefore is measured by 27777 = 
are PE 


are Fe, that is by MCE but this last arciis also the 


measure of the angle ECA, or CFG; therefore the an« 
gles PFC, CFG are equal; and hence, if GF be the in« 
cident ray, FP is the reflected ray. See Optics. 
Hence it that in this case the epicycloid is 
the catacaustic curve, or the curve which passes through 


the intersection of any two and contiguous 
lg after they have slop et 8 
bowl, by the reflection of the sun’s rays from the po- 
lished concave surface which rises above the surface of 


* the milk. 
When rays diverge from one end of the diameter of Fig, 20. 


acircle, and are reflected from the inside of the cir« 
cumference, in this case also the eatacaustic curve is 
an epicycloid, viz. the cardioide es Prop. 1). For 
SS aikins ths teks  dopating ame By. vel gues 
AED, int i + genera~« 
ing the epi id APH, through E, the point of con-~ 
cast of thes chads, ature CHE, “er susat he i 
circle 
dius, 
ting 
circle HFd, which meets the epicycloid. Because AE 


at the centre is double the 
rence. But because CF=CH, and conseq 
CHF=CFH, the angle ACE is double the. angle 
CFH ; therefore the angle CFH is equal to the angle 
CFP; pt cones ing any incident ray, 
FP is the ray ; moreover, FP is a tangent te 
the epicycloid. (Cor. 2). 
_ Nore. in perenne werctioy Se 
ways su generating point to be in the circum~ 


ference 


Prop. III. 


Let H be the middle of HPA, an. exterior epicy~ Fig. 21. 


cloid, C the centre of the fixed circle, and e 
erating circle when its centre is in the axis CH, 
C Gabe Se ne of'9 Crcie to pies thitomes © 

point-in the epicycloid, and meet generating circ! e 

in V, and jin HV, Sedsherd HY Sy eet 

cloidal arc HP, as the radius of the immoveable ci 
to the sum of the diameters of the immoveable and ge« 
nerating circles. 


Take p, a point in the epieycloid, mdefinitely near 
to Ps deeribe the are pt dnd join Hv; let FPE, Je 
+ ro 


ys fall on the concave circumference Epicycloid, 
of a circle DRd (Fig. 19.), they will, after reflection, “=v” 
ts to an gare DPA, generated by a cir- Pratz 

i the CCLII. 
same centre as the circle DRd, and its radius the Fig: 19. 


186 
em a ing circle at P and: FE, fe, the 
= diameters which passthrough ts in which 
it touches the arc DA ; join p> will be tan- 
~ gents to the curve at P and 2. Cor. 2.); and 
Gre the lines PE, pe, which will be normals 
curve; draw Vr to Hy ; also f's pe 
dicular to FP, and e x ‘PE, and 


Pate 


ccLui. 
Fig. 21. 


" 
4 
= 
3 
5 
: 

eT 
Ae 
= 
Zz 


K, we have, by reject- 
are infinitely small in of 


ax. K fk: % Rei f-PraH v—HV=r», 
and PK4K ; and since 
pi—PF=(p tke cP 5 J crakeneres RE 
s eee ers p=rv+sF 


the are V v as coincidin, vith its tangent) the 
sngle rV vis equal tothe angle DH, or to EF P, that 
is to F fs; therefore V v: Ff::rv:Fs; but Vr=Ee, 
and Ev or Ve: Ff::CE (=e): CF (=c4-2.); there- 
fore c:c42a::rv: Fs, and by composition ¢ : 2Qe+ 
Qa::re: re+Fs, that is, c: 2c-4+2a::rv: arc Pp. 
Now rv is the increments of the chord HV, and P p is 
os increment of the are HP ; and it ap- 
pears that the HV and arc HP, which begin 
together, are augmented by increments which have to 
the cndeeak Yeiho of c to 2c+42a; there- 
fore the chord HV, and arc HP themselves, will have 
to each other the same ratio. 

Cor. The are HPA, half the epicycloid, is a fourth 
seperti es , C, 2c-4-2a, and 2a. 
~ Senorium 1. If the epicycloid be interior, then the 
chord of the g circle determined as in the 

will be to the bp roped oy Ash Sager 
ence of the diameters of the fixed and generating cir- 
cles to the radius of the fixed circle. The 
demonstrated in this case exactly 

2. If we suppose the radius of the fixed circle to be 
infinite, its circumference is to be reckoned a strai 4 
line, and the ratio of c to 2 c42 ais that of c to 
or-of 1 to2. The curve is then the common eyelaia 
and the proposition agrees with what has been shewn 

that curve. 

3. It a that any it wee whe 
= may be rectified {chat in; straight line rha auig' be 

found equal to it), when the curve is described by a 

=< the circumference of the generating circle. 

pent meee point is with or without the 

circle, the rectification of the curve is redu- 

cible to of the ellipse ; and therefore cannot be 
efected but by approximation, See Fiuxions, 


Prop. IV. 


The same thi being supposed as in last proposi- 
tion, let PE, sneer P, meet the ci 


ition is 


Do, and draw H iV, : 
ferent ii to EP. ft incor sciar Bd aes.” and 
4 @e indefinitely small, they may be as 


x 
tng ale the bases eral F 


EPIC YCLOID. 


coinciding with en may be t 
Ken a, recline ti rds be equal, be 
¢ En is equal to E to DUY =EFP ; the 
fn LS not ch eis ate 
position or en 
aft epcycarhar to Sef thee 

position, rv: inet p SB es pl ad 
witely little triangle br v, and 


the same altitude ; ta bie Detendete 

therefore the triangle Drv is to the 

as r#, the base of the former, to n e+ maneer’ 
the parallel sides of the latter ; that is asc to S$c-42a. 


But the triangle and trapezoi d are the increments b, 
which the circular space DHVD, and the « ; 
DHPED, are augmented, in 1 


ce of the 
epics DUPED. ot ee eee e; there 
fore, these spaces are continually fasrensett oy : 
ties which have to each other the cobstant falao nt'e.tp 
Sc4+2a; and cdnsequently the Spaces Saeeneer ia mas 
the same ratio. 
Cor. The whole epicycloidal space DHPAD is to 
half the area of the generating circle as $¢-4+2 toc. 
Scuotium. When the radius of the circular base is 
infinitely great, the epicycloid becomes the common 
cycloid ; Y ind the tatio of $042 ¢ to ¢ becomes the ra- 
tio of $c toc, or $ to 1, as was demonstrated in ; 
8. of the Cyctorp. oi sale 
~ Prop. Vv. ide bows 


Ifa thread be fastened ‘at A, one 
epicyc’oid, and applied thre AH 
ares ina he oy 
ed into a strai line, tee extremity sng ne 
another epeyeoid HXZ, smile tthe epicycloid 

i ees accngh the pata EL Pte circle, when 

through the ints Hand P respectively. i 
Ae centre of the cle describe ahs 
and PV ; join HV, and PE ; and make EF to FY 
CE to CF, that is as ¢ to ¢-4-2a, and j in XY 


cause PF is equal to VH, and the are wiraight 
line PX, PFs XP: BK, 2c4-2a (Prop. 2) aad hy gin 
version, PF: FX :: ¢: c+ 2a, that is, 

as EF to FY; henes ‘the triangles PFE, OK PY are simi- 
lar ; the angle FXY is pea fh a pa and 
a circle described on FY as a 


X, and touch the are HR in F. again case 
angles XYF, PEE Te cone the arc XF is similar tothe 
arc PF, and arc XF :arc PF: : chord XF: chord PE. But 
XF: PF :: YF: FE (or by construction,) : ; CF : ie 

: are FH: arc ED; therefore arc XF: are PE: 
are FH : are ED: But the arc PF is equal to the 
ED, because, by the generation of the curve, are 
arc EP, andere AE are EPF ; therefore the : 
XF is equal to the are FH: Hence it follows 

i Ee OL Hick the sto 


XY the 
because, be Cantertition, EF BY Nay CF ; the di 
meters of the HM pope | circles, have 
tio as the diameters’ of. the f circles ; 


the same ra 
tee the epicycloids will be si 
Con. The radius of curvature at ay Wa 3 et 
epicycloid is to the chord of the arc of the 
por between that ae pie bee 
constant ratio of the sum 


Wy bigeye yey OF the tation, 
former, and the diamnster of the later. For a 


aaa i cCLitt. ; 


EPa * 


it follows, that EF: FC:: FY: YC, and EF: FY:: 
: YC; therefore PF : FX :: FC: YC, and PX: 
::FC+YC:  Wabssetd ov wr iandbie 6 "E 
This proposition will apply to an interior epicycloid, 
by subtracting the diameter of the generating circle, or 
its multiples, instead of adding them. (2) 
EPIDEMIC Diseases. See Mepicine. 
EPIDENDRUM. See Botany, p. 315. 
EPIDERMIS. See Anatomy.  ~ 
EPIGHA. See Borany, p. 217. } 
EPIGRAM, (from éx:, upon, and ygaPiu, to wrile,) 
originally signified merely, as its derivation denotes, an 
inscription, generally upon some public edifice, monu- 
ment, or remarkable spot. Even among the Greek 
writers, however, the word epigram gradually acquired 
a more extensive signification, and was almost indis- 
criminately a to any short poetical composition, 
descriptive of local scenery, commemorative of some 
striking event, or illustrative of some liar moral feel- 
ing or affection of the mind. such ancient epi- 
grams or inscriptions, we have many beautiful speci- 
mens in the Greek Anthologies; and it is justly re- 


marked by Mr Drake, in his Literary Hours, that a num- 
ber of these uctions bear, in their style and charac- 
ter, a very analogy to the modern sonnet. 


ve been much restricted ; with them an epi- 

gram was usually understood to denote a short sati- 

rical effusion ; and, in this sense the name has general- 

ly been adopted in modern times. 
The characteristic requisites of an epigram are ex- 

pressed in the following couplet ; 

«* What is an ?—A dwarfish whole,— 

** Its body brevity—end wit its soul.” 


pr ne ceonhe 5  e or allusion, which pleases us, 
Stents ee KR a pt chong pakig es 


ired in an epi ; indeed, many of the 
i 1 speciinens of this species of caxsposition 


wane is no British author, we believe, who, like 
irtial among the Romans, has distinguished himself 


of our most eminent poets abound in epigrammatic 
turns ; pret tif ty collections of the scattered 


int which is to 
See Greek Antho- 
Lessing, Ueber das EF, onda The Fesoon, or 
gles. » Uleve mm. esloon, or 
© Cillaction of Epigrams, he. by Mr Gtayes. The Bre 
tish Martial, 2 vols. 12mo. (z) 
EPILEPSY. See Mepicine. 
EPILOBIUM. See Botany, p. 199. 
EPIMEDIUM., See Borany, p. 123. 


987 
nie radius of curvature at ‘X, and FX the chord'of the — 


EPI 

ipa lee We paras ofthe Tonge Te 
princi ice in the rtment e Tt is 
situated on the river Moselle, near the mountains, * and 
had formerly a celebrated abbey, a college, an hospital} 
and four convents. Its commerce consists of corn and 
in of all kinds, of hemp, lintseed, colzat, and wood. 

ts principal manufactures are those of paper, earthen- 
ware, and pipe-clay. ' Oil is made in great quantities ; 
and there are also manufactures of thread, linen, and 


_ cotton stockings. Its fairs are held on the Ist and 3d 


Wednesday of every month. Population 7000. (w) 
EPIPACTIS. ‘See Borany, p. 314. 
EPIRUS, was a region in ancient Greece, bounded 


on the east by Macedon and Thessaly ; on the south by 
the Ambracian Gulf; on the west by the Tonian_Sea ; 
and on the north by the Ceraunian Miniésinn: It con- 
sisted anciently of three divisions ; Chaonia, lying to- 
wards the north; Molossis, the middle or inland pro- 
vince ; and ia, i it’ the. eouth’ ant 
the Ambracian Gulfto the sea. Many cities of consi- 
derable magnitude adorned this territory, of which we 
shall only mention Ambracia, built near the mouth of 
the river Arachtus, which was about three miles in cir- 
cumference, and became the residence of the Aacidz, 
who He ea in Epirus ; and Dodona, said to have been 
founded by Deucalion as early as the flood, and render- 
ed illustrious by the temple and oracle of Jupiter Do- 
donzus, which were accounted the most ancient and 
venerable in all Greece. The lands which stretched 
along the sea coasts were fertile and well cultivated ; but 
the interior parts were covered with vast forests, and 
were almost entirely barren. The horses of Epirus 
were famous from the most remote antiquity ; and the 
dogs, which the Romans called Molossi, from the dis« 
trict where they were reared, were every where pur-~ 
chased and employed in hunting. 

Ifcredit be due to J us, Dodanim, the grandson of 
Japhet, having first settled in the island of Rhodes, either 
went aves to the continent himself, or sent thither some 
of his descendants, to ethisregion. From him the 
inhabitants were called , and their principal 
city Dodona: but in a short time after,a number of 
different tribes migrated thither, and took possession of 
those places which were not yet occupied. Having no 
bond of union, they were almost constantl in 
war; and though this inspired them with most 
exalted , it rend the introduction of. civili« 
zation and ement slow and difficult, 

During the time that the country was divided-into a 


oneness — states, each see its 
own king wi most despotic authority. i 
of this region is al unworthy of attention. 


was only when the kings of Molossis had gained the 
ee their bours, and had reduced the 
whole their sway, this region was denomina- 
ted Epirus, from a Greek word which signifies the cone 
tinent, Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles, was the first of 


the race of the AZacide, who assumed the sceptre. | 


But the ancient annalists generally bes re the 
history ,of this country with his accession the 
siege of Troy, yet the exploits which they attribute to 
him, are certainly disfigured by poetical invention. The 
names of his descendants, who governed Epirus till the 
Persian war, are buried in oblivion, When Xerxes in- 
vaded Greece, Admetus held the sceptre ; but as he had 
refused to assist either party, Themistocles, after the ter- 
mination of the war, rejected, with disdain, his offers of 
alliance; but when that celebrated Athenian was banish- 
ed from the ungrateful country, which ee ae 


‘Epirus. 
eat 


by his brother-in-law, Demetrius, with whom 
in exile, Many. opr Beye G king of 
Egypt Having conciliated affection of” that mo- 

, by his assistance he agai 


for Italy ; 
pa ge Tarentum. Taking the field at the head of 
his own forces and those of his allies, he defeated the 


Asculum, where he was dangerously wounded. Col- 


part of his army had fallen around him, he was obliged, 
not only to leave the field of battle, and retire to Ta- 
rentum, but to abandon Italy, and returnhome. To 
retrieve wie septation, and supply his exhausted trea- 
sury, his spirit then invaded the ki of 
Macedon, overthrew Antigonus in a pitched battle, 
drove him from his throne and his dominions, and took 

ion of the kingdom 


him, entered the city during the night, 
Sad threat be GE ote Sa cee 

e whi eir 
fury revenge had made. Pyrrhus, who now per- 
ceived that all was lost, endeavoured in yain to retire 
from the city with the wreck of his forces; and, whilst 
he igies of valour, a woman who sur~ 


veyed the from the top of a house, beheld the 
é monarch below her ready to plunge his sword 
inte the breast of her son who had wounded him, and, in 


avenged her country. The head of the monarch was 
severed from the body, and the remains of his army 


were made 
_. The kin after his death, was successively go- 


succeeded her 


ther, a female hand was too weak to keep her fierce and 


“ 


‘foundations of a powerful 


ever, was equalled by its punishment. After i 
in al the adverse fo Emili ith an exasperated 
war behe ‘aulus us, with an 
army, enter their territories ; divide among his daring 
veterans the wealth which had been amassed for. ; 
level in the dust the cities which their fathers had de- 
corated ; condemn to slavery a hundred and fifty thou- 
sand of ane parte inhabitants ; anes : the 
chief men country to Rome, and to perpetual 
imprisonment. The glory of Epirus was now for ever 
extinguished. When the Consul Mummius had redu- 
ced Corinth to ashes, and dissolved the Achaian 2, 
Epirus became a Roman province. In this state of de- 
gradation it remained till the division of the Roman 
world, when it shared the fortunes of the eastern em- 
pee. But when the French and Venetians, under the 
uis of Monserrat, had stormed Constanti and 
divided the Greek provinces, Michael, a of the 
house of Angeli, from the camp of the Latins, and, 
seizing upon Epirus, Aetolia, Thessaly, laid the 
~ bse and claimed the 
honours of an independent ne. Theodore 
lus succeeded to the power and ambition of his brother ; 
took prisoner Courtenay, who had been elected emperor 
of Constantinople, had invaded Epirus, expelled 
Demetrius from his ki of Thessalonica, and as- 
sumed the lofty appellation of Emperor. This dawn 
of glory was soon overcast, Amurath IT. having driven 


by the name of 

who held the sceptre. 
shai gud, awh at. alien ingloclns salijection 
their , W itin i i jecti 

It is now known by the name Albania. (n) 
EPISTYLIUM. See Borany, p. 329. 

EPITAPH, signifies an inscription upon a tomb, and 
generally designed to commemorate the name and 
virtues of the deceased. The practice of i 
epitaphs on the dead, which appears to have 


. 


death, 
tives. . . ss 

So tm eee 
the nvidal be a es note, ome mare ample desig 


names, are apt to excite v feelings from 
pa te pe ced in mind of the read- 


epitaphs of Pope. (2) 

EPITRITES, in music, is an interval whose ratio 
is 2, = 2544-5 £4.22 m, and is the Fourta Minor ; 
which see. 

EPIZOOTY, derived from ex: and Zwsy, signifies a 
plague or murrain among animals. In the common 
acceptation of the term, murrain is limited to distempers 
among useful and domesticated animals, whereas epi- 


gl remy 
averting the . At present, however, we shall 
chiefly restrict our remarks to some historical notices of 
the more singular and decided epizooties which have 


wi 
of 


hte 


lus, in the year 212 before Christ, 
ind and animals were alike the victims of a pesti- 
lential disorder ; and if we could trust to Silius Itali- 


cus, the of it might be described. 
J age centuries of the Christian era, : 
instances of are found in the works of the an- 


HE 


indiscriminately, in the year 65; and the Roman ter- 


ritory was ravaged by a similar pestilence about the- 


year 190. 
In the fourth century, we learn that the means 
4 


EPI 
to avert a general 


89 
Se tedelly phen ia ellis whee b eaten 
ly ly produ t ef w is ascribed to 
it, Vegetias Renatas, who floured in the same eon- 
, various cures for the different pestilen- 
Kal disorders of cattle. 


destructive, which ravaged different parts of Europe.” 


such diseases, 


ple existence of the malady ; but, in the sixteenth cen« 
tury, the subject was ined with more attention. 
Fracastori, an Italian physician, witnessed an epizooty 
in the year 1514, which first 
Frioul, whence it spread by ion to 
thence to ‘etange A — 
in France during ‘ollowing year, and 
are described as an eruptive fever, narrowly re- 
sembling the small Few isti 
served, except that it was extremely contagious, and 


Venice, and 
ce 


lady in 1578, it was more plainly designated small-pox, 
apprehensions were some time after entertained, 
that man might be liable to infection. The Vene- 
tian ent, therefore, on an universal dysentery 
attacking the citizens of Venice and Padua, issued an 
edict in 1599, ibiting the sale or distribution or 
the flesh of , or milk, butter, or cheese, under pain 
of death, It had likewise been observed, that such dis- 
from the east, and that some dis- 

had been t from Hungary and Dal- 
where the malady so common, that an- 

was sought out for the two cities. 


1661, after a hot, summer, 

spread among pein especially horses, cattle, 

> but we ¢ pA ovens Maman pccote 
pally to 

climates, and, al 


This was accompanied by gangrene of the tongue and. 
intesti and the former sometimes came away in 
pieces. who tended the cattle, and neglected 


proper: precautions, are said to have been infected by 
the disease, and to have died. Its: was regu- 


wonderfully increased in the 
‘of the eighteenth century ; and oppor. 


izooty in Europe, was Epizooty. 
alti CluMals tek faa Cemotine’| with a echsnee “See” 


Episcoty. tunities for observation seemed to keep pace with a g 
—y— neral antiety to Doreeeite 


190 EPIZOOTY. 


Svea aad the flyin 
years 1705 and 1711, 4 

chanere or -bubo, which the latest authors denomi- 
nate a real plagwe or murrain, was found to be making 
terrible ravages in Europe. It had been imported by a 
Single infected ox brought info the Venotiatt states from 
Ho and Dalmatia; and it was thence dissemina- 


ted hout the: Roman territory and the kingdom 
of Naples, sweeping away almost the whole cattle in 
its Ie did not reach France until the year 
1714; and, in the same year, having been some time 
valent in Britain, the most vigorous a v4 re- 
pressing it were adopted by government. the ani- 
mals attacked were ae be destroyed, and bu- 
ried deep in the earth, and a compensation allowed to 
those who thus lost their The violence of 
the disease did not subsist above three months, during 
which time the counties of Essex, Middlesex, and Sur- 
rey, lost 5857 cattle, old and young. At this time it 
was observed, that on cows being brought to a pond 
to drink, many became giddy, fell down in convulsions, 
bled copiously at the mouth and nose, and died. Other 
nations suffered more severely ; Piedmont lost 70,000 
cattle; Holland, not fewer than 200,000 ; and the full 
extent of the epizooty throughout Europe, was calcu- 
lated to have destroyed 1,500,000 animals, All these 
i of the infection disseminated by the single 
ox from Hu But the disease was mark- 
ed by considerable distinctions in different countries ; 
and it seems that some of its symptoms bore little re- 
semblance in one place to what were seen in another, - 
Anintelligent German physician, Andrew Goelicke, had 
an opportunity of making many interesting observations 
on anepizooty among black cattle in 1730, which spread 
by contagion ; and the attention of M. De Sauvages of 
Montpellier was soon afterwards directed to a distem- 
among cattle, horses, mules and asses, This was a 
lees of the tongue, degenerating into a cancerous ulcer, 
whereby that organ was almost totally destroyed. The 
commencement and termination of the disease were 
sometimes witnessed within 24 hours. The e of 
the city of Nismes did not escape ; and on looking into 
historical record, several Parisians had apparently been 
affected by a similar complaint, in the year 1571. The 
tongue of the diseased animals now fell to pieces, while 
— and performed their ordinary functions. 
e of the most destructive epizooties known to have 
rope; but for at least ten 
Its. virulence; 


evacuations, _ evan the es fell down as if 
struck by apoplexy. ions covered those which 
perm eben jf saporaton But it was evi- 
dently contagious, and the strongest precautions were 
— to repress the infection. Former experience 

proved, in the history of an epizooty, by Lancisi, 

Tor marmite te ree ene ot Der‘ certsin 
drivers havi pe re fair in Italy, in 
Ey oe « 1718, a ition was issued against holding 
it, meg prevent the dispersion of the cattle. 
However, the drivers rather than be disappointed of a 
market, conducted them by private roads to Rome, and 


sold their cattle ata low price. Inm 
wards, a contagi spread th 
Roman territory, and destroyed 300,01 
withstanding similar precautions now enforcec 
burying the diseased cattle, as well as interdictir 
sale of their flesh, untoward accidents happene: 
if we are to credit the accounts of the times, cor 


vances in the surrounding country. The Marquis de 
Courtivron instituted numerous experiments regarding 
this distemper, from which he concluded that it ex- 
hibited itself on thé fourth day from infection, that the 
ninth was its crisis, and that the contagion could ‘ 
only by direct communication between two animals. — 
Whether this epizooty totally ceased within ten 
years, or, indeed, whether it has ever been completely 
extirpated, may be the subject of dispute. Perhaps thie 
renewal of epidemics is judged to be such, be- 
cause observations are not sufficiently extensive to 
prove that they are always subsisting. In the course 
of the year 1746, a new remedy, inoculation, had been 
attempted at Brunswick, and in an epizooty Which ap- 
siiiedl in Holland during 1755, the same remedy was 
repeated, though with little success, and recommended 
in Britain by Dr Layard, in the year 1757. The dis- 


‘temper in the latter country was considered absolutely . 


similar to the small-pox ; and the infection was said to 
have been brought from Holland by two white calves of 
a favourite breed, or by two skins of diseased animals, 
Whatever was the case, many cattle perished of it, — 
Different epizooties appeared about the same time 
among the cattle, horses, and reindeer of France, Aus- 
tria, Finland, and Lapland. Swine, dogs, and even 


poultry, are said to have been attacked by it. Russia _ 


did not escape ; and, if we can credit the relations given, 
the malady was propagated by the skin of an i 

bear, even to the destruction of mankind. These epi- 
zooties were either or renewed duri aa 
years immediately subsequent, and, if possible, raged 
more extensively among the various genera of animals, 
The horses of Switzerland, the cattle of other countries, 


sheep, and particularly lambs, were swept away in ~ 


thousands. In 1764, dogs were attacked t 
Ep in Spain, and the rest of the fe 
tribes all over Europe, The milk of infected cows 
spread the contagion ; for those animals supplied with 
it were covered with pustules ; and people who suffer= 
ed in the same manner experienced t difficulty of 
deglutition, and burning heat in the throat, : 
or some years, about this period, an epizooty raged 
axiscingiaack cattle of Holland. It firstrasnifested itself 
in the province of Groningen, especially in the village 
of Haren, and spreading insensibly, carried off the whole 
cattle belonging toaneighbouring district. Its attack was 
announced all at once by the animal becoming dull, and 
rejecting drink. Fever and shivering, attended by: a 
— prostration of strength, followed; the ears and 
1orns gtew cold; a cough became unremitting ; a pu- 
rulent matter was di from the nose, and an 
ichorous fluid flowed from the eyes. The hide was 
acs up, and a crackling, like that of parchment, was 
eard on pressure. Sone ene i " 
others by constipation from the fourth to the sixth day 
of the disease, and they died from the second to the 
eleventh day after its commencement. The blood of the 
animals then proved thin; the intestines inflamed 


EEE — 


: of the disease. 
It is unnecessary to enter on any detail concerning these 
different principles ; Tp renpcating that sinnk-azodets 


opinion, there was no means of ing against con- 
See arty betine teach nels, ed alee 
stances. , i ; i od 


the malignity of the di a 

the doubtful issue of former 
experim them on a more exten- 
sive scale. His first essays, which he did not consider 
particolarly successful, saved 46 out of 112 infected ani- 
mals 


: again, 46 were: ed out of 92 ; and, if cows 
were not far adlvanced ‘n gestation, three-fourths sur- 


‘ weg 
to the same proposal in England, when 

ator applied to the privy council for i 
sion to carry the variolous matter from Hampshire into 
other counties. It was then remarked, that the intro- 


of inoculation. This ed ex- 
tremely destructive in Holland ; for it a , that 
‘of 286,647 animals attacked, not fewer | 208,354 
died 


_ The same disease seems to have made its way into 
, by the introduction of a diseased cow, as was 
prs en: the Low Countries, in the year 177t; 
after being subdued, broke out with bled vio- 
lence In 1773. _Its first and principal ravages were in 
the province of Hainault and ly, whence it became 
widely extended. Numerous remedies were tried, but 
was 


EPIZOOTY. : 
and this result is said to have coincided with the ex-  Epizooty- 
—_—— 


191 


eriments of the Marquis de Courtivron some time bes ™ 
. The British government had adopted the precau-~ 

tion, of ordering all infected cattle to be killed by stran- 
gulation, and without effusion of blood ; that their car- 
cases should be buried in the earth, with the hide 
entire ; and that all fodder, litter, and every thing else 
which might communicate the contagion, should: be 
buried along with them. Similar ordinances were pro- 
mulgated by the government of France, and renewed 
for several years, strictly enjoining the destruction of the 
diseased animals, and that their carcasesshould be buried, 
and their skins cut in pieces, in order to prevent.any 
dealings for them. Indemnification was promised te 
those who thus lost their property, and a premium of- 
fered to whoever should substitute horses or mules for 
cattle in agricultural ions. By these and other 

rudent regulations, this, which is one of the epizooties. 
[eieshersiadand iathictaty; was repressed... » 
- During the period that contagious distempers swept 
away the cattle of Europe, a malady even more } 
in its appeared among those of the West In- 
dies. [ts effects seem to have been more minutely traced: | 
in Guadaloupe, where it first attacked black. cattle, 
then spread to horses, and is said even to have affected 
man. Animals apparently well, in condition, and 
feeding as usual, were suddenly seized with shivering 
fits; attended by convulsions in the spine and abdomen, 
which sometimes carried them off in an hour. _ Almost 
all the negroes who opened the dead cattle, had boils 
rising on their arms, attended by much fever; and those 
feeding on their flesh, experienced the like symptoms. 
But examples were given of several, who actually died 
from infection of the distemper. Something similar 
was witnessed in France, where persons skinning the 
animals, themselves died of the contagion, the effects of 
which. were immediate. ‘ 

Between the years 1780: and 1790, a pestilential diss. 
ease prevailed among the cattle in the northern coun- 
ties of Scotland, vulgarly denominated hasty, from the- 
rapidity of its The animal swelled, its respi-. 
ration was , there was a copious flow from the- 
hea it lay down, and sometimes expired in a few hours, 

pater ter was weeny pease ene 
many foreign countries, to an MU. 
rage of copses, and with the decay ciahernondaheaphe 
zooty has declined. ote? pena attempted to cure- 
the infected animals, pan contagion of the. 
healthy, by fumigation with the smoke of need yire, - 
which was fire obteinedt by the friction of a certain, 
wooden apparatus erected on an islet. 

The eastern parts of Asia were visited by a destruc. 
tive nay the horses, especially-in 1804 ; and- 
after the severity in 1805 and 1806, it was re- 
newed with uncommon virulence in the year 1807, In 
so far as we can learn, this distemper consisted of a-sud- 
den swelling, attended by shivering fits, an abscess 
formed. most: in.the head, and the animal died 
in twelve hours at farthest. -But, in many instances, 
its commencement and termination were infinitely more 
rapid, and death was known to ensue in half an hour; 
The was observed aed at Ochotsk, Cattle, 
reindeer, and horses, all suffered ; and of the last, a ca- 
rayan consisting of eighty, preserved, only: ten. The 
Russian government of those distant ions, in order 
to repress the disease, ordered all the-animals perishing 
of it to be burnt ; but before its nature was well un-- 
derstood, the Jakutchians, to whom horse flesh is grate. 
fal, unwilling to lose such a; source of subsistence,, feds 


iB 
[} 
i 
F 
i 


i 
! 


Lil 

tt 

HF 
t 
$2 


ar 
rf 
[i 
H 


i 
: 
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il 
: 
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HT 
: 
i 


= er oe 
is 


from 
imaprebable ag a it wales its 
i A entire once 
inhabiting the surface of the earth or the waters, are now 


mwa Traité de I’ Education des Animauz, p. 
131. Landt’s History of the Feroe Islands, p. 210. 
ae on the Plagues of Egypt. (c) 
POCH. See Curonotocy. 

EPPING Forest. See Essex, p. 205, 206. 

EPTAMERIDE, or Heptamenis, in Music, is an in- 
terval, so named by M. Sauveur, (see Mem. de l Acad. 
16mo, 1701, p. 407,) as the 1-30lst part of the oc- 
tave, = 2.04057055, and its common i is 
99899990035, but which is assumed by M. Sauveur in 
his calculations of musical intervals to be .9989000,0000, 


in order to have the octave expressed by a sup. log. of 
3010000,0000. 64 oe 


arp. flat ; the Vths flat, 
and the VIths sharp; and the II Ids flat, and the VIths 
be men sharp. See his Harmonics, 2d edit. pp. 211— 


Bat Earl Stanhope in 1806, was the first we believe 


EQU 
who proposed succession of 
cond of the aumme kind, te cr rekcical oaoe> 
A controversy on which ensued in 


~ =the ratio of each of these concords when perfect ; 
m 

é=the number of beats in 1” of time ; 

<= the ratio of the given interval or compass; and 


N=the number of complete vibrations in 1’, made 

by the lowest given sound thereof ; and we have 

Tueorem I, Fam 
Nx (<2—m') - 
3 r 
~ nt? bm? ne m3 1? te KE. 

the series inating, when the index of m becomes 
negative, n and r being the least terms (in their lowest 
terms) of the ratios, and accordingly as 4 is positive or 
negative the beatings will be sharp or flat. 

Also, if V=the number of complete vibrations in 1’ 


of the rote araived st, SNE Sening + SPEER eielNst 


ing concords in succession : > 
Tueorem II. 
ya (Nits x (m=! em? rtm tp Ke. 
= t 


n 
the lower si i sed, accordi: bis 
ad ap lidericly dnp Days 


And iff= the ratio of the last or uppermost of f, of - 


such equal-beating concords in succession, then 


Tueoren III. wt-as 
ce _ n+(Nm'—*ab x )m'—* +m n 4 m'—*n? 4 &e.) 
a Nm'aeb x (m'—" 4-m'—*n4- m3 &e,) 
1. If Earl Stanhope’s two equal-beating bi- 


equal major thirds E)A and pAc, are to be tuned in the 
minor sixth Ec, in the octave above tenor cliff C, we 


have, in Theorem Lt=2,~= ~~ = andN=300, 


5 8 
: 8 
300 x (= x 16-25) 

5 + —900X%.6 _ 
andé= 45 = 9 ae 
manher of baste abarp, made in 17 Uy Soe eneeaee 
thirds, as observed in 7 + Vol. Xxx. p. 4, 
in our article Concert Pitch. In coder tofent “a 


od Beaty ampere Sv. bes af on ft a or, we $8 ator : . 


‘ 
tt ht 


geting: in Theor 


—— v= ae OT ir Os he the -vi- 


EQUAL. 


RE ERT ER RI cea 
ansehen, i=1, b= 4-20, andthe rest as before; and 


=—T6 
brations of pA; and SP = 17 is the ratio of EDA. And 
in order to obtain the ratios of these bi-equal thirds, we 
have in Theorem IIE. first, t=1, 6=20, &. nd [= 61 


4% (30040) 1200 15 
5x 3004-20’ 152019 =! PA, as before; and se- 


4% (300 x 54-20) 
cond, 1=2, &e, and5 = aoa 2542 oxGFH) 544 
poelere a= 
hare hen go, by inverting the vibrations of the nots 


already found : thus, 30 = {35 also 300x-= = 480,the 
Ge ND, cht art 
ship’s two new thirds, mentioned in our article Br-EQuAL 
Third, ~The minor sixth CpA is = 7. 


aig dace canal! Lae to tune his Lord- 


RI-EQUAL Quints, in the 
nisjer’ tia Ce Be On the mili venereal 


partly above and below it;) we have, ¢=3, ~ = 
= 5 and N = 180; and Theorem I. gives 


_180x (sues) 


2 or 3.1578947 flat beats 


7 edi of idee ites consecutive fifths 
» Se xxvii. p.13. In Theorem II. make 


and the rest as before, and v= 


get, 


ri © 19 


180%3— x (140) _s10 
= 268.4210526 vibrations 


a 
per 1” of the note D. "See Phil Sepang aye 
In like manner, when i=2, we get 1070 — 401.0526816 
vibrations of the note A. If the jules of these three 


_ trisequal quints be required, they may be had from 


180% 19 
6100 

; and the vibra- 

127 


Theorem III. ; or from their vibrations thus, 
Be et 5100 _ 85 

tions of e sing 128 wehave oe icy 

=vib. of Ac. 


Example 3. If three equal-beating major thirds be re- 
quired to be tuned in an’ octave above tenor-cliffC, we 


pn lia 


Tr = 11.80323 times sharp, the rate of each of 


their beating. ee ae =1, &. and V= 
VOL, IX, PART I. 


193 


240 x 5 OO a g4e0 
gE 
and 2d, when imate, v== =F 81.0998, those of 


61 
7qand 


gy Tespectively 5 and the values of these three new thirds 
97 


pA. The ratios of these two notes will be founa OL 


come out, CE=— Ep A = — and ) Ac=—. 


Example 4, If four equal-beating parkiuon be want- 


ed in the octave as above, we have t= ey. 8 ee 


m 625 
rien se 20x (+ x 625 —1296) 
N=240; = = 
2 eck 2164-1804-150+4- 125 
11040 Lessa cot 


"Sr? =16.45305 beats flat per 1” ; and putting 


t=1, &c, in Theorem II. we have van = 
284.70939 vibrations of PE ; also by making ‘=2, and 
f=8, we get ch =338,36066 =) G, and a 
402.74217=A vibrations. The notes themselves will 


be found pE ou sap Ga sand A= SU and the four 
equating minor thirds wil be, as fallow, _ 
ChE = Top PEGS FagiG A= and Ae= gee. 
if, nen at the use of our $d Theo- 
thirds, we put (=4, b= 


5x (240x216—0 Xx (96-430-425) ) 


x (2164-180-4 1504-125) 


Eingis's Suppose it were wird to calculate 
up Spe, were ree of 12 succes~ 


sive fifths within 7 octaves above tenor cliff C, we have 

vane < Ls jug and N=e40; and in the 1st 
240 x (128 x 4096 —531441) 

Theorem we find b= T7747 4 118098 4.787324, &c 

= — 949944 _ __s.0554021, the flat beats sek 1° ok 


1 
each of these di quints, Make t=1, &c. 


uodeci-equal 
and, in Theorem IT. we have, 


343344 
240 X S—s 60 
v= 5 =f, 168" = 358,3722989, 


the vibrations of G ; Sogou hE we get 
— 565204080 _ ; 


vimanas ers all the other notes of ‘such a 
may readily be found, and the ratio of each 


In a letter (which the writer has before him) from 
QB 


‘Equal- 
beating. 
= er = St2 B08, he wf Bs 


, and A =401,344539 ane per 


Earl Stanhope, in the controversy above alluded to, 
has mentioned another of equal-beating 
sounded at the oo 

two tem concords ; his two bi-eq 
Sa testense, Sten Geaeee pb A and c; so adjust- 
ed, that there shall be no beatings between the two beat- 
; that is, that the beatings of Ep A and b Ac shall 
SESE cote oot (as in our first example,) or one 
be exactly some concordant tals as 2, 4, 8, &c. 


ae ag ag 
2’ Bit alt 
ven ~* ee cae Magazine, vol. xxxiii. 


P EQUAL Harmony, has, by one class of musical 
ga tntd Emerson, Mr Cavallo, Mr Chambers, &c. 
to the equalization of the harmony of the 
or systems of eight notes, above every finger- 
the organ or piano-forte, considered as a key- are 
note ; which system is, however, more commonly, and 
ought always to be denominated, the equal temper- 
ament, or Isoronic system, and by another and more 
correct class of writers, as Dr Robert Smith, Dr Robi- 
son, &c. the term equal , has been restricted to 
to attemper the scale so, that all the con- 
cept the unisons and octaves, which are kept 
sap uy may be equally and the most harmonious, within 
a given compass of notes. 

_— Bs his ard Harmonics feteies un- 
deserving censures that have w 
has endeavoured to lay the foundation for’ such 
a system as has ne of the her on his im- 


+ : ° 
3 ors, of the other, in a gi- 


es 


Hd 


tem Seeger er ): 
ve 

product ofthe ems of (each of) the perfect ratios of 
corresponding ect 
of arithmetical gO ahmonieal mean 


nances, parcels, 

Vths, Viths, and I[Ids, and their compliments to, and 
with VilIths, Dr Smith's investigations 

lead to the conclusions, that 


A ee va een 

is Cocunt V, and II 
b (or 
lows, 


» in one octave, must have 
, tempered, (or +,) or 
—,) in parts of major comma, or nearly as fol- 


360° = 360’ 360’ 


or those tempered concords, are V—3,088325, VI+4 
1.74290z, and [1] —}.34542z. 


EQUAL. 


Kn tre cote, ee Pe aera MEE) 
ie pg 


32 
or V—3.095962, vI 7 + 1.719983, end I—1.8766 


In three octaves, these temperaments Iara. 

nearly - 
ae a re 
Ts “is 78? 


or V—3.0577422,V1 + 1.834643, and IT —1.2230992, 
and, 
In four octaves, ee 
pnt eRe RT 
a “4 4’ 
orV—3. ner Ae, Vig Sas cane 


i 
ue 


F 


base respectively ; 
tions, at om the same differs 
a system W ae eager eae and 
the latter X. Farey has shewn in 
yol. xxxvi. p. 51, that the temperaments in 
by ultimate ratios, are 
—2 +1 1 
7? maiko ad 
or V—3.1451042,VI + 1.5725523 anit—t ST25522. 
The Doctor likewise shews, a syssem, (prexi- 
ously proposed by M. Henfling,) wherein 
tone is to the major limma as 8 : kn vee ae: 
vided into 50 equal parts, approaches 
favourite system oa haroon, ating i tempera 
ments (p. 157) at sina 
+25 16 i 


—41 oer) “i 
14s’ “148° 


i 
a 
PEPEEEE 


7 


148’ 
which are equivalent toV—3. 0494752, VI41 1. oe 


and I1I—1,1900383. of 


BE Nog various systems 

vin, orth crane chm geese eit 

ae eee Wit cake cestar oceans 

readily, ater areca ata 


p. $70 of our third volume. () 


EQUAL Temperament, is applied to a of 
ee wherein each concord par, pri te Baa 
alike tempered, and wherein there are twelve semi- 
cme, precisely ; and thence it is called the Iso- 
tonic System; each ‘of which semitones are = 51 = 
Fe Aiam, ny and thet ratio the Hr Ble which 
incommensurate. 


Fa- 
eligi: that a commensurate , seven of 
Thoda tall Gade are peas Se ech 4 f+ ae and 
five of them of the value 51 gran 
of whose fifths are of the value neste sti a 
one of the value 357 24+f+430m, differing 


ERA A 
only m. in each case, or or less than the +jssth part of a 
major comma! and yet this temperament, so perfectly m 
eerie eo sree 


TC QUATION or Tie. See Astronomy. p.652, am. 
EQUATIONS. See Atcesra, 
EQUATOR. See Astronomy and GrocrapHy. 
EQUATORIAL Insrrements. See Osserva- 
TORY. 
EQUINOCTIAL. SeeAstnonomy and Grograpny. 
EQUINOXES,, Precession or. See Astronomy, 
p- 712, 714. 
P EQUISETUM. See Finices. 
. ERANTHEMUM. See Botany, p- 85. 
ERASMUS, or Desipenivs, * one of the most cele- 


orn 2 et = cree 


i 
i 
Gry 

in 
a 
He 


aie 
ia 


FE 
iF 
L 
me 


1H 
E 


7 
i 
a 
Fj 
z 
rF 


i 
iH 
ur 
pe 

| 
a 

Hl 


Bre 
a 
< «i 
g 


Tig 
bell 
ht 


Od 
‘ ap eh gt alge Dies 
pension. of a hundred crowns, visited 
Fagot in 3/0 , and formed an apapesptence. wth She 
nent Kacey characters of ta 


friendshi ot some, of his 
meee ean" pd A a 


- 195 


ERA 


sae of his treatises, and compelled him te spend Erasmus 
reading lectures to young students,, ““—~-* 


of his time in 
He received, however, frequent donations from his 
friends and patrons, particularly from Anne Bersala, 
Marchioness of Ure, whom he often addressed in let- 
ters of the most complimentary style, and to whom he 
made known his wants with very little deli- 
oe About the beginning of the year 1507, he went 
taly, in order to take a doctor’s degree, which, he 
observes, “‘ makes one neither better nor wiser, but must 
be done, if a man would be esteemed by the world.” 
Having ‘resided about a year in Florence, he ed 
to Venice, where he published a third edition of his 
Adages ; and, after rade a short time at Padua, he.- 
arrived in Rome in 1509. At this time, he was acting 
as tutor, to Alexander, fo pore of St Andrews, na- 
tural son of James IV., of w draws a very high 
character, and who was aoe slain, with his fa. 
ther, at the sr pcan rae Field. At Rome, he at 
“experienced most flattering attentions, and re~ 
ceived several ady: offers to induce him to set« 
pi en ap but at | he -seems to have 
the sincerity of his Italian friends, and, in. 
“ Praise of Folly,” which he wrote soon after, ex- 
ply Se, ap od inert oe 
treated ane oe popes court. there 
fore, the invitations .of Henry VIII. and of his former 
ations, to return to England, where he 
continued a considerable time in great favour with the 
King, with fue with Warkam Archbishop of Can« 
wieate with Sir Thomas More, and many other nobles . 
of distinction. Invited to Cambridge by 
» of Rochester, he was oted succes~ 


eet 


the “ Praise of Folly,” he. ‘wae No 
plage 


tre sant invectives against the monastic. orders, are upon 


him the bitterest 


persecutions tions from that 
order to shelter himself from their ~ nt 


his edition of the New Testament i in Greek.and: Latin, 
with notes, a work which had long occupied his -chief - 
attention, and which, while it drew upon-him the cen~ 
sures” of i t and envious critics, was highly va- 
lued by all who were capebve. ani of appreciating its merits. 
About the same tim roduced, and fnscribed to 
Archbishop Warkam, an edition of the works of Je« 
rome, whom he professed, in rather exaggerated terms, 
to hold in the cuetaat estimation, as an author and a 


/ _ ® His original, name was Gerard, signifying « amiable,” which, according to the custom of.the times, he rendered into the Latin epi 
thet Desidertus, and the Greck Erasmus, ptt on | as he afterwards wished to have expressed it, Erasmius. 


Yrsarme 
—y—" from 


196 ERASMUS. 


i He received the most pressing invitations 
is I. to settle —— anew os ; but dread- 
ing the envy of the French literati, and the persecutions 
pr pes Dowore of the Sorbonne, and being unwilling 
to forsake ions for ises, he retained his pre- 
ferments under the Emperor. In 1517, he revisited 
England, and was a courteously received by~the 
king and by Cardinal ; but, thongh he declined 
their offers to provide for him in that kin ,» he 
mentioned to one of his friends, that his English reve- 
nues constituted his chief In the same year 
he published a work entitled Querela Pacis, in which, 
ith much soundness of reasoning, power of eloquence, 
and freedom of sentiment, he expostulates with the 
igns of the world upon the atrocities of war, and 
all hostilities which are not strictly defen- 
sive, to be unlawful and unchristian. A pret 
ject for a congress of princes at Cambray, who s 
ae into mutual en ~ Ae the reservation 4 
peace, having been unhappily thwarted by the arts 
interested re oe Rasuneones his “ Complaint of 
Peace,” at the request of John Sylvagius, Chancellor of 
Burgundy, who had been a zealous promoter of the plan. 
(The work was dedicated to Philip of Burgundy, Arch« 
bishop of Utrecht, who majeseed his approbation, by 
ing the author a benefice, and presenting him 
with a valuable sapphire ring, which he requested him 
to wear for hissake.) During the six succeeding years, 
he resided chiefly at Louvain ; and, by the commence- 
ment of the Reformation under Luther, was involved in 
new difficulties and disputes. Hitherto, he had often 
ienced the enmity of the scholastic divines, and of 
the monastic orders, of whose absurdities and immora- 
lities he had so openly assailed in his writings ; but he 
found no difficulty in parrying their attacks, and pre- 
serving the favour of the most zealous Catholic princes 
and prelates. But, as the struggles between the Ro- 
manists and the Reformers became more serious, it re- 
quired his utmost exertion of ingenuity and caution to 
enna at once consistency of sentiment, and security 
persecution. Both in conversation, and from the 
press, he had been accustomed to inveigh against many 
of those errors in doctrine, and su itions in wor- 
ship, which disgraced the church of Rome. Some of 
these he ably confuted by the utmost solidity of argu- 
ment and force of eloquence ; while he directed 
others those weapons of ridicule and sarcasm, which he 
was able to wield with such irresistible effect. Nor 
did he spare even the character of the ecclesiastics ; 
but, with the greatest ability and most exquisite rail- 
lery, exposed to the world their spiritual domination, 
their impious frauds, their ambition, avarice, and luxu- 
rious excesses. Searcely did one of those opinions and 
ces, which Luther afterwards attempted to re- 
mm, escape the animadversions of his pen ; and, as 
his writings were read with universal admiration, they 
contributed, in no small d , to the progress of the 
Reformation: “ Luther,” it was said, «hatched the 
egg, which Erasmus had laid.” Nor was he merely 
the of the great reformer; but, for some 
time after Luther had commenced his career, he acted 
as his admirer and auxiliary ; applauded his conduct, 
and expressed hopes of his success ; recommended mo- 
deration in his measures, but en 
ceed ; vindicated his character to the itaries of the 
chureh, condemned the spirit of his adversaries, and 
always insisted that his books should be answered by 


ow instead of being suppressed by authority. 
in several of his publications, he openly cobouned vik 


him to pro 


him in denouncing the obscure and i 

tems of the schoo] divines, and calling the of 
mankind to the of the Sacred Scri , as the 
only standard of religious truth. In his’ celebrated 


« Colloquies,” particularly, whieh he published in’ 1522, 
he pre his severest strokes swe the monks and 
their superstitions ; and so manifest was its i 
tendency, that the Faculty of Theology at Paris, 
afterwards a provincial council at Cologne, denounced 
it as “ a wicked book, the perusal of which should be 
forbidden to all, especially to the young, and which 
ought, if possible, to be entirely suppressed.” But, 
though he entertained so great a similarity of sentiment 
with the reformers, he pe i = by a variety of 
circumstances, from decidedly espousing their cause. 
His extreme love of peace rendered him averse from 
those measures of direct ition to the church, which 
had become necessary, and flattered him with the delu« 
sive hope of a i pee reformation by methods, 
His excessive ce for of high station, his 
Soni orerat nena 
tics, and his love of the li reputation whi 

had acquired among them, him from ing a 
party, to which his patrons and friends were 

adverse. His of losing the pensions and other 
emoluments, which he derived from the Catholic prin« 
ces and prelates, may be supposed to have had a con- 
siderable influence upon his conduct. His natural ti- 
midity of mind, particularly disqualified him for en< 
countering persecution; and, by his own confession, 
would have induced him to consult his personal safety, 
however much he had the sentiments and 
measures of the reformers. ‘It is true,” he writes to 
his friend Richard Pace, dean of St Paul's, “ Luther 
hath given us a wholesome doctrine, and many a 
good counsel ; and I wish he had not defeated the ef- 
fect of them by his intolerable faults. But, had he 
written any thing in the most manner, 
I had no inclination to die for the sake of truth. Every 
man hath not the requisite to make a martyr ; 
and I am afraid, were T put to the trial, I should imi- 
tate St Peter.” There is no reason, indeed, to sup- 
pose, that those motives, powerful as must have been 


* their influence upon such a feeble temper as he posses 


sed, engaged him either to act or write in direct op 
sition to his conscience ; Dut they sna) have Bilele i 
judgment, while he was unconscious of their operation, 
and may serve to palliate, while they cannot excuse, 
the unworthy concealment and concession of his opi- 
nions, by which he endeavoured to ensure his tranquil- 
lity. ile he embraced every ity, in his 
epistles, to disclaim sapere ek wen ‘aan 
anxious to le the repea which 
Se dade tordegnes bitin tor more sobainsiy 
former; and, on one occasion, when exhorted by Mount. 
eae accusations of heresy with which he 
was |, by taking - his in defence of the 
church, he ied, “ Nothing is more éasy 
than to call Luther a blockhead ; nothing less easy than 
of him one; at roots it seems i At 
, partly irritated by the reproaches “more 
pr ba reformers, and partly ar of incurring 
the displeasure of the court of , he proceeded first 
to repress his own zeal against the abuses in the church ; 
then to assume the character of a mediator between the 
contending parties ; then to censure the impetuosity of 
Luther’s proceedings ; and finally, to enter the lists as 
his antagonist. alls 


Upon a rumour probably of his intention to attack 


Eraemny. 
sys. 


oa ft ~*—- ~ 


a ERASMUS. a - 197 


—— a of spirit, yet expressed 


with much 
1 ac aa a a et AC — 
him to continue to bea spectator rather 
clat in the contest: ‘‘ We saw the Lord had not 
conferred on you the decernment and resolution to join 


as, and ly expose those monsters ; therefore dared 
not exact ou what greatly surpasseth your strength 
ity. We have even borne with your weak- 


and a 
ness, and honoured that portion of the gift of God which 
is in you.” “On the other hand, my dear Erasmus, 
if you Gidy. seflect on your owns ienbeciity, you will wb- 
stain from these sharp and of rhetoric ; 
and if you cannot or will not defend our sentiments, 
you will let them alone, and treat of subjects which suit 
you better.” In 1525, however, Erasmus commenced 
hostilities, by publishing his Diatribe de libero 


years at Basle, a place 
and which his enemies used to call his city of refuge. 
He was made rector of the university, ing sur- 
rounded by friends in whom he could confide, he found 
- ao the ref " 


writings, discusses “the right pronunciation of the Greek 
and Latin languages ;” and in the other, entitled Cice- 
ronianus, he rallies, with great ingenuity and sprightli- 
ness, the servile followers of Cicero, who scrupled to 


tion, and prevailed w 
mus, to do justice to his memory. As Erasmus advan- 
ced in life, he lost much of that and candour 
which had distinguished his early years; and so anxi« 
ous did he become to disclaim the cause of the refor= 
mers, that, besides dissembling, he led to con= 
tradict his most avowed sentiments. He had always 
professed his abhorrence of every thing like cruelty in 
the measures which were adopted for suppressing the 
ee en but, when some of the . 
ts began to produce passages from his wri< 

{ing®: which seemed to favour their cause, and particu« 
y to deny the lawfulness of putting heretics to death, 

he was so fearful of being suspected by the persecuting 
princes of his day of condemning their barbarous do- 
that he published a letter “ against some who 
falsely call themselves Evangelics,” in which he main-« 


tains, with unusual acrimony, that there were certain 
heretics, who might lawfully be put to death, as guilty 
of blasphemy sedition. These unworthy conces- 
sions on his were duly appreciated by the court 


of Rome ; as he was now the declared defender of 
the church, it was resolved to him for receivin 
a seat in the of s; but these re 
came too late, and his increasing infirmities obliged him 
to decline the preferments which were offered to him in 
that view. In 1535,he went to Basle, in order to superin- 
tend the printing of his Ecclesiastes, and in the hope of 
recovering his lost health; but his strength continuedra« 
idly to ine, and he died of a dysentery on the 12th 
y of July 1536, in the 69th year of his age. He was 
buried with great funeral pomp in the cathedral church 
of Basle, where his tomb still remains, and where his 
cabinet, containing his ring, seal, pencil, knife, sword, 
: se a New Testament para td his own 
|, is ibi to strangers, as one test 
curiosities in the city. His memory is equally Roem: 
ed at Rotterdam, by an inscription upon the house in 
which he was born, and upon the co! which bears 
his name; and a bronze statue in the great square. 
By his will, he handsome legacies to several of his 
ees 
ied to charitable purposes ; by which it a 
that he was neither so straitened in his circumstances, 
nor so defective in economy, as he was accustomed to 
t himself. He is said to have left more than 
7000 ducats. Erasmus was rather of low stature, but 
well formed, of a fair complexion, with eyes, a 
cheerful countenance, a low voice, and agreeable elocu- 
tion. His bodily constitution was very infirm; and, 
am other peculiarities, he was not able to endure 
even the smell of fish, which made it necessary for him 
es ispensation for using other food in Lent, 
ree as im occasion to say of himself, that how~ 
ever friendly to the church in principle, he had a most 
Lutheran stomach. He was always neat in his appa- 
rel, facetious in his disposition, and fond of a witty sto- 
ry directed against himself. He used to dine 
late, that he might have a long morning for study ; but 
after dinner, he conversed cheerfully with his friends 
on any subject, and delivered his opinions both on men 
and things with the greatest freedom. *In his intellec- 
tual character, he was distinguished by a strong me- 
mory, extensive reading, a penetrating ius, and a 
lively imagination. e composed with great facility, 
but disliked the task of revising his writings, aeaeie. 
style in Latin, (the language to which he sal levo- 


ted his attention, not always i pure, 
is uniformly anil chu, and copious ; but his 


himmjiafter the 'death of Eras. Beumie. 


norance and superstition, and ping interests 
piet » with all his 


he must unquestionably as one of 
ornaments of the age in which he lived. 

His works, which were very voluminous, consist of 
translations from the Greek ; grammatical and philo- 
a a yap various treatises on moral and re- 
; a version of the New Testament ; para- 

cet pe gee several parts of sacred 


scripture ; apologies, epistles, declamati 
poems, LC ontnyis apophthegms, editions of poco Bae ov ving 


&e. His were the most favourably 
received of his theological uctions ; and his collo- 
quies, and of folly, have been the most frequent- 
ly printed of all his wri The best and most ele- 
edition of his works is that 
Le Clerc, in eleven volumes folio, 1703. See Jor- 
tin’s Life Lf Bremess parie's Dict seen id 
Biogra, 1 iclionary ; rtson’s istory 0, r 
V. Bal ip. 156 Le ‘Clerc’s Bibl. Univ. gal aan 


Hoy 


= 


aie Milner’s Church Hist. vol. iv. App. p. xvi, and 


pp- 845, 943, 1060. (g 
EREMOPHILA. Botany, p. 258. ; 
ERFURTH, Exrort, or Exrunr, ene 
or Erpis, is an ancient town of tly 
situated on the river Gera, which flows "through the 
town ae pecan branches. Al oe twit is in 
t, yet it possesses sev buildings 
on on arene which aie built nts 
contains a huge w wei 30,250 poun n 
the cidevant convent of the Bee is shewn the 


who is said to have been interred there beside his two 
wives. The universi 
1392, and half of the chairs were filled by Catholics, and 
the other half by Protestants. In 1754, the Acade- 
my of Sciences was founded, which was subsequently 
enlarged by the addition of a botanical garden, an ana- 
tomical theatre, Pe oerveters , ariding school, and a 
society of natural the princi public libra- 

ries in pry hr of the Fore of the Academy of 
Physics, of the Scottish Benedictines, #4 of the cae id 
ran am epaeny. The ay of the Scottish Benedic- 
tines possesses a cabinet of physical and mathematical 
instruments; and that of the Lutheran ministry con- 
tained some ancient MSS. of the Hebrew Bible. The 
house for the of Lutherans was formerly the 
and contains a cal 


which was generally considered as a place 
of till the year 1806, when the French enter- 
ed it resistance, The country around Erfurth 


so See Ie cee encl vines, andl sboundls 94, Giastand eat- 


Erpes,* yards 


of Erfurth was established in 


Surt mit selves Merkwurdighkeiten und ronan om 
D. Arnold, Gotha 1802,8vo. (w) 
ERIACHNE. See Borany, p. 115. 
ERIANTHUS. See Borany, p. 116, 
ERIC. See Denmark. ; b aie 
ERICA. See Borany, p. 202. emir 
. ERIGERON. See Borany, P, 301. warsegy av Sigs 


. ERINUS. See Borany, p. 252. . 
ERIOCAULON. See Borany, p.. 109. 
ERIOCEPHALUS. .. See Borany, p. 309. . 
ERIOCHILUS. See Borany, p. 307. . 
ERIOGONUM. See Botany, p. 208. ts 
ERIOPHORUM, | See waenys Pl 100. ' “ 


eeroens, ut 
fort, whi prea Sys Bara Lee pas } 
ed with towers, The town is large, dirty, and ill bui 
The churches, which resemble 5, are 
and half buried in the ground. There are 28 
endowed conyents in town and nei ibourhood fi 
both sexes. ; 
Erivan does not at p re on & pr 
perce stanyiayqeun a fat A Tia 

sieges to a ruinous bya 
Bee a ean Gatun beet ee 
town fr sary sx onthe sd at Ist tempted n 
vain to carry it They were repulsed 

slaughter, aad ait nearly half of the army ed 
uring its retreat to Teflis, The Turks and Pe 
however, have repeatedly taken the town;.and it has 
remained in the possession of the latter since the peace 


of Nadir Shah, in 1748, 
to the north-east oa ae 


About two da smear 
is the beautiful hich the Persians call 


reen, or Goucheh. It is about five fursungs 
and abounds in trout, and other del O fish, The 
tne sncny ofthe tne Sure, ich Sr 
John Chardin has particnlarly described 
miles from Erivan, At a short di 

of the Saven.i¢ the Sanoee ana 
the ark rested. after the deluge. According 
Sutherland, it forms an angle of an immense 


range of 
mountains, and has. two summits, on the highest of 
which the natives believe that part of the ark stil] re- 


BR 199 


mains. chasm of igi ing a 
sapedatons there yn 
successive days he saw it discharge fire. ‘The ruins of 
once magnificent city of Nuksheevan, or Naxuana, 
are situated about twenty-six fursungs to the south- 
east of Erivan. Itisa of rubbish, and does not 
contain more than 400 inhabitants. pk, seed 
Persia generally pitches his camp here, to direct the 

ions of the campaign against the Russians. East 

. 45° 15’, and North Lat. 40° 11’. See Chardin’s 
Travels, Macdonald Kinneir’s Geographical Memoir of 
the Persian Empire, p. 319, 320 ; and our article Ana- 


RAT. (7) 

ERLACH, or Cenuier, is a small town of Switzer- 
land, in the Canton of Berne, beautifully situated at the 
western ohne Beare: Cee near the em- 
bouchure of the Thiele, and at the foot of the Julimont 
or Julius’s Mountains, upon which one of the strongest 
entrenched camps of this great warrior was establish- 
ed, The Chateau of Cerlier, situated the Juli- 
mont, was built about the middle of the 11th 


ohn, situated near the embou- 


, and of the bridge over the Thiele, is ic- 
ag Ce Yong iets 
residence of Rousseau, is seen from Erlach. See Ebel's 


the families. of several 
from France. The streets of both the Old and New 


binet of Natural History, to the university ; 
the Academy of Music, and two The 
cipal manufactures of the town are sand in 
po anc aa a and glass, most of which were 
established by the French About a league 
from Streitberg, which is one of the posts on the old 
road between rig a is the Grotto of 
Muggendorf, where there are fine stalactites, and a fall 
of water 70 feet high. The new road to Bayreuth, 
pe ahh yaar rege Pegnitz, Hilpoldstein, and 
pear. Population 8700, rie Bane: Saale 
ing peers neraerseine, it, Long. 11° 
4’; North Lat. 49° 35’ 36”. (mw) 


ERMELAND.,. See Prussia. 
ERNE Loven. See Fermanacu. 
ERNODEA. See Borany, p. 121. 

. ERODIUM. See Borany, p. 265, 
EROTEUM. See Boranyy p. 235. 
EROTYLUS. See Entomonoey, Index. 
ERPETOLOGY. See Herperoziocy. . 
ERROMANGO. See New Hesripes. 
ERTZGEBIRGE. See Saxony. 
ERUPTION, See £rna, Vesuyrus, and Votca- 

NOES, 


ERT 


ERUPTIVE Diseases. See Mentcine. 
ERVUM. See Borany, p. 284 
ERYCIBE. See Botany, p. 177. 
ERYNGIUM. See Botany, p. 161. 
ERYSIMUM. See Botany, p. 261. 
ERYSIPELAS. See Mepicine. 
ERYTHRZA. See Borany, p. 173. 
ERYTHRINA. See Botany, p. 274. 
ERYTHRONIUM. See Borany, p. 190. 
ERYTHROXYLON. See Borany, p. 218. 
ERZEROOM, Erzervum, or Arzervum, the name of 
one of the most considerable of oP gua of Arme- 
e 


rishing cities in the kingdom, and is situated about 
three or four miles from one of the streams which runs 
into the Euphrates. The town is ill built, the streets 
or’, and the houses are for the most part low, 

ood. The bazars are large and well sup- 


plied with provisions ; but fruit is very scarce, as it is 


gular embrasures ; but from its want of solidity, it is 
equally defenceless with the rest of the castle. On the 
north side of the town is a igh mountain, cover- 
ed with eternal snow. The plain in front is about 20 
miles in circumference, and is adorned with more than 
60 vi In the 1807, when the French lega~ 
tion General Gardanne passed through this ; 
2006 fa wobacten. ig ater oe was 
leprous persons. e raged in 
the town, i off from 20 to25 daily. The 
inci gilded ef arnstiictaze ta eroom are cop- 
per, ore of which is from a place about 
three days journey from the town, and the skin of a 
ies of martin. Erzeroom is the staple of the mer-~ 
ise of India, isting of silk, cotton, painted li- 
nens, spices, rhubarb, , and z eS 7 
- The climate of Erzeroom is intensely in winter, 
but the air is salubrious, the water good, and the na- 
tives and healthy. The winter commences in the 
month of August, when the snow begins to fall. »It 
continues on the ground from October till March, when 
it melts, and causes all the rivers in the country to over- 
flow their banks. A ing to Mr Macdonald Kin- 
neir, the ion of the city was about 100,000, of 
whom 15,000 were Armenians, and the rest Turks, 
with the exception of 200 or 300 Greeks. The author 
of the “ Journal,” who accompanied the French Lega~ 
tion in 1807 and 1808, makes the population 130,000, 


_and says that 500 of these were Armenian catholics. 


Erzeroom is five ordi days journey from the 
Black Sea, thirteen from Diarbeker, nine from 
Bayazid. It is situated in East Long. 40° 57’, and 
North Lat. 39° 57. See Journal d’un Voyage dans la 
Turquie D Asie, et la Perse, fait en 1807 et 1808, p. 21. 
Paris 1809; and Macdonald Kinneir’s Geographical 
Memoir of the Persian Empire, p. 321, 322. md. 
1813. (w) 


4 
Escurial. 


—— 


ESC 


ESCALLONIA. See Borawy, p. 152. 
ESCAPE. See Fine Escare. 
ESCAPEMENT. See Horoxooy, and Time-Kerr- 


ERS. 
ESCHATON, an interval in music =—, of Dr Call- 

. 16,677,181,699,666,569 = 

cott, has a ratio 16,777,216 ,000,000,000=° =+2f,= 


5.299322, and is the Greater Resrpvat. 
ESCHATON of M. Henfling and Frees exin- 


gun siheaiintiods se gTOe— f+ m,= 5.858202, 


and is the Resrovat, (¢) 
ESCOBEDIA. See Botany, p. 258. 
BSCULAPIUS. See Ascucapivs. 
ESCURIAL, the name of a ee in Spain, about 


eaint St Lorenzo, from which it received its name. 
The first architect was John M of To- 
ledo, and upon his death, in 1567, the work was con- 
tinued by i, one of his pupils, who died in 
1597. 

The building, which consists of stone, from the 
i i ies, i form of a grid- 


ae ered 


ee ere eee, The room 
s contain many admirable pic- 
tures, Fhe old church is 129 feet 1 , and $8 

broad. besten rer sha Pon er , and 83 broad. 
Among isa 8 Titian 
which is greatly admired. chien we 
square formed by a double row of piazzas, one above 
the other, 98 feet on each of the four sides, and 17 
feet broad. The walls of the lower cloister are cover« 
ed with by the first artists. The staircase 
pepgince St aeees adeur, & adorned. 
ae wage" which represents the foun- 
dation of ened fre fn bettie of Bt Quintin, 
The upper cloister itself is ornamented with the finest 


opening on a ious court of 88 arches, eleven in each 
row, supported by 96 columns, which are Doric below 


ges. In this number are included several Bibles, particu 


ten by St Basil. The secepenh is ieee ee ae 
<cotslaah is oliched ith fluted Doric columns, and 


shands, ahd otis? pecclaun Stuns: The m are ex- 
tremely attentive in shewing all these curiosities to 


3 
itt 
f 
: 

, 


igiee 

aH 
HH 
if i 
iia 
reel 


a 


_—.) 


' circular table, 14 feet 7 inches high, 6 feet 7 inch- 


es in diameter. It is adorned with the statues of the 


nacle is inclosed another, more 


: 
: 
: 


L 


i 


on of vermilion stone, 

gold. Two doors of rock crystal, stud- 
; at the two sides, and the whole, 
edernlble terminates in a dome, on the 


it 


= 


oF 
oe 
A 


i 
‘i 


» The sacristy is included in one beautiful nave, 93 
Sashaciaardaattes: tear and is enriched with re- 
lics, s, chalices, crosses, chandeliers, and paint- 
of inestimable value. On the altar called Santa For- 
adorned with the finest marble and bronzes, is pre- 
served a splendid tabernacle, presented by the Empcror 
of this church contains many articles of 
900 marks of silver, and 36 marks of 
egorical statue of the city of Messina, 
gold, weighing 
; a small temple of gilt bronze, more than 100 
feet high, adorned with eight Doric columns, and sur- 
se puaverfaviege topes Oo tie! attached to 
a cross t silver, having a on head, a 
ruby in.each hand, didn tealliant stone, an inch in die 
meter, at the feet, which was long considered as a dia- 


mond. 

» The of interment for the 1 family of Spain, 
teed the Fathcon It is below the char a 

most splendid the Escurial. 

Seonranen steps, which form the first staircase, 
Its walls and arches are encrusted with the finest mar- 
ble, and/it leads to a landing’place of a round form, de- 
eorated in a similar manner. After continuing to de- 
scend some stairs, we discover a beautiful front, formed 
by 10 marble Doric columns, the ornaments of which 


Matar; inaiGoo wRab oper 
, and the other Hope. 
steps, we advance to the apartment, i 

Scetepiotach/sheeaigeapupieirn, magn 

apartment, b ‘ ‘still more i- 
fient, are interred the remains of the kings and queens. 
It has the form of an octagon, and is $1 feet in diame- 
ter and 33 feet high, and is incrusted with beautiful 
marbles of various colours, and decorated with gilt 
bronze. The door is.in one of the angles, and imme-~ 
diately opposite to it is the altar ; the other six angles 


VOL, IX. PARTI. 


‘201 


-Fresneriaja 


among these are a statue of St Lorenzo, . 


? ‘ESN 
are separated by 16 double Corinthian pilasters. In the 
intervals pape Ber 24 urns or ‘aide, four being in 
each angle. There are other two beyond the entrance, 
restin gon the claws ofa iy oF. tig and keel mar- 
ble. vereigns, en ci of the Austrian dynasty, 
occupy fourteen thease ibe each ee having 
an appropriate inscription. Only two of the princes of 
the French line are interred here. A large bronze 
lamp, surrounded with 
centre. : ‘ , 

On the east and sh aa ace are a series of 
gardens supported with walls, and laid out in terraces, 
which give them the appearance of hanging gardens. 
The ground. is very aA and the 
them are disposed in the form of an amphitheatre. In- 
—- Aang eo stairs form the communication 

on 

A beautiful road, about a quarter of a leagtie in length, 
and planted on both sides with lofty elms and linden 
trees, leads to the village of the Escurial. A’ subterra- 
neous corridor, arched with freestone, and called the 
Mina, leads also to the village. — Another road leads to 
house situated a quarter of a league 
to the east of the palace, and)in the centre of it is a piaz- 
Za, su by Doric columns, ‘The road to Madrid 
is ex t, but is h anaked country, without 
fields or pastures. In going from Madrid, it first winds 
along the Manzanarez, and leaving theCasa del Campo, it 
-passes Pardo, and then three houses in succession, where 
relays of horses are provided. It then conducts to Valde 
Morillo, from whence the Escurial is first seen, = 

The beautiful gardens of the Escurial are intersected 
‘by woods and meadows, containing numerous streams 
.and fountains, and small lakes abounding with ‘fish. In 
the middle of one of these lakes is a Mer st nr 


adorned with eight columns, and encircled with a little 
garden bordered by a ballustrade. 2 ae tnge 
The lofty mountains which separate the province of 


Old and New Castile, surround the Escurial. 

are dreary, bare, and uncultivated. | Spacious reservoirs 
have been ‘constructed in these mountains for collect- 
ing the water, which is conveyed by an aqueduct to sup- 
ply 92 fountains. The royal family, before the Spanish 
revolution, inhabited the Escurial from September to 
December, “a season almost wholly eniployed in devo- 
tion. Since the invasion of Spain by the French, the 
internal decorations of the Escurial have been greatly in- 
jured, and the finest paintings have been carried to the 

vre. The position of the Escurial; according to trigo: 

nometrical observations, is West Longitude 4° 7’ 50’, 
and North Latitude 40° 35’ 50’. See Townshend's T7'ra- 
véls in Spain, vol. ii.; Laborde’s View-of Spain, vol. v. 
p. 148—155 ; Link’s Journey through Portugal, p. 302 ; 
and. Francisco de los Padros Description breve del Mo- 
nasterio de \S. Lorenzo el real del Escorial. (7) 

ESCUTCHEON. See Heratpry. - 

_ ESK. See Dumrnries-siiee, Forrarsuine, and Mid 
Loruran. 

. ESNEH, or Aswna, the Latopolis of the ancients, is 
an im town in Upper Egypt, situated to the west 
of the Nile, between Assouan and Cous, © This place is 
remarkable for its public baths, and its commerce. The 
Mahometans haye several mosques here, and the Copts a 
church, which is served by two priests. The Copts from 
the most ‘distant provinces of the kingdom, repair hither 
asa place of pilgrimage. The surrounding country is 
rich and well cultivated, abounding in grain and fruit. 
In the chain of mountains which Meh ee to the east 
of the Nile, and almost! opposite to Esneh, are quarries 

2c 


Escurial 


Baek: 
eens 


24 chandeliers, hangs from the » 


x part of . 


Fast Longitude 49° 15°, and North Latitude 25°. See 
"s Letlers, &e. vol. ii; and Denon's Travels in 
, Vols. ii. iii, (f 
SSPALTER Trees. See Ganventno. 
ESPIRITU Santo. See New Hesrimes. 
UIMAUX, See Hupson’s Bay, and Lasravor. 
ion of the 
Desc of gentlcman, and below that of knight. Its etymolo- 
* mo 
paca a the English word being derived imme- 
iately from the French ecuyer, or, as it was formerly 
written, esewyer; and the 
the Latin scutifer or scutanus; the root of all the terms 
ing the Greek word exvres, a shield. The rank of 
ae at first — Cee weng abe mee ened oma 
the Greeks, ‘norary. In its original acceptation, as oting an 
officiary dignity, it may be traced among the Greeks 
and Romans. ripides mentions shield-bearers, vrae- 
wile, vrarwieres, and aewid 3 and iger and scu- 


ps wo Rot en a ed by Plautus. Butes is mention- 
by Virgil as ‘Dardaxien Anchise armiger. Even 


Britons, office of 


Gauks, 


by 
hom Posidoni Ath 
Td pet SE ees 


tar Is. 


Change on iginally the office of an esquire was to 

the nature the oield of the knight to treo he ro tacit 
«Se office. afterwards, as we have shewn in the article Cuivacey, 
(to which we refer for what relates to esquire as con- 
nected with that institution, ) his offices were more im- 
portant and numerous. the French, the grand 
escuyer was master of the horse. His business was to 
assist the sovereign in mounting or dismounting from 
his horse, and to give him his sword and belt. In the 
court of the eastern empire, there was an officer called 
Zxvlagus, who used to bear before the the sa- 
cred standard, and his exvlagior, or shield, m a case. 

It appears, from these instances, that the titles, ar- 
miger, ecuyer, esquire, &c. did not originally imply 
that the persons possessing them were entitled to bear 
coats of arms, but only that their office was to carry the 


to be honorary the 


ret rt 
II. there being an instance of a 


time of Richard 


quire ; for it is a vulgar error, that any estate, however 


202 


rench term is derived from lary 


ESS5 


large, can confer this rank its owner. 
lowing are undoubtedly rank 
and denomination, viz. esquires of the body ; of these 
there are four to attend on wr Art rm dia metre oe 
eldest sons of knights, and their “sons successive- 
ly: all noblemen’s younger sons, and the 
of such younger sons ;—the two latter species of es. 
ires, Sir Henry Spelman entitles armigert natalitii. 


ourthly, such to whom the king 
i nr abi created either b ' 
po whi cot ina eallar of 8 


“ 


investiture, which used 
and silver spurs: the right of pri iture in their 
neal tarley Ww aloo. secontppasiod with this honour, 
the pecee, bat oul. while he-6¢ teronumeasceapestanr 
the peace, but only while he is in , unless 
he is otherwise qualified to bear the title; the 
of the king’s courts, and of his household. t 
lords, who are such on account of office, or of high 
birth only, have not, by the common law, any title but 

‘ a and 


Scotland, a person holding the hi civil station, 
next to the royal family, f eb « William 
a Esquire, our Keeper eos our en eye 
”  Forei are esquires in law. — 

the five cane Pivatines already named, may be add- 
ed the esquires of Knights of the Bath, each of whom 
constitutes three at his installation. The sheriffs of 
counties retain the title during their lives. The heads 


dignity of 
See Sclden’s Pitles of Honowr. Verslegan’s Restitution 
* Intelligen Blackstone’: 


ESSAYING. See Muxr. 
ESSENES. See Free Masonry, and Mystertes, 
ESSEQUIBO. See Bernice, Demerara, and 

NA . 


the east coast Of on 


‘ESSEX is a maritime county on 
England. It is bounded on the east 
ocean ; on the west by the rivers 
a part of Hertfordshire; on the 
Stour and part of Cambri ire; and on 
by the river Thames. It is divided from the | 
of oe ee eee ‘ 
Middlesex, on the west, by the river Lea; 
Kent, on the south, by the Thames. Measured 
Oe ee 


| 


by the 


bid 


zr 


| 
= 
E 
LD 


TH 
i 
oh 


i 
‘ 


| 


even ; it is in fact broken into i 
peninsulas, which are deeply cut in by the arms of the 


_—) oo 


Tslands. 


Hundreds, 


ae 
cal divisions, Contains 


CYanate. 


nd marshy. The effects of the violence of 
is no where more icuous than in that part 
coast of Essex called Walton Ness. This pro- 
Geman aptenind sth De St So IS 
it. does, at present ; the ruins ildings having 
discovered at a considerable distance, particular- 
shoal called West Rocks, nearly five miles from 
is left dry at the period of great ebbs. 
a town called Orwell, is traditionally 
reported to have stood ; and the spot where the ruins 


Town, On the coast of Dengey Hundred also, 
is protected from the sea by embankments, 
t, in time past, made great d ions. 
is a sand called Buxey Park, and old 
living have heard their say, 
were boys, Buxey Park was covered 


divisions of this county are both natural and ar- 
Its natural divisions are into continent and 

; the latter are numerous, but not extensive, 
25 meee me penne 
Mersey island, situated at the con- 

rivers Colne and Blackwater, and 

acer 
v 


ia 
ate 
: 


BF 
i 


[Ee 


ag 


g 


E 
: 
# 


: 


: 
i 
i 


: 
i 
i 


containing excellent springs, and of a rich and 
i na @ Fains the south <2 county are the 
i ushley, re, New ngland, Potten, 
Foulness, and Wallasea. i ceeteninns to each 
and | a rich soil. Canvey island is in the 
south-west of the county, situated nearly at the mouth 
of the Thames, and surrounded by the branches of that 
river, 
. The artificial divisions of the county are hundreds, 
towns, parishes, and hamlets. There are fourteen hun- 
dreds, and five smaller divisions, called half hundreds, 
viz. Becontree, Chafford, Chelmsford, Clavering, Den- 
,» Dunmow, Freshwell, Harlow, Havering-atte- 
er, Hinckford, Lexden, oF ena es Ten- 
Thurstable, Attlesford, W: , Winstree, and 
towns, Colchester, 
town of Saffron 
Walden... It contains 404 entire parishes, and four 
parts of parishes. There are in it fourteen division- 
al meetings, or : beeen gee ogee antl pet hanna 
Magistrates. It returns eight members to - 
Se two for the county, and two for each of 
the ‘towns. It is in the diocese of London, 
: ies, and fifteen deanries ; is 
in the home circuit, and pays twenty-four parts of the 
land-tax. Its quota to the regular militia is 960 men ; 
to the local militia, 3553. 
_ Essex enjoys, on the whole, a mild climate; for 
though it is exposed to piercing winds from the east, 
especially du the spring months, these winds are 


F 
a 


: 


or es miles from the ne Thamewsaue 
subject, during autumn, to thick an pg bg 
which are often productive of agues. This disorder is 
not nearly so prevalent or so dangerous as it was for- 


found is still distinguished by the appellation of part 


E X. 203 


merly, before the marshes were so well drained, and Essex. 
the ea so highly cultivated as it is.at present. The ““Y—" 


quantity of rain which annually falls in this county is 
comparatively small, not averaging more than twenty 
pa a By Rata ape e 3 

ere is great vari in Essex,’ y PET soir, 
Tes, have tankeat ein tueusaaeedian pe called dey. 
The district called the Rodings, am » ich contains eight 
contiguous parishes, on the west side of the county, - 
near the borders of Hertfordshire, a 
comes, perhaps, as ,near to clay as any of Essex, 
but which, in fact, is only a strong cb ad This 
district is very fertile, but is proverbial for the badness 
of its roads, and the uncouth manners of its inhabitants. 
In the eastern part of the county the soil for the most 

is of a strong staple, intermixed, however, 
with light dry turnip land. Towards the middle and 
northern part, ing on Suffolk, the soil varies con- 
siderably, some bein nent, with a species of marl be- 
low the surface, at the depth of a foot, or a foot and 
a half, while other parts are of a moist and rather strong 
soil. In the western part, which borders on the river 
Lea, almost every variety of soil is met with, from a 
wet heavy loam, upon brick earth, toa light, thin, ten- 
der soil, upon gravel. Mr Young, in his icultural 
report of this county, divides it into eight districts, in 
respect to soil, viz. the Roding district, where the svil is 
so wet and strong, that only one crop is taken after fal- 
low ; this district, according to him, contains 156 square 


miles; secondly, the district of fertile loam, which Extent of 


stretches along the banks of the Thames, and the shore 
of the German Ocean, and contains 255 square miles; 
and the third, fourth and fifth districts, which lie part- 
ly on the borders of Cambridgeshire, and partly to the 
north of Rochford, consist of strong land, and contain 
222 square miles ; the sixth district, which is a turni 

loam, and stretches from a little to the south of Col- 
chester, past that town, to the borders of Suffolk, con- 
tains 114 square miles; the seventh district is very 
small, it lies in the north western corner of the county, 
the subsoil of this is chalk ; the last district, according 
to Mr Young, consists of miscellaneous loams, and oc- 
cupies nearly the entire centre of the county, besides part 
of the western border of it; it contains 681 square 
miles. From this account of the soil of Essex, it will 
be seen that this is on the whole fertile, possess- 
ing some very rich soil, while scarcely any part of it 
contains soil of a very poor or unimproveable nature. 


Although there are no large rivers in Essex, yet it p;..... 


is well situated in respect of river navigation. The 
Thames forms its whole southern boundary ; the Stour, 
which is navigable to Shoebury, is its northern limit; and 
on the west it has the two navigations of the Stort and 
the Lea. Besides these, the estuary of the Black-wa+ 
ter penetrates 12 miles into the county, and afterwards 
is navigable to Chelmsford. Nearly the whole of the 
county, except those hundreds near the Lea and the 
Thames, which are emphatically styled the Hundreds of 
Essex, is well watered by the many brooks and rivers 
which run through its vales. The Fries rivers, 
which, properl king, belong to this county, are 
the Colne, Syikah, Hees peas Clare: in Suffolk, after 

sing Colchester, empties itself into a creek of the 
Sn, between Mersey island and the main. The Black- 
water, which rises near Saffron Walden, and flowing 
by a and Witham, falls into an arm of the 
sea at Maldon; the Chelmer, which, rising near the 
sourceof the Black-water, fertilizesand beautifiesthemid- 
dle of the county, and passing by Chelmsford, unites at 
Maldon with the former river ; the Crouch, which, after 


Mansions. 


Size of 


Ren. 


Agriculture. 


and the Roddoo, which enters the Thames near Bark- 
ihe state of propert in Essex is such as might be 
expected. from, ta Fichity, to the: sapteapelia, saad the 
enterprising spirit and wealth of its farmers ; for though 
there are a few very extensive estates in the possession 
ge nobility, or some ene ny P individu- 
in no. ter num- 
oles Yule DaeneNs L pce a apr, 
farmers, while near the metropolis is divided 
pt ee mr gee ape jp HT 


the seat. of Bz Wellesley Long: this is one of the largest 
houses.in the kingdom, A -end, the seat of Lord 
Braybrooke, is not more remar for its magnificence, 


seat of the Marquis of ingham ; Thorndon, the 
seat of Lord Petre; and Mistley Hall, the seat of Mr 


y- 
eo eteemmenigunshe Lingipn. when 
agriculture is well understood, and carried on in such 
p Nagpal at once to enrich er grat eget pint 

nation at large, is distinguished for size of its 
farms ; though it would appear from the account of Mr 
Young, that there are not so many large farms now as 
there were in 1767, when he found, in the distxict of 
the hundreds, .some of above £1000, £1500, and even 
£2000 and upwards per annum. One of the are 
farms in the county at present contains 1600 acres, The 
character of the Essex farmers, in general, is highly re- 
spectable, not merely on account of their intimate 
knowledge of their own profession, both in theory 
and practice, but also on account of their general ac- 
quaintance with the sciences and arts connected with 
agriculture. The rent given for land in this county is 
certainly net high, when the general of the 
soil and, climate, and its vicinity to the market, are 
taken into consideration. In. the year 1806, the ave- 
rage of the Roding district was about 16s, an acre ; of 
the second district of West Gracey, 25s.; of the third 
district, 17s. ; of the fourth, 16s.; of the fifth, 17s. ; of 
the sixth, 2is. ; of the seventh, 15s. ; and of the eighth, 
208... At. that time the total rent was estimated at 
£9 16,320, or, on an average of the whole county, not 
more than 20s.an acre. Since that period, rents in 
Essex, as well as elsewhere, have risen considerably, 
but not to the level of other districts ek 0 bighindee 
voured in situation, soil, and climate. The average of 
the poor rates is about 9s. in the pound ; the compesi- 
tion for.tithes, per acre, in 1805, was 4s. 9d.. Leases, 
which formerly were almost universal, latterly have be- 
come by no means general; where they are granted, 
ridiculous .or impracticable covenants, which mi 
have been proper a hundred years ago, are too 
retained, 


saan hie te deine Palen 


ESSEX. PS 


1s of the Sar a fields exhibit some ——— 
best speci ot ean ein eens 


kinds of ploughs have gained a firm 
ing in the county ; the swing and wheel | 
constructed on a better principle, and: lighter 
easier of draught, than are commonly met with in 
England. They are worked commonly with two horses; 
but sometimes with three yoked a- without a 
driver. The other agricultural implements are equally 
simple and well constructed with the plough; none; 
however, require to be noticed as peculiar to Essex, ex- 
the concave roller, and the bean stubble rake, 
ing mills of various kinds are not uncommon; , 
and one horse carts have been lately introduced. 
Essex has long been salochasaledianay the fences Fences. 
generally consist of various kinds of wood ; but. 
are, in most parts, so high and thick, that they 
On all ella es 1 sbils, falhowiig) FeDowing: 
soils, except sound turni y ing F 
is — nen tefl ae on 
w carefully wrought, being frequently ghed 
eight times. It has already been mentioned, that the 
Rooding district consists of strong wet soil ; in this dis- = 
trict a singular rotation is followed, viz. fallow, wheat, 
me barley. In the wees districts, the er 
though various, present nothi iar, except w 
arises from nue ior Reser, wohich will -afs a 
terwards be noticed. | This county has long been famed Wheas 
for the excellent quality of its w which, with that. 
from Kent, always obtains the highest price in the Lon- 
don market. This grain is either sown on a fallow, or 
after beans or clover: in some parts itis drilled and 
horse-hoed. Dibbling it is: also practised, but not to 
any extent. Till very lately, scarcely any spring wheat 
was sown, but now itis gaining ground. The mean 
ferme of the county is about 25 bushels per acre. 
he barley of Essex is also in great demand: it issown Barley. 
either after a fallow on strong lands, or on dry Jand 
after turnips, seldom after beans, pease, or tares. » The 
average produce of this grain is between four and five 
quarters : it is seldom made into bread, even the poor- 
est of the people refusing to eat it, except in timesof ©... ° 
the greatest scarcity. Oats are sowniafter fallow some> Qa;s. 
times, but more frequently after beans, &c.  Tartarian; 
potatoe, Dutch, and black oats, are sown: in some 
parts of the county, the uce is very large: the ave- 
of the whole probably about five quarters. Though 
a large portion of the soil of Essex is suited to beans, Bears. 
pe fp go ON IM ep THT 
extensively, as they t to be: where grown, 
they are ly putin after wheat, sometimes but not 
always dibbled, more frequently drilled ; in both eases 
pone a but horse hocing is neglected: the a 
crop is supposed to be 27 bushels’ per acre. Near the 
is, great quantities of white are SOWN} Pease. | — 
but this erp isnot very common in other part of the ; 
county. There is not much turnip soil in Essex; but Turnips. 
the culture.of this root is well understood whereit can 
be practised: they are generally grown: after searly 
pease ; sometimes, but not usually, Grilled, and fed off 
either with bullocks or sheep: the average price for 
feeding on the land with sheep is £3 peracre. © 
sandind ta strand iexioeoneenane aiamedtio 
from the influence of the sea air. Swedish turnips are 
also grown to a considerable extent, and a few cab- 
bages. Potatoes, which have long been cultivated tov Potatoes. - 
great extent in the northern counties, have 
tively made little progress in the south of Englands 
Essex, however, is an exception to this remark :. here 


Treble crop. 


Caraway. 


Mustard, 


Tares. 


be + me Nee 


f 


FEE 
l 
i 
i 
I 


Be 
i 
: 


eee 

i 

¢ a F 
Hl 

et 

é 

: 

a 


7 
S 
s 


ines, 
toa head which were not suf- 


year. The heads of the 
rere manufacturers for the 


A 
ih 
af 


the crops 


in the same manner as in Middlesex ; the produce is 
great, as not unfrequently three loads of 
1800 ewt. each load, is got, at two cuttings, from an 
acre. the marshes possess very rich and valuable 

ing seprbee so — the or of ea Thames 
are greatly to on the ocean or Blackwa- 
ter; the rent varies from £3 to £10 per acre ; the lat- 
ter incipally taken by the London butchers. The 
marshes in Dengey Hundred are singular, from the cir- 
cumstance that they rise in elevation as they approach 


the sea. The rise in the price of corn has indu- 
ced several of the proprietors latterly to let their marsh 
land to be plou Between the Blackwater and the 


used are principally the Holderness, Leicester, and 
Derby, though other breeds are often mixed. In ma- 
king Epping butter, the milk is suffered to stand 24 
hours, when the cream is skimmed off, and the milk is 
drawn into other vessels, where it remains for about 20 
hours, when the cream is again taken off: this‘is cal- 
led doubling, It is afterwards put into deeper vessels, 
when all the remaining cream is separated from it: 
this is called trebling. The butter made from the two 
last skimmings is of inferior quality. There is one 
thing peculiar to the dairy-women, which is, that there 
must be a certain proportion of sour in the cream ; 
otherwise they cannot ensure good butter. The butter 
made by the smaller farmer is either carried to Epping 
market, or sold to higglers ; but the large farmers ge- 
nerally agree with some Clare-market butter-man for 
the whole produce of the ee 

Essex has long been noted for its calves. Formerly 
it was supposed that more were bred and fattened here 
than in any sere oar, ae county ; but the practice is 
on the decline. ides the calves that are bred in Es- 
Sex, numbers are brought from other parts of the 
kin , and fattened here, especially by the farmers 
in the Burnham and Gey ack Maomemehin he To pro- 
mote their fattening, are iven a small 
ball com of the powder of fhcaigrecks phest. meal, 
and a small quantity of chalk, mixed up with 
mild ale. Essex is not for its live stock, though 
in some the Devon breed of cattle are gaining a 
footing. Where early lambs are in demand, the Dor- 
set sheep are kept: besides these, there are in the 
county a mixture of Norfolk, Welsh, and Wiltshire. 
Considerable attention has been paid to the breed of 
hogs: there is one kind very valuable, called the Es- 
sex half black ; the Berkshire is the favourite breed in 
the southern parts of the —— The Suffolk breed 
of horses are generally employed for agricultural pur- 
poses.’ Oxen are seldom wrought. 


905 | 


Hay. 


Marsh land. 


ter. 


Calves. 


Skeep. 


Hogs. 


There are several decoys among the islands and pocoy., 


marshes; the most considerable is in Mersey island: 
when ‘any n approaches the decoy, he takes a 
piece of lig turf in his hand; as the wild ducks, it’ 


Forests. 


Draining. 


Manures. 


Fmbenk- 
mnie 


trees in the j acetlen at Heslkbarne Hall is sup- 
posed to be the largest in ingdom ; its girth, at six 
inches from the being 18 feet ; at 10 feet from 


accidentally took fire. Before this accident, its branches 

° an area nearly 200 feet in circumference. 
In the reign of James II. the forest of Essex, as it was 
called, extended almost over the whole county. The 
forests of Epping and Hainault still retain the name, 
and ae deer ; the extent of forest land is 
to be about 10,000 acres. In the marsh dis- 
plantations are much attended to, and are 
very profitable. There are no extensive 
or pear trees, but many cherry ones 
inster, &c. The wastelands, in- 


ozier 
to be 
orchards of 
Burnham, 


rom 
the moist nature of a great of the soil, this improve- 
ment was much wanted, bo it has, in - 
carried on, on the most scientific principles, 
care and skillofexecution. Almost all the known 
inds of manure are employed in Essex, but chalk is 
not so commonly used as formerly. From the nature 
of the sea coast, as cake Gaon 


_ We have dwelt thus long and fiilly on the agricul- 
ture of Essex, because it is in general excellent, and be- 
cause it is this which principally distinguishes the 
county. In no other respect is it of much note, and 
Sain anseeatinn bntadientiatrdonieeaion, 
As intermediate between its agriculture and manufac- 
its fisheries shall be first considered. 

There are very few ponds for fresh water fish in the 
county, though, in the vicinity of London, 


rel 


; but latterly it has much declined. Bai 


oft subject 

coun land. On this 

the year 1803. Atthat ernest ee we 
ir 


out of workhouses was 35,368, besides 6780 who were 
not parishioners ; the expence was at the rate of £3, 
16s. 9d, for each person. The number of persons re- 
lieved in and out of workhouses was 38,337, besides 
non-parishioners. The total expence was £183,582, 
ap in| et a me  N ~— 

of parishioners reliev: e 's rate was 17. 
in a hundred of the resident pana There were 
at that time 238 friendly societies, the number of per- 


sons belonging to them being six in a hundred of the 

resident ion. The amount of the total money 
ised for the poor, was 19s. 14d. the head on ‘the po- 

pulation. Li'ng 


uninteresting county to the minera- 

logist. It is nearly exempt from quarries, or any mass 
rocks; and it possesses no mines of any kind. It 
has, however, already been noticed, that chalk is found 
on the borders next i ire; but the most ex-- 


ma- Manuface 


of supporting the eauia Ole of the 


K 


Ne 


Minerals, 


tensive chalk quarries are at Purfleet. On the estate purfect 
of Mr Whitbread here, there is a bold cliffof chalk, co- quarry. 


vered by many feet of surface loam. It appears to have. 
been wrought for many years; but certainly never 
with so much enterprise, nor in such an economical and - 
Sel ese as apa Most som 
i in vessels, w! can come up to 
quarry. But though Essex is so aninterensing00:the 
mere min in parts of it, 


eralogist, there are ces in ' 
which must be instructive to the geologist. At Har-- meena 


wich, the conversion of the ooze 
hard that it is employed for buildi 

ly traced. There are masses of it whi 
ooze, and at the other stone. There is also, in the ¢liffs- 
near Harwich, a stratum of concreted shells; and va- 


ESSEX. 207 


They all dine, after which he blows three blasts with —_ Easex. 
his horn, and they depart. ‘The custom of the manor 
of Woodford is that called borough English, by which 
the younger son inherits. 

Several men of considerable celebrity have been na- Celebrated 
tives of Essex ; among whom may be mentioned, Phi- men.. 


found. stratum was 10 feet deep. Several stags 
horns were lying above the 
Antiquities. Numerous antiquities have been vered in Essex. 


remains of a Roman villa near Ridgewell. 
Before the dissolution of monasteries, Essex contain- 
ed 47 religious houses. Of these, two were mitred ab- 


still existing in Essex: the most extraordinary is 
well-known custom of the manor of little Dunmow, 


: 
f 
z 


sonage, where 
ner: Heblows three blasts with a horn; carries a hawk 
pram enmebenibr degerey i eer he 
rector; he* receives a chicken for his hawk, a of 
cats for his horse, and a loaf of breadfor his 


lamon Holland, called the translator general of his age: 
he was born at Chelmsford in 1551. Thomas Audley, 
Lord Chancellor of England, in the reign of Henry 
VIL. Samuel Purchas, who and republish- 
ed Hackluyt’s Collection of Voyages and Travels: it is 
well known under the title of “ Purchas’ Pilgrimage ;” 
and Sir Thomas Boe, the first English ambassador to 
the East: the celebrated Alexandrian MS. of the Greek 


Testament was by him into this country. Not 
must Edward Bright, a shop-k of Maldon, be for- 
gotten; few men have: a ter size and 


weight than he; at the age of 12 he weighed 144 
nds. The last time he was wei , about a year 
‘ore he died, his weight was 584 is; his body, 

round the chest, was feet six inches; round the 

pr na Neat tmnt he died at the of 29. 

 Trinobantes inhabited Essex at the time of the 

Roman invasion: had two considerable fortified 

stations—one of which was at Colchester. It is said 

por ine tae chan Bi vr eto aia 
of tes is tribe. When 
omnntur divided ‘ie epitnery”* Ewer” oak tactlgl tt 
that part called Flavia Cesariensis ; the five principal 
stations of the conquerors were all seated on the road 
which formed the fifth Iter, from London to Venta Ice- 
norum. During a certain period of the Saxon Heptar- 
chy, Essex formed aseparate kingdom, called East Seaxa ; 

Erkenwin is supposed to have been the first king 

—_— Essex - a hoticed by beset we 

other kingdoms e heptarchy, 

William ti the Conqueror deprived 90 land-owners, of this 

county, of their lands; and the Norman barons con- 

structed numerous castles, and tyrannised over the in- 
habitants. In the civil wars between the houses of 

York and Lancaster, Essex suffered much from the in- 

terference of the De Veres; and also in Charles I. 

time, during the long siege of Colchester. Former! 

there were 12 castles in this county, four of whi 

were denominated royal castles: there are two remain- 
ing, + ah ace itn? Bd ni in the neigh- 
bou of the latter, Queen Elizabeth reviewed the 
army, which she had assembled to oppose the Spanish 


The population of Essex, in the 
159,200; in 1750, 167,800; and in 1801, 234,000. 
On an average of several years, it is found that 
there has been one baptism to 33 persons; one burial 


to 4% persdns ; and one iage to 128 persons. In 
1810, the s of males were 3792; of females 
3678; total 7470: the burials of males 2807; of fe- 


males 2531: total 5338: the number of marriages 
189%. 


The following further details on this subject are 
taken from the population returns for 1811 :— 
oe houses ‘Qian . . * . . * 42,829 
amilies inhabiting . , 51,645 
Houses noeek ele Keke nese ee 255 
Houses uninhabi Ak at er Reger 1,012 
Families employed in agriculture .. . 28,517 
Do. employed in trade manufactures, &c, 14,182 
Do. otherwise e Per 8,944 


pe gr EC OR 


year 1700, WS Population. 


( lepate. 


EST — 208 EST 
Se ee eo ee + ee x) 2839" continues incessantly; with. almost always serene, Bstremadu- 
Focios SS The curth wind Pesvails in sunaieeameiiecinegion see 
oni rer ere amen oer Be 
Population in 1801 ay ay, 0 he prepa B4O00 — fy me | : | 3 

Increase oy Gute) ems glues Granth S, 499 heit : a heat of 96° is not uncommon. The soil round 

oung’ i ‘Essex ; Movant's History limestoneis close é 
ee elie y basalt hegisn‘atsAlve toanbisant featinendiiniands then “a 
vol. vy. (w. 8-) prrcede Sena a “aN 

ELA, is a manufacturing town of Spain, in the of the basalt mountains stretches Lisbon 


isa 

ptovince of Navarre. It is watered by the rivers 
seb mee tipeneta tgs oan cinsted inn Hie, 
and contains several chi ie pn oe 
a universi seins , which was fou 
in 1565. Diets goods are, manufactured in 
the town, and it contains some distilleries of brandy. 
P ion 4500 ) 

THONIA. See Reve. 
_ ESTRELLA Senaa pe, the Mons Herminius of the 
ancients, is the most; extensive and highest range of 
mountains in It is _a branch of the high 
range that divides Old and New Castile, and stretches, 
like most of the other mountain ranges in the penin- 
sula, from north-east to south-west. .It rises a 
mountain plain of a considerable height, and_is cover- 
ed with snow during more than four months of the 
year. Link has estimated its elevation at 5000 or 6000 
: “apap, A ge of the » 

sou or hi range is called 
Serra Brava, or the wild ates from ae steep 
and rocky character; and the northern, or lower part 
of the range, is called Serra Mansa, or the gentle moun- 
tains. The whole of these mountains consist of granite. 
‘The highest summit is called Malhao de Serra, and isa 
lage. Pes genes srebannietacss Segue eor ean tate 


does not at all observe the rough rocky . 


spectator 
sides that surround the mountain every where but to 
the north-east. There are two lakes in these moun- 
tains. One called the 


It is surrounded with high rocks, 


8 com 

an is remark ayer yen of its water. 
The princi eis or. ides, 
te ectupies she middle of avelley ofemederable ength, 


eccup 
Its breadth is unequal, and, from its marshy banks, it 
is less beautiful than the other two. 

Many and small rivers take their. rise in this 
range; particularly the Mondego, the Vouga, and the 


7 é . 
ESTREWADURA, Extrema Durii, is a province 
of Portugal, which is bounded by Beira on the north, 
by Alentejo and Beira on the south, and by the sea. 
on the west.. Itextends about 140 miles from north 
totouth, and about 70 in breadth, and contains 5440 
square miles. It.is cutin the direction of east and west 
by the Tagus, which throws itself into the sea at Lis- 
bon. This forms a long and narrow stripe of 
land, along the sea shore from the embou- 
chure of the Mondego to below, the town of Setuval. 
On account of its proximity to the Atlantic, the climate 
is remarkably mild, and is very salutary end pleasant 
to these who are accustomed to it. During the period 
between the end of July and the beginning of Septem- 
ber, every thing is parched. Not a blade-of grass-is'to 
be seen, and the evergreens are shrivelled up. The heat 
) 


The mildness of the climate i poculisnly’ favourable igo: 
to agriculture, il is ive or z ture. 


are ¢ 


ea : “+ rae 
heaped up rocks, affording a wild anda dreary 
pect. The north side of toe angio Soeeuneninae 


covered with cow houses, and ing quintas, 
forming a shady wood of the finest trees, as oaks, 
i trees, &c,.. From the .top,;) there «is a fit 


‘of the well cultivated valley of Colanos, © 
oa we a 


by the sie arc ang A of Estremadura, Beira, 
Entre-Trajo-et-Guadi ie tem, rime 
an north to south, and 45: from east to west,: 
This province is intersected. by ranges of hills, the Mincralo- 
mineralogy of which has, not yet been carefully exa-¢y- — 
mined, . A mine of in a blue and green mixed, 
stone, occurs in _to the south: : 


_ of the village of Logrosen, There isa lead mine, which 


EE 


ESTREMADURA. © | 909 


-Petremadu-" ha’ been worked onan eminence called Vadija, or-val- out of the road from Xeres de Jos Cavalleros ; and ano- Estremadu- 
_ ‘ra: Jey of Las Minas, about 24 leagues from Logrosen, on ther by the side of the Hermitage of St Bartolomé, near ra, 
_““"Y~" the road to Zolamea. Another occurs about a league ee town three leagues to the east of Merida. 
tie ARs ‘_ The five of these are cold, and the last is thermal. 
Mineralogy. yeous stone and Blood stones are found near It is very copious, and has baths, and was much fre- 
©Nabal Villar. nl amber ye emcee. quented in the time of the Romans, the ruins of a bason 
ich, when pounded, takes fire, gives a - and an oval edifice being still visible. 
north to - The Romans were attracted to this province by the Soil and 
fertility of its soil, and the mildness of its climate ; and #sticulture, 
i i it was converted into a en, by the industry of the 
rubbed between the hands, is found upon a very -Moors. Upon the ion of the Moors it was great- 
» and since that time it has continued 


iT 

if 

s 2 
ue 
8 
g 
F 
Z 


Es 

| 
; 
4 
iL 
i 
pees 


i 
a 
| 
i 
3 


Villar. « Laborde says, that it is a mine of refractory ima state of nearly total inutility to Spain. The soil is 
iron. A mine of iron on a sandy stone, containing extremely rich; but it is almost completely reduced to 
very fine red ochre, is found between Alcocer and Or- the state of rank pasturage. In the district of Badajoz 


i 


alone, it is computed that there is a space of waste land 
26 leagues long, by 12 broad. Neither gardens, nor or- 
c i ; of chards, nor fruit, nor mulberry trees, nor hemp, occur 
cee ten nee gree Alcocer. This mine was im the whole province. Wheat and rye are almost the 
worked by the Moors, who erected a fortress onthe sole productions, and the quantity grown is nearly 
i i The iscom- sufficient for the support of a scanty po ion. Olive 
poset mixed with quartz. Near trees and vines are not numerous. Chesnut trees are 
-Alcocer; there also occurs a smooth emery, os more abundant, and afford nourishment to the inhabi- 


Manufac- 
tories, 


: 
i 
| 
7‘ 
i 
1 
E 
5 


i 
ai 
H 
: 
H 
i 
? 
| 
f 
F 
i 
: 


incipal manufactories which existed be-> 
tion, were one of hats at Badajoz, esta- 
‘by. a Frenchman, two similar manufactories 


pein 
ili 
Pgs 
ui + 
bat 
Ht 
pall 
un 
FAEETE 
ane 
fli 
i 
Hi 
nf 


| 
z 
ir 
Lie 
i 
; 
Ez 
: 


and inns in Estremadura are co ame sa Roads. 


Al 
i 
ge. 
i 
if 
H 
rf 
28 
F 


Hh 
ih 
He 
ty 
ree 
it 
Hu 
1: i 
ie 
i 
Free 
gece 
Hi 


i 
: 
E 
: 


kind in Estremadura, excepting two colleges, the inha-. 
bitants being in a state of extreme ignorance. 
«This province contains three bishoprics, Badajoz, Pla-. Political 
. sencia,and Coria ; three cathedral chapters in these three Subdivisiov, 


i 
ie 
u 
Fi: 
it 
HE 
ae 


: 
e 
| 
| 
: 
| 
| 


a 

FE 

‘ 
FER 

F 

: 

i 

3 

; 


H 
4 
AH 
i 
2 
, 


_nardo Estevard, near Barcarrota, a small town iat Jeros, Llerena, Almatana, Zafra, Caceres, Albuquerque, . 
- seven and Olivenga, 


 VOLIX. PART ntvmy Liao Lesage sg 2D 


i —_—. ll 


is very high, and of extent, and projects a number 
i t partsofithe province. = © 

In the years 1787 and 1788, the province contained 
416,922 inhabitants, consisting of 


ets fp « t'e't, ae 0 cin 69 2441 
Parisli priests ........+-.-- $41 
MNS oS ieee a ce sf oe 2,060 
oe een Se 1,748 
rs cre ene tae 3,724 
Widivocates so te te 305 
WEEE a's eG ct eb 2 8s oe 505 
ones gr eeterpar 1,446 
Gee crs at cip oo > 0 = ® 11,036 


From this scanty population, the traveller soften 
passes immense tracts without seeing a:settle- 
ment, a house, or a human being, and without percei- 
ving a tree, or a 
Travels in Portugal; and Laborde's View of Spain. 


‘w 

‘ EsrReMoz isa smal fried town of Portugal; in 
the provinee of Alentejo. town is i but 
has a large cheerful’ square in its centre. There isia 
castle on an eminence, an some outworks of no 
importance. There are \five religious houses in the 
town, and a sixth in the neighbourhood, an ital, 
and a casa de misericordia. This town belongs ‘to 
the corregimento of Evora, but being a:praga de ‘armas, 
it has.a governor. On the ‘side of the town towards 


Lisbon, the country is well cultivated, and:abounds'in © 


orange gardens and laurels, which continues as long 
as soil is lime, but, on ascending ‘the mountain, 
the soil consists of slaty: granite, all cultivation 
ceases. 

A good marble is found in the neighbourhood of the 
town. There is here a:small 


of the general's command, et nar pen 
relating to prisoners an 
iootaibenal the day, plans of Rounincunels : 
5 marc 
equa auuhanigptoh souteal in a comprehensive sense, 
the channel for the transmission of whatever requires 
the decision of a directing head, but is too much mat- 
ter of detail to be transacted by the eommander-in- 
‘The chef of the etat major receives from the 
in.chief » summary of his directions respecting 
the movement and arrangement of the troops, These 


spot of cultivated land. See Link's . 


moture of earthen. -it 


deserters, as - 


connected with the movements 


my no fewer than three ood which 
divided ig them the duties now ‘by the 
collective etat ‘major. The plan of has since 


of a'general of division and assistants, called Ants 


each division, the:plan of which is, on a smaller seale, 


‘the same as that of ‘the former. 
‘From the time ‘ot 
of ‘the'staff in each of 


ial orders are 


continues the ‘invarivble rule, even when 
of an yare at a considerable 


en to afford every ac- 


E 
oe 


ETC 


wniniiiuie to efficers travelling as. couriers, whether 
ire horses, carriages, or even escorts. When 


(sean a he distance of 80 or 100i i 


: s a dail rt to head q 
such wer gad of cee ere the French etat: 


Wools and 


Varnish. 


Hard var- 


¥ Tn she choice, of ofiinere fon. thia, 
Seen benahabeneetal since the. revolution, to. 
oe cnet Ry Cb 
engineer service. latter requires extent and 
accuracy of paetionsation! nominee foun- 
ed tote 


sta unacg 
Se erate ah pemotoetae atthe heed of a de- 
tachment of horse, The pon the march of a co- 
lumn of i ja a at their hands, 
are accuracy of aco! ce 
with the force placed under their nye 
ies aa ye pane report, The posy 

SScekbomeda 


\e efficacy of 


er wh nar pe of the. 
French have ly owing to the concert 
and. activity which prevailed in their movements, in. 
concurrence with the splendid talents of afew af heir 


) 
oercHING, in. the arts, is a species of engravi 

produced by the-action of an acid, i irenaletheccstonees 
sive menstruum, upon metal, or other substances suscep- 
tible of corrosion. This ern wea ane 
vused, to express iar effect produced upon — 
Staion, Ih the action of dilute. aquafortis, which, ,~ 
peppers pauaptabaga per red sew 
superseded) the use of the graver.. edb a gore } 
plates which ch. are merely etched the effect: 
which.the tool can give in poin 3 but! the: 
lines are not sohdineteds Voorn formed iy. tool; and}. 
imperfect, from the wear: 


soon become 
of the plate i In order, therefore; 
tobe:enabled:to take off a number of proof.im- 
pressions, the etched lines should be) cut deeper by: 
per Othe joint eflect of the ay te von > 
y' 
Pe teetend efisteanaillgttreniiehtecabo cmt 
Py the tal othe etched ines, ‘witha Ioneunings thet 


ane -ap wae taketh Steeda ee 

same way as thowe fr The substances, and: 
the whole surface Proce, re Se @ vari to 

cover to 

ing needles, which, should: be made of. cast steel wire, 

about 1-16th; of an inch in diameter. A’ variety 


of! 
these are points of different de of 
bluntness. e varnish is of two kinds, hard:and soft;. 


the former was in use in the early periods of: the his- 
tory of this art, when etching ie ditesdest noencci 


po oneal a8 an : ack of 
not guide the graver with i “The soft 
td oc the pes employed, more caleu- 

The varnish is. prepared as fol- 


lows: "Take equal parts-of drying oiland mastic: The: 


Q1y 


ETC 


oil should,.be prepared from lintseed oil, and 
fo till it acquires a certain degree. of viscidity, under 
which it is said, by painters, to-befat.. The oil should 


be heated ‘ina. stoneware pipkin,. with a sand heat, 


andthe mastic added. in pow The heat must now 
be kept up, and the mixture; stirred, till. the whole of 
the, mastic is dissolved, and the compound: becomes.an 
uniform fluid. While yet hot, let it be strained through 
a fine linen bag, and bottled for:use. 

The following is the preparation: of the: soft var- 
nish, as, recommended. by Le: Boffe: Take:two-parts of: 
clear white bees’ wax, od melt. it ina stoneware:vess 


powder, two, of mniastic: > let it wares bidualin 
stirred all the: time, and till it is: thoroughly melted. 

Next add one part of asphaltum. in\similar powder, stir-. 
ring as before, till, it is, completely dissolved. Let the: 
liquid, now cool, but not to: lose its fluidity. Pour it 


. into warm water, and. mould it: with the hands: into 


sticks, or balls, for-use. 


rst aoa e whole lislod stirred. till: the: solution is 
complete, Tt is now poured into warm water, and 
- into pens ety use. sonplecwciontatat 
e copper- ing pre an 
clean, insabe by th the patioe in a hand vice, tony 
will serve asa handle. It is:now to: be heated:over'a 
glowing uniform fire, or what will be better, laid: upow 
flat-plates of metal heated by a:sand bath., This heat 
must be so great as to:melt tlie soft varnish, For this 
punpnses: one of the balls or sticks; above-mentioned, 
must be wrapped in a piece of taffety. It isnow to be 
drawn over the hot plate in successive stripes, till it is 
completely. andi uniformly covered. Still, however, the 
varnish, will exhibit numerous ridges in the direction in 
which)the; ball was drawn overthe plate: This will be 
remedied: by what is called adabber, which is formed by 
wepnne =: ball\ of cotton wool in a piece -of  Persiar: 
rng — the irom is <_ melted upon ~ one 
is perpendicul. u the plate, 

sxuth idiot en the: same cieocions This will give 

the» poor ‘an uniform smoothness. Ianmedintely alter 
this, the: plate\is to be: placed: with its: varnished ‘side 
downwat 
it, — at such a distance as to smoke the plate with- 
ow the: varnish. The: smoke; which is*no. 

am: 


a a Pp black, becomes i ‘with the 


varnish, making: it completely black, by. which: means’. 


any lines transmitted ‘to: it, ‘ot’ wlightes slincey are’ ren- 
dered more conspicuous: 

The next object is to transfer the desi 
of, the varnish,. which-is afterwards to 


copper. Two methods: are employed; an outline, 


yand a imation ar large candle, held'under » 


Etching. 


Le Boffe’s 
soft varnish. 


ect, 
rhe 4 paid, The sot cr men Mr’ Wilson Lowry. oa ae Lowry’s 


Method of 
laying on 
the ground 
or varnish. 


to the’surface Method of 


etched in the transferring 
or the 


drawing, of the intended size, is first prepared in: black 1 fo ox ger 


lead pencil:orred)chalk. This, after being made damp *" 
by. lying between two sheets’of wet pa me te is laid upon. 
the plate with the drawn side downwards, and mr 
sed through press.. This’ will give'a’reversed 
impression of every line of the drawing upon the surface 
of the varnish ; so. thatthe intended print willibe the 
same as the drawing. 

The-other meth a wee 
plate; is: py covering: the 
red lead; b 


off-again 


the’outline’ to the 
‘the’drawing with 
rubbing’ om witha:cushion, and rubbing it: 
tilLit ee the fingers’ men This it 


212 ETCHING. 
é laid on the with the drawi ards, ther, for the pu of facili the escape of the Etching. » 
one it tight ot tanening it at oye 7 very ok ta gas. This not oufy hastens vm hea but renders Rt . 


Etching 


map cn any ich is 


drawing must now be traced with a blunt and smooth 
pointed ome ced per hes — — in etch- 
. During tracing, i t int must 
touch the plate. To enoure thin, a heart cated 
ing-board, must be used. This is a thin board with a 
bevelled edge, and supported at each end, so as to form 
aren ove oes without touching it. Without 
his, the pressure of the hand upon the drawing would 
cause the varnish to be with red lead, and thus 
the outline indistinct. The whole of the lines 
being traced, the paper is to be removed, when the out- 
line will be seen in the colour of the red lead. 
f the surface of the varnish be coated with a paint- 
like composition of white lead and solution of glue, and 
the back of the drawing be covered with fine lamp- 
black instead of red no | the outline produced by tra- 
ing will be in black lines, and very distinct. 
~ ihe sated gebeem fe $0 trace the lines marked u 
the varnish with the etching needle. These, as 
been observed, are formed of cast steel wire, about 
two inches long, and in little wood or ivory 
handles. The points, of which there are varie- 
ty, are formed and kept smooth and sharp by rubbin; 
lengthwise upon an oil-stone, causing the needle 
to revolve between the fingers as it is moved backwards 
and forwards. The same operation must be repeated 
eminem 
degretssef haneaeg uecghe pelt, santa esate 
on int, ing to the fine- 
ness or of the lines in the design. This must 
be left entirely to the judgment of the artist. In land- 
or 


depend ~ the dexterity, Judgment, and taste of the 


The point of the needle merely passes through the 
varnish, laying bare a portion of the copper equal to 


next thing is to for applyi 

gear ey Sa t is, technically called biting in. 
The plate is first surrounded with a tion 
of bees-wax and pitch and tallow. This. forms a 


t to remove it from the plate. 
T aquslorts employed is generally known by the 
first of these 
diluted with from two to three parts of wa- 
The ee emcee souls toquine sore: seniam: 
iquor should, at any rate, be such 
uce a moderate effervescence with heae 
id liquor should be in a widish mou 
with a glass stopper, which it may be 
Poured on to the ‘plate, and. back into the bottle 
ip of sax in the comes. 
the first 


a 


ger} 
iF 


On ing of the liquor upon the plate, 
«mall bubbles air will soon. appear, ae if.emergi 
from the lines on the plate. The whole mass of 


i 


be slightly agitated with fps a 


“wax from thesides, While the plate is still warm, it 


the corrosion more uniform. 


As soon as the finest lines are deemed sufficiently °PP!yinathe 


deep, the liquor is to be poured back into the bottle. 
The plate must now be well rinsed with water, and 
dried at a heat not capable of melting the wax or var- 


rtgl 
peut 
ile 
Hig 


I 
iE 
: 
re 
i 
i 
Evi 


i! 


2 ee. 
if 
bee 
LL 
3 
i 
<5 
tei 
Hi 
=] 
A 


=] 
a 


ei] U 
be smeared over with oil of tu’ ine, or olive 
what is ch , Spirit of tar. depetdiaes 
en and dissolve the varnish, by which means: it 
easily be removed, and wi clean with a soft 
or, what is better, currier’s shavings. If, after 

corroded, 


Th 


5% 

2 

Hl 
tf 
7 


may be found n : , 
f ts from it. But it will be 


to take pri to observe, 
that if the etched lines are not gone over by the graver, 
toe ey gy Appts i will soon become 
imperfect the wearing of the plate. Hence re- 


been tried. The first be hardened; without 
afterwards ing them, might be polished with 
similar to 


smoothness and accuracy, 
Oo cee iee pleth alone: That the acid ‘etch these 


Reecllod. the Vesutilll enainants pot epeeeapamiaes 


put upon polished 


steel by etching, as we shall explain in the sequel of 
this article. 
is 


the varnish is first laid on the plate, it requires to be held 
for some time over the fire, as the linseed oil requires 
some time to dry, and become stiff. When the 

king ceases, it may be removed. The sign of i 


heated enough, is its iring such a of adl 
siveness as to hold any thing fast that may be stuck to 
it. This trial is. in i 


Y aquafortis, 


i 


3 


—_——- 


itt 


ETCHING, 
ceive the ink in proportion as ag Aol been corroded, _ Etching, 


If the heat be continued too 
, and will be apt to 


pi 


is to be wrapped in a piece of 
, and laid on the warmed ¥ i di- 
sbicigngonmeien renin, shoxving ¢ ei 


Hj 
E 
F 
i 


HEN 
itt 
i 
: 


: 
zp 
i 
E 


o 


213 


while the polished are left free, per being laid 
upon this, and pressure applied, will uve an agreeable 


impression. 


Messrs Brown and Mawe of Derby, and in the Etching 


Strand, London, have latel 
the very elegant articles w 
coloured 


tique ornaments are beautifully enriched with figures 
etched upon them by acids. If sulphuric ‘acid of 
tolerable be laid upon polished gypsum, it 
gives to the part a dead white, which forms a good con- 
trast with the polished For marbles or any car- 


introd: 


etching u 
ich 


does not merely deaden the agp but forms a greyish 
ground, which is an agreeable contrast to the black po- 


oF 
i 


employed to ornament glass wi 
corrosion of glass by the fluoric acid gives 
of ground glass, so that when the fi- 
upon glass are defended from the acid 
bstance, the d becomes opaque, form- 
contrast to the transparent part. The lat- 
ly painted representing figures or flowers, 
manner of painting transparencies. The com- 
ing ground is generally used ‘to cover the 
same manner as the copper-plates are first 
taking the same pains to sp it uniformly. 
, the figures, but more commonly the —<_ 
formed by needles of different 

; and a flat pointed tool when greater surfaces are 
be removed. As soon as those parts intended to be 
corroded are cut out, they are surrounded with soft 
wax, as directed to be placed round the margin of the 
oe ora Somer berwaaned sorrmck aie The 
eae ee 1. By the li- 

b caytie 2. By pounded fluor spar; and, 3. By 
acid gas, or what is more ly called the su- 

t of silex. The liquid acid 1s obtained by distil- 

ing the gas from fluat of lime and sulphuric acid, from 
a leaden retort into a receiver of the same metal, sur- 
rounded with ice, and containing a little water. The 
liquid obtained is to be employed on the in the 
same manner as the dilute nitric acid in etching copper- 
plates. The second method is the most simple, and is on 
that account generally i It consists in first redu- 
cing the fluat of lime, commonly called fluor spar, and 
Blue John, to powder. When the sides of the outlined 


ii 
f 


: 


‘it 


ai 
he 


" 


the acid as about three to one by weight. It must be 
placed in a warm situation, but not so hot as to melt the 
wax or varnish. The sulphuric acid soon begins to li« 
berate the fluoric acid, which in its nascent state core 
The gas are tiys ta WL ea the si- 
along with it in the form of superfluat 
= ee ees 
very pure, that is, free from silex. If the latter be 
oe oni RNa A Cn lee 

of getting the silex from 


form of various lc and 
les and gypsum. Vases and other an- 8YP°0™ 


plates do not answer for Dw Etching 
good upon glass, 


bicdung 
-—-Q 
Bron. 


—_—\— 


of 
materp- This art 
on Sheffieldand 


ETO 
on the elastic form at a very low temperatare, at 
(een than 60>. Hence glass may be very . 
ly corroded by being inmensed in this vapour, As. it. 
combines with the silex of the glass, it becomes a more 
elastic fluid, called the superfiuat of silex, In etching 
round vessels of glass, it is not so convenient to use 
the wall of wax to contain the liquid; and hence it will 
be better to etch bodies of such form with. vapour, ob- 
serving uot to apply it so hot-as to melt the wax. 

When the plate has been exposed. to the action of 
pulp com of pounded fluor spar and sulphuric 
ed, till finest hoes are correded sufficiently, which 
can only be ascertained by trial and observation, the 
acid mass is to,-be removed, and the plate washed. with 
clean water, and dried so a cannes _ parts cor- 
roded sufficiently are to be stopped out with turpentine 
varnish used in etching copper, The rest of the pro- 
i isely the same as that of the copper- 
plates, lying every time the same quantity of pound- 
ed at ak. The pulp which has been used.once, 
may sometimes be used again, since it will be capable 

ing so long as any effervescence appears. 

of etching upon steel, has been practised at 
Birmingham for ornamenting polishedsteel. 
The corroded part becomes a dead white, while the part 
unafiected remains polished. Those parts intended to be 

from the acid, are drawn with turpentine 
varnish, while that which is to form the white ground 
is left bare. The where the acid is to be exposed, 
is first surrounded by a wall, of a mixture of bees wax 
and pitch, with the eddition of a little tallow: The 
acid employed is the nitric, diluted with 3 or 4 parts 
of water, more or less according to the strength of the 
acid, The proportions will be those which produce 
the whitest ground, This will be easily formed, by. 
trying different strengths of acid, with a pair of polish- 
ed steels kept forthe purpose, This beautiful art:is; 
much assisted by bluing and gilding. - (c: s:): 

ETFOU, or Evev, See Civiw Arcnirrcrons, 
vol. vi. p. 522. 

ETHELBALD. See Eneuann, p. 590: 

BTHELBERT. See Enexanp, p. 590: 

ETHELRED. See Eyeuanp, p. 594: 

ETHELWOLFY. See Enotann, p. 590. 

ETHER. See Cuemisrny, vol. vi. p. 68; 69, 70. 

ETHERED: See Eneiann, p. 590. 

ETHICS. See-Monat Puiiosopny. 

ETHIOPIA. See Asyssinia, 

ETHULIA. See Botany, p. 296. 


ETON, or Eaton, the name of a large village in the 
county of Bucki consisting of a iaglacitabals 
pleasantly sit on the north bank of the Thames, 


and connected with, Windsor by a bridge. 
This village has long: been. celebrated for its 
» im which many of the: distingui cha 
racters in the kingdom have received their education; 
Eton College was founded in 1440, by Henry VI. for a 
“ provost, ten priests, six clerks, six choristers, 25 poor 
grammar scholars, witha master to teach them, and 
25 poor old men.” It now supports a provost, seven 
fellows, two schoolmasters, two cadets, seven clerks, 
70 scholars, and 10. choristers, with various other: offi« 
cers and assistants. T'welve of these scholars are annu« 
ally elected to. King’s College, Cambridge, to which 
they are removed; according to their seniority, as soon 
as any Vacancy occurs, the av “number of vacan- 
cies being’about nine. in two years. ‘They: are entitled 
to a fellowship, after having: continued there three 
years. ‘Two scholars arealso sent annually. to. Merton 
College, Oxford, where they are named ‘ostmasters, 


lic 


214 


ET Y 
At the fi mea labile 59 
fr tds base tinaien cotaien 1 
each, which has been increased by al of L 


annum, bequeathed by a late fellow, Mr 
Besides the king’s scholars, there are generally fron 
300 to 350 independent scholars, or. oppidans, as.they 
are called, educated here. ‘They are the sons.of noble- 
men and tlemen, and reside at; lodging 
within the of the college. , 
Eton College consists,of two courts or, quadrang! 
divided, by a tower or gateway. In, one of 
these is the school, the chapel, and. ings. for, 
masters and scholars. The school is divi into. 
lower and upper, each, of which are subdivided into 
three classes, The other ynarnale is, occupied: by, 
the library, the. provost’s lodgings, which are in. the 
front, and the fellows’ apartments., The library, which 
is-on the. south,side,. is one of the best: and most ele+ 
gant in the kingdom, both. with ‘to its architec. 
ture and its. collection cues: eM books were be- 
ueathed to it principally. addington, bishop 
of Chichester, br Godolphin, provost, Nicolas Mann, 
Esq. late master of the Charter-house, and Richard 
Topham, Esq. of Windsor. i 
left many it drawings 
tiquities, collected by himself at Rome,, at 
ce: las thetieee aes of books oe 
ueathed to library, a . 
lege, Mr Hetherington, who also ( his « 
expence, a neat in the middle of the town forthe. 
accommodation of peas. me 4. 2h fee 
chapel, which is on the south side, is a 
very handsome building, ornamented with large abut- 


chapel of King’s College, Cam- 
y to which it is, however; mi in ii 
tion, 


a pry 4 


FF 


likewise 


ie 
g 
& 


bri 


of Salt-hill, The object of this custom: is to collect what 
is called Salt Money, which is done by the salt-bearers 
and scouts dressed in different coloured silks. The salt 
money has sometimes amounted to £800, from the lis 


scholar on the king’s 
a Se 
Gough's 's Bria 
Beauties of England and: Wales, vol, ix 

p- 398. : 


w 
prone, See Kunite Isxes. 
ETRURIA. See Tracy and Tuscany, 
ETYMOLOGY, (from the Greek srujos, irue ot real, 
and Aeyes; speech,) the science which investi 
nature, origin, derivation, and formation of words. 


The subject of etymol being words. n or 
written, iedoay be vie wid alan ‘ t Ist; As 
sia a Seve aratiigaie oe 
former, the office of: S is out the dif- 
penta acaremp nie “speech, as they are 
pee fear ions or. which they may un 
dergo ; and the modes in which, by composition or de- 


Sora 


! 


‘Rrymology. 


. neral 


rivation,'they are‘to be deduced or formed from one 
another. In the ‘latter, the etymologist extends his 
views | | mere grammatical formations, to the re- 
‘mote and recondite analysis of words, whether primi- 
‘tive’or derived, with a view to trace out the’actual ori- 


gin,. s, and filiation of langu: ‘and, if possi- 
‘Ble, to er the radical nuclei or ‘ -of human 
“Speech, as ive of human’ t. The elucida- 
‘tion of the first’ branch belongs to ‘ians and lex- 


‘ic hers ; the second forms an interesting subject of 

‘philosophical enquiry. 
Considered under either point of view, the import- 
ance of the study of etymology cannot justly be called 
in question. “As a part of particular grammar, it cor- 
stitutes a fundamental and essential branch of it, abso- 
‘for the knowledge 


man knowledge, certainly cannot, as some have 
cabsurdly roe yr Medan gogo of thin 


7 


“but they may at least furnish assistance towards unfold. 
‘ing the of the mind in observing and discovering 
the objects it. Prejudices have indeed been 


researches of this description, as if 
t resting 
juent- 


usurp the place 
discussions may no doubt 
pee er 3 but when conducted 


and appr lead to concl 

sratifping to the Riciihaine adel, nd venient oe 
For the condu 
ae hy 


here 
expres- 
all lan- 
‘of our internal 
‘rations of the human mind are uniform 
bee ee ; language, wherever formed and introduced, 


per 
Foy non + age in some than in 

some, | : more i 
ects, or ‘modificttions of action, pooner eaeahe 


are exal of the former ; most of the of 
rid a, eho Drtigres Rogar peda 
culiar structure of the language'in these points, soon. 


vreaponilitg Gifferenice takes places in the  churcorec ot 


ETYMOLOGY. 


dition, or more em 


215 
its etymology, ‘more refined: and : 
more simple in others,. Where.many ions and cir- 
cumstances are expressed by means of inflection, that 
branch of ‘etymology*which treats’of it, must become 
an important and fundamental object of attention. Such 
a language possesses this advantage, that when the 
laws of its inflection are understood, and the radical 
‘meaning of the verb or noun comprehended, each word, 
‘whatever place it may occupy in the sentence, has its 
precise relation to the others ascertained. ‘In eR 
-Of less artificial structure, where recourse must be had 
to supplementary terms, much of the sense must de~ 
pend upon collocation alone. Languages of the for- 
mer‘description are more tible of variety of ar- 
rangement, as well as harmony of modulation ; in lan- 

of the latter kind, the arrangement is necessarily 
more confined and uniform, but it has been thought 
that accuracy and perspicuity are thereby better at~ 


In what manner 'these varieties ‘in the etymological 
structure of we have arisen, has been a subject of 
dispute. Some have supposed that inflections their 
origin from the gradual junction and amalgamation of 
separate terms with the ‘radical word : thus, ‘m/nouns, 
the terms denoting mor recipient, or subject vA ac~ 
tion ; and in verbs, ‘the terms expressing time, volition, 
command, or dependence, being frequently in common 
eenien along with the word to which they re- 
lated, came at length to coalesce entirely with the radi- 
cal word, and to fi the genitive, dative, and accusa- 
tive cases of nouns, the tenses, moods, or voices of verbs, 

that might easily arise when a language was 
constaritly employed by an active, ingenious, and ani- 
mated le. To others it has appeared more proba- 
ble, that the of language was'in a different di- 
rection ; that speech being intended to: communicate the 
complex feelings and impressions of the ‘mind, at ‘first 
consisted of what may be denominated mere masses of 
sound, significant only of these complex impressions, in 
which su ce, qualities, and actions were united and 
blended without distinction ; that, by the operation of 
external objects, a modification of these impressions ta- 
king place, and the agent, the action, ‘the effect, and 
the quality, becoming alternately objects of direct and 
aed a corres ng variation to indicate 
ese ‘modifications, took place in the significant sounds ; 
that separate classes of ‘sounds significant or words, be- 
ing thus formed. farther but minuter variations 
these words themselves were found necessary, to denote 
the relations in which they were supposed to stand, or — 
‘the particular mode of operation they were believed to 
exert: These it was easy to supply by abbreviation, ad- 
cenuneiation, at the commence- 
ment or termination ; and in this manner might ‘be 
formed the cases of nouns—the tenses, ‘nioods, and per- 
sons of verbs; from which afterwards might arise, ‘by 
separation of a part, or contraction of the whole, new 
‘classes of words, denoting ‘relation, ‘position, or modifi- 
cation in general, and constituting ‘the ‘classes of ad- 
verbs, Sh ope a ‘and conjunctions. 
In which of ‘these two'tracks we are to look for the 
actual niente is a question in- . 
ip ‘complete ‘solution, ‘nor, as re merely 
to the study of logy, is it very material to deter- 
mine it. ' It will be sufficient for the etymological stus 
‘dent, in the first place, ‘to ascertain how far the lan~ 
guage to which his attention is'turned, partakes of the 
more simple or more “ated ’strueture, and then 
to direct his labours #0 as to ‘obtdin an accurate and 


jlex in some, [tymology- 


216 


Feymology. cuous view of the laws and principles by 
es ee rors edt 


the inflections, derivations, and com 
regulated. This constitutes what is ne 
y of a particular language, forming 


triton ensuted bacnabrahvengeatl has for its obj 
the analysis and resolution prea tg with hae eo 
ee 


languages, 
or the primitive germs of human speech. For the suc- 
cessful ion of this study, a comprehensive view 


of the nature of language in general, iv regard to its 
object, its constituent parts, and the principles of its 
formation, is first of all necessary, that no i 
ne eee be brought forward inconsistent with the 
fi principles which must operate in all lan- 
Keeping these in view, and observing accu- 


wacky the structure and forms of words in the e 
to be analysed, it will not be difficult, ially in 


those of fabric, to distinguish, with sufficient 
precision, radical and primitive from what 
are only accessary and accidental. If the modes of 


posi 
if the derivative words can all be traced to primitives in 
the language itself,—and if these primitives can be ul- 
timately resolved into-roots, evidently existing in and 
proper to it, we may, without hesitation, assign to 
that language the title of primitive, and accordi ly 
proceed in our attempts to develope its remote consti- 
tuent parts, and the laws of its formation and structure. 
Such we find to be the case in the Hebrew, the Ancient 
Gothic, the Sanscrit, and some others. If, on analysing 
a » we find all these distinguishing features, we 
tly woes ~ ae wy (Fes at least, 
a8 a primitive, ou e similarit many of its 
tiene Sactheen nf smatien i cmesay ag be ein 
rivation ; in this case, both 


retained, in its new country, the primeval roots, from 
which im time emanated, by regular progress, a new 
copious language,—a , however, in which 

all the words are found to be formed from significant 
roots still existing within itself: The title of a primi- 
Sue Lenguoge may, therefore, with propriety, be given 
If, on the other hand, a language want these charac- 
teristic features of a primitive structure, it falls to be re- 
garded asaderivative, and analysedaccordingly , with con- 


gation of 


widest field for the labours of the etymologist. In the 


mation of languages alone, when other 


_ cre 


_.to. be disr 


_ally emanated. When arrived at these 


ETYMOLOGY. 


tion should first be paid tothe es in 
onal. piel as ea on hee ~ 
as be referred fo, as each of these have con- 


knowledge of vestigation 
complete. In the actual deduction of the words as 


occur, discriminating attention is often required, a 


forensic phrases, if lanted from one language 
onthe generally bear such manifest marks of their 
ipectilar Grigio, fost can at once be referred to 


their primitives ; agp -fpann wnt Saat gn ata 
icles, itions, conjunctions, are often so 
wee ie from one le to another, that it 
requires an accurate scrutiny before we can ascertain 
their - t stem. In such cases, various circumstan- 
ces for attention. The successive revolutions in the 
lan which we ae ing to 
be st ; changes, in 
ciation, gradually taking place, and t : 
considerable, that without remounting to the earlier 
stages, the connecting links would a ear. 
The varieties h one t neers fava Unto 
particularly in the vowels, whi ident may have in- 
Toduned, and halt continued ; the interchange of con- 
sonants of the same order, as certain organs of speech 
in different countries are more or less exercised, and the 
alteration of letters for the sake of more soenes* 


t variations i a All these 
apt to produce great vai in meaning. A 

itis business of a skilful etymologist to a x 
till the primitive word can be traced through all its 
changes. Examples of all kinds maybe found in eve-« 


ry modern dictionary. While the ist; by at- 
tention to these circumstances, can successful- 
ly in his labours, caution is. ni ; on the 


other hand, to avoid the fanciful and absurd deductions 
in which Jexiccgraphors and }antiquarians have too 
rashly indu tymologies far-fetched, or built 
upon resemblances purely accidental, ought in general 
; and unless historical circumstances 

ono. be Siaceie suicionh ot Sens ip ea aeued c 
connection or descent, probable, if not certain, a few si- 
milarities of would be too weak a foundation for 
a system of filiation. Occasional coincidences may arise 
in languages quite unconnected, and which have no ra- 
dical affinity ; it is only when, by following up the ana- 
lysis, we cau trace the resemblance in the radical stems, 
eras eerie le a ea 

U inciples now lai wn, etymologic 
me aa structure of different 

ight be conducted with success, proceeding by a strict 
inductive process from the derivative . ages ac- 
tually existing, to the remoter primitive tongues, 
which furnished the roots whence thee bene greta 
primitive - 
guages, it. might. still be an object of curious research 
to continue the investigation, and endeavour to analyse 
these primitive languages themselves, till some view 
could be obtained of the first elements, and subsequent 
progress of human speech. In every primitive lan- 
guage, it seems by no means improbable, that if the 
roots could be fully investigated upon just and phi 
phical principles of etymology, and the app 


Different 


theories of of explaining the conversion of water into 
grapecstion: gucbteral tors , and its 


EVA 


that the generalisation arose from the repeated applica- 
tion of the same sound, to express individual objects or 
individual feelings, concurring in the same common 
wethtieet aupaiapsechestapeaen diene 
ight be f ing wi progress of na- 
ture, and an excellent track would be opened, for tra- 
cing the procedure of the human intellect in the ar- 
rangement of ideas and formation of speech. A com- 
parison of these primitive roots, too, would best enable 
us to determine what degree of affinity existed among 
the languages to which they belong, and, perhaps, 
throw some light on the much-agitated question, 
whether all the of the world were really de- 
rived from one. Probable as the opinion of their com- 
origin must be allowed to be, and ened 
ing proofs of actual coincidence, still, to 
'y, such evidence seems to be want- 
acetone wascipionion: men- 


Alexandrian school, but these are only incidentally, 
eeeeeoeniely eat ste In modern 


Rave distinguished them. 


selves in this line. Horne Tooke has thrown great 
light on j wa Jamieson has fur- 
Seapasgen:.‘Thaiecpected wurksofs-t Mann pen 
ern, F ex work o urray on 
the languages of Europe, there is reason to , will 
a most valuable acquisition to the lovers of etymo- 
logical research 0) 
. EVAPORATION, is the process by which the aque- 
ous particles of bodies are converted into vapour. This 
is of two kinds, Artificial, and Natural or 
taneous. We have already described the general 
appearances connected with the former, (See Cuemis- 
“ry, p. 37.), and we shall therefore confine our atten- 
tion at present to the consideration — latter. 
Spontaneous evaporation is prombted by a variety of 
causes, of which the principal appear to be elevation of 
temperature, and the successive application of fresh 
portions of air. Neither of these circumstances, how- 
ever, can be deemed essentially necessary to the pro- 
cess; since ice gtadually wastes away at a very redu- 
eed and eyen more rapidly under an ex- 
pr erm it is exposed to a current 


atmospheric air. 
- Various theories have been proposed, with the view 
vapour, at 
elevation in 
the ; but notwiths 
with which the process is presented’ to our observation, 


and the important which it is destined to 
serve in the economy of nature, there are few subjects 
of ical enquiry involved in greater obscurity. 


According to Des Cartes, the action of the sun 
the water converts small particles of that fluid into hol- 
VOL, IX. PART I.” : wt 


217 


in the a 


‘EVA 


low spheres, which, being filled with a subtile matter, 
are rendered specifically lighter than air, and thus 
ascend in the atmosphere. iers, assuming the 
hypothesis that heat acts more powerfully on water 
than on common air, asserts that at a temperature which 


-by. its cold condenses air, may be sufficient to cause an 


evaporation from water, or even from ice. He farther 
assumes, that the particles of water, after they are con- 
verted into vapour, acquire a repellency to one another, 
and deriving elasticity from the contiguous air, recede 
farther and farther till the specific gravity of the fluid 
which they form becomes lighter than air, after which 
they ascend. The particles of the vapour are supposed 
to retain their repellent force till by the diminution of 
the density of the surrounding air, their relative weight 
ra and they again descend in the form of rain, 
, Se. ‘ 

A theory somewhat similar to this has been support- 
ed, with much ingenuity, by Dalton and De Luc. 
These philosophers maintain, that since. water passes 
readily into vapour in vacuo, where the agency of the 
air is com 'y excluded, its spontaneous evaporation 
tmosphere may be referred entirely to the ope- 


ration of calorie. Accordingly, Mr Dalton, agreeably to 
-his opinion respecting the constitution of the atmo- 


sphere, asserts, that the aqueous vapour, thus formed 
by heat alone, exists in air, not in a state of combina- 
tion with it, but merely of mixture or diffusion ;—that 
it exerts no action whatever with the surrounding ga¢- 
es, but supports itself entirely by its own elasticity ;— 
and that the quantity of it ds entirely upon th 
temperature of the air, and the pressure exérted by the 
vapour already formed. He even advances a step be- 
yond this, and affirms that the quantity of vapour which 
could exist in the atmosphere would be the same, though 
the pressure of the atmosphere did not exist, as the va- 
pour itself would soon accumulate, and form an atmo- 

which would uce on the surface of liquids 

the mechanical effects of the air itself. 

The princi t which Mr Dalton has brought 
forward in support of his theory, is drawn from the 
well-known fact, that water passes readily into vapour 
under an exhausted receiver, and where, since there is 
no air the evaporation must be ascribed entire- 
ly to the influence of caloric. Dr Murray has shewn, 
however, that it by no means follows, because water 

into vapour in vacuo, at-a natural temperature, 
it will pass into vapour to the same extent, at the same 
temperature, under the ordi pressure of the atmo- 
wt The two cases are indeed totally different, 
en water is placed in vacuo, evaporation cannot, it 
must be admitted, be owing to the presence of air; but 
it ought to be recollected, when the air is removed, 
its mechanical pressure is removed along with it: and 
it would be altogether illogical to conclude, that because 
water passes into in the absence of that pres- 
sure, it would do so in an equal degree when 
to it. “« The proper manner of making the experiment,” 


as Dr Murray very properly remarks, “is to exclude 
e air, 


the chemical while the pressure of it 
is preserved; in other words, to place: water in vacuo 
under the re of a column of mereury 29 inches in 
height, which is equal to the presse ‘of the atmo- 
sphere. If in this case any vapour were forined, the 
conclusion would be just, that eous evaporation 
is i ent of any chemical agency of atmosphe- 


Evapora- 
tion. 


—\ye 


Theory of 
Dalton and 
De Luc, 


ric air, But the fact will be found very different; , 


for although water introduced into the tube of the 
i to ee 


Brepors- 
ot 
_—y— 


Argument 
om the 
asme quan- 
tty of mois- 
ture being 
ce mtained 
by all the 
gwcs ina 
saturated 
state. 


Doubts con- 
cerning that 
fact. 


. 


218 EVAPORATION. 3 


barometer at 60° passes into vapour, and depresses the 
mercury half an Foch, that vapour. will be completely 
condensed, and the water retamed in the fluid form by 
a pressure a little greater, instead of being able to exist 
under the pressure, which is to that of a column 
of —- 29 inches ae by r ann — wour- 
ed to this objection, by maintaining, what appears 
eho quis rats acne A fact, that pressure does 
not prevent the evaporation of fluids, or at least, that 
the pressure of the atmosphere is exerted in such a way 
as to allow, by its partial action, the escape of some of 
the icles of fluids: for, according to his opinion, 
tee a ore ata een atallle p i 
ticles of any liquid, that the pressure u per- 
i » Prt.ms becomes uniform ; al chet several 
of the particles in the uppermost stratum are in reality 
subject to but little pressure.” It is unnecessary to ob- 
serve that this assertion is entirely hypothetical, and 
even at variance with the known laws of hydrostatics. 

The eae however, receives some degree of 
support the alleged fact, that the same quantity 
of watery vapour is contained in equal volumes of dif- 
ferent gases saturated with moisture. Saussure ascer- 
tained this to be the case with common air, carbonic 
acid, and hydrogen gas, or rather that these gases exhi- 
bited, in the same circumstances, the same ore 
cal condition. Clement and Desormes were also led, by 
their experiments to infer that all gases contain, under 
similar circumstances, equal portions of water. It was 
even stated by Saussure, and the assertion was after- 
wards repeated by De Luc and Dalton, that the quan- 
tity of watery vapour contained in any gas is the same 
as that which would be contained in a vacuum of equal 
extent with the space occupied by the gas. These facts, 
if admitted, seem to favour the opinion that water is 
converted into vapour, and retained in that state, not 
by an affinity subsisting between the water and the gas, 
(or —t - likely <= this ree | — be the same 
with e ,) but merely by the w: vapour 
being raised od action of caloric, aitvahedlints 
diffusing itself mechanically 3 own elasticity. 

On the other hand, it may be said, that the accuracy 
of these facts is, from their extreme delicacy, very ques- 
tionable ; arse sng they have rather been dedu- 
ced by inference, proved by direct experiment. 
A portion of water is allowed to be conv into va- 
pour in vacuo, and the depression which it produces 
— a column of mercury, is assumed as the measure 
of its elasticity: a quantity of dry air is also introduced 
into a receiver of equal capacity with that in which the 
vacuum was formed, and an equal portion of water is 
introduced, the temperature in both cases being the 
same. The scuitoat alaisty of the vapour, indicated 
by the effects of its pressure upon the mercury in an 
inclosed barometer, is the same as that in the vacuum, 
and produces an elevation of half an inch, at the tem- 
peratare of 60°. It is therefore concluded, that an 
equal quantity of water has in all these cases been con- 
verted into vapour. But, in sition to this conelu- 
sion, it has been said, that the elasticity exerted by the 
vapour under these different circumstances, is not an 
exact test of its quantity, unless it be admitted-that the 
vapour is not all attracted by the gases ; and this is the 
eo point to be established. If the vapour be eombi- 

with the gas, its elasticity will be counteracted in 
a degree proportional to the attraction exerted; and it 
is easy to conceive, that, at the point of saturation, the 
elasticity may be so modified by the power of affinity, 
as to indicate the same degree of intensity, though the 


quantities of vapour which are present be very differ- a 9 
ent. 
But it has also been urged, casa wr er i 2 


, that the quantity of moisture “by equal 
oreo i t forsscmyppe tone a pwd aps oe 
cases, the same when they are to substances 


as might naturally be expected from the e of 
daaieg the experiments. But though the ar; st 
afforded by these experiments, in support of opi- 
nion that the vapour exerts no action with the gases, 
must be admitted to be of some weight, it be 
regarded as perfectly conclusive ; since~it still remains 
to be determined, whether . the quantities of water, 
which cannot be taken from the different gases by de- 
siccation, are exactly equal ; and there appears to be 
no means of ascertaining this by direct experiment. 

It cannot be doubted, that the gases do differ from 
one another, with respect to their affinity for water-; for the 


pee BL TIRE RE op ne > OH oY s, and 
tains them in combination wi Secisiontte 
so e of di ing water in a 

ing u this affinity, though modified, no doubt, 
the elasticity of the vapour which is formed. Mr 
ton maintains, that the combination is entirely mechan- 
ical ; and that the absorbed gas received into the vacant 


ui 


ound, that the temperature being the same, the quan- 
tty of any gas absorbed by water, was exactly pro- 
portional to 


ces of temperature, water takes up, in all cases, the 
same volume of condensed gas, as of gas under ordi« 
nary pressure.” But admitting the law, as Dr Murs 
ray has stated with his usual ingenuity, the conclusion 


absorption of gas by water, two powers or may 
be conceived to ate, independent of pressure,—the 
affinity between gas and water to combine 


> . this, 
and’ placing limits to the peri ago Sere in the 
frees operating the chemi fit, andthe ohesion 
forces. . i ity, ion 
of the solid. In the absorption ‘of a gas, whatever fa- 
vours the exertion of the. elasticity will. lessen. the 
— absorbed ; whatever represses it, will promote 
the absorption. These effects are produced by varia- 

i 


; 


" ‘Bvhpora- 
tion. 
—— 


Objections 


to this 


theory. 


EVAPORATION. 


other.” pits 

lution of water by air, is, that so ai — 
process to go on most ys 
Ct al the very reverse is 


? 


Hit 
. pe 


Hu 
Fes 
i 


uti! 
Hl 


" 


it 


t 


5S 


of water ipi be 
pls 5 po ha 


opposite states of electricity, 


this may 
strata are in 


219 
and thus mix rapidly and thoroughly togethér ; lence 
the reason of the very heavy showers which usually ac- 
company thunder storms, If the temperature of the 
atmosphere where the condensation takes place be suf. 
ficient to freeze the watery particles as they are formed, 
snow is produced ; but if they have time to collect into 
drops before they are frozen, they become hailstones. 
Southerly winds are commonly followed by rain, be- 
cause being warm, and saturated with aqueous vapour, 
they are cooled by coming into a colder climate; while 
northerly winds, by being exactly in an opposite con- 
dition, are dry and parching, and usually attended with 
fair weather. When the atmosphere is completely sa~ 
turated with moisture, and passes from a denser to.a 
rarer state, it suffers a diminution of temperature by its 
increased capacity for caloric, and being unable to hold 
the same quantity of water in solution, it deposits a 
portion of it.. It is owing to the same cause that a mist 
or cloud is formed = exhausting, a receiver with the 
air pump; and in manner may be explained the 
treason why fogs usually cover the tops of hills when a 
current - air, aie with eer ay is driven over 
them. air, which is ly transparent at the 
bottom of the vallies, reat its temperature is suf- 
ficient to make it dissolve completely the moisture with 
which it is charged, becomes opaque in-the more eleva~ 
ted regions, on account of the reduction of temperature 
which it undergoes, partly from change of position in 
Reroute, and partly from rarefaction in conse- 
quence of that change. On the contrary, when the at~- 
mosphere passes from a rarer to a more condensed 
state, instead of iting moisure, its solving power 
is increased ; and it dissolves either wholly or partially, 
the clouds which may have been previously formed. 
This is one reason why the rising and falling of the 
in the barometer become indications of the 
state of the weather. ¢ 

Dr Halley attempted to ascertain the quantity which 
evaporates we the surface of yeaa a oo 
peratures, ing a circular about eight 

inches pe pin Ni ~ 
experi mah onc equate fens of wartan yale i top 
; ees . ‘ 
about half a wine pint ; a square mile 6900 tons ; 


square 
189.) A surface of eight square inches, evaporated by 
air, without exposure to 
wind or sun, in the course of a whole year, 16292 
graino <6. water. alouh Gh cabin inalan, consequent 
ho depth of: mater evupoested in, tips tases sight 


allowed to receive the rain, and to suffer 
from the surface, as in ordinary ci 

register was kept of the water which made its way 
through the soil into the bottles; and a raingage of 
equal surface was placed close. by, for the sake of com- 
The following Table exhibits the results ob- 


Evapora- 
tion. 


_— 


Quantity of 
evaporation 
from the 
surface of 


¥vapora- 

tion. 
— 
’ 


220 
tained, and also the mean evaporation from a surface of 


F water, for three succeeding years. 


eA el PS 
two 
| Bean! Rain. | frou. | from. 
1796 | 1797 | 1798 Ground.) Water. 
F Inch. | Inch. 
ora 1.90 
\February | 1. 
‘March 4 
‘A i 
May 2.03) 2. 
June Pu ieee 
July 15) 
‘August —_—|— 
‘September} — | . 
October | —| . 
[November — | 1.04 
December | .20, 3.08 
6.88'10.95 
Rain $0.63)38.79 
Evapor, _23.75/27.84/23.87 
Experi- The writer of this article, employed the following 
ment to as- method of discovering, by evaporation, the tity of 
ss tay latent caloric existing in steam or v A quantity 


Process of 
forming ice 


on the pri 


ciple of eva- glazed 


poration. 


water, equal in weight to 550 grains, was pla- 


of p 
eae con intinmi ness anh wishing 4distsionmina, comp 


with a pocket , the weight of which was 
59.32 grains, png Whe anes! Cesponeel as in the ex- 
periment described under the article Coin, p. 732 ; and 
on exhaustion was then pg age weaty tone cautious- 
ly, to prevent any part o water kling 
by too violent an ebullition. In foul eiioaher 


over, 


t be 
considered as equal to 550 + 130 — 12.75, or 667.25 
grains. "This gives Gh=72, or as the ratio of the 


524 
of water , to that cooled down from 
47° to 804° or 164°; and as this quantity must have 
combined with a dose of caloric, the abstraction of 
which was sufficient to reduce the temperature of 
667.25 grains of water 164°, the vapour must have com- 


bined with 52+ 16}, or 8634°. A slight correction 


must be applied to the result, to make allowance for the 
es caloric ing the time of the experiment, 
which was observed minutes, 


EVAPORATION. 


ascribing the reduction of 
tion of the water ; and that this must, i 


i 


a 
hs 
ah 


: 


F 

cE 

ib 
gz 


owing to radiation. 
similar to those 


z 


_ 
73 


ES. 


BSE 


poration, became, in some cases, de sence Por pg 
—— of — the 380 ~ rege 
such instances, the e evaporation in cooling the 
water, must have been more than counteracted by the 
caloric imparted by the condensed vapour. One expe- 
riment on this subject which he relates, was 

on the evening of the 16th of October. With the view 


Vt Baby teers hry 2 


next placed a number of small shallow earthen pans, a 
part of which were glazed, and a unglazed. In 
the last place, all the were filled with soft water, 
which had been boiled on the same ing. On the 
night alluded to, ice ap in the when the 
temperature of the air, at the height of 55; feet, was; 
according to a naked thermometer, 37°. A dry earthen 
pan was placed among those which contained water, and - 
the inside of its bottom was found to be as much colder 
than the air, as the water was in the other pans, before 
ice appested in them. Moisture was attracted by this 
pan uring the night, which was afterwards converted 
nto “f J ere 


a film of ice. aie) 
In the course of his i Dr Wells observed, 
that water ex in the evening in the open 


air to the sky, lost a li 


water had been cooled en to condense the vapour 
of the atmosphere, and to the weight gained afterwards 
being insufficient to com vious loss. ' He 


exposed, therefore, water to the influence 
until it was cooled to 34°; of this he put 
into each, of two china ‘saucers, which had also bee 


grains in weight. prota 
t. At a naaivedad 6 
of the straw-bed 12°, colder 


air. F - 

~- Dr Wells the result of these experiments as Qpjections 
a * that the cause of the formation of ice, to DrWell’s 
‘in such circumstances, cannot be evaporation ; but be- theory. 
fore coming to this conclusion, he ought to have shewn, » 

that, during the experiments, there was no e 

from the surface the ground, as well as from the was 


i 


‘9 ter in the pans. For it is easy to conceive, that the 


evaporation from the extensive surface of the fibres of 
the grass, might be sufficiently great to cool the air in 
contact with them below the freezing point, ar 
this temperature might afterwards be conimunicated to 
the air immediately above the pans, either by conduc- 


of air. Taking this view of we can 
che yousush OB paiva teks pore pans, the 
water which they contained suffered no loss by evapo- 


_ Evapora- 
~ tion. 
e ; 


EVA 


ration; or‘evén gained @ sinall addition to its weight, 
as part ofthe moisture which evaporated from the sur- 
face of the ground might have been condensed over the 
“Dr Wells: mentions, on the authority of cet a 
and Mr Williams, both of pc testers mo 
process in India, that; for the complete success ; 
experiment, it is necessary the air should be very still; ~ 
and he adds, that “wind, which so greatly promotes 
evaporation, prevents the freezing altogether,” without 
seeming to be aware, that this fact is still more irrecon- 
cileable with his own hy is, it being well known, 
that radiation is not affected by a transverse current of 


, DUE, prone. carmen. wes » that evaporation is 
the cause of the ction of temperature, a rea- 
may assigned vhy agitated state 
Scedlplisonisinecg trie tation Guaoeapeeclinn 


No reason can be given, 


pals. 
radiation, the congelation succeeds 
sebunaphalbierdiediass but, on 


ge 


is of Dr Wells, we 
sed to say, that radiation has no share in the effect, or, 


attention to accuracy, 


are still necessary for the 
full elucidation of the subject. : 3 


as much as possible, without the cy of heat : Thus 
the form, as well as the colour of delicate plants, upon 
poo com le ere in the preserved state 
depends, woul ina measure d ed 
exposing them to Geathiais of ew thoved It bab theatre 
been proposed, to dry them in an exhausted: receiver, 
by suspending them over a vessel containing sulphue 
ric acid, the muriate of lime, or any other substance 
which has a attraction for humidity, and allow- 
ing them to remain in ‘that situation, until the whole * 
of their moisture was’ 


says On » Murray’s Chemistry, vol, ii. 
705. » Dr’ «ute (a) i ee 
~ EUCALYPTUS. See Botany, p. 229. " 


T A223 1 


EUC 


EUCERA. ‘See Entomonocy Index. 

EUCLASE. See Oryeroenosy. 

EUCLEA. See Borany, p. 337. 
- EUCLID, the Mathematician, was born at Alexan- 
dria in Egypt, about 300 years before Christ. We 
have no certain information as to the precise period, 
either of his birth or death; - come Lada ry 
particulars respecting his life. It would appear that he 
resided constantly ae his native city, and devoted him- 
self to the study of the mathematics, which he culti« 
vated and taught with distinguished success. Among 
his scholars, he had the honour of ceakeving Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, King of Egypt, of whom us relates 
an anecdote, w thy of being ed, not only as it 
shews the friendship and iarity which Euclid en-~ 
joyed with his royal pupil, but as it is strikingly cha- 
racteristic of an enthusiastic geometer, and the only one 
on record which brings him, as it were, personally be- 
fore us. Ptolemy, fatigued with the long and unre- 
mitting attention necessary to comprehend the demon- 
strations of certain itions, one day inquired of 
his teacher whether he could not point out an easier 
method of investigation? ‘No, sire,” replied the phi- 
losopher, ingenuously, “ there is no royal road to geo- 


metry. 
“The work by which Euclid is best known to us, is 
his Elements ; a work which, to use the words of a 


which there is refinement enough for the expression of 
abstract truth.” Various opini however, have been 
entertained with regard to the share which Euclid had 
in the composition of these Elements, While some main- 
tain that he was the author of the whole, others assert 
that the demonstrations only are his, and others that he 
furnished the propositions alone. As in most disputes 
ofthis kind, none of the contending parties are per- 
fectly correct. Independent of the undeniable. 
that some i propositions were furnished by 
others, as the 47th of the first book, by Pythagoras, it 
must be obvious, from the state of the mathematical 
sciences at the period in which Euclid wrote, that he 
could not be theauthor of the whole. Long before his 
time, mathematicians had been 
to solve the famous problems of the duplication of the 
cube, and the trisection of an angle, problems which 
they never could have attempted without the assistance 
of many propositions to be found in his Elements, On 
the other hand, it seems impossible to grant; what is 
universally allowed, that he was the first who arran- 
ged all the propositions»then known into a system, 
without ting a great deal more. The mind that 
mebaspibteiad putting such a system together, even 
the materials had been ready furnished, could 
'y fail to discover some room for improvement,— 
some defect to be supplied; or some weak: link that rey 
quired to be strengthened. Reasoning, then, from 
what we might naturally suppose to be the process of 
a mind accustomed to scientific investigation, we shall 
be led to conclude that Euclid must have been the au- 
thor of no inconsiderable part of the Elements, «This 
Socematy to cutie him tothe appellasoa of tha Rather 
to entitle him to the ap ion e 
of Geometry. \ Even supposing every proposition in the 
Elements to have been wn and demonstrated, still 
they were but insulated truths, and; as such, of com+ 
ively little value. ‘The young mathematician, un- 
he possessed no ordinary portion of ingenuity, 


in attempting - 


Euclid. 


299 | EUCLID. | i 


foci. must have been guided in his studies in a great mea- cient. To such prejadices has been ascribed, and we ‘Euctid 
—\1—" sure by accident—interrupted at-every step of his pro- believe justly, the bondage in which the human mind oa - 
gress, and obliged’to go out of his way for the purpose was long held by the metaphysics of Aristotle. But . 
of investigating a ition of which he was not at to ascribe the reputation of Euclid to a similar cause, 
first aware, bat which wes necessary for the demon- is to place him infinitely lower than he was ever ‘les- 
etration of a more important truth. The length of tined to stand, and to asi to prejudice an authori- 
time thus necessary, in the most favourable citcum- ty over mankind, which it never possessed. Bi 


< 
Stanees, for iring a knowledge of the fundamen- and superstition may retard or suppress a spirit of ma- 
tie preyotions ‘the difficulty of bringing them, thematical inquiry ; but we cannet admit the possibi- 
60 as to Leah tet tie sea of new truths, as to suppose that any thing but intrinsic excellence 
must ‘have ‘obstacles ordinary magni- could secure to an elementary system of geometry, the 
tude even to the most skilful geometer, and rendered almost unanimous a ion of mai ians for 
the future progress of mathematical discovery both two thousand years. 
slow and uncertain. Every person who has studied - The other work to which Euclid is in any d in- 
Tair intemans attention to the nature of ma- debted for his reputation with posterity, is his Book of 
investigation, will be ready to admit the Data. This treatise, like his Elements, had suffered 
trath of these remarks, and to acknowledge the extent much from the ignorance of commentators, as well as 
of the obligations which he owes to Euclid; nor have the depredations of time ; but, like the latter, revived 
the admirers of that distinguished mathematician any with fresh vi under the renovating hand of Dr 
reason to lament his being denied, in some instances, Sinem of ‘Glingow: It is still perhaps unnecessaril 
of original invention, while it is admitted prolix, and not at all entitled to the estimation in whi 
that, by the | arrangement of the discoveries of it was held by the ancients. At the same time it is 
others, he has put into the hands of his successors an certainly valuable, as containing the rudiments of the 
instrument which, at a comparatively trifling expence geometrical analysis. —~ ; ; 
’ ‘of time and labour, has enabled them to reap not alittle — Of Euclid’s books on Porisms, ing can be col- 
_ of what is most valuable in the field of mathematical ee eee rewind 
discovery. such propositions, an ey were regarded 
oh wes ot bree started with re to the ancients, as fee eres rye fan 
author of the Elements, so the merit of the work has _ lysis. were , or rather di anew, 
likewise been a subject of discussion. While some by Dr Simson Panay servo after his death by the 
maintain that it is not only the most perfect system of late Earl Stan Anacysis, Porisms, &c. 
elementary , either of ancient or modern times, Besides the subjects already mentioned, Euclid is 
but as se Mags tp thease Rosie abe m8 known to have studied various other branches of the = 
to it from the blunders of igno- pecranarmscenyd nivmrers M2 anche My ih 
i astronomy. Conic Sections. ; k 
prolix, frequently - It w be impossible to enumerate all the editions 
and indirect, and ill adapted to the purposes through which the Elements have passed, and the com- 4 
in this di both par- mentaries that have been written upon them since the } 
‘ties are wide of the truth. It must be acknowledged, days of Proclus. Those of Commandini in 1572, and H 
sation, pospicahy of lnguage So cod Geeny chun. wie calvary attchtes, ate taser sor Gla : 
stration, i an ar- to be uni ly admitted, ‘imson’s of “7 
oe wee Elements of Euclid stand unrivalled, is superior to every other. f 
ind that modern writers have excelled in these quali- those who have written on geometry, with the v 
ties, exactly in mrt dearth apy mere view of accommodating it to the present state of the ' 
Greek geometer. It must also be admitted, however, mathinastical stGences, Legentiees Sigotbbe, Ae yfair, 88 ~ | 
ren teed ap of the mathematical sciences, and Mr Leslie, may be mentioned as the most es: 


even these ents are susceptible of improvement. ful. Mr West too, deserves to be noticed as the author ¥ 
Though they are equally necessary as the foundation of an elementary treatise of mathematics, which has not 3 
‘of all mathematical investigation in which magnitude is hitherto enjoyed the celebrity to which it is so justly i 


NS ae ae entitled. 

which they once did to the whole science. They still | See Trans. of the Royal Soc. of Edin. vol. iii. part ii. 
deserve, as much as ever, to be studied on their own ace p. 154. Simson’s Euclid, Hutton’s Math. 
count ; but as the field to which they open a way has ict. articles Euclid, Elements, &c. Bossut Essai sur 
vastly increased, and still continues to increase, it has [Histoire Generale des Mathematiques, Paris 1802. De 
become a matter of no inconsiderable moment to abridge, a Caille, Legons Elementaires des Mathematiques, Paris 
as much as Seep ete eration met tha acquirea 1811. P ir's Geometry, Preface. Leslie's Geometry, 
knowledge of the elementary truths whi con- _ Notes. in. Rev. vol. xx. p. 79, &e. (R.G.) ~ 
tain. On this account we are disposed to some™ EUCORNIS. See Botany, p. 188. 

modern treatises of geometry, as possessing advantages  EUDIOMETRY. See Cuemistry, p. 104. — 
unknown even to Euclid; not that they excel, or even © EUDOXUS. See Astronomy, vol. ii. p. 588. 
equal him, in elegance and correctness of demonstra- _ EVECTION. See Astronomy, vol. ii. p. 703. 
tion, but because they conduct the learner with great- | EVESHAM, Vate or. See Groucesrersuire and 
‘ to the ulterior and more i objects of Warwicksutre. 

inquiry. ‘With all these concessions, however, we are | EVESHAM, is a borough and market town of Eng- 
not prepared to admit an insimuation that has been land, in the county of Worcester, pleasantly situated on 
sometimes thrownrout, as if Euclid owed the continu- a rising ground upon the river Avon, over which there 
ance of his celebrity to an unreasonable and pertinaci- is a stone bridge of seven arches, and where there is a ‘ ; 
ous adherence to a system, merely because it is ans convenient harbour for barges. The streets are in ge- | 


There was formerly at Evesham a statel RDA se} 
Ghee Abtet ast io the. Eicon of Boor. lene as 


were valued at £ 1183 at the dissolution. It 
was founded in 709 by Prince in, who retired here 
after the Pope had ived him of the bishopric of 
Worcester. Of the few vestiges of it which now remain, 
the principal are the above tower, and a elliptical 
arched gateway 17 feet long, with rich 
The fal the population of the borough 
’ is ace 
cording to the late returns for 1811: 
Inhabited Senha | eo. Oe 
Families that them A 714 
Families in 318 
Do. in and manufactures . 339 
meee. oo,Le aA tere oT 
* "Females © .. >. 1697 
Total population . 2% 3068 


Sony | 
EUGENE, Francis, Prince of Savoy, was born 
in 1663; and was descended from Cari one of the 


when it was closely beau by the Turkish army. 
fie ay pe gy Sacepgaen e of Lorraine as a yo- 
; ving greatly signalized himself both 


in the defeat and pursuit of the enemy, he was appoint- Eugenes 
P y. ; 


EUG 4 


ed, in the course of a few months, to a colonelcy of 
. In 1684, he was present at the sieges of 
Neuhausel and Buda, where he gave such unequivocal 
proofs of intrepidity and intelligence, that, on his re- 
turn to Vienna in 1686, the prince of Baden presented 
him to the emperor with these hetic words ; “‘ Sire, 
here is a young Savoyard, who will some time or other 
be the greatest captain of the age.” Thus he rose daily 
in favour at the court of Vienna ; and so great was the 
rapidity of his military advancement, that he was a. 
major-general at the age of 21, and a lieutenant-gene- 
oe a gal he Busch mene cla- 
war against emperor, it became 
to form a coalition against his ambitious schemes, 
Prince Eugene was sent from Vienna to negotiate an 
alliance with his cousin, Victor Amadeus, duke of Sa- 
voy. That selfish and aspiring prince, who loved nei- 
ther Louis nor ,,and who was. ready, to betray: 
both as his interests required, was secured on. the side 
of the Teepaipliots hee seb dtie-of cumeenliontoon, facen- 
Austria,—a subsidy of 20,000 crowns month from 
England, a similar allowance from Holland, andthe 
promise of four millions more to defray the 


of the war. E was sent with a i igatetapeaaia 
German troops to keep him steady to hi ts,. 
as well as to with him in the fiel ; and, du-- 


ing the seven campaigns, which they carried on with 
saslidiaaommniectn tend aptesed die hakicnemende. 
wenn agua ine nd Seah ol the, dee, Sr setsionh ihe 
errors, of his bad ip, and to make head against 
the able tactics of the F commander Catinat. In. 
paren oh a Saees sentae pHi my cane aye 
trating into france, - opened.a 

Lyons, when Amadeus. was seized with aan 
and Eugene was obliged to withdraw the army to 
rin. In reward of his exploits, he received this 
the order of the golden fleece ; and was created a 
marshal exactly ten years after his entrance into the 
service. He was greatly thwarted by his u 


to 
es 
us 
ear 


_ ally, duri the remainder of the war; and at ietuie 
spite 


of all his vigilance, the duke concluded, in 1696,. 
a ie ip Ho with a, Sealy mae soon - 
terw: e 5 of * 
i joined : ag: emperor king 


was. discontented with. 


government of Champagne, an annual ion of 2000 
pistoles, and the rank of a marshal.of F'rance.;. but, so 
was the prince’s antipathy to Louis, that he re- 

j pp a 086 7 ap in. “I received: 
ly,” he says inhis Memoirs, “ the person whobrought 
Socprarenlaet bo Reet sary Oe eachlivensey 
answer as I it.” Notwithstanding the 
unfavourable result of affairs in Italy, the.emperor saw 
that he was free from.all ground of reproach, and suf- 
ficiently testified his approbation, by giving him the - 
commend oe san arinen S\. 4 » In 1697, he took. 
the field. against the Turks,. “4 were commanded by 
the ( i in ; and inflicted upon them - 
the severest defeat which they had. sustained in the - 
whole course of the war. While ing to attack . 


. them at Zenta, on the river Teisse, he-received an or- 


der from Vienna, not to fight a battle. in «any. cireum- 
stances ; but, having advanced too far.to retreat with 
honour or safety, he hastened to the-assault, forced the 
entrenchments of the Vizier’s camp, . defeated his army 
with great slaughter, and mage himself. master, of an, 
immense booty, to the amount of several millions stem 


224 


magene ting. Of the enemy, 20,000 were killed in the field, 
—“"—" 10,000 drowned in the river, and 4,000 taken prison- 


ers; while the victorious Imperialists did not lose one 
thousand men. But bis enemies at Vienna having 
gained the ascendancy, he was received by the Empe- 
ror with the greatest coldness, commanded to deliver 
up his sword, charged with disobedience of orders, and 
arrested for trial before a0 = eae war. a pt 
report of these proceedings, assem a- 
round his house; and the een edeeelte tee a guard 
about his person, to prevent his being removed for exa- 
mination. The eniperor, either from fear or from con- 
viction, restored his sword, and uested him to re- 
sume the command in Hungary. is answer was, as 
he has recorded it with his own pen, I “ will do it upon 
condition of having carte blanche, and of not being ex- 
posed in future to the malice of generals and ministers.” 
“ The poor ae he adds, ‘ durst-not give me this 
full power publicly ; but he gave it me in private un- 
der Kis own signature, with which I was quite satis- 
fied.” The war with the Turks was terminated in ano- 
ther campaign ; and now for the first time since he com- 
menced his military career, he was left at leisure to cul- 
tivate the arts of peace. He employed himself in form- 
ing a select li , collecting paintings, building pala- 
ces, planning ens, and hearing music, in preference, 
as he says, to “ the talk of idlers.” During this inter- 
val of peace, he enjoyed the society of the celebrated 
French General Villars, who was ambassador at ,Vien- 
na; and with whom he maintained, during the remain- 
der of his life, a most cordial friendship, which was not 
interrupted even in the midst of hostilities, 

When the war of the Spanish. succession broke out 
in 1701, Prince Eugene was appointed to the command 
of the Austrian army in Italy, which consisted of thirty 
thousand veteran troops. His cousin, the Duke of Sa- 
voy, was now - ——— — the axa tee fre- 

ently commanded against him in person. arm 
vith which he had to contend, was ———_ potnory A 
in number ; and was successively conducted by Cati- 
nat, Villeroy, and Vendome. » Against the first and the 
last, all his activity was en but he gained se- 
veral temporary successes when Villeroy the com- 
mand, and even made him his prisoner, in a bold though 
unsuccessful attempt to surprise Cremona. Aiter two 
years absence, he returned to Vienna in 1708, to secure 
for his army more regular supplies of men and money ; 
and being there appointed to the presidency. of the mi- 
litary council, he rendered great services to the Aus- 
trian — in that office, by effecting an accommoda- 
tion with the Hungarian insurgents, and detaching the 
Duke of Savoy from his connection with France. He 
was chiefly instrumental, also, in concerting with the 


Duke of Marlborough the plan of the campaign of 1704, sh 


in which he bore so distinguished a and which so 
se relieved the hereditary inions of Aus- 
tria the formidable which threatened them 


on the Danube: (See BLenuem.) In 1705, he was - 


sent into Italy with an army of 28,000 Austrians, in aid 
ef his cousin the Duke of Savoy, who was now heartily 
exerting himself in ition to France. During the 
first campaign, while Vendome commanded the French, 


he made very little in freeing Savoy from the 
enemy 5 but, in the followi » when Marsin and 
La Feuillade were placed at the head of the hostile ar- 


my, he gained with an inferior force, and after an ob- 
stinate contest, the famous battle of ‘Turin, which wee 
followed by the deliverance of Italy, and the invasion 
of France. Returning to Vienna, he was dispatched in 


EUGENE. 


1708, as 0 maprehent: eeeaionainiote the coalition ; and 
then. hast with his army to form a junction with 
Marlborough, who was at Asch in the vici- 
nity of Brussels, . Here he an interview with his 
mother, after an absence of twenty-five years; and 
though his troops were not come u concurred with 
the English general in advising an attack of the French 
army, and in gaining the decisive battle of Oudenarde. 
Having ravaged Artois and Picardy, they undertook the 
siege of Lisle, which, after being obstinately defended 
by Marshal Boufflers nearly six months, surrendered 
to the allied arms, While Prince Eugene was actively 
employed in superintending the siege of the town, his 
enemies, either at Vienna or at Paris, ‘are reported to have 
made an attempt upon his life by-poison. A letter was 
put into his hands, which contained only a piece of 
greased paper, which he threw away ; but, being pick- 
ed up and given to a dog, or rather, as it. was said, 
being tied about the animal’s.neck, he rs twen- 
ty-four hours, with all eee been 
poisoned. The prince hi remarks upon this oc- 
currence, that there must have been some. mistake in 
the supposed cause of thé animal's death ; and that the 
paper probably contained some piece of information, 
which might have been rendered Kegible by the fire, or 
some of the usual lications, in secret writing. In 


to an army of equal force ‘under Villars, who 4 
on the defensive, and made the confederates y 


dear for their successes, ly in the bloody 
tle of Malplaquet. It was chiefly by the advice of Eu- 
genb, tliat shuallietfovenh Nentarand that daring 


by his friends to have it dressed, he 
ly . * If I am beaten, it will not be worth 
while ; and if the French are, I shall have time enough.” 
havy petisbsdiaiterthe ostbesssempendbiaisediae’? 
e y serious respo! bi 
had taken upon myself?” In 1711, the Emperor Jo- 
I. died of the small-pox ; and Eugene, by his skil- 
maneeuvres, had considerable influence in securing 
the election of his brother Charles, itor for Spain. 
This circumstance, 


lition agai 


aS 


1 


| 
| 


¢ 


ee 


mt ag 


RVd - PUGH NE. 


between the empire and France. bo return to 
‘Vienna, received; both by the court and the 
most enthusiastic testimonies of appro: 
and immediately applied himself to improve 
lic finances. But his respite from 
of war was short. In 1716, hostili- 
against the Turks, and he was appoint- 
the command of the army in Hungary. Attack- 
‘his camp by the’ i 
with great f 
- ae which lean had es 164 
e opened the campaign of 1717 with the siege 
he’ was attended by a number of 
princes and young men of rank, who were eager to 
reputation, to improve their mili 
as 


g 
gf 
: 


tt 


ge 
li 


£8 
3s 


A 


ig 
a 


e disease. But recovering 
middle of the month, he re- 


tre 
te 
ie 
i 
5 
Hie 
hy 


c 


if 
ie 
e d 
3 oe. 
Hae 
So z —~ 
PPecple 
shige ges 
2 geeite 


at 
live our father !” while thou 


old soldiers of H 


= “ ; Italy, Flanders, 


n ike of Berwick from penetrating into the 
heart of the country, and baffled the talents of D’As- 
feld saeeaiaiaen wor Mea in the following cam 

itary career by operations of a 
Lite anteet dvaees taking Trarbach, and delivering 
the electorate of Treves, Having 


of his with’ tears, he continued, during the’ re- 

mainder of his life, to be the advocate of pacific coun- 

‘sels. fond of renown, and 
‘the most 2 hong cape ‘life, his cooler 

_ Judgment an ience led him'to form a more 
enlightened opinion of the evils ofwar. thirst 

“under the hypo garbof national hononr. It dwells 
om imaginary insults—it i and “abusive 

people go on one thing to another, 


VOL, IX, PART I. 


- 


225: 


till they put an end to the lives of half a million of Eugene: 


men. “A military man becomes so sick of bloody 
scenes in war, that in peace he is averse to recommence 
them. I wish, that the first minister, who is called to 
decide on peace and war, had only seen actual service. 
What pains would he not take to seek, in mediation 
‘and compromise, the means of avoiding the effusion of 
so much blood ?” gets 

He spent the remaining year of his life-in complete 
semen in the gerne of his pera: og 
society persons, whose com e 5 
and in a Secbuitier Netention to the Vihces ‘religion. 
**T have been happy in this life, and hope to be happy 
in the next. I have scarcely had time to commit trans- 

; but I tte a bad ee without think- 

, by neglecting the exercises igion, though a 
siacers ellover f and well i with ‘a eee 
trines. I have led a soldier’s life of indifference, and 
have acted the part of a philosopher; but my death I 
wish to be that of a Christian. I never liked boasters 
either in war or religion ; and it is from ha- 
ving seen on one side the ridiculous impiety of the 
French, and on the other the bi of the Spaniards, - 
that I have observed a medium between the two. In 
former days I had so often seen death before me, that 
I had become familiar with it; but this is not now the 
po — ST A at tpt lB Baty 

wi uillity, and on the ‘as'a in 
dream. a find of the el rd ast the jit it 
When Bourdaloue has made ey 


commander, whe had received thirteen wounds, and 
who, in almost every one of his numerous battles, had 
made many hair-breadth escapes, died at length tran- 
quilly at Vienna, on the 10th of April 1736, in’ the 
73d year of his age. He was found dead in his bed, 
after having retired in good health from entertaining 
company at supper; and was su to have been 
suffocated by an immoderate defluxion of rheum, to 
which he was ‘subject. Little remains to be remarked 
upon his character, in addition to what may be sug- 
— by the sketch of his history, and the extracts 

his private memoirs, which we have presented to 
our readers. In his military tactics he is considered as 


having frequently bordered rashness, and havin 
been generally too lavish of human blood. He ari 
distinguished for 1 courage, and for his coolness 


in the midst of dangers ; and he mentions two cireum- 
stances, from which he derived the enw advantages, 
viz. always reconnoitring if possible in person, an 
writing with a See cabeseaes tenants of his 
aide-de-camp, order whi ‘gave him to carry. 
He has been y commended for his generous dis- 
position ; for the-ease with which he descended to an 
equality with those who conversed with him ; for his 
unaffected modesty, which prevented him from ‘assu- 
ming any over others, and which rendered him 
unable to bear, with any tolerable grace, the just ac+ 
know ts which were paid to his merits. See 
ical Dictionary ;* Life of Eugenes ‘Modern. 
Univ. Hist. vol. xxv. p. 151, and vol, xxxip. 896; Me-~ 
on of Prince Eugene of Savoy, written by himself: 
POUGENLA: See Borany, p: 228: 
EUHARMONIC Onean, is'a very improved. musi« 
2. 


Fubarme- 
nic Organ. 
—_———— 


EUH 
cal instrument, the first that ever has been capable of 


acing perfect harmony, or music wherein none of 
Te eratale are tem or imperfect, in the widest 
range of modulation, the invention,of the Rey. Hen 


for w 


Liston, minister of Ecclesmachan in Scotland, ; 
. Vol, 


he took out a patent in 1810; (see the Phil. 
xxxvil. p. $28, vol. xxxix. p. 421; and the 
Mag. vol. xxxvi. p. 217). The first of these instruments 
was perfected in Gdiateenh “and, aoe pipe 
for each of the numerous sounds wanted, 12 fin- 
ger-keys in common use were made to act always on as 
many contiguous notes of the scale, by means of six 
pedals, di i OOO & See, ae ENS 
on as flats, or vice versa, in the order of la- 
tion ; si pedals or foot movements being a most im- 
ti ement on the separate hand-slides in the 
- Oy ~ tata ey Taba ig spe 
organ oundling na ‘ y and. it is 
somewhat remarkable, that same system and con- 
struction of occurred about the same time to Mr 
David rs pelprageue whapepererve (ecko 
a i same to his improved or, 
or occasionally shifting finger movements from 
one pipe to another, higher or lower than it, by the in- 
terval of a major comma. 

In order to lessen the bulk and of this first 
construction of his organ, Mr Liston afterwards con- 
trived a mode of temporarily lowering the sound of a 
pipe, either one or two commas, spelicontosing it eons 
at pleasure, by means of a shader, brought and held near 
to it, but not touching its orifice ; and for this contrivance 
for diminishing the number of pipes, and for some im- 
pemeemaene phenome was Mr Liston’s patent ob- 


important work, forming a new em in the theory 
of music, and its practice on keyed instruments, is pre- 
xe f the most handsome and voluntary testimo- 
nials of four eminent London who had per- 
formed on and heard the euharmonic organ. The first 
part of this work treats of the perfect scale, tempera- 
ment, and the principles and construction of the euhar- 
meneneryne s:the, soci pestiannts Al Svnee Sasie 
and their progressions, ulations, intervals, and their 
combinations in chords, modulation within the key, and 


ing into the subordinate &c.; and, Yo 
notes Sietentine of the text. engraved examples 


contain full and very explicit instructions for 
aan pe ac tiny A ee 
of modulation, and euharmonic changes ; and the se- 
lection of pieces of music, from many of the best mas~ 
ters, which follow, being all, like the elementary exam- 
ise thet. grocedia them, marked wherever the 


Pe as my apne pcan ret exact per- 


226 


EVI 

notes can be instantly varied at pleasure), or performi- Evdliarmo- 
ances wholly by ar Stan sa to re a band ~~ nice 
of 3 whose delightful har- 
mony never, in any considerable , been pro- 
duced, by a single performer, before the exhibition of 
bist apa el aati vn are nude 

euharmonie organ seems an Tequisi 


umed by the writer, 
our best performers of single 


ike the deats of imperfect concords, to exactly fix the 
apa a emer while learning to per- 
, or in practising, as the cessation of beats do for 
the concords ; and, aceordingly, he was most forcibly 
struck on first hearing Mr Liston’s organ, with the pers 
fectly new and peculiar character of several of the dis- 
cords, when heard alone, but more especially when 
combined in certain chords ; the pleasing effect, for in- 
stance, of the IT‘, 7’, IX (and ee and what is more sur 
ising, of the % VI, (and % Il and IV), when coms 
ey Mr Liston describes in pages 57, 69,-73 and 
99 of his Essay, and wherein -he mentions also at page 
56 pov 90) nd 71; the disagreeable effect of 7 (and 
5, IL and IV) in the dominantseventh, and of 2’ in the 
chord of + seventh, &c. vi 
ite and students of the violin, violincello, &c. 


composer this instrument cannot fail of proving at all 


EVIAN,a {o., of Switzerland, situated on the south 
side of the lake of Geneva, about eight or nine leagues 
from Geneva. It contains two: and two cons 


iages could not go any far- 


ther east hee ee, In order to reach Meillerie and 


Since the year 1805, however, a military road, 

icating with the Valais an perenne 
the rocks, commanding, all the 
way to St Maurice, a charming view of the Lake of 


; Seo Binared 
EVIL, Kine’s, is the name formerly given 


to scro~ 
ae 9 a rb 


of England and France possessed the of 
curing this disease by the touch. The English and 


EUL 


experimental pi and the number answering to Euler’ 
this last is “O4R1S the | of string to the unison I, Scale. 


In like manner, if F 


i 
| 
i 
: 
E 
: 


a 
: 
ee 
Z 
; 


4 
Z 


Hi 
z 
id 
uh 
f 
a 
ae 


yet 
i i a7 
4 
= 
& 


: 
Hf 
it 

3 

i 

‘ 

: 


if 


y 
of cures by their sacredtouch.” See also the Edi | 
eh ee Journal, Vol. III. p. 185. 
VIL... See Tuzonocy. ; 
ULER’s Locarirums, for musical calculations, are 
musical, intervals. in their relations de« 


1 and .30103 respecti 
re Dare ly any, fon. If 
maimawenieneiie Fouthnhes atinictnontornions , were 
given, 68% € .076814 x .30108=.0231233, whose re~ 
cip. -9768767 is the common log. near enough for most 


wanted from Euler’s logs. since both of these are of the 
nature of reciprocal logs. the octave being expressed by 
612 and 1 in them 3 ively, we have only to mul- 
tiply Euler’s post By. 612,to obtain nearly their artificial 

as. The last example will stand thus: .076814 x 
612—47.010168, or 47, as in the schisma column (=) 
of Plate XXX: Vol. II. ; and it may be remarked here-~ 
on, that whenever the product approaches a whole num- 
ber, either above or below it, that such whole number 
is, in general, the proper number of artificial commas 


t. . 

eT eri Scar of musical intervals. It is proba- 
ble, we think, that M. Euler made the first, though 
an unsuccessful attempt, at the grand harmonic im- 
vement, (which Mr Liston has lately effected, by 
scale of perfect harmony, and his Evnarmonic Or- 
gan, which see), by endeavouring, on a very limited 
scale, to avoid tempered or imperfect concords, by means 
of more notes introduced in the octave than the 12 in 
common use. M. Euler extended these to 24, eight of 
which new notes were only a major comma higher than 
his notes CX, DX, E, FX, GX, A, Bp, and B ; and four 
others of them a minor comma lower than his notes D, 
F, G, and C: at the same time, that three notes of his 
original scale differ from Liston’s, viz. CX, Ep, and Bp, 
‘ . -__ 24 64 128. 128 
in having the’ ratios 25° 75 and a5 instead of Te 
Aas and iW which are Liston’s notes respectively. 

In order to facilitate the labours of those, who, like 
the gentleman alluded to in the last article, may be de- 
sirous of trying, either by calculation or experiment, 
the effect and extent of this scale in producing perfect 
harmonics, we have been at the of reducing M. 
Euler’s vingtquatreave scale, from the octave F to f, in 
which he has published it, to that of C to c, in which 
all musical are given in our work; and we have 
added in the columns of the following Table, the lengths 
of strings, and number of artificial commas, answering 
to each of Euler's notes ; and in the last column but one, 


we have set down the notes on Liston’s , (see the 
Phil. Mag. vol. xxxix. p. 419, or the Mont ag, vol. 
Xxxvi. p. 217,) whereon the several chords in this sys~ 


tem might be tried, and whence these notes might be 
aes mac hey ad gad weap oo ene 
w one’s while to e such aone, having a 
Tar es betiigtoncoes Ge eight genta motes..eah onather 
for supplying the four that are minor comma: flats, in 
pee. halla itty, ieizanliguepeeed 
are wanted in performance, in 

by M. Euler. The last column shews. the’ numeral 
value of the notes, major and minor, above C. 


8 artificial commas were ~~ ¥™ 


1 )FHE 


EU L 
Raler’s} Common theof; Artif. | Liston’s) Nume- 
Notes. | Logarithms. ro Commas. | Notes. | rals, 
C_ | .6989700,0 | .50000 | 612 Cc |Vul 
.7038749,3 | .50568 ] 602 | BR 
.7216087,0 | .62675 | 566 B’ | VIl’ 
B | .7260987,3 | .58333:| 555 | B vu 
.7496324,2 | .56187 | 509 | A’ 
Cp | .7550274,5 | .66889 | 498 Ak | XVI 
.7727562,2 | .59259 | 462 Ae tt FV 
A | .7781512,5 | 60000 | 451 A VI 
80078494 | 68210 | 405 | G’xK 
G&)} .8061799,7 | 64000 | 304 | Gx 
G_ | .8239087,4 | .66667 | 358 G Vv 
8288136,6 | .67424 | 348 | F/R 
8465424,3 | .70233 | $12 | FR | IV’ 
Fx | 85199744 | .71111 | 301 Fx | IV 
F | .8750612,6 | .75000 | 254 F 4 
87996619 | .75852 | 244 | EX 
.8976949,6 | .79012 | 208 E’ Ill’ 
E_ | -9080899,9 | .80000 | 197 E Ill 
.9257236,8 | .84280 | 151 »| D’x ; 
Dx} .9311187,1 | 85333 | 140 | Dx |. xII 
D | .9488474,8 | .88889 | 104 D Ul 
.9537524,0 | .89898 94 | ORK 
.9768762,0 | .94815 47 Cx I 
Cx | .9822712,3 | .96000 36 | CK K 
.0000000,0 {1.00000 (9) Cc 1 


‘The want of minor consonances above C, are v 
obvious in the above system, which most probably M. 
Euler never tried any more than the equal tempera- 
ment, although his name has been often enrolled among 
the very numerous theoretic recommenders of the Iso- 


TONIC = ng ¢ 
EULER, ee one of the most di 


distinguished 
mathematicians of the 18th century, was the son of Paul 
Euler, and M Brucker, and was born at Basle on 
the 15th of A 1707. esi oooh 


His‘father, who had been instructed in mathematics 
by the célebrated James Bernoulli, became pastor of the 
village of Riechen, near Basle, in the year 1708 ; and 
as soon as his son had arrived at the Proper age, in- 
stilled into him a fondness for mathematical learning, 
although he had destined'him for the study of theology. 
He was afterwards sent to’the-university of Basle, where 
he was found wuyrnvemeae from John Ber- 
noulli, who was at time regarded as the first ma- 
thematician in Europe. “The assiduity and amiable dis- 
position of Euler, soon gained him the i es- 
teem of that great master, and the friendship of his two 
sons Daniel and Nicolas Bernoulli, who ‘had already 
beeome the disciples and the rivals of their father. John 
Bernoulli even condescended to give ‘him once every 
week a particular lesson, for the p of explaining 
the difficulties which he encountered in the course of his 
studies, Euler had not the fortune to enjoy long 
this inestimable advantage. In 1723, he received the 
degree of Master of Arts ; and on this occasion, he ob- 
tained great applause by the Latin discourse which he 
delivered, containing a ison between the New- 
tonian and the Cartesian osophy. At the request 
of his father, he now began the study of theology ; but 
his attachment to the mathematics was so strong, that 
bis father at last consented to allow him to follow the 
= of ee genius, 

icolas Daniel Bernoulli having accepted in 1725 
of the invitation of Catherine I. to become a member of 
the Academy of Sciences of St Petersburg, promised at 


we ider that he was then 
only vo i About this Srehmaenat-qhe. 
idate fo vacant professorship of natural 
in the university of Basle ; but he had not the 
pCi eg Io 


, Daniel and Nicolas Bernoulli used all their i 


i 


to procure an tment for their friend ; and’ 
baying at last succeeded, cod hitat' 

imnatediatel i vite SePetmcebeng, Tinie oa 
obeying this welcome summons ; but, after he had be 
gun his} , he had the mortification to learn that 
icelas ulli had fallen a victim to the severity of 
the climate ; and the very day which he entered 
the Russian territory, was that of the death of the Em- 


press Catherine I.: an event which at first 


the great problems on the motions of e heavenly 
bodies, 


EULER 
ther, who was thén a widow, and to conduct her to Euler, 
Berlin, where she remained till the time of her death in, Leonard, 


that_ it would occupy of our: to give 
remain teiahiattonnion of debi. We i ddeotove: 
content ourselves with referring the reader to the articles 
Acuromatic TeLescopes, ALGrpra, ARITHMETIC of 


many of his memoirs have no value whatever, except in 
so far as they exhibit fine of the resources of 


matic Telescopes, on Naval Architecture, and on Gun- 
', are among the number of those which are liable 
tothe om 


matical class of the y, and in the same year he 
obtained the piece ps Sp Anatomy of Sciences 
of Paris, for the best work on the theory of magnetism. 
About this time Robin’s Treatise on Gunnery had ap- 
peared in England, and though our cou had 
treated Euler with great severity, this act of injustice 
did not. prevent him from recommending it to the 
king of Prussia, as the best book on the subject. He 
seentennalatonl tis 00 in chee ome which he made, 
ve a comp! motion of projec- 
tiles. M Turgot pope gh work to be transla. 


tillery; and about the same time there appeared a 
splendid edition of it in England. 
In 1746, he published his new Theory of t and 
rs and in 1759, va memoir oath ack Hake 
at angaper gained. ize © rench 
Academy of Sciences. - ee 5 


In 1750, Euler went to Frankfort to receive his mos 


229 


1761 ; having enjoyed for 11 yearsthe assiduous atten- 
tions ofa favourite son, and the high’pleasure of seeing 
him universally esteemed and admired. 

When Euler remained at Berlin, he formed an in- 
timate acquaintance with M. De M is, the learn- 
ed President of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, and 
he defended Maupertuis’s celebrated and favourite-prin- 
ciple of the least action, by resolving by means of it 
some of the most difficult problems in mechanics. In 
the dispute into which he was thus led with Koenig; 
who had attacked Maupertuis in 1751, he lost for a 
while his usual serenity, and became one of the ene< 
mies of that unfortunate individual. 

Al h the number of foreign associates in the 
French Academy of Sciences was limited to eight, yet 


- Euler was appointed to the ninth place in 1755, on the 


condition that no appointment should take place at the 
first vacancy. 
In the year 1760, the Russian army under General 


Tottleben into the Marche of Brandenburg, 
and a farm which Euler possessed near Char: 
lottenberg. As soon as the Russian was in 
. formed of the event, he immediately repaired the loss 


bya large sum; and upon giving notice of the 
aimee to the Empress Elizabeth she added to 
this indemnity a present of four thousand florins. This 
act of ity, no doubt, had a powerful effect in 
attaching Euler to the Russian government, which, 
in spite of his absence, had always paid him the pen- 
sion which it at him in 1742, _ Having received 
an invitation the Empress Catherine, he obtained 
ission from the King of Prussia to return to St 
etersburg to spend the remainder of his days; but his 
eldest son was not allowed to accompany him. When 
Euler-was on the eve of his re, Prince Czartorisky 
invited him, in the name of the king of Poland, to take 
the road of Warsaw, where, | with kindness, he 
spent 10 days with Stanislaus, who afterwards honours 
ed him with his correspondence. 

Shortly after his arrival in St Petersburg, on the 17th 
July 1766, he lost the sight of his other eye, having 
been for a considerable time obliged to his 
calculations with characters, traced with chalk 
upon a slate. His pupils and his children copied his 
calculations, and wrote sithig.tmapanlentediotaieias 
dictated to them. To one of his servants, who was 
quite i t of mathematical knowledge, he dicta~ 
ted his Elements of Algebra, a work of v 
merit, which has been translated. into. the lish 
ey 2 other languages. .Euler now ired the 
rare ky of greys oni ot Tenens mioaticoes. 
prose analytical arithmetical calculations ; and. 

. d'Alembert, when he saw him at Berlin, was asto- 
nished at some examples of this kind which occurred 
in their conversation. With the design. of instructin 
his dchildren in the extraction of roots, he formed 
a table of the six first powers of all numbers, from 1 
to 100, and he recollected them with -the utmost ac- 

. Two of his pupils having computed -to the 
17th term, a complicated Cia: pp their results 
differed one unit in the fiftieth cypher ; and an appeal 
being made to Euler, he went over the calculation in 
his mind, and his decision was found correct. 

His principal amusement, after he lost his sight, was 
to make artificial loadstones, and to, give lessons on ma~ 
thematics to one of his grand-children, who seemed to 
evince a taste for the science, 

In 1771, a dreadful fire broke out in St Petersburg, 


il 


8 


4 3 
ft 
is 
i 
Ff 


Fe? 
5] 
i 
He 
: 

Be 

g 

3 

= 


4] 
HI 
°F 
| 


pit 
ihe 
af 
pi 
a1. 
Br 
1 
38 F 
are 
sk 


| 


i great premium of 
pounds offered by the British Parlia- 
of three hundred pounds was given to 
having furnished the theorems made use of 
in his theory. 
year 1773, Euler published, at St Petersburg, 
his great work on the construction and management of 
vessels. A new edition soon afterwards appeared at 
Paris, and at the desire of the French king, it was in- 
troduced into the schools of Marine, and a reward of 


ni 
il 
| 


g 
z 
r 
z 


a handsome letter from the celebrated Turgot.' About - 


the same time an Italian, an Engieh, and a Russian 
translation of it , and the Russian government 
presented Euler with a gift of 2000 rubles. 

Three of Euler's memoirs on the Inequalities in the 
motions of the nit crowned aoe n+ treed 
Academy of Sciences, e also gained the pri 
1770 ual 1772, by his perfection of the lunar haceys 

Having lost his first wife, by whom he had thirteen 
children, eight of whom died in early life, he was mar- 
ried a second time in 1776, to Mademoiselle Gsell, the 


too \ 
organs, he again lost his sight, and suffered much se- 
vere pain ‘from the relapse. 
ever, continued unabated, and in the course of seven 
he transmitted 70 memoirs to the Academy of 
Bt Pe . On the 7th of September 1783, after 
having amused himself with calculating: upon a slate 
the laws of the ascensional motion of balloons, which, at 
‘the attention of 


musing himself with one Pet teeters ar 

on a sudden, his pipe fell from his hand, and he expi- 

¢ stroke, in the 76th year of his age. 

iné him three sons, having lost his two 

in yon years tart ome Tw = 

of grand-chil were alive at 

time of his death. 

After along life, so snecessfully devoted to the sci- 

ences, Euler's was a widely extended. 
Besides being a f 


Theory of the Lunar Motions. > 
ledge was not limited to mathematics 


] vereed in ancient literature. 
eid from the beginning to the end, and he could 


even tell the first and last lines in every — of the 
edition which he used. Tih bate OF file weidarthene’ts 


F 
2 


nature the 
assiduity with which he pursued them, we cannot fail 
to be surprised at the : 


his lively and chearful. In his and reli+ 

Et cir ariee Sie apa 

ew e in 

he must have experienced both at. and St Peters- 
» never induced him to abandon the religious 

duties to which ee tatiana 


i ina form. — 
* voir Memoirs of the A 

are extremely 

behind kates fewer than 200 

order to fulfil a 


dy for 
hich he 


work contains many new views ; but as M. Fuss re- 
marks, it had no great success, as it contained too 
much geometry for musicians, and too much music for 


Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas maximi minimive 
ntroductio in Analysi itorum, Lausanne, 1744, 


2 vols. 4to. This work, whi 
‘was reprinted at Lyons in 1797. It was tra ine 
to French in 1796, by J. B, Labey, and published at 


~ Theoria motuum planetarum et cometarum. Beroli« 


ni, 1744. ' 

Opuscula varii argumenti. Berolini, 1746, 1750, 
1751, $ vols. in 4to. The tables of the sun and moon, 
which are sometimes to be found separately, form part 
of the Ist volume of this collection. As the three vo- 
jg make only 600 pages, they are generally found 

one. $70 wea 

4 


EVO pay ps 251 


come of 5000 crusades. - The ‘archbishop’s house ad- Euphrates. 
joins the cathedral, and not far from it ate the shambles, “~~” 
_an old Roman building, in which admirably. 


ta 


seagate como ciemenin. Berolini, 1753, ato. 
amine objectionum Cl. Koenigii, contra hoc principium 


iges i infinitorum ac doctrina serierum. 

edition of this work was published in 1787, in 
Sigel, Haig saoeee a ph Kavesangse 1804, in 2 
vols, 4to. 


3 vols, 4to. Another edition, more correct, was pub- 


Opuscula neigtae: P. 1783, 1785, 2 vols. 4to. 
Lettres a une Princesse d’ sur quelques su- 
- jets. de Physique et de Philosophie. Petersburg, 1768, 


of this was publish. 
ed at Berne in 1778, in 3 vols. 8vo. An edition was 
published in Paris, with notes by Condorcet, and ano- 
ther in 1812, by J. B. Lobey. 


noulli, avee des notes 


EVOCATION, is the of a religious ceremony 
which was always observ d by the Romans, when they 
began the ofa town, which they as 


iii. 9.,- w) 
WOLUTES.. See Flexion, 


EVOLUTION. . See the articles Atozsra, and 


ARITHMETIC. © 
EVORA, or Etvora,. Ebora, and the Li- 


houses-are in general small and low. The cathedral 
church is situated in the highest part of the town, and 
, has 25 prebends, each of whom enjoys ay annual in« 


EUP - ~ 


preserved 

Corinthian columns are connected by a plaster) wall. 
These columns, seven in number, are remarkably beau- 
tiful, and a drawing of them has been given by Murphy. 
It is said to be the remains of a templeiof Diana. Be- 
— . wre Ca into the ane it had been 
y oors as a mosque. In the great square, 

and in other parts of the town, there are many other 
remains of Roman architecture. On the north side, 
the aqueduct enters the town. It was begun by Ser- 
torius, but was entirely rebuilt by John III]. When Mr 
Link visited this town, a large and massive edifice was 
building for barracks, which, when finished, will, he 

, be unique in its kind in Portugal. 

Sa was formerly the seat of anuniversity, but it 
has totally fallen into decay since the time of Pombal. 
There are.no manufactures, and no trade .in the town. 
It contains five parish churches and 28 religious houses, 
It is defended by twelve bastions, and two demi-bas- 
tions. ‘On the north side of Evora,” says Mr Link, 
“ the hills rise, being round the town, adorned with 

, and on their summits with evergreen oaks. 


road from hence to Montemor o omnes is 
five leagues distant, . over granite -hills, partly 
covered with corn and partly with fine woods of 


evergreen, oaks, and pastures, which give t variety 
to the,prospech”...Papslation 12,000... West, Loni. 7 
42’, and. North Lat. 38° 30’, See Link’s Travels in 


wily » ATI, (10) 

E PHRATES, or more properly called the Phrat, tts name 
from the Hebrew Phar, or Pharaiz, to spread, and Pha- whence de« 
rah, to prodace fruit or flowers ; a river of Asia, which, Tved- 


with she iets forms the western boundary of the 
Persian empire, 

The Eu 
mountains of Armenia; the first:of these is called Al- 
la, issuing from a mountain in the vicinity of the towns 
of Bayazid and Diadin, and receives in its course the 
tribute of six springs from Shehrian, Malasjird, Khun- 
noos, Chaharbore, Miznajird, and Kague. The second 
is formed by the confluence of many streams from the 
mountains around Erzeroom; and is called the Karasu, 
from the blackness of its water. 

These two streams 
unite near the town of: n, inthe recesses of Mount 
Taurus, when the river inclines to the south-west, and 
passes within afew miles of the walls of Malatea. Recei~ 
ving at Malatea another tributary stream, it approaches 


the Mediterranean, till it is forced into a south-east | 


course by the mountains in the nei of Samo- 
sata. not so rapid,the Eu is a much finer 
river than Tigris; while the latter at Ar, is 
but a little brook, the Euphrates is 100 yore teeth 
at Malatea, and at Ul Der, orthe ancient Thapsacus, 800, 
Ten miles from the village of Lemloon, situated about 
half way between Bussora and Hillah, its waters are 

i over an immense morass, and are again col- 
lected about 21 miles north of Samavat. These marshes 
have been much increased since 1784, when the Great 
Soliman Pasha threw:a bank across the river‘at Delva- 
08 pana Spo Bao gm 5 old chan- 
nel, for the purpose of attacking wi vantage the 
Alghazil Arabs. At Korna, about 130 miles distant 
from its mouth, the Euphrates joins the Tigris; their 
united streams receive the name of the Shat oo) Arab,and 
form one of the noblest rivers im the East. The force 
of the flood-tide prevails so much at Korna, that, from 


has two. principal sources in the is sources. 


a westerly direction, and Its course. 


Ruphrates. 
———— 


ton of Kor- 


Remark of 
Poly bins. 


Polybius 
cootredicted 
by Kiancir. 


2382 

the point of the tri formed by the junction of the 

nae newbie epsom, was Euphrates on the 
one hand, and forced back by the strength of the Ti- 
is on the other. Korna is one of the three A 


iit by Seleucus, in honour of his first wife Apama, 
and is situated at the point of a tri formed by the 
confluence of these two streams. John Malcolm, 


peels etter + dete Aes + lee 
the M is Wellesley, considerin tion or- 
na malarly ad and where an im able 
fort might be erected at a trifling expence, which would 


secure the navigation of both rivers, repress the inroads 
of the nei ing Arabs, and command the countries 
between and Bussora, recommended this ob- 
ject as worthy of the attention of the governor-general 


of India. Here the channels of the Euphrates and Ti- 
gris are so deep, that a small ship of war might anchor 
close to the works, and a canal cut across the base of 
the tri , from one river to the other, would render 
any other fortification unnecessary. 

Polybius observes, that the Euphrates is remarkablefor 
differing in one from most others in the world. 
Rivers, in general, he remarks,. increase in size as they 
advance in their course, their waters swelling in winter 
and decreasing in summer. The Euphrates, on the 
contrary, diminishes as it flows, is very high in the 
middle of summer, and no where so broad as in Syria. 
This is accounted for from its increase being the effect 
of the dissolution of snows in the mountains, and not 
of winter rains ; canals and reservoirs being employed 
to draw off the superabundant waters for irrigating the 
districts on its banks, it decreases as it traverses an ex- 
Captain thor of a Geographical M 

Captain M. Kinneir, author of a i emoir 
of the Persian Empire, whv must be su; posed the sulhat 
authority to follow, writing from actual observation on 
the spot, and to whom we are indebted for much inte- 
resting information on this peg ie says, that the great- 

lan 


est rise of the Euphrates is in January, when it attains 
an increase of 12 feet icular; and it continues 
to rise and fall till the end of May or beginning of June. 


Here is a manifest contradiction of Polybius, which we 
cannot hope to reconcile, as it probably proceeds from 
some change, in the manner in which the river is now 
affected, unknown to us. However, in justice to Poly- 
hius, who is esteemed an excellent historian, and drew 
trom the best sources within his reach, we must observe 
that that part of his account where he mentions that 
the Euphrates decreases in size as it advances in its 
course, is supported by Kinneir; for this author states 


that at Hillah, near the ancient Babylon, the Euphrates 
is only 200 broad, and 40 feetdeep. Now Hil- 
lah is mach below Ul] Der, where itis 800 yards broad. 


Perhaps the great depth of 40 feet may be . ht to 
compensate in some degree the breadth so much higher 
up; but we are not warranted to draw this concla- 
sion, a8 Kinneir has not given. us the depth of the 
river at Ul Der. Even in the driest season, the Eu- 
phrates is navigable for boats of considerable bur- 
den, up as far as Shukashu, a village situated on: the 
west bank of the river, and a day's sail from Korna. 
The tides of the Persian Gulf reach 20 or 25 miles 
above Korna; and the river is navigated, during six 
months of the year, by flat boats up to Hil- 
lah, These boats are of a singular construction. The 
body resembles a half-moon in shape; the ribs. and 
planks are roughly nailed together, and the outside 
covered with tha or bitumen; there is no keel, 
and the rudder, formed of a number of spars clums 


EUPHRATES. 


ily bound together, is nearly as large as the vessel; 
ch igi conehee Alf aac aia te at lagen a 
When ing to Bussora, they float down the stream ; 


cent,” Asotiee Wate at ya 
rent. n ¥ 
wicker work, covered with Wenner. and about 
phrates and 3 
made of reeds, in the form of a shield; and, as 
Kinneir remarks, it is curious to observe that so li 
alteration in their construction has taken place during 
such a lapse of Oo 


- 3 
Hi 
ue 
pd 


No subject has excited more the attention of the learn- Canals end 
Cas artificial 
its wa- lakes. 


ed than the river Euphrates, with regard to its. 
nals and artificial lakes, dug for the-reeeption 
ters at the season of inundation. Of the ancient’autho- 


blished by su! ery estigation. 
The canal of Pallacopas, dug by the first of the Baby- 
ton of Kuls, having fallen disrepair 

tion of K i into disrepair, about twenty 
years ago it ee ly cleared. by the Nabob of 
Oude, in honour of whom the Arabs now call it Hindi. + 
It is cut from the ri 


mainder is nearly raging dee sand, but its course 


hood of Babylon are still:the remains of two lakes, 
the names of Ali and his son Hussein. 
The upper 


pots mania eye te 

FA Sp ag AI en e town of K 
containing the tomb of Hussein, the of 
hommed. cig ming re Ree pee 
the northern point of the lower, or Nej 
distance is about. twenty-five miles. Meshed A’ 
tuated a little to the east. Into this lower lake the 
phrates was turned by the canal of 
season of its floods. e opening and 
canal was a part of the office of the satrap of’ 
and, as Dr Vincent remarks, it must have been a duty 
ee 

is desert cannot be watered, every spot 
tile that can be flooded. Peat esd oy ee 
Heyer pious Go gency tener enemy eyo 
mand of the waters of the Euphrates was highly ne- 
cessary for the cultivation of the adjacent icts ; 


> 


and thus, as the cities in the vicinity of its banks have 


h its grand canals 
ve failed, the ruinous policy of the Turks, at this 
day, regards the partial distribution of its waters as an 
object of primary importance for the purpose of irtiga- 


bee 


in existence; butpsinge thedesr. .s** 


tion. Arrian gives us the following accountof igin Arrian’s y 


and object of the canal of P. , cut from the 
phrates to draw off its superabi 
river, he tells us, descending from the mountains of 
Armenia, flows within its natural channel during win- 
ter, but receives such an accession of water in the be 


ginning of spring, and a still about the summer 
solstice, that, overflowing its banks, it lays under wa- 
ter the plains of ia. And unless this inundation, 


caused by the write ti of snows in the mountains, 


ut fre = count of 
it waters. For this Pallacopss, 


AU EUPHRATES. 


Euphrates. were diffused by. sof: the ent of Pallacopas over 
——— penance dha Sea of the surrounding coun- 
“~~ try would be’ desolated. The waters thus drawn off, 

reach the main by a diversity of subterraneous courses. 


woul: : i in this: 1 

fuse its waters to irrigate and fertilize the plains of Assy- 
On this account the Satrap of Babylon, at a great 
expence of labour, cut off the communication, although 
the work, on being was found to. be insuf- 
ficient ; the embankment being composed of mud and. 
such like materials, was incapable of resisting the pres- 
sure of the water, and continued to yield it a passage 
through the canal. Alexander, the advan 
tage of Assyria, shut out the waters by a more solid 


and it: work, Ata short distance, a rocky soil 
wean founel-tihiiele, whee dit Unragirle anil pestonged to 
the Pallacopas, offered the double 


ices to admit the waters. of 


nalinto,the Bahr Nejiff. Lille belong fixed upon a 

convenient spot, he founded acity, defended by walls. 
Se My 

‘This retain tame of Alexandria, after 

Be i or tat ee tontins but on its becoming the residence 

ancient of a of Arabian prines, was c to that 

Alexandria. of Hira. It is now known by the name of Nejiff or 

Meshed Ali, and is supplied with water by a subter- 

raneous aque connected with the cut of i 

This the Wahabee, in order todistress the city, broke 

down, so that when ir was at Meshed 

Ali, in 1808, the inhabitants of te RT oo 

to bring their water in sheep skits, from a distanee o 


ity. town of 
’ Kerbela, or 1s a very fine one, though 
more ancient than the days of Alexancer, and su 


men:of which the walls of Babylon were built, a brid 
i baplieseg for the canbe 


n-- journey from Van, situated: 


"Though ‘the 


a 
y iSeentoe das dcad toveo teoreentanstial 


233- 


a bridge of 15 arches.at the town of Argish, three days Euphrates... 
uater the north-west side of ="y—" 
the lake of the same name, which is about 168 miles in 
circumference, but whose water is so brackish as to be 
fae known. that aa oh Nagy Wek sy city Babylon a. 

2 into two parts, flowi through it vi y the 

from north to: south. ie banks were with bricks, Euphrates. 
the inhabitants descending by steps to the: water, 
through small brass gates in a lofty wall, parallel with 
the river. Semiramis threw across a bridge of five fur- 
longs in length, and 30 feet in breadth, to connect the 
two quarters of the city, and erected a palace at each 
end of the bridge. These palaces communicated with 
each other, by means of a vaulted passage cut under 
the bed of the river, for which purpose an immense 
lake was dug, into which its waters were turned. The Waters of ~ 
course of the river, Kinneir remarks, might easily the Euphis< 
be diverted, as the banks of the Euphrates rise above tS “diverted 
the level. of the adjoining plain ; but, as he adds, it is 
difficult, to, conceive how it could be confined within 
the compass. of an artificial lake, without inundating the 
outeiades country, or forcing a passage to the sea. 
The waters of the Euphrates were again diverted by: 
Cyrus, when he took Babylon. Taking advantage ofa 
great festival held in the city, and when all its inhabi- 
tants were immersed in debauchery and revelling, he 
posted a part of his troops, destined for the attack, on. 
that side where the Eu tes entered the town, and 
another division on the side whence it issued out, giving 
orders that they should enter the city by marching along 
the bed of the ee, as — as they ae Barn te 
In the ing, he caused the great receptacles and ca- 
nals above a below the town t to be opened. By this 
means the Euphrates was discharged, and its natural 
channel left dry. The enterprize was greatly facilita- 
ted, and, perhaps, solely accomplished, in consequence 
of the negligence and disorder of the city, as that night 
the gates of brass which shut up the avenues from the 
river to the town were left open. 

When Kinneir examined the ruins of Babylon, he pyramid of 
mentions particularly a pyramid, six miles south-west Nimrood. 
of Hillah, called Nimrood by the Arabs, about 50 feet 
in height, from whose summit the windings of the 
Euphrates may be traced through the level plain of Shi- 
nar. Villages and orchards are seen to line its banks, 
while a few hamlets, in here and there on the: 

like on the surface of the ocean. 
Euphrates flows through one of the most. 
uctive regions of the earth, the icious po- 
icy of the Turk renders unavailing the bounty of 
nature, the baneful influence of _ ism convertin 
fertile plains into sterility, and itation of wi 
beasts. On those banks where once flourished the 
dest cities of the world, now languish ive-~ 
y insignificant towns; where luxury and abundance 
were universally diffused, a scanty pittance is now 
thered ; and where mighty conquerors have contended’ 
for kingdoms, the wandering Arab of the desert now 
vindicates his spoil. But the whole extent of country 
along the banks of the Euphrates must not be included 
in this picture of desolation. The a of Arme-+ 
nia, considerable part of which this river flows, 
so delightful to the imagination of poetry, 
seat of pa: 
radise. ' 
sop aarevocseees Eden stretch’d her line 
From Auran, myn oa the royal towers 
G 


Meath of 
the Ku- 


phrates. 


i 
azFe 
i 
ite 
Foie 
f itt 
ales 


Vincent has bestowed much pains and argument in 


elucidating the matter, and D’Anville has been Jed in- 


to gross mistakes, from i on some particular 
points of inqui But Kinneir having been encam 
tor six on the banks of the Karoon and Hafar, 
must be su from his intelligence, and 


though erroneously, been suppo- 
wee (the combined stream of 
the Euphrates and Tigris.) enters the Persian Gulf by 


issue from the Delta into the sea, at no t distance 
from each other, were derived from the l-Arab, 
the river with which they were chiefly acquainted. 


These channels, or khores as they are call , in Mr 
Cluer's map e the following order: Cossisa 
Bouny, Bamishere, Karoon, Seluge, Mohilla, Goban, 
and Detia: Bona. If it be proved that the Bamishere, 
the next in succession, as well as in itude, to the 
Cossisa Bouny, or Shat-ool-Arab, is not in the least aug- 
mented by waters of the latter, clearly none of 
the others can ; for the only means of communication 
is by the Hafar cut. Now, the Bamishere is the main 
— aa Sern oye Pity river, after its confluence 
wi Abzal.at Bundikeil, contains a greater 
body of water than either the Euphrdtes of Tiss se- 

'y. This stream, on reaching Sabla, a ruined 
village 30 miles east of Bussora, disunites; the largest 
branch called Hafar, after a course of fourteen or fifteen 
miles, tes. The greatest portion of waters 
flowing obliquely to.the east, constitute the Bamishere, 
the rest enter the Shat-ool-Arab, through an artifi- 
cut, three miles . This cut is the only com- 
munication which the -Arab has with the six 
; and,as the waters of the Karoon 


| 


teresting in the world, at the time of its accomplish- ‘ 
ment, opening a communication with Eur and the 
most distant regions of Asia, and, as Dr Ve ob= 
serves, the eacee and orgin of the Portuguese disco- 
veries, an primary :ause, however remote, of the’ 
“From fo anges, too Eeplialia panacea 
rom its source, Eu a course of 
about 1400 miles to its confluence with’ the © at 
Korna, which, estimating at the distance of 190 miles 
from the Persian Gulf, tle waters of the Euphrates con 
sequently flow upwards »f 1500 miles in reaching the 
gd aa gp ce a 8 Machen to hong 
re, passim, pnyis ip ; Memoire sur 
t Buprae et le Tigre pir D Anville ; Vincent's Voyage 
of Nearchus, and Arrun’s Hist. by Gronovius  (w. 7.) 
EURIPIDES, a ceebrated Grecian ic poet, was’ 
born in the first yearof the "ath Olympiad, (about 408: 
B. C.) in the island of Salamis, whither his 
peng res of the false interpretation 
erxes. In uence i ’ 
Pe equivocal orade, he was destined, by h one 


pow go Anaxagoras, 
by vari chadiones fest ren. em 

various 4 tobea e ; for, a 
reference to chrorology, it will be found, that Socrates 
was twelve or thitteen than Euripides ; 
which makes it Yery im 
a ee 
it is 6 a i inti 
subsisted a ey ag Sate —ve men; in so 
that Socrates, vho in general di 
exhibitions, sellom appeared at the unless when 
the tragedies of Euripides were to be performed. 

At an early age, Euripides imbibed a strong partiali- 


previous to the invasion of Attica _ 


= 


EURIPIDES. 935 


‘Buripides. from his eighteenth € ar, to the composition of drama- opinions concerning the superior claims of Aschylus, Euripides. 
——~ eomene = which bicedan rose to the hi emi- Sophocles, and the subject of this article. Quintilian ——"\—”" 
nence. He wrote a great number of ies, which seems unwilling to decide, yet he evidently gives the 
were held in the highest estimation during his owntime, palm to Euripides, (Inst. Or. lib. x. cap. 1.) He is 
and have been admired by the best and most inferior to the two first, perhaps, in majesty, sublimity, 


cedon, a great patron of learned men, by whom he was 
i received, and raised tohigh honours. Here, 
-however, he met with a most tragical.fate ; for, while 
he was walking in a wood, according to his custom, ab- 
sorbed in ein ip ga ep a ra 
torn to pieces by the prince’ 's dogs, who happened to be 
at that time engaged in hunting. Archelaus 
his death, and gave him a 
the news of his fate Athens, the inhabitants 
were so grieved at the event, that the whole city went 
i i His great rival Sophocles, with a soul 


into mourning. 
superior to vulgar jealousy, also manifested his grief in _ 


the most unequivocal manner. He ordered a traged 

Setnaiciodiad-dpes: tha acapiices:nt chick tip birpeclt 

- and the actors appeared in deep mourning. The cir- 

cumstances of the death of Euripides, however, are va- 

riously reported ; but we have given the most current 

tradition regarding it; and the event seems to have 
when he 


Euripides. His. oF capeniivnis sssith terpisepel eine 

and. phi ical maxims, that he was called 
the of stage. » many, he has been 
considered as the most i of all the ancient 
tragic poets, although the critics are divided in their 


and force ; but he is generally allowed to surpass them 
in morality and pathos ; atid in the declamatory elo- 
quence of the stage he is probably unrivalled. — Aris- 
totle calls him the most tragical of all the poets. 

Euripides froee ee ope cae aioe ve into the 
composition ly. Among other es, he su 

the prologue, in which it had been saoel comin 
an outline of the story, and threw the exposition of the 
subject into the piece itself; a mode of proceeding, 
which, although it some difficulties to the au- 
thor, was of considerable advantage to the dramatic art. 

The manners of Euripides were harsh, and his cha- 
racter austere ; but his dramatic productions, in gene- 
ral, do not indicate such dispositions; for there is no 
poet who has written with greater feeling and tender- 
ness, or who has described the passion of love in more 
expressive and delicate terms. He is said, however, to 
have had two wives, whose character and conduct were 
far from contributing to soften the asperity of his tem- 
per; and he acquired the name of the woman hater, 

bly in consequence of the many invectives which, 
in his writings, he pointed against the fair sex. 

The earliest edition of Euripides is that of Aldus Ma- 
nutius, Venice, 1503, 8vo. | It contains only the Greek 
text of eighteen ies. This edition was renewed 
by Hervagius, 1537, &c. Robert Winter, pub- 
lished another edition at Basil, in 1541, with a Latin 
version. John Oporin pri an edition of Euripides, 
in Greek and Latin, 1562, fol. Plantinus gave an edi- 
tion at Antwerp, 1571, 16mo, with the division and ar- 
rangement of the verses by William Canter. | Besides 
these, we have the edition of Jerome Commelin, Heidel- 
berg, 1597, 8vo; of Paul Stevens, 1604, 4to; and of Jo- 
shua Barnes, Cambridge, 1694, fol. with a life prefixed, 
and learned notes. Some tragedies have been printed 
sepa ty commented upon, by different editors, 
The excellent English translation of Euripides by Pots 
ter, is well known. (=) ji 


EUROPE. 


tant and governs 
others. the warmth of its climate, the fertility of its 
soil, and the richness and luxuriance of its i 


productions, 
re en a a Bm grange 
the nations which it it, in civilization and. refine- 
ment, in attainments in science, and.in all the useful and 


ornamental arts, the iority. is vast and striking. 
Here is the theatre on which the human character has 
appeared to the and where soci 


The origin of the name Europe is not certainly _knewn; 
but it seems to have been extended from that of a small 
district on the European side of the Hellespont, as the 


name of Asia spread from the name of the 
Sec cabs: oP The extent of this part of the 


obe, 
which. yields considerably even to Africa, is from the Extent. 


most. western point of. P near Lisbon, to the Ura- 
lian mountains on the east, in length about 3300 Bri- 
tish miles, and in breadth, from the North Cape in Lap- 
land to the southern extremity of Greece, about 2350. 
— wo paehg square ae though they ane Ds 
culated with any degree of accuracy, may sta 
at.the medial num 
ancients were but very imperfectly acquainted with the 
boundaries of Europe. A epet eeovetcees this divi- 
sion, especially in the. no: east, has never been 
known with any degree of precision until modern times. 
It is bounded on the by the Arctic Ocean, or 
Frozen Sea ; on the west by 
on the south by the Mediterranean Sea. ' Its eastern li- 
mits are not so well defined.. As the natural -bounda- 
ries on this side extend only a certain length, it is sepa- 
rated from Alaina qiesenantily by. arbitrary li- 


on Europe. 


of two millions and a half. . The Boundaries. 


Atlantic Ocean ; and . 


Divisens. 


British isles. 


Peninsulas. 


Mountains. 


® 


Fils 8 
iil 


Fi 
¢ 


2 


: 
F' 
4 
4 
m 


urope no great 
ivided by the 
north and south of that sea. On the north of the Baltic, 
are the northern or Scandinavian kingdoms, Denmark, 
Norway, and Sweden. The extensive empire of Russia, 
occupies the remainder of ape terial F 


, France, Holland, and 
many. And in the centre of Europe are situated most 
of the German states, Prussia, Poland, Switzerland, Bo- 
hemia, Hungary, &c. During the violent and extraor- 
dinary convulsions which for the last twenty years have 

itated and desolated this division of the globe, it has 
atten been difficult to say what were the limits, or who 
were the masters of many of its states and kingdoms ; 
but now that the storm has subsided, they are again re- 
turning to nearly their former boundaries, their former 
governments, and their former institutions. 

The E islands are numerous, and some of 
them extensive and highly important. On the west in 
the Atlantic Ocean, are the Azores, situated about thir- 
teen west of 


ee classed under Africa, they more 


perly 
which they were fpr erm to which they have always 
been subject. The 


belonging to the crown of Denmark. 
island of Iceland, subject to 
es i lying about 400 miles from the con- 
tinent in Western Ocean ; and numerous other but 
unimportant islands on the Norwegian'coast. In the 
great Northern Sea, the chief and most extensive are 
the remote and dreary and almost uninhabited islands 
of Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen. In the Baltic Sea, 
are the islands of Denmark, Zealand, the chief seat of 
the Danish monarchy, Funen, Laland, Talster, Born- 
holm, &c. ; the islands of Rugen, Oeland, Gothland, 
and Aland, be ing to Sweden ; and those of Cron- 
stadt, Oesal, Dago, subject to Russia. In the Me- 
diterranean, are the islands of Majorca and Minorca, of 
Corsica and Sardinia, the and fertile island of Si- 
‘cily, Malta, Candia the ancient Crete, N t the 
ancient Eubcea, with the numerous other islands of the 
contains numerous peninsulas. Some of its 
finest and most celebrated are peninsular. Be- 
sides innumerable others of lesser extent and import- 
ance, we may notice Crim-T: in the Black Sea ; 
the peninsulas of Greece and of taly in the Mediter- 
an ; i contained between ‘the 
Mediterranean and the ic; and Jutland, formed 
merger —y the Baltic. We may include also 
Scandinavia, w is a large la formed 
by the Baltic and the Northern Ocean. 
The mountains of Europe do not form ridges of such 
vast extent as those of Asia, and are much~ in 
height to those in Thibet and in South America, Of 


The large and 


renaaapte gs cre tb Oe Seatidina 
Ses i “The vian chain. 
cliynthinpal ike apetendas Bawerans very accu- 


rately ascertained ; but they do not equal the Alps, or 


even the Pyrenees. The grand and extensive ri 

he Yhsirmageare eerie gees! oe: - 
form, from the mountain of Javornick, south of Silesia, niountains. 
bounds H on the north and east, and sends off 
branches to Transylvania and Wallachia. — Its 
circuit may be about 500 miles; and the highest | 
mits of these mountains do not 

feet. river seer a oo PB 
the d range of the Hemus, ing from Emi 
to south of Servia, a tract of 400 miles, known un- ¥ 
der various names. From the western extremity of 

the Hemus branch off two other extensive chains, one ‘ 
running between Dalmatia and Bosnia ; the other pass- 
ing south, a —_ mountains of wom | f 
the west % Appenines, ae Appenines. 
mont from the sea, and por meas oe ¢ 
Vanantenctetenhet aie iedaeeee vases " 
of Europe, mount itna, in Sicily, claims the first dis- 

tinction. The other voleanoes are those of mount Ve- 

suvius near N. and mount Hecla in Iceland. The 

islands of Lipari, to the ‘north of Sici » also contain 


a eee 


Hemus. 


ent esl 


which prove a usefuul source of industry and subsistence 
tothe inhabitants. To the north of Europe lies:the Arctic See. 
Arctic Ocean, extending over , the 


this enormous , barren waste a 
fertile source of provisions for the human race. Here 
the vast and innumerable tribes of herrings 


E 
a, 


Mediterra- 


Black Sea. 


EUROPE. 


reaches the shores of America; another smaller squa- 
dron i 


| 
i 
F 
f 
: 
E 


i 
: 


and extent of its inland seas; which have been just- 
ly regarded as one of the chief causes of its indus- 
try and civilization, and ae 
the other grand divisions of the globe. Amongst 5 
the Mediterranean is obviously pre-eminent. From 
its shores, their first seats, both in ancient and mo- 
dern-times, knowledge and civilization have been dif- 
fused over the other countries of Europe. From the 


! 
| 


which still further of inland na- 
Mitcwids tupanne’'f tide ca ts bonouttly tortoniod 
w sea is 

with islands, and environed with opulent coasts, abound 
ing with the most sublime and picturesque features of 
nature. Epnithe:Dodtistchagemy thane tate tides, ex 
cept in the narrowest straits ; but a current sets along 
the Italian shore from west to east, and towards the 
African in an ite direction. This sea abounds in 
ief fisheries are those of the tunny, of the 
sword-fish, of the sea-dog, and of the anchovy. To the 
north of the eastern part of this sea, which is denomi- 
nated the Levant, but distant from it some hundreds of 
miles, lies the Black Sea, with which it communicates 
by two narrow straits, and the small sea of Marmora, 
which is situated between them. This extensive sea, 
of which the western parts only be toE is 
said to have derived its name from its black r or 

navigation. To the north of the Black Sea, 
and connected with it by the short and narrow strait 


Sea of Azof. of Caffa, istthe sea of Azof, the utmost maritime li- 


Baltic, 


mit/of Europe in this quarter. It is shallow, and pol- 
luted with mud, whence its ancient name of Palus 


to the N. E. and 

called the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, both 

covered with ice during four or five months of the win- 

The greatest depth of this sea does not exceed 50 

fathoms; and the Sw 

me ope extent in the course of a 
con 


| 
t 


237 


called the White Sea, which is an extensive inlet or Europe. 


gulf of the Arctic Ocean; ing the northern pro- 
vinees of Russia in the direction of. 

sea was better known before the commerce of Archan- 
gel was supplanted by that of St Petersburgh. 


The numerous and extensive inland seas and gulfs of Straits. 


Europe, give rise to several celebrated straits. Of 
these, besides those ‘already mentioned, the most. im- 
are, the Straits of Gibraltar; which connect the 
editerranean with the Atlantic Ocean ; the Straits of 
Messina, between Italy and Sicily ; the Dardanelles, 
between the Grecian Archipelago and the Sea of Mar- 
mora ; and the Hellespont, between the Sea of Marmo- 
ra and the Black Sea; the Straits of Dover, which con- 
nect the English Channel with the German Sea, and 
the narrowest distance between the English and French 
coasts ; and, in the Baltic, the celebrated Strait of the 
Sound, between the Island of Zealand ‘and the coast 
of Sweden, where the king of a levies “ toll on 
all shi i and down the Baltic; the Great 
Beles ventt Peake and Funen; and the Little Belt, 
between Funen and the peninsula of Jutland. 

Europe contains few or no lakes of any great extent. 
The most considerable are; the lakes of Constance, 45 
miles inlength, and 15 in breadth; and of Geneva, 40 
miles long, and nine at its greatest breadth, both situ- 
ated in Switzerland. The lakes, Wenner, 80 miles in 

, and 50 in breadth ; Wetter, about 80 miles long, 
and 12 broad ; and Meeler; 60 miles by 18, in Sweden. 
And Lake Onega, which is about 150 miles in length, 
by a medial breadth of about 30; and the Ladoga, 
130 miles long by 70 in breadth, in the western divi- 
sions of the Russian empire. 


- The more limited extent of Europe admits not the rivers. 


accumulation of such mighty bodies of water as the 
Asiatic and American continents roll to the ocean. ‘The 
largest and most important of the Eu rivers, 
are, the Volga, the er pat of which belon 
this division of the globe. This largest of the Euro- 
a takes its rise in the mountains of Valday, 
Petersburgh and Moscow, and, after running 

ina direction, a course of upwards of 
1700 miles, falls into the Caspian at Astracan. This 
noble river, having no cataracts, and few shoals, is na- 
vigableeven as high as Tver. Its chief tributary streams 
are, Kama on-the east, and Oka on the west. 
Next to Volga is the Danube, whose m 
stream rises in Swabia, and Passing through Bavaria, 
Austria, Hungary, and Turkey, falls into the Black 
Sea, after'a circuit of 1500 miles. The Danube, though 
occasionally im by small falls and whirlpools, is 
yet sanviggltn an immense extent of its course. 

Dnieper, or ancient Borysthenés, rises in the 

vernment of Smolensk, about 150 miles to the of 
the source of the Volga, and after a course of about 
1000 miles through fertile provinces, falls into the Eux- 
ine Sea. The Rhine rises in the mountains of Switzer- 
land, and falls into the German Sea, by several mouths, 
on the coast of Holland. This noble river, whose banks 
are celebrated for their grand and striking scenery, 
forms the great barrier between France and Germany, 
and. its course may be computed at 600 British miles. Tt 
receives, near Mentz, the tributary stream of the Mayne. 


a 
the Baltic. This White Sea 


Lakes. 


to Volga. 


ificént Danube. 


‘0- Dnieper. 


Rhine. 


The Elbe rises in the Sudetic mountains of Silesia, EJbe. 


and, running through the north of Germany a course 
of 500 miles, discharges itself into the sea near Cux- 
haven. The Don rises frorn a lake in the 


of Tulan, and fulls into the sea of Azof, after a course 


of about 800 miles. The Dniester forms the boundary Dneister. 


ernment Don. 


a 


Rurepe. 
— 


re 


Oder. 


Rhone. 


Population. 


238 
between Turkey and Russia, derives its source 
from the side of the Carpathian mountains, and 
falls into the Euxine at Akerman, after a course of 
about 600 miles. The Dvina and Pelchora direct their 
course to the Arctic Ocean. The course of the former, 
which falls into the White Sea, is about 500 miles ; and 
that of the latter 450.. The Dvina rises in the province of 
Smolensk in Russia, and falls into the Baltic at Riga, 
after running 500 miles. The Vistula rises in the Car- 
ian mountains, passes Warsaw, and joins the sea 
near Dantzic, after a course of 450 miles. The Oder 
has its source in the mountains of Moravia, and, after 
watering Silesia, Brandenberg, and Pomerania, joins 
the Baltic, after a course of 380 miles. The Rhone 
pees from the Glacier of Furca, and, flowing through 
Lake of Geneva, bends its course to the south, and 
enters the Mediterranean ; its course is 400 miles. The 
Loire rises in Languedoc, and after running 500 miles, 
enters the ocean beyond Nantes. The beautiful stream 
of the Seine, on which the city of Paris is built, falls 
into the English Channel at Havre de Grace, after a 
course of 250 miles. The Ebro rises in the mountains 
of Asturias in Spain, and after a south-easterly course 
of 350 miles, falls into the Mediterranean Sea. The 
‘Tagus has its source in the west of Arragon, and hold- 
ing a course of 450 miles, falls into the Atlantic at Lis- 
bon. Nor in enumerating the rivers of Europe, ought 
we to ft the Thames, which, though one of the 
smallest, is one of the most celebrated ; the seat of Bri- 
tish.empire, and the grand resort of the commerce of 
the woud. 

Excepting a small portion of its most northern limits 
which stret within the Arctic circle, Europe is en- 
tirely situated within the temperate zone, is con- 

tly exempted from the utmost extremities both 
of beat and of cold. In so extensive a track, however, 
the climate must necessarily be very various. While 
its northern states are often cold and bleak, and during 
pean Es ttt lay bound in the frozen chains of winter, 
one 


furnishes them with all the comforts an 
of life. 


even luxuries 


energy and activi 
in knowl 


EUROPE. 


like the Samoids of Asia, in the furthest north. Those 
ancient inbabitants, who seem to have been thinly scat- 
tered, were driven towards the west and north by the 
Scythians or Goths 3 Asia, whose descendants occu- 
y the ter H by the 
g eek eihaiaies from Asia, the ancestors of the Rus- 
sians, Poles, &c. From cenaniytatety unser Iberi 
passed into Spain at a v od ; a late 
ter period, the netnasion of ts Trigarleanea Turks 
took place from Asia. wt 
The irruptions of 
ran the Roman*empire, 
ry quarter of Europe, rise to a new and sin- 
state of society, distinguished by the name of 
Feudal System. As these conquerors of Europe 
had their acquisitions to maintain, not on’ ail 
such of the ancient inhabitants as they 
but also against the more formidable inroads 
invaders, self-defence was their chief care, and seems 
to have been the chief object of their first institutions 
and ‘policy. With this view, mgt soldier, upon re- 
ceiving a portion of the lands which were 
bound himself to in arms against the enemies of 
the community. This tenure, by which they held their 
land, amongst a warlike people, was reckoned both ea- 
sy and honourable. The king or general who led them 
to conquest continuing still to be their head, had, of 
course, the portion allotted tohim. These lands: 
he parcelled out amongst his adherents, binding those 
on whom they were bestowed to resort to his standard 


when required, with a number of men ioned te 
thie extent of territory they. received. :Flis chief olcets 


ed themsel 


imitated the example of their sovereign, and in distri- 
buting’ portions of land to their « dants, annexed 


the same conditions to their grant. Thusa feudal king- 
dom resembled a military establishment rather than a 
civil institution. The victorious army, cantoned out 
in the country which it had conquered, continued ar- 
under its proper officers, who were ordered to 
hold themselves in readiness to assemble whenever oc- 
casion should require their united operations. The 
names of a soldier and a awe to ane: sper Sw ns 
E roprietor, girt with a sword, was ready to 
jet a the sdintothe of his superior, and to soie aes 
field against the common’enemy. Such is the origin 
and outline of that celebrated system which for many 
centuries prevailed throughout the whole of Europ 
Though it seems well calculated for ing : 
assaults, yet it was ill fitted to promote the ends of m- 
ternal ps i and tranquillity, and was unfavourable to 


= 


these barbarous nations who over- political 
ves in eve= state, 


the cultivation of every art but that of war. By the . 


gradual tion of various causes, this barbarous 
structure has been overthrown in most of the states of 
Europe. In some countries, however, considerable re- 
mains of it are still to be found, and in all its former 


existence, may be traced in their laws, policy, and in- 
stitutions. } 

In E almost alone, or in its colonies, aré li+ 
berty and government to be found. In various 


states, freedom is established beyond the reach of ac- 
cident or caprice; and even those governments which 
in theory are more arbitrary or er absolute, 
the diffusion of knowledge, the state of European. 
society and manners, and the force m= 1 9 oom 
has rendered in ice comparatively mild, and atten- 
tive to justice and the rights of the subject: The uni-. 
versal hatred and detestation of which, in this quarter. 
of the world, where the principles of freedom and of 
government are so much better understood, they inva-. 


' Pe _in a great mea- neral congress of deputies from its various states ; and Europe. 
de zag" ‘as occur any of its nations war be regarded as ty of 
ay hematin cepa: ants Paces rebellion ; to quell which, all the rest are bound to con- Political 


EUROPE. “a 239 


states, which is peculiar to “Europe. In ancient ab ies Pctropeest Commintity; and jtnpieteen boa 
times, and in other divisi Gat gh kar Agr’ A + anature and strength, as to endanger or even altoge~ 
Send dard sta aneeeed Cat ana fee ederacy. Of ind 


i ing another, and interferes not, for a time completel ded, and seemed to have 

Splees ee the telischs e Satiaans Mase gift torte? entirely destroyed, the | ce of power in this part of 
ries or dominion. In this state of things, some one in- the world. But its different oms having again 
dividual power is always eee 4 an undue prepon- subsided into their ancient state, one of the seve« 
derance and ascendency fatal to. © independence of rest agitations to which they can ever be exposed, has 
the rest ; and the face of the political peepee established this system much more firmly than if it’ 
ally undergoing great and sudden changes. ut the had never been interrupted ; and shewn, that no power’ 
similarity m the situation of the European powers ; the need hereafter attempt to disturb it, who is not able 
resemblance of their languages, manners, and laws; to subjugate Europe. ; =n 
the extension of their intercourse by travelling and fo- The Christian is the universal religion of Europe, Religious 
eign residence ; their union, by the relations of scien- with the sacestion of Turkey, in which Mahometan- state. 

. : 1 caieeriality a the ism is established, but where, nevertheless, at least 

: and one half of the inhabitants are pan ps oe 
common advantages of such an union,—have given birth religion must be regarded as one of the causes of the 
tart boteaste pemcsectiok: Sx Goes of pence, eal x cot superiority of E ; for wherever the rel on of 
mon feeling of interest in maintaining the existence of Jesus has penetrated, knowledge, industry, and civili« 
the state of affairs. They form a united whole zation, have followed. The southern parts of Europe 
Willen Gicbaciven almost separated from the rest ofthe were converted to the Christian faith at an early pe- 
world,—a great federacy, acknowledging indeed no riod. Among the barbarous tribes of the North, the 
common chief, but united by certain common princi- progress was slow. Scandinavia remained Pagan till 

and obeying one system of i ional law, the eleventh century ; some Sclavonic tribes on the 
se lags fat sith aolietade the dangers which South of the Baltic’ till the thirteenth; and it is not 
beset the vest. and feels tteelf attacked wher any of the above a century since the Laplanders were converted 
weaker states are to the insults or oppressions missions from Denmark. The chief divisions of 
) fosiebble neighisour, The power that. the Christian church are three: The Greek church, 

; itories of any one feeble which me in E , and the a — 
neighbour, must lay its account with preserving the tions ics and Protestants; the former of w 
usurpation, by exposing its whole dominions and colo- are prevalent in the South, and the latter in the North 
abe of Haroge, 


immediately unite to restore the former balance of | The progressive geography of E will be more Progressive 
power. i Fig sa properly a ron sarang illu wr under the de~ geography. 
Such is the system ot palitecal equilibrium which ex- scriptions of its different kingdoms states, in, 
i globe, an impolitic France, and Britain, were early and fully explored by 
the Romans, who overrun them with their arms, and 
i pre a pic in permanent rps nen Their 
Ww easily perceive, however, how shi lored southern shores of the Baltic, as 
its influ ¥ intai i Fg fd hte fiple Babes ot the Western Divina, anatvane 
different states, if we consider the trifling extent pres my ae ata gee along the coasts ; 
‘ which have taken place in the relative were also acquai wi e southern parts on 
of the left of the ube, but of the central ; of 
anor it is evident, from the maps of Ptolemy, 
they no just ideas. Of Scandinavia, the ancients 
knew only the southern parts, as far as the lakes Wet« 
ter and Wenner. The Carpathian or Sarmatian moun- 
tains were well known, but the line of 50° or 52° north 
latitude bounded the ancient knowledge in the north- 
east, and the wide extent of the Russian empire cons 
tinued almost unknown to Europe until the sixteenth 
century. The greater and more splendid efforts, in«’ 
deed, for extending geographical knowledge, have been 
directed to distant regions; but great and laudable ex« 
ertions have also been made to improve the geo y 
of European nations. Some of them have ly 
been most minutely and shee described ; ‘and it 
is probable, from the t increasing intercourse 
amongst its different catia; as well as the labours of 
scientific and public craiiel eehinon ~_ fact of 
importance in the geography of Europe will speedily - 
be unfolded, (¢) : 


Tee 
i 
} 
ee 

ry 
af 
: 


28.2" 
Fey 
3 


240 
ISEBIUS, ’ was born in Pa-. 
mu a surnamed Pamphilus, 


Pamphilus, an eminent presb 
a wg he is to new ate much assistance 
in his studies, and from to whose memory he is 
said to have taken the sirname of Pamphilus. During 
the Dioclesian persecution, when Pamphilus was im- 
isoned. in the year 307, Eusebius assiduously attend, 
Wiis dafiog his confinement; and.after his friend had 
suffered rdom, A. D, 309, he. removed to, Tyre, 
where he witnessed other anking instances of unsha- 
ken suffering in the cause of Christianity. He next 
went into Egypt, where the same persecution was Car- 
ried on, and w he himself was. imprisoned, but was 
afterwards released without mune bx subjected to 
nalty ; a. circamstance which, without any ap; 
inten brought upon him the charge of having 
made some.dishonourable submission to the enemies of 
his faith. When the persecution ceased, he returned to 
Palestine, and was elected Bishop of Czesarea as is gene- 
rally supposed in the year 315; but, at all events, he 
filled that see in the year 320. From, this period, he 
was present at most of the synods held in that of 
the world; and was generally the advocate of mild and. 
forbearing measures. He was one of those bishops who 
conceived that Arius had been severely treated by Alex- 
ander, Bishop of Alexandria, to whom he wrote a letter 
in bis behalf. He acteda distinguished part at the ce- 
lebrated Council of Nice in 325, in which, by the com- 
mand. of Constantine, he was placed. on the right of the 
throne, and opened the proceedings by an ess to 
that Emperor. He hesitated long to admit the term 
émexeses, consubstantial, on the ground that it was un- 
scriptural ; but afterwards concurred, upon condition 
of being allowed to subscribe it in his own sense of it, 
namely, “‘ that the Son of God was not like created 
beings, but received his existence and his ections 
from the Father in a different and in an ineffable man- 
ner.” Hence it has been keenly contested, whether he 
favoured the sentiments of Arius or of Athanasius, 
The most likely opinion is, that he assented to neither, 
bat endeavoured to steer a middle.course, which has 
rendered him obnoxious to the more violent disciples 
ofboth. In the year 330, he concurred with the coun- 
cil at Antioch in deposing Eustathius, Bishop of that 
city; but, though he was elected to the vacant see, 
which was more honourable and profitable than that of 
Caesarea, and though he was earnestly urged by the 
hishops and 
sisted in his refusal. In 335, he was present at the 
Council of Tyre, where he joined those, bishops who 


condemned the prnecetiogs of Athanasius, Bishop of Tyandus 
en deputed to justify the. 
sentence to Constantine, he pronounced his celebrated, 


Alexandria ; and having 


the public 
e po: honeursdomch 
peror’s fayour, being 


gyric of that emperor duri 
ce 30th year of his reign. 
very particular marks of the em 


often invited to his table, and admitted to his private. 


conferences ; and, after his return to received 
fram him many letters, several of which he has insert- 
ed in oie life of that prince, It does not, however, ap- 


le to accept of the succession, he per-_ 


tate ever employed his eee 
stantine, either in depressing _ 
He died ep ear 339 or 3: _ 
his disciple and intimate fi 
his life, but whose work has: 


and, like most eminent i. t 
friends and inve enemies. According to 
pedbaig ys - : and sincere—a gr 
, of truth, an religion—little disposed 
active share in the quarrels of hie conten 
sways, suns fe : contending 
Saarene persuasion, 
things 


sidered as the father of ecclesiastical hi ‘o hi 


as well as a voluminous writer. 1 
course of his life he seems to have 
studious ; and it has excited the astoni 
who were Ives distinguished for 
how he should have been able, amidst 
ties of his function, to find leisure for the 


been rer 


OO 


compen in 
a Treatise conce 
in six books, of which 


han 
1604. A fe fragments of the orig inal, preserved in 
Greek authors, wete collected and published by Joseph, 


works, which 


Levi ies Pe 
bius treats with great ity; Three of E 
siastical Theology ; the Life of Constantine, in four 


2) 
Gq 

* 

ro 


41 Ex '¢€ 


is gen counted rather a panegyric and French ; and the French king at the treaty of Bre- Eutosthene 
and in one of which the author da, retained possession of it in spite of the remonstran- ,, 
far as to of that empe- ces of his Dutch allies, As soon as the treaty, however, basen 
Trinity ; a Commentary upon the Psalms; a was signed, he restored the island of his own accord to ’ 
entary upon the Prophecies of Isaiah ; the Evan- the Dutch. The French drove the Dutch. ftom. the 
al Preparation, in fifteen books; and, the Evange- island soon after the revolution in 1688 ; but they were 
‘Demonstration, originally in twenty books, but of expelled from it in their turn by the English under Sir 
ich the last ten are lost ; two works which contain Timothy Thornhill, who left a small garrison for its de- 
the most learned defence of Christianity, both against fence. The Dutch obtained entire possession of it at 
and Pagans, that has been transmitted from an- the treaty of Ryswick. Admiral Rodney got pos- 
cient ti argument proceeds upon the opinion, ‘session of the island in 1781. The French under the 
‘that the dent & 030] had receivéd many truths, Marquis de Bouillée retook it before the close of the year, 
‘either immediately or by tradition, from divine revela- and it was finally restored to.the Dutch at the of 
tion. Among the materials col in illustration of 1783. Population 5000 whites, and 15,000 Neston 
this point, are geht ean tai The position of the road according to astronomical ob- 
h -been long lost. Of | two works, a servations, is in West Long. 63° 4’ 45’, and in North 
‘beautiful edition was printed in Greek by Robert Ste- Lat. 17° atte 
ms in 1544, in two volumes folio; which were re- EUTOST ‘ Genera, in Music, according to 
2d at Paris in 1628, in two volumes folio, with a Dr Wallis’ opinions of the various scales which the 
version of the former by Francis Vigerus, and of Greeks pretended to have in use, consisted of the fol- 
the latter by Donatus. The Evangelical or Ecclesias- lowing modes of dividing the tetrachord, or minor 


‘the e bit to the death 
elder Licinius, a period o sabes. This a accounted Chromatic XX ees 


5 


the most valuable, but the least accurate, of all the lar- a ceee es * 

get works of Eusebins yet, with all its defects, it is a Diatonic oP Poh cli 
Important production, as furnishing the prin 256 * '9* 10~% 

on we concerning the first ages Bohenmic.... 225 coe eee 

of Chris and the of scripture then received 40* 39% ig =a 

dcr etee i Of this work, the editio princeps, 

translated into Latin by Ruffinus, was printed at Utrecht Two of them involving higher primes than 5, all of 

1474; but the best edition is that of Henry Valesius, which are excluded in modern music without tempera~ 

‘who carefully revised the Greek text, and gave a 


new ment, which tothe Greeks was unknown it is believ- 
‘translation, with many learned notes, printed at Paris ed. (. 

in 1671, at Frankfort in 1672, and at Cambridge in EUXINE Sea. ‘See Brack Sra. 

1720, in three volumes folio, by William Reading, who EX. See Drvonsutne, Vol. VII. p. 686, col. 2. 
has added to the notes of Valesius several observations EXCENTRICITY. See Astronomy Index. 


A 
Th 
ge 
: 
| 
i 


i 
i 


5 
i 
zs 
f 
ES 
i 
ret 
E 
i 


Cave's H. L. vol. i. in Euseb. Jortin’s Remarks on Ecc 
Hist. vol. ii. p. 91. Lardner’s Works, vol. iv. 
“New. Biog. Dict, Mosheim’s Eccles. Hist, vol. i. 
Brucker’s Hist. of Phil. by Enfield, vol. ii. p. 308. 


a 
a 
e 
; 


’  schisma-excessive ( 2), minor comma-excessive (€), di-- 
@ aschisma-excessive ( 
subminimis 


fixes to the names of different intervals; (¢) ; 
EXCHANGE, in commerce, has two significations, 
the one expressive of a place of public resort among 
merchants on particular days, or rather at particular 
hours of every day of business ; while an and a 
“more important méaning of the word denotes the pay- 
“ment or receipt of mioney in one country for its equi- 
Meme ther tal country, by means of 

ex r 
y - Te i Yat ting he west: 2H exchanges 
. of Amsterdam and London have long been famous 
ean eect as is the crowd collected 
‘daily the hours of two and four at the latter, 
the renga. of the Amsterdam exchange is said, in 
the days of the mercantile prosperity of the Dutch, to 
have considerably more numerous ; an assertion, 
however, which should be qualified by admitting that 
traders of an inferior description were accustomed to - 
‘Yepair thither. In bom extent of space, the new 
H 


242 


Exchange exchange of Liverpool takes the lead of both these cele- 
—\Y—" brated 


Exchange 
between dif- 
ferent coun- 
tries. 


Real ex- 


change. 


of mercantile resort, 2. the same manner 
What the diferent lic rooms of Liverpool are superi- 
ar to those of sy ete city in Britain, The hours of 
meeting on " have, like our hours of dining, ex- 
perienced a ble alteration in the course of the 
present age ; and,  noctrithaneadtins the endeavours made 
in London to enforce adherence to established rules, by 
shutting, at a given hour, all the gates except one, it 


has become more and more fashionable to protract the 
transactions of reer ond aie o'clock, so that it 
is now generally near five before e Exchange is com- 
pletely cleared. 


II. Exchange, taken in the sense of paying or re- 
ceiving money between two countries, forms one of the 
most complicated subjects of political economy. ‘The 
discrepancies ‘of public opinion, in this respect, have 
been strongly exemplified by the recent discussions on 
the bullion question. All ies were in re- 
ogy hades to the practical point of the fall of exchange, but 

and the manner of its taking place are, to this 
day, subjects of doubt to many persons, possessed, in 
other respects, of considerable information. The bul- 
lionists contend that the fall was owing to the excess 
and consequent de: so of our pa currency ; 


while the mercantile body maintain that it arose from 
‘the de of our foreign expenditure, and the un- 
fav: le balance of our le with the continent. 


Under the head ing ae we have ‘taken occasion to 
state, that the poin pe omrpeladty tard cetine whan ont 
but more one seo the commercial advocate. That 
our.paper currency undergone a partial deprecia- 
fiom! to ¢ the extent of two or Prox per cent. pig di 
be doubted, on comparing our tables of the prices of 
gold and silver, since- the year 1800; for at no time 
since that period, have bait notes been within three 
per cent. of the value of silver. On the other hand, 
the enormous fall of the continental exchange since 
1808, is to be attributed much more to secnacad and 
Pe causes, than to over issues of. currency. 
he stoppage of the American trade to ‘continent 
of Eu always appeared to us the fundamental 
root of the evil. It deprived us at once of a remittance 
of four or five millions a year, which came over in 
_weekly packets, in portions of L. 50,000 or L. 100,000, 
with as much regularity as the letters which passed by 
ngs gis: War beet bat bo Sra sh 

1s most egg i °8 y, until it was 
-dient to lay, b pe 4h in council dan betas 
the commerci intercourse between the United States 
and Europe. I pened unluckily, that soon after 
trying this un ented experiment, 
ment of the war in Spain called for. é sup- 
plies from this ‘country. The absence of American 
traders making it necessary for us to effect our remit- 
tances in specie, we were speedily stri et of our bul- 
Tion ; and our deficient crop in 1809, ob us to im- 
port ‘large quantities of corn, led, in the cad instance, 
to a deprivation of our current com, =" 

The bullion question might have been much simpli- 
fied, had its the piece ee it been 
familiar with rinciples of exchan These will 
be most easily comprahatiied: by dividing exchange 
into three heads, real, nominal, and computed. 

Real exchange. —By this head is meant a reference 


to actual value, without taking any account of the appa- 


rent difference arising from the variety in the m 
denominations of different connie,” Ths exchange 
from one city to another in the same ki 


Glasgow'to London; for example, is atehaent sen. sims 


the commence- hav 


EXCHANGE. 


ple. An allowance of interest for 30, 40, or 45 days, ono] 


is ted in consideration of th oo father dilntehee eat 
ney is the metropolis ; and no farther 
ists, as the currency of the two cities is 
striking cat aete this rf the ra ae Teaonge to 
same manner, 


Hctantim “neces- 


a 


of exchange, thn iene he pl 
the ammie fen place fr thon of ance 3 and 


merchants have no interest in in an ie 
an higparge in the value of Equality” 
eh d exports leads to penta equality 

bts and credits, and mote Gstog thas of hee tab 
value in one as in another, the course of exchange 


is consequently at BS st a8 not un ony 

howeyer, that clreumstan Scour valicien sen 
in their : jon, to unsettle this the 
things. A deficient eg in one 

im of corn the amount w: 
veniently be balanced b eosin and 
the alana a. Serene ef the coun 
has sold the corn, In that country, money become: 
eho Sp in the debtor country, 
biect of the latter is to 


thither, in order either to procure 
to discharge the debt sis ae 


the Gost apenas 2 Ate in 
, the chief expence of aby bar 
Insurance the Ff o€ which yt tine of war, ne- 
vg dark mda of capture. In some 

aeig' iene: nae F ndentiphosacinns ® a3 
eoerts aed tn ge of specie, create an 


burden on the traffic. Such ibitions are so inef- 


reautens 

The stock of coin ina astiouti' tial bilgi 
‘more than pe parne for an sear oe of 
‘business, it seldom ns that mu it 
abroad.’ Bullion is ° the more a 
source; and the want ef bullion leads : 
purchase of it 


theo ie ee ar tecnto te tole ae, 


Sy i aha ad obtained for the sale of his. 


a 


EXCHANGE. 


, 3 


what less violent, act of injustice, was the reduction of Exchange. 
its weight. In France, irregularities of the latter de« “Vv” 


—\— to a mercantile correspondent, like Messrs Barings, 

who paid it away, by order of the owner, to” ms. 

ac -was, that the manufacturers in York- 

the funds required for our continental expenditure, 

whether the latter were wanted in the Mediterranean, 
the Baltic, or the central part of Europe. 

Were gov to avoid expensive foreign arma 
ments, the course of exchange would experience com- 
paratively little fluctuation. In itself, it has a steady 

to ci ph drritet eet ie does 

money become of more value in one country ano- 
ee Se ee of the er a ae 
to in question, Intelligence o’ re- 
eer bites oF coomanditien is transmitted from coun- 
post, and no men are more ex~ 


pee ts, wheneyer a rise of price af- 
a tolerable chance of advantage. These ship- 
ments are continued until are. to a level, 
a circumstance which can : until the ex- 
change has been equalized. Any species of merchan- 
dise may thus be in contributing to 
1 to the desired level. Bullion has, more- 


their current coin, and all have been unsuccessful in the 
of melting is too short and too 
law ; so,that the chief result of 


: he evasion. process, how 
in thi i (roca telly 


Nominal exchange. _We are now to leave the i- 
Shenton sceal secs oC tend, and ya aicses voc 


nom 

and the true policy of countries was un- 
denied was ou reign odes 
base the quality of the coin. A more recent, and some- 


scription took place about a century ag0, and in Tur- 
key they have occurred even during the present gene-~ 
ration. The obvious effect of this diminution of va~ 
lue, must be a reduction of the nominal exchange. 
When the French government, under Louis XV, issued ’ 
an order that the ecu, till then of five francs, should 
contain silver of the value of four francs only, forei 
nations would of course consent to receive it only at the 
latter rate. In the same way, the value in exchange of 
the Turkish piastre fell, not many years ago, to the 
half of its former amount. It deserves to be mentioned 
that, in our own case, before the new coinage of 1774, 
our ex with the continent was, on account of the 
lightness of our coin, two or three per cent. below par ; 
but that so soon as we had guineas of the full weight, 
it regained its proper level. 

Another cause of fluctuation, to a certain, though no 
great extent, in the rate of exchange, is the occasional 
variation in the relative value of gold and silver. In 
this country, gold is the standard coin ; in France, in. 
Holland, and in most parts of the continent, silver is 
the standard. Now the price of the one compared to 
the other, though. not subject to sudden fluctuation, 
can by no means be accounted stati In around 
estimate it was common to set down gold to silver, in 
Sify the of 15 to ae daigey hy ag ected 

ify existing proportion: Of late years, the silver 
mines of America have been in a state of progressive 
and rapid increase ; her gold mines, on the other hand, 
have become less productive than formerly. The con- 
age has been a ual, though not Mes consider~ 
able diminution in thie relative value of silver. The 
practical effect on the ex: is a reduction of those 
m denominations, of which silver is the standard. 
This being the case in Dutch money, the par of ex- 
Pru aig acne Holland and England, is no longer 
11, but fully 114 guilders for the pound sterling. 
The same applies to other parts of the continent ; but- 
the difference being merely nominal, has no influence 
on ane airs rei cee, fry a 

introduction of paper currency duri e last’ 
and t age, into almost every Cahatey Europe, 
has ‘ uctive of great though not of permanent 
irregularities in the state of the exchange. This way 
of currency is by much too seductive tobe 
lodged in the hands of any government. On the Con- 
finent, the issues of paper have generally proceeded, 
not as in this country from banking incorporations, de- 
tached in a considerable degree from the influence of 
the government, but directly from the public offices of 
the state. The issues have accordingly been pushed as - 
far as fr peokerts of government required, or as the- 
ins? the public, in a season of enthusiasm, would 
bear. -No account was taken. of the 


roportion to be 
observed with reference to the de of trade; and 
; it was quite fo that the existing currency is al. 


ways equal, or 
i of the French assignats has been renamed, al~ 
in a style of less extravagance, in all the prin- 

cipal countries on the Continent. ie Portugal, 
Austria, Russia, and Sweden, have each their royal or. 
i ial bank-notes, which circulate at a great and ac- 
knowledged inferiority to the current coin. ‘In France, 
the exaltation of the popular mind enabled the exeeu-~ 
tive power to make, at a particular time, an enormous, 
abuse of the facility of creating money ; but the excess 
of the evil produced its cure, and there has been, since 


ly equal, to these demands, The 


( 


exchange. 


E> 
i 
. 
: 
i 
! 


o 
pret 


ia 
: 


tations were 


pr pwc under the head of Bu.uion, was sent abroad, 
the substitution of at home was the cause of 
preventing its return. is paper, however undoubt- 
ed in point of character, is not current on the Conti- 
Reiss c comttorsblg Sik, then exchaiiged tar tee 
a when exc | for the 
precious metals, Og attending to the fluctuations in 
this we find that our paper has regularly fallen 
in ion as demands for subsidies or other pur- 
poses increased the sum required on’ the Continent. 
Computed exchange—After describing the exchange, 
both in its real and nominal character, the subject may 
appear to be exhausted ; but there remains a third dis- 
crimination, known by the name of computed cranes. 
This might be better understood, if it were called 
sparen or current rate of exchange, for it means no- 
ing else than the rates as they are quoted in the mer- 
cantile letters of the day.. Merchants take no account 
of the causes which operate more or legs 


the statements amon Their business is with 
its actual condition ; a condition which may be affected 
by circumstances connected with either the real or the 
nominal exchange. A sudden demand of corn from 
the Baltic, may make the real exchange between Eng- 
land and Poland in favour of the latter ; while the de. 
pracreted paper. of Volare. sf leoet of F ia pone 
may produce a calculation apparently fav to - 
land, This calculation forms, as tf vaxkds, die eceipes 
ted or current ex , and is the only part of the 
matter noticed in the , or attended to in the spe« 
oul of aeeieees, 

n 


E 
i 
z 
E 
s 
~ 
5 
& 
z 
& 
r 


EXCHANGE. 


liam IIL. a similar in exi 
Holand bong 2% pe cat. blow par 


in the 


it 


fe Holland, kang 


at a very heavy 


ge of 17 


i 
i 


Mercantile Calculations of Exchange. = * 


at a tet pt pet tet pe 


Wen 


5, 
i 
Fs 


Lage d passat sorta es Soanees mburgh, called 
banco ar currency. co bears an agic or premium 


cent, t 
: Amsterdam. 


= 1 Stiver. , A 
12 Grotes or 6 Stivers = 1 Shilling Flemish. 


7 eo Flexing =1 Pound Flemish, 


‘There are two sorts of money in. Holland ; namely 


bank-money and currency ; bank-money bears 
i 2, 8, or 4 per cent. which is called 


. Paris. 
- Exchanges are computed in francs and centimes; or 


in livres, sous, and deniers tournois, 
- 100 Centimes 


' 
1 


Mercantile 
calculations 
of exchange, 


= wl cc eh eer ir ob OG heir, 


EXC 
Dimes, serena Bae 
10 Dimes, or 100 Cents = . 
1 ‘currency =1 _ Ditto. 


iple of ing’ the inequali a direct 
interchange Sag Si torment any fa quis or coun- 
adopting a comprehensive and circuitous 
following explanation from 


too slow and jive ; and the second and third plans 
were considers aa likely to. turn the exchange against 
Spain. method, by circular exchange, 


Hamburgh, as 
the hinges on which the operation was to 
and iged correspondents in each of those cities to 
support circulation, Madrid and Cadiz were the 
places in from which remittances were to be 
made, and , of course, were to be sent where 


945 
stood with litthe difficulty, from the following exam- Brsbeven, 
. x 


EXC 


le, é 

e Suppose £1000 sterling is to be remitted to Cadiz, 
and the direct exchange is 40d. sterling dollar, but 
the remitter wishes to send it Holland and 
France ; it is required to know which is the most ad- 
vantageous, the direct or indirect remittance, the quo- 
tation of the course of exchange being as follows ?. 

. London on Amsterdam, 35 schillings or shillings Fle- 
mish per pound sterling. Amsterdam on Paris, 60 pence 
Flemish for the ecu of 3 francs, Paris on Cadiz, 15 


' francs for 1 doubloon of 4 dollars of exchange. 


Flemish. 
12 Pence 


emish, 
3 Francs. 
1 Doubloon. 
4 Dollars. 


1000 xX 35xK12%3x4 50400 
60x15 => = 5600 dollars. 


The perplexity produced by the endless variety of 
money denominations in different countries, has long 
been a subject of general Like the equalization 
of weights and measures, it has at different times enga- 
ged the speculations of philosophers, and sometimes the 
attention of governments. The American plan of rec- 
Koning by tenths and hundredths of a dollar, is ac- 
counted a considerable step towards simplicity, and has 
been followed in some measure by the 


Hence 


rench govern 
ment, At the beginning of the French revolution, the 
views of the enlightened men who belonged to the As- 


semblée Constituante, were directed to the formation of 


measure, The consequence has been the i uction 
ofnew denominations in both ; but so slow are 
changes of this description, that old method is still 


of France. In the 


tee of the of Commons was appointed, to make a 
report on the subje Without venturing. to go into 
the field of general disquisition, this committee put on 
record a yery clear accurate exhibition of the pre~ 
pm irerg bog whee patie hae 

a stan avoirdupois, pound in the 
Mint weighed exactly 7000 grains troy, a weight strict- 


ly ing to that of the two other avoirdupois 
sandards preserve for successive ages at the Exche- 
uer and Guildhall. 


EXCHEQUER, (Scaccarium, from the French Echi- 
quier, or the German: Schatz-kammer, Treasury), is a 
very ancient court of record, wherein the ising's ré= 
venues are received, and all causes ing re« 
basen and rights of the crown are heard and deter- 
min 

“Camden says that this court took its name from the 
table at bes they sat, the cloth wee it 
being party-coloured, or ¢ 4 it. p. 113, 
Some persons have thought there was ee 
quer under the Anglo-Saxon kings ; but our best his- 
torians are of opinion, that we derived this institution 
from the ancient Norman exchequer, and that it was 
introduced from thence by William the Conqueror, It 


fuer. 


EXC 246 


Exchequer. is Certain that there was an exchequer in the time of i Chamber, (which then consists of all 
—y~ his son Henry I. which was regulated and reduced to of “and 


—-~—S- 


its order by Edward I. 
ex 2A vantage fos SOR oe 
the ccm oh the Exchequer ; and 
quer. former is occupied with the 0 sheen 
of the royal revenue ; the functions of the latter are 
judicial. 
: The principal officers of the er are the Lord 
Treasurer, the Chancellor, the Lord Chief Baron, and 
three other barons, with a ne baron, who admi- 
nisters the oaths of all high sheriffs, under sheriffs, 
bailiffs, &c. ; the fata sh for the King, who calls 
to account, in open court, all the great accountants of 
the crown, &c. ; the Remembrancer for the Lord Trea- 
— who makes out all estreats, and issues out writs 
cases, &c, ; two Chamberlains, 
woke Sop the kine of the ;, where the records 
lie; a Clerk the Pipe, ini ose. custody all ac- 
counts and debts due to the king are conveyed out of 
other offices, as water th ha pipe; the Controller 
7 the Pipe ; the Clerk of the Estveats, the 7 
Opposer 5 the Auditors; four Tellers ; the Clerk of 
, 80 called from his parchment rolls ; the clerk of 
the Nihils; the clerk of the Pleas, &e. 

The Court of Exchequer is frflerbor in rank to the 
courts of King’s Bench and Common Pleas, It is di- 
vided into a court of equity and a court of common law. 
The court of equity is held in the exchequer chamber, 
before the Lord Treasurer, the Chancellor of the Ex. 
chequer, the Chief Baron, and three puisne Barons, 
whose original and primary business related to the md 
cal rights of the crown. But now, all kinds of 
. suits may be prosecuted in the Court of Ex equer, 

pon the surmise that the plaintiff is debtor to the king, 
which i is held to be mere matter of form and words of 
course, the truth of which is never controverted. This 
fiction gives rise to the common law part of the juris- 
diction of the Court of Exchequer, which is exercised. 
by the Barons only. The writ, upon which all pro- 
ceedings here are Fev is called a minus, in’ 
which the plaintiff suggests that he is the king’s debtor 
or farmer, and that the defendant hath done bes the in- 
jury or damage complained of, quo minus sufficiens ex- 
wstit, by which he is the less able to pay the king his 
debt or rent. In the same manner, also, in the equity 
side of the court, any person may file a bill st an- 
other, upon a bare suggestion that he is the in $ ac- 
comptant. In this court, on the equity side, the clergy 
have long been in use to exhibit their bills for non-pay- 


ment of tithes ; but the Chancery has now obtained a. 


large share of this business, From the equity side of 
Exchequer, there lies an appeal directly to the House 
of Peers; but from the common law side, a writ of er- 
ror must be first brought into the Court of Exchequer 


Chamber. 

The Court of Chamber has no original 
risdiction, but is only a court of appeal. It was 
perm by statute 31 Edw. III. c. 12, to determine 

Jin: of error from the common law side 
of the urt of Exchequer. It consists of the Lord 
Tieautes the Lord Chancellor, and the Justices of the 
King’s Bench and Common Pleas. ‘A second Court of 
Ex Chamber, in imitation of the former, was 

statute 27 Eliz. c.8, consisting of the Jus- 
tices of Common Pleas, and the Barons of the Ex- 
chequer, before whom writs of error may sully bee 


in the Cot Court § g's Beach Ean serial ene 


: 
: 


the other courts, such causes as the 
ment, find to be of great weight nd diffic 
o a ent is given upon ‘ourt b 

yj ye ae techie of of this Court “of exchequer 
Chamber, a writ of error lies to the Hoube of Peers. “4 

The ancient Court of Exchequer i in Scotland, which 
was the king’s revenue court, was, by the treaty of 
wndiny (AR: 5D sired ty pat until a new revenue court 
should parliament, which was accord= 
cngly done by 6 fan. e. red The ju of this court 
are the Treasurer of Great » with a Chief 
Baron, an four other Barons, who must be mae ther 
of serjeants at law, or English barristers, or 
vocates of five years standing, All may plead before 
this court who can practice in the courts of Westmin- 
ater, or in the Court of Session ; and all edb dae 
of the College of Justice, are communicated to the 1 
rons, and to the other members of this court. — 

The jurisdiction of the Scottish Court of Ex 
extends to all matters fog Wa coves ore 
crown ; but under two limitations, which were intend- 
ed to preserve the private law of Scotland from inno-. 
vation. Ist, That'no debt due to the crown shall a= 
fect the debtor's real estate, in any other manner. than 
such estate might be affected by the law of Scotland 
and, 2dly, That the validity of t e onis ae 
honours, lands, or See ae he |, as 


by the Court of Session. See Madox, Be: pas 

chequer ; Blackstone’s Comment, 'b. iii. ee 
Law Dict. v. Excneqven ; and nears ‘Inst. of the 
Lan 9 Scotland, b. i, tit. 3. § 30. et seq. (2) 


CIS, (gutately nee ans to Som the Bel 


Ry acciise, to tribute ; its a 

erive it from assisa, assize, Sani 
pointed for that purpose a branch of the 
arising from duties paid upon the man 
- pie commodities made or sold within es ings 

om. Excise, in its proper acceptation, 
to duties imposed oh consumable commodi' Sentoedttee ai 4 
produced at home, in contradistinction both ‘te pared 
which are duties payable vpon commodities imported 
from abroad, and to assessed janis, which are duties i im- 
posed upon the use of certain commodities not i 
ately consumable. From experience, _ however, of the 
utility of some of the excise ilations, certain 

joth of a have 


es of revenue arising from 
ally been put under the ee 
iu wen eaten not ote at i 

blishment. 


defray the expence of providing either fr thc bert 
. Si or external defence of a state, Aan! bot 
either some fund oy to the at 
the ite or from a part of the private. i 1e 


the introduction pi pond erty. een 
Sohariod se one of the chaste ; th 
silver mines of Attica constituted a large part of the pu- 


blic funds of the Athenian: ¢; and inall the 
doms of modern E the crown lands were 
chief resource on which the sovereign relied for di 


EXCISE. 


In time, this resource was found to 


be wholly nsufficie from the waste and dila- 
ee ee 
‘To supply the ney, taxes were nglnaty ses ot 
Serre omen. that, the. poopie, mee) to 
contribute a of their private revenue, to answer the- 


and benefit of all. Taxes must vary in their nature, ac- 
cording to the situation of the community, and the mode 
‘pan nd wil icbaily Sere thn pip il svaronat chp 
upon will probably principal source 


public income ; in states, taxes uw) com- 
ies will be found most availing. In taxing commo- 
‘os, forei 


“manufacture, and inland trade of various descriptions : 
it is this last branch of revenue which constitutes the 


- It can 7 be doubted, thatin y community so 
uh, rans eenevery ity 
change 


ally took place in ancient time is evident, though the 


appear to have been subj to various rates ; and 
so far as Soe tr enewe verre laid on the sale or 


duties, was by officers stationed either at the 
ports, at the es of towns, or in cer- 
sy and the practice seems 


commercial states. Among 

“being inconsiderable, and the circulation of goods 
frequent and rapid, consumable commodities constitu- 
ted an obvious, and probably an easier source of reve- 
nue than other. These were therefore resorted to, 
when large sums for the public service were i 
In the Low a Be Holland, duties of this 
description criy wi brought to a system, and 
tig we have borrowed name from the 


England, though subsidies, aids, and benevolences, 
jod granted to the monarch, 


“commodities for their own use being obliged 


eles, which subsisted till the restoration. 
turn of King Charles in 1669, Cromwell’s ordinance of 
duties which had 
; .ed, ‘and assigned to the crown as a compensation for 
h° the feudal tenures, and other oppressive branches of the 


‘prerogative.. The commodities subjected to the tax at 
that time, were beer and ale, cider, perry, mead, vine- 
t 


civil list revenue. 


_'merScotch excise duties 


247 
tended by the Westminster parliament to butcher meat, 


‘wine, tobacco, sugar, and a number of other commodi- 


ties in general use. The mode of levying the duties 
i Arto 


im 
terwards found advisable to continue, not only makers 
and venders, but even private persons preparing the 
‘to account. 
In 1656, by an ordinance of Cromwell, new excise du- 


ties were imposed in room of the former, on beer and 


ale, cider, perry, wine, oil, tin, and various other arti- 
Upon the re- 
course fell to the ground ; but some part of the excise 

imposed were then re-establish« 


gar, spirits, coffee, chocolate, sherbet, and tea; the tax 
attaching only.to such as were made for sale, and cof- 
fee, chocolate, and tea, being rated by the gallon like 


‘strong waters. ~ 


These duties (with the exception of what had been 


rated upon the gallon of coffee, tea, and chocolate) were 


continued after the Revolution, and made part of the 
The duties on spirits were carried 


to the gate fund in 1736; and those on malt li- 
_quors in land, were applied to the same fund in 
1760. Large additions have from time to time been 


made to all of them. In 1694, a duty upon salt was 
established, which was properly an excise 


uty, though 
then put under different management. In 1697, malt 
was subjected to an excise duty, temporary at first, but 
revived in 1713, and, with large additions, continued to 
the present time. During the French wars in the reign 
of Anne, the exigencies of the state calling for new 
impositions, the articles of sweets, soap, leather, candles, 
hops, Peper, rinted goods, starch, gold and silver wire, 
were sido liable to excise. In 1724, the duties 
upon tea, coffee, and chocolate, were transferred to. the 
a 2 ag of the excise. The manufacture of glass 
had - ity anqich y excise duty jin the reign of 
King William, but a tax being deemed rejudicial 
to an infant manufacture, it was very “yt 


soon taken off ; 
however, in 1746, excise duties 


upon glass’ were again 


‘imposed, which, with considerable additions, still sub- 
sist, . The pcprege harp of revenue now under 
the excise, are the following: Sales by auction, subject- 


ed to excise duty in 1777; bricks and tiles in 1784; 
wine in 1786; tobacco in 1789 ; salt in 1798 ; and stone 
bottles in 1812. 
has pat of the excise ing Sant. 
to have nearly cotemporary with its establishment 
in England. Tacos duties were first imposed in Scot- 
land in 1644; these were farther ted and extend- 
ps in aap yi aay testy the _ various 
uties termed excise, more properly customs 

were aes by parliament in 1661, an Se — 
soap, salt, tobacco, cloth, hats, gloves, and other goods 
imported ; and along with these, = poe excise duty 
was imposed upon malt made within the kingdom. 


_ Brandy and mum imported, were subjected to excise in 


1673. Malt liquors and spirits made in Scotland in 1693, 
the duty upon malt itself being soon after taken.off, At 
the union in 1707, the excise duties then existing inEng- 
land were extended to the whole united kingdom, the for- 
being discontinued. .. Since that 
period, the excise duties have,-in general, been the same 
in both parts of the op wae some occasional des 


these acts, was more strict than it was af- - 


Excise. 


i 


248 


viations, for the most part in favour of Scotland. ‘The 


extension of the excise on malt to Scotland in Hey ; 


casioned much discontent and commotion 

for several years, At ,in 1725, the Se 
malt duty was fixed at one half of the English. Even 
with this abatement, the discontents were not allayed 
for some time, and it required no small degree of exer- 
tion and firmness to carry the tax into effect. 

The excise duties in other countries, so far to 
resemble those in Great Britain, that the articles which 
form the subject of this tax are generally ‘similar, al- 
lowing for unavoidable differences arising the mode 
of living, the necessities of the state, and not unfre- 
quentl thé ignorance of the rulers. In Holland, be- 
sides g Bere I the articles specified, as falling under 
the excise in Great Britain, similar duties are imposed 
on butcher meat, fuel, lead, hardware, &c. “In France, 
the iron manufacture before the revolution was a sub- 
ject of taxation ; and an oppressive duty under the name 
of gabelle, levied on the consumption of salt. In Spain, 
cloth manufactured was taxed, and every time it was sold 
a new duty was incurred. 


. . 


The general principles of the ‘excise a3 a mode of tax- — 


ation, have been already mentioned. It is a duty im- 
on the manuficture or sale of commodities with- 

in the kingdom. For this purpose, all persons eng 
in those branches of manufacture upon which the ex- 
cise attaches, are required to make an entry of the pre- 
mises in which the business is carried on ; to allow ac- 
cess there to the revénue officers, that an account may 
be taken of the quantities manufac! ; and a corre- 
ding charge of duty made, according to the rates 


established by law, In-several ofthe taxed articles, the - 


interference of the excise is earried no farther, the sub- 
sequent sale and transit of the commodities being free ; 
but in others, baer where the duties are high, it 
has been found requisite, for the security of the revenue, 
to subject also the dealers and sellers of the commodity 
to the visits of the excise officers, in the places where 
the goods are kept and sold, and at the same time to 
prevent their transit, unless accompanied by a certifi- 
cate, to signi 
on account of these regulations chiefly, that certain im- 
ported goods, particularly spirits, wine, tea, and tobac- 
co, have been pat under the management of the excise, 
It has been found jence, as Dr Smith justly re- 
marks, that the éxcise ‘régulations embarrass the opera- 
tions of the smuggler more effectually than any other : 
hence, for the security of the revenue, they have been 


that they may give rise to inconyenience and irritation, 
and fre certainly in their nature not. strictl 


eeable 
to the free pri aime 


iples of My British bs Upon 
ve always been unpopular; and an 
Robert Walpole, 


, and has since been 
the revenue would have 


revenue 
wired for the service of the public; and though 
are not free from inconvenience, yet in Great Bri- 


‘country for more than a cen past, has been | 
‘der the dircetidn of officers spate ‘by, d 


that the dutiés have been paid. Itis © 


‘whom ae mre supervi 
‘lectors in different places, 


adopted in many articles, although it carinot be denied, ‘specti 


from it. "The excise laws © 


excise in Scotland, which was then entirely separate fron, 
and independent of, the ise amounted. Lae 


EXCISE. 


jected to, that of compel! x 

Cel wpiih Galli OE i quantities of Bi ‘ 

to duty. The hazard of perjury, and the diminution, if 
to the sanction of an oath, 


‘dependent of these objections, the Ls pari of the ex« 


tax generally attaches in that particular stage of t . 
so aan Pacicuee ema 


ublic, frequently oppressive, and certainly of all others 
the most ex sale in the end. That system, though 


other cotintries, as Lag Ma Let best suited 0 ped 
iy) 


——s 


one for Scotland, cre ® of 
e 


not very 


ly, considering the great increase of sum collected. 

They ira Sipe robably to about 6000 in all, TI 
cers termed gaugers, over 

rs. Payment is made 

no one 


duties are ch by 


most productive branches of the public revenue. 
For the first ten or twelve years after the 
when it was in farm, the amount received by the pub- 
lic Was upon an average about £420,000 a year. Fi 
the eM ea between the ion ar ¥ 


249 EXC 
pealed, till the rites prescribed: for restoration to legal Excommu’ 
purity were duly performed. Besides this, there does Patton. 


; EXC. 
Queen Anne, new duties were ‘added, and the union 
ms being effected, a junction, as 


tof the two-ki 


Excommu- i as assimulation of their revenues, took place. 
‘he 


‘average of the excise during that reign, was 
England about £ 1,600,000; for Scotland nearly 
,000. Between 1715 and 1728, the reign of George 
I. the produce of the excise for Great Britain, including 


the annual malt, was nearly £2,340,000 a year ; for 
Scotland alone about £74,000. ing the reign of 
II. from 1728 to 1760, a gradual increase still 


took. place in the luce of the excise, the annual ave- 
rage pig 3,000,000 for Great Britain ; the pro- 
duce for Se somewhat above £97,000 per annum, 
In 1759, the-year preceding the accession of his pre- 
sent Majesty, the nett excise as paid into the exchequer 
was £ 3,887,349 ; the gross produce tor Scotland near- 
ly £99,000. After the peace of 1763, the addition of 
several new taxes, but still more the advancing state of 
commerce and i gave a new increase to the 
excise ; so that for the five years between 1771 and 
1776, the gross: annual average amount for Great Bri- 
tain was £5,340,000 ; and the gress annual average for 
Scotland nearly £140,000. During the last five years 
of the American war, there was still an increase, and 
Lt. dea ares in Scotland than in England, the 
average of five years being for Great Britain 
£5,642,327, and for Scotland alone nearly £247,000. 
At the:time of the of Amiens in 1901, the gross 
amount for En, was £ 12,507,807, and for Scotland 
£1,054,428.. Since that period the amount has nearly 
doubled the gross produce in 1807; being for Great 
Britain about £ 24,000,000 ; for Scotland a little above 
£ 2,000,000. In 1813, the total for Great Britain was 
about £24,700,000; for Scotland about £ 1,945,000. 
By the latest parli finance statements, the gross 
for the year ending 5th January 1814, was for 
ngland £25,171,274 : 0 : 114, and for Scotland 
£1,861,691 7422. The expence of levying, collect- 
ing, and this revenue, amounts to no 
more than £3, 19s. per cent. See Huic’s Abridgment 
of Excise Statutes.  ScotchActs, Blackstone’s Commen- 
tary. Smith's. Wealth of Nations. Sir John Sinclair's 
History of the Public Revenue. Hamilton's Enquiry into 
ee Taxation. Parliamentary Reports and 
“yy A a ’ j io 
EXCITATION. See Execrricity. 
EXCOMMUNICATION, in ecclesiastical polity, is 
the judicial exclusion of offenders from the religious 
rites and other privileges of the particular community 
eS ae Founded in the natural right 
which every society possesses to guard its laws and pri- 
vileges from violation and abuse, by the infliction of 


whether human or divine. _ That Ay Serta 


an 

engine gratification. of private malice and re- 
and been per the 

venge, ere Pdiabolical, the Retry most un- 

Sen oe 

tionably a consideration ought 


necessity of as well as i 
perance in- 


not appear to have been any excommunication of spe~ 
cial divine appointment, except that which, was im- 
mediately accompanied with the ultimate punishment 
of excision or death ; and from which, of consequence, 
there was and. could be no absolution. In the later 
ages of the Jewish church, indeed, this species of dis- 
cipline was systematised by the Rabbins, whose: opi- 
nions, however, are often so contradictory to each 
other, that itis next to impossible now to ascertain 
in what the different kinds of their authorised excom~- 
munications consisted. By many writers they have been 
divided into three classes, viz. Niddui, Cherem, and 
Shammatha, but Selden has satisfactorily shewn, that 
these three epithets are indiscriminately applied by the 
Rabbinic pe to every variety of this punishment, 

hin general the term Cierem denotes a severer 
species of it than the other two, — Distinguished into 
greater and less, both of them might be. pronounced 
on an individual either by a public j » by a court, 
by a private person, or even by himself. The least 
kind, commonly termed, Niddui, i. e. Separation, might 
be incurred in a. vast diversity of ways, of which no 
fewer than twenty-four are specified in the Talmuds 
and other Jewish writings; and.of which several. re- 
late to moral and religious delinquencies, though others 
of them are a the most frivolous 73 ak _ When 
pronounced by a court, it was precede ivate cen- 
sure and sdnettian ; after which,, if the cnlpeit gave 
no satisf evidence of tance, the house of 
Judgment, or the assembly of jndges, solemnly warned 
and threatened him, that if he did not reform, he must 
fall under the sentence of public excommunication. If 
he still continued obstinate, his name, and the nature 
of his offence, were proclaimed in the. sy to 
which he belonged, on four successive Sab in 
order to bring him to a just sense of his guilt; and if 
this also proved ineffectual, he was then solemnly ex- 
pie ef sg xie sentence, whether pmenneed 
publicly or privately, was.in force for thi ys, du- 
ring whscbiee. was interdicted from oe nearer 
any person, even his relations, than four cubits ; from 

doing,or receiving any office of kindness which re- 
quired greater proximity to other persons than that dis-_ 


tance; and from ing the usual ablutions, previous 
to sitting down to his Is, On his remaining impe- 
nitent at the close of this period, it might be 1 


to thirty and even to sixty days longer ; after which, if 
still incorrigible, he was subjected to the eX~ 
communication. This sentence was required to be 
pronounced by not fewer than ten or at least 
in their presence, and with their concurrence; and it 
excluded peat a a pew ng nee poe seer all 

e advantages of civil society. its horrible nature, 
some idea may be formed by the following extract from 
one which Buxterf found in an ancient Hebrew MS, : 
«« Ex sententia Domini Dominorum sit in Anathemate 


Sint ipsum plage magne et fideles, morbi magni et 
hortibiies Tienes 110.06 hahiioanlam<areenenl) 2 
liginosum fiat sidus ejus in nubibus ; sit in indignationem 
iram et iam ; cadaver ejus objiciatur feris 

‘ ipso hostes et adversarii ; 


et ibus s ination eters ; 
-argentum et aurum ipsius dliis; et omnes filii.ejus 


Excomme- ad ostinm trimicorum ipsius sint exposili : super 


250 
die ejus 
posteri.—Absorbeatur sicut Korah et cartus 

anima ejus ;/in- 
erepatio Domini occidal evm : rut Achitophel 
in consilio sno ; sicut lepra Gehazi sit lepra ipsius ; ne- 
que wlla sit resurrectio ruina: ojus ; in sepultura Israelis 
non sit sepultura ejus ; Alienis detur uror ipsius, et super 
cam prostranto se alii in morte ejus. In hoc anathemate 
sit Ploni filius Plont, et hac sit itas ipsius.” Lexic. 
Talmud, p. 829. The pronouncing of such sentences 
was —— accompanied with the lighting of ta- 
pers in the synagogue or court-room ; the ringing of 
bells and sounding of trumpets, &c. practices to which 
the church of Rome have since had recourse, in order 
to give greater solemnity and terrific effect to their ana- 
themas, Persons thus excommunicated were prohibi- 
ted from carrying on their ordin employments ; 
could not buy or sell any thing but what was absolute- 
ly necessary for the preservation of life ; and were not 
permitted to enter any place of instruction for the pur- 
pose of either teaching or being rag, No person 
‘was allowed to associate, or to eat or drink with them. 
They were incapacitated for acting either as judges or 
as witnesses ; for cireumcising their sons, and for as- 
sisting at the funeral obsequies, even of their nearest 
relations. The ordinary rites of burial were denied 
them; their friends were not suffered to mourn for 
them ; and a large stone was left on their graves, or the 
people, and sometimes the judges, heaped stones on the 
spot where they were interred, as over Achan and Ab- 
salom.—The ‘sentence of the lesser excommunication, 
when inflicted by a private person, might be removed 


by one public judge, or by three men chosen for the gra’ 
ec 


purpose ; but to the absolution of those who excommu- 
nicated themselves, the sentence of ten persons was ne- 
cessary. He who had been excommunicated in a dream, 
(as some imagined they might be) could be loosened 
from this sentence only by ten men learned in the law 
and the Talmud. Absolution from the excom- 
munication, might be obtained from a single judge, pro- 
vided he was a doctor of the law ; but, m other cases, 
only from the concurring authority of three judges. 
=k is somewhat doubtful whether, in any instance, ex- 
communication among the Jews, though jounced 
by ecclesiastical judges, involved in it exclusion from 
the to be as having 


Christian wra; but there can be no doubt whatever, 
that, subsequently to that period, it was so extended, 
and became in the strictest sense an ecclesiastical and 
spiritual malediction. 


were 


ood ww ket 
, and lamented as lost and dead ynto God, («ut 


perditos ue mortuos) ; but that on makin es- 
ceiyed back as restored to life. It was at the same 


; occasions, declared, by a papal by 


EXCOMMUNICATION. 


panied with any of those forms of 
delivering over to Satan, or of solemn execration, 
were usual among the Jews, and subsequently 
duced into them by the Romish church. The # 
and followers of heretical opinions which had 
parse by bene judg retain i 
were also su to ‘ 

times snflictet mes whole ow re 
were judged to have departed ith. 
latter case, however, the sentence seldom went 
than the interdiction of correspondence with 
churches, or of spiritual communication between their 
respective pastors. To the same exclusion from religious 


rivileges, those persons were doomed, who, 
S hethier frond seirpagns/ compulsion, had polluted 


13 


+ 
eel 


themselves, after their baptism, act of idolatrous 
worship: and the ce pe. tr such persons, 
before they could be d to communion, was often 
peculiarly severe. uences of excommuni- 


cation, even then, were of a temporal as well asa spi- 


ritual nature. The inst whom it was 
nounced, was denied all share in the oblations of his 
brethren; the ties both of reli and of private 


friendship were dissolved ; he found himself an. object 
of abhorrence to thosé whom he» most esteemed, and 


of mankind. 
It was not, however, till churchmen 
temporal wi “th: 


not less frequen’ y em loyed for 

less one si esis eed — 

just punishment of impenitent delinquents, 

heral edification of the faithful, But as soon as thi 

union werd wpa reaper i Se. 
in w the system rose to its i 

cance oval Gis civ Tighter wall'aa Wee i of 


men, the list of offences which rubjsted their perpetr- 
tors to excommunication, was multiplied; and the se- 
verity of its inflictions, with their penal effects, increa- 
sed in the same ratio. The slightest injury, or even 
insult, sustained by an ecclesiastic, was ‘a sufli- 
cient cause for the promulgation of an anathema. Whole 
families, and even i were ited from en- 
gaging in any religious exercise, and cursed with the 
most tremendous Wee es oe divine 

Nor were kings em secure against these 
thunders of the church ; their subj 


from allegiance to them; and all who should dare to 
em, menaced with a similar judgment. Nay, 
to such an extravagant length was this exercise of power 
carried, that instances are on record of bishops havi 
issued formal ereerantinisens ee mice, 
even a regular judicial process against 
them, in which they were Sllowed the benefit of an ad- 
vocate and proctor, to plead and defend their cause. 
The pronouncing of sentence was accompanied with 
the — meme enter mr se 
und, and trampled under { 
t time to solemn peals rung on lecthelianelioace 


EXCOMMUNICATION. | 251 


dientes, et egredientes. Sintque in domo maledicti, in 
agro profugi; veniantque eos omnes illee maledio- 
tiones quas Dominus per in populum divine 


Sepultura 
ap aie et in sterquilinium sint super faciem terre, 


runt, per emendationem et penitentiam satis- 
"—An person was proscribed 
as unworthy of the commonest enj of soci 


iu 
F 
a 
ES 


i 
hie 
i 
file 
a 
sie 


i 
Bi 


oF 


during the night, and have been found 40 days after Excommu-\, 


death, as ru ly in their complexion, and full of blood, 
as if they had been in perfect health. To prevent this, 
their relations are accustomed to cut their body in 
pieces, and boil them in wine. ; 


In England, excommunication is incurred. by con-. 


is tempt of the Bishop’s Court, neglect ef public worship, 


desertion of the sacraments, heresy, adultery, 
simony, &c. Butif any spiritual judge pronounce this 
highest pm meg censure for oan a of which he: 
not legal cognizance, inj party may) 
4 ad at common law, or he may be indicted, 
‘or it by the public prosecutor. According to law, ex-, 
communication disqualifies a person for serving upon, 
juries, for being a witness in, any court, and even for 


uries, 
secundo bringing any action, either real. or personal, for the re- 


covery of a debt, or the inheritance of property. Nay, 
if the cul it does not, within 40 days ee is bon: 
tence has duly prom |, submit and abide by 
the sentence of the spiritual court, on the bishop's cer- 
eying such contempt to the king in Chancery, a writ 

excommunicato capiendo, or, from the bishop's 
certificate, significavit, may be issued, requiring the 
sheriff of the county to apprehend and imprison him, 


without bail or mainprize, till his reconciliation to the _ 


church is effected and certified by the bishop. This 
power, however, is now seldom exercised, and in ge- 
neral with becoming equity and moderation. 
By the constitution of Church, of Scotland, the 
same crimes are ishable with excommunication as 
in England ; but it is now seldom inflicted, except for 
contumacy. When the lesser excommunication (which 
involves only suspension from the sacraments) has fail- 
ed’ of its desired effect, or, summarily, in the case of 
some icularly heinous offences, the prepara-, 
tory have beén gone through, the officiating cler- 
ces the sentence of higher or greater ex- 


nication. . 


gyman pronoun ’ 
communication, in the following or similar words, to the 


person himself if t, or concerning him if absent : 


ting penenes ERNEST 
Jesus Christ, and before this ion, I pronounce 
and declare thee N. excommuni , shut out from the 


communion of the faithful, debar thee from their pri- 
of thy flesh, that ay spirit may be saved in the day of 


excommunicated 
eof holding feu- 
dal rights ; but now, no ciyil penalt y or disqualification 


is attached to this severissima et ultimum ful- 
men . fut is1 j | 3 
Among,the ancient heathen ‘also, excommunication 


erly be 
mations as that which Virgil mentions as. having been 
addressed by the priest, at the celebration of the sacred 


| In ike manner, it was usual among the Greeks, on 
similar solemnities, for the officiating priest to say, seas 


Pies | to ia al fy a 


tH 


FEE 
} 
£ 
: 
: 
4 
i 


2425* 
itt 
ia 
: 
it 


‘| 
= 
¥ 
| 
: 
: 


4 
e 
if 
l 
| 


Ta F ie Ges. 

This greater excommunication was likewise accom- 
ied with execrations and anathemas, called by the 
Aga, and by the Romans Dire, which consign- 
ed the offenders to the furies, and other demons of hell. 
We learn from Cesar also, that the same spiritual wea- 
veh ae ed with terrible effect by the ancient 
ids: “ Si quis,” says he, « privatus aut publicus 
corum non stetit, sacrificiis interdicunt. Hzec 
apud eos est gravissima. Quibus ita est inter- 
ictum, ii numero impiorum et sceleratorum habentur. 
Ab iis omnes decedunt, aditum eorum sermonemque de- 
fugiunt, ne quid ex contagione incommodi accipiant. 
Neque iis petentibus jus redditur, neque honos ullus 

communicatur.” De Bello Gal. lib. vi. c. 13. 
But of all the species of excommunications which 
have ever existed, that of losing cast among the Hindus 
is the most summary, the most easily incurred, and at 
the same time the most irremediable, The most trif- 
ling incident occasions it; such as eating or drinking, 


or even ing with a of another cast or na- 
tion. To of with a European, or to. use 
the food for those of a different cast, is, in par- 
ticular, the certain way of incurring this ieoetandand 
punishment. It is attended with the dissolution of 
every relation and connection in life; with disown- 
ment by every friend, and even by husband, or wife 
and ch ; the latter of whom, when the parent has 


lost cast, none will marry ; and sometimes the whole 


~ family are involved in the same calamity and degrada- 


tion with the head. These miserable Pariars, or Chan- 
dalas, for so they are termed, literally become outcasts 
and aliens. To touch, or even to converse with them, 
is to be polluted ; and to shew them the least kindness, 
however di ing may be their circumstances, is in- 
evitably to share the same dreadful fate. Nor when 
once lost can it ever be recovered. Instances indeed 
are known, in which persona have ineurred it, me¢ 
bby some oneof their family fing Absolutely 
to live under the roof of a Mus , and who have 
im vain offered a lack of rupees, or £10,000 sterling, to 
“Date bject of this article, see Selden de Synedriis, 
su of this article, see , it 
Bale eae, ome S Sore Gentiny ; Bohmeri Diss. 
Eccl. Antiq. ; Rycaut’s Stateofthe Greek Church ; 
Blackstone's Commentaries ; Collections; and 


chat ; Purdivan’s 
eptist Periodical Accounts, vol. i, (d) , 
, Vare or. See Devonsmine. Vol. vii. 
p- col. 2, 


EXETER, the Isca of Ptolemy, a city of England 


by buildings, is about 1} of a mile long, and 


cepting the south-west gate. The remains of Rouge- 
mont castle, which derives its name. from the red 


dedicated to St Peter: It was begun in. the reign. of 
Athelstan, in 932, and though carried on under various 
bishops for 400 years, it was with the same 
uniformity as if it had been done by asingleindividual,. 
The north tower, which contains a bell »weighing 
17,472, or 12,500 lbs. according toanother statement, was, 
finished in 1484, "The cathedral was repaired and 

ved in 1763; and a most beautiful modern lined gles 
window was put up over the west door in 1766. The ca-. 
thedral consists of a nave, with two side aisles, two short 


transepts, formed out of two pon: Norman towers, 
in 1286, and a chapter-house, in the form of a p 


gra, balls ip Pee ary Bye eae » which 
was fini in 131 ud ‘chapels, or oratories, 
with a room denominated the i court. On en« 
tering nag eg eqamear er the west door, Page es 
striking magnificent appearance. It is - 

wide within atin and 175 feet long, from the or« 
ores Ta kapa gioeened eskineareetnienegakienal 

14 ing 16 poi 

Si chen ve which are two tiers of open 
arches. The choir is of the same width as the nave, 


i 
Hf 
Pee 


3 


| 
e 
§ 
= 


nee 
i 
Zz 


hz Z 
fi 


i 


i 

tf 
i 
Fy 
L 


— 


= 


2 


EXE 


and is a venerable fabric built oF enlarged by Bi- 
shop Courtenay. The session house was some’ age 
erected in the area inclosed by the walls om: the 

west side; it Callih Seetin echoes an eacaapetiate 


ee and 


without and well 
atheros are ex. 
le of accommodating 200 cavalry: 
uilt on the site of old ord house, on ground be 
Yonging to the Duke of Bedford ; an near it is situated 
PE The site of the b place of Hen- 
rietta, sister to Charles II. lies more to the south-east 
of the city: Thé buildings erected upon it are very 
re ie and are intended to form Henrietta Place. 
Her portrait, by Vandyck, is now in the Guild-Hall, and 
was Sew icaaainas we vee a The Guild-Hall; 
which is commodious, was in 1720. The lu« 
or contain- 


af insanity, and the 

allotted for their use, 

brick bis The Devon and 

for sick and indigent poor, was 

tel yp apt _— Dean of Exe- 

ter, c subscriptions. It was on 
Ja, Ist, 1760. ae © », in Exeter, ey 


ing, and two institutions for cvinmernin benahiceert 
ren.” ingen oreene various almshotses’ for the 

and oe cipal of which is called Wynard’s or 
oar Fiskoe: person has a neat habitation, with 
a smal} garden, and ey ae annual 


An elegant’ stone bridge, which cost between 18,000 
and £20,000, is built over the Exe. It was begun in 
1770. On both sides of it’ are houses, with’a church 
over the greater part-of it: ad 

' The trade of Exeter was formerly very extensive, 
from the navigable arm of the sea whi near 
its walls. ing, however, to a ridiculous’ di 
between the i , Courtenay, the 


ing or re 


only reached Topsham, a town about 33 miles nearer 
> Ao The navigation of the river was, however, 


tion. ~Quantities ct thse gods 
£500,000, are annually pet a 

Germany, and Italy ;’ and long-ells, 
£400,000, are annually purchased by the East paisa oa 


Company. A large cotton manufactory, established 


. 253 


passing. 
tide had: ‘hitherto flowed beyond the city; bat it now . 


~only a small 


Say Ree, Gens 


EX M 


the banks of the Exe, formerly gave employment to 
about 300 persons, but it has now entirely failed.» A 
very considerable and valuable wine trade 1s carried on 
in the town. 

The Corporation, which has conkidevsiile revenues, 


| consists of a mayor, 24 aldermen, a recorder, cham- 
berlain, town-clerk, sheriff; four stewards, and several 
. Officers. of inferior note. The co 


rporate bodies within 
. the'city are 13, and each of them is governed by offi- 
cers chosen annually. Markets are held here on Wed- 
— Friday, and Saturday; and the fairs are on 
Ash- , Whit-Monday, August Ist, and De 
cember fith, for horses, cattle; sheep, and almost every 
commodity. 

Exeter the advantage of several ‘very pleasant 
walks; the one‘on the north, encompassing the upper 
sides of the castle, and extending nearly from East Gate 
to North Gate, isa most itfulairy terrace, and is 
uniformly admired for its beauty. It was planted with 
elms in 1664. Above the quay, on:the south side, is 
the fine terrace: called the Friers. | It rises above the 
river to the dicular tof 100 feet, and com- 
mands a most extensive: and beautiful prospect. The 
air of Exeter is very salubrious, the average of burials 
ers 1 to 37 of the population. 

lowing is an Sree lg! goer aoe 
for the city of © Exeter, in 1811: 


Number of inhabited houses ‘- » 
Number of families that occupy them, 
Number of uninhabited houses, 4 “92 
Number of families chiefly employed in agriculture, 156 


_ 2,879 
4,465 


Do. employed in trade, enema &e, 2,898 
Males, 7 . 9 7,908 
Females, - . © £1l, 44 * 10,988 
Total population i in 1811, , . © + 18,896 

_ Increase since 1801, 1,508: 
West Long. 8° 80’ 34"; ie st 50° 44’. See Po. 


lepers History yah: Desens ire; Jenkin’s History 
and Antiquities of Exeter, 1806 ; the Beauties of Eng- 
land and Wales, at 46—88 ; “but bly Se 
post f pean, and Ly ’s Historical Ac- 
Cathedral, with several prints from 

rawitgs of Me J. Carter, published by the § of 
Antiquaries. An engra of the north tower of Ex- 
eter cathedral, and-of the south gate of the town, are 
given in the Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iv. (wv) 

EXFOLIATION. See Surcery. 

EXHALATION. See Evaroration and Merro- 
ROLOGY. 

EXMOUTH, isthe name of a celebrated watering 
place in Devonshire, situated on the north side of the 
mouth of the river Exe. About a century ago, it was 

, but it was 


hamlet inhabited 

‘brought into notice by éne of the of the circuit, 
who received’ benefit from it as a bathing place. 
Exmouth is situated near the sea, between the cliffs, 
bye as it were open to receive it. -It is sheltered 

the north-east and south-east by some’ high‘hills, 
wiich rise behind the town, and sippy it with wa 
cellent water. The town is coagan Lach Al 
commodation as a watering-place, © 
sembly-room, The houses are in general low and i in. 
pres hi though well built, but some of themare ; 


“and elegant, The walks are delightful, and ten 
‘and picturesque views. - The 

Hill embraces a.line of coast ersending Pin 20 

pi eae ig A a ra ead. ye this 
whi ually ascend from, the coast on 

_ side of the riven break this line wud behind’ these 


“Excter 


Exmouth. 


EXP 
Kaoteric, hills arise several boll towering headlands, of various 


+‘ paknon. and 
Sa Eemouth bess Foo yy 
the parish of Littleham. According to on 
returns for 1811, the of Littleham town 
so Eumenth Sap UhaMiiabbouses rotons. 
lies, 5! families em in 871 in trade 
and manufactures, 968 males, 1333 females, and a total 


is a term employed in 


Eflicott's 
experi- 
mane metallic bodies, by the eae ee ee 


Gold. Silver. Brass. - 
73 103 95 


Mr James Ferguson obtained the following measures : 


Bam > Trem, Sth Lai. Ti 
Be { niduoiial 


M. Berthoud obtained the results with 
rods three feet two inches and five lines , five lines 
wide, pad ee Ss pp ii 


Ferguson's, 


Berthoud's, 


254 


Pre 


EX? 


of a similar kind were made by Smea. 
Muschenbroek, Borda, Gerace) ae 


“The results for neat ies iron and Hint elas he has 


tine afer, eget eet aiff sider= 
Daten Mr T constructed a meter * 
anew principle ; as it was | s for 
trying pendulums in a finished state, a Jength 
than 40 inches could not be to trial. With 

this instrument he obtained the follon results : 

ion on oneinch 

ron wire . : - t 
«Herd drawn $-000880. dos’ 20 ee AE 
“Platina. .~ .0008305.+ do. do, ye 


Mr Trou hton considers all. the 
have hitherto ats eas 
of confidence, 


which ‘the 
n Thacieele otto 
in the 


ry og ky eer, 
‘to receive a ten feet rod. A series of 


such an instrument, and by a 
* 


2 of Mr Troughton’s known 
her, ri 8 > Wi 
a most acceptable to the i 
of. lid | seas ' 
ing valuable Tables far which, wid the Le ts 
to 


eh & cunge ie exhib we are indebted 
It exhibits the 


ees 


increase both 
bso an 1 a Free 


aaaena 7 
Solid Bodies. | dm Jength.|. In'bulk. | In length. |, 
Earthenware,.. 5+ + +) = = 4-08.) 
Ww. oat : * is ° ig ba ir 
Glass tube, .. . ++ » 00077615) .002330 


_- —_— —.,,, }00088333} .002502 00004 6s 
Glass rod, ss. 3 «= 40008078 426. eee 
Deal, ene fel sb) gee) Se Se ar a Hee 


"Fn aw puedo te eine 


hs Out bo obix 


i] 


Depa gsm om 


3073 iT 


7 


(eid 


<vcerb oni  eie s ei op  Pe 


f 


| 
| 
| 
| 


EXPANSION. 255 


ee tet Puce 26.) fr . ; ; “ec " " th . Expansion, 
Phu) oe per Pet seen ie . For 180° F._ For 1° F. m 
SYD) Solid Bodies. ©” | Tn tength ngth- “Tn buts fa length | In bulk. | >) Remarks. Na ost 
Platina a 856 | .002570 |.0 orda. 
’ Rad {0000086 ) € laste of ‘ 
00383 : Berthoud. 
.003258 |.00000602|.00001805/Smeaton 
.003332 |,00000617}.0000185 |Roy. 
.003337 |.00000618 1853| Lavoisier. 
. 003438 |. D J Y vat 
003379. 5 Trans, 1795, 428. 
008454 Smeaton, © 
008476 voisier. ak 
bat Gl zt '985/Troughton. ich, IX. p. 230. 
003679, 2)5meaton. - r 
-00367 Muschenbroek. 
ooatl |. 3 |Muschenbroek. 
003472 | 00001926|Bordz 3 
-008779 Smeaton, 
: rou r7 
.00400 Muschenbroek. 
- 00417 Muschenbroek. 
5 me Be 6k .004180 3} 2 320|Smeaton. 
gold,—..- - ~ | 00438 |.0000081-|,0000243 |Muschenbroek. 
Goulds ors Ves iicrrs veg OOS 0045. |.0000093 |.000025. jEllicott, by comparison. 
| Gold wire, CaS of" O".. 0, Sw 00167 00502 0000093 0000279 Muschenbroek, 
Copper hammered, . . .« |,001700 {| .005109 |.00000944),00002833/Smeaton. 
Copper, . . . + - - 00191 | 00573 |.0000106 |,0000318 {Muschenbrock 
eee or ime * : .001783 005359 1.000029 d 
eertamabang, Poses mb | o018564 | .009576 |.00001091|,00009092|Roy. 
Cast brass, . . . . - ~ |.001875 | .005635 |.00001042/.00003125|Smeaton. 
English plate brass rod, ._ . |.0018928 | .005689 |.00001052/,00003156|Roy. 
English plate brass trough, . |.0018949 | .005695 |.00001053),00003159|Roy. © 
ee eee me ers -00001066,00003200 oughton. Nich. IX. p. 230. 
Brass wire, . . . - » + |,001933 | .005811 |.00001074|.0000322 |Smeaton. : 
NOD) oi cite wie eo 4 @ LOURIO .00648  |,0000120 |,0000359 |Muschenbroek. 
8, tin. 1,. «.- ° - 001817 005461 '00001009,00003028|Smeaton 
Pe She AS x peonee 005681 Obie ne Ya api lerbe us ee 
- - - = .0021 0063 — |,00001167].000035 cot comparison. 
— = = = |o0212 _ | 100636 [0000118 0000354 |Muschenbrock. 
-_ - =- — $= _  .00001157|.000084 |Troughton. 
| Brass 16, tin], . . . + te pees .00001056).00008168|Smeaton. - ' 
Speculum metal, . . .  . |,00193: 11 |,00001074).00003222)Smeaton. ‘ 
Spelter solder, brass 2 zincl, |: 006187 |.000011 3430|Smeaton 
ine pewter, . . . . « |,002288 .00001238).000037 1 4|Smeaton. 
Grain tin, «. . . «_ . |.002483_ | .007469 00001 379}.00004137/Smeaton 
Tin, «.. . . . « . . |.00284 | .00852 |.0000158 |.0000474 |Muschenbroek 
Soft solder, lead 2, tin 1, . 1.002508 | .007545 |,00001 00004179|Smeaton. 
ae Sige foe ae ee .002692 .008095 00001 00004888)Smez ron 29 
ON Tn Pe | | 008625 |.00001592.00004776)Smeaton. 
nica slice looses | Lonose [0000191 [0000573 [Muschenboek. °° 
+B MNGi! whe 95S 002942 | .008850 |.00001634/.00004902|Smeaton. igen 
ah ee ce Pai 224 |o9g011 | .009061 |.00001673,.00005019'Sineator 
It has been found, in general, that equal increments From t!number-of experiments made with Prince jy 
of heat produce a expansion at a high tempera- Rupert’s hich are formed by dropping melted ments o 
tare, than they do at alow one. = a Dr Brewster TP AMTTEGT (6. the costrac- 


nett glass into col hed 
'_ The expansion of metallic bodies seems to have some obtain a measure of the expansion of. -when-in a tion of 
- connection with their fusibilities. Platina, the least ‘elvastes When the drops: arev of flint glass, 8!*** 


333" se H ake Saar Sana aratetors Ms, eee Hi 
nice ah i Hil : Bs res aphid 
i le uf | aH mci eC RLPr aha? ot baa ial ‘ar 
ay sate Ss . dp Wifeesrraeeesasate sie? 3 
Hae valiaaal (f fsegeaagaz223222 aT 
Ez soe ul He 3 Tr 23239 SR E 2a" 4 no S Rs 
b i i i | all 3. u ) Cite Hood dae > = 3 2 ee 
Bi + Pe ead a2] : ad 2 £8 Sb oS = 8 ofr 3 3. et 
a Q Sai Hele ta. as Fae | thes 
S hall He oH ‘ 2 egies E a8 e222 2. hii 
; nt ty | ° 2 N= aoe S & & 3 
iy a nh a : i I SEE CCER CES. a3 - = Fi 13 
ils 3 Mee ree Tle 
He iiae yy S292 92399 3a 2 2 2 3S re 
i fe k i i # wale q397923 3 233514 i 3 
q Hi lit fet ate. = g2999292322 2 ghee 
B ie ay - als i 2 2 eg eseo 228382 2° HI 
HE Hi Fi tall q a 
shh ii es hs bas 


“thik 


7 EXPANSION. — 257 
aasion. vision than in the lower, and he obtained the following Notwithstanding tlie accurate experiments of M. Le- Expansion. 
SoS results: ; ths wifes i fevre’ Giana} whis proved tie! tiaxiamium density of —— 


in kid HA} Ratio of expansion in the higher water to be 39°.2, the results obtained by Mr Dalton 
TPA tesa division to that in the lower. threw a considerable degree of uncertainty over the 
=f 1 cage » + 4 + 16° to 140 subject, and chemists were divided in their opinions, 
_ Olive oil, . woe woe Bs - 13.4 till the subject was investigated by Dr Hope in a Experi- 
: Linseed oi], . . . oe 1s) ‘ 184 new manner, which was not li to any error ments of Dr 
Chamomile oil, ... . «4 15 13.0 — arising from the contraction of the containing ves- 4r 


; 
es 
° 
© 
at 
) 
& 
5 
5 
s 
g 
: 
= 
3 
cS 
Z 
eS 
2 


Waters po. (tee ah Botan 4.7 the expansion might be rendered visible by the change 


Anomaly in © The results for water contained in the last cflumn  % Place, which would happen in a column of water when 
7 s gs from 


the Table, exhibit a very 


REE 
Eee 
| 
B 

i 

! 

i 


43 broad, with water at the temperature of 62°, and 


3 
: 
uf 
i 
z 
8 
; 
F 
x 
zZ 


ag. 
if 
i 
i 
58 
358% 
z 
E 
i 
i 
5 
i 
23 
oe 
Fed 


i 
it 
ae 
is 
al 
: 

| 

| 

| 

: 


© tes thes , in the most the surface was always one d lower than the one at 
been. shewn, in thatthe density of the water 


: 
ik 


is not 
ter be free of all agitation so as to prevent it from adjusted at the middle of its height a bason of tin- 
r be Kept and is cooled down’ to 21° or 220, Nediron, by filling »which, either with hot water, or 


the jon still alia . ing ratio.  frigorific mixture, he could apply heat or cold to the 
Mr f ¥ Rie: a sn aiteintan th 494° middle of the fluid pe Rey A thermometer 
of Fak I it; he f 1 that the nsi nm was scarce- at the and bottom of the jar as before, 


perceptible from 41° to 44°, and that from 41° to 32° the jar was filled wi water at 32°, and water of the 
the ion was about +2,th part of the whole expan- temperature of 68° ee into the bason of tin- 
sion from 424° to 212°, neces Deluc’s observa- "€4 iron. The lower thermometer rose from 32° to 


tion, that. the for any number of degrees nearly 37° before the upper thermometer indicated the 
éither shove or below 424° was the sane but he after. mullest increase of temperature, the warm current 
wards thought that it was below 42°. He also baving moved downwards in consequence of the con« 


verified the ok ion of Sir Charl that the ‘*taction or increase of density of the water. Dr H. 
: continaée % Blagdon, A reversed this experiment by ling the basom with 
coolithr 1¢'66 fara in a tube, that the water had ex- ‘rigorific mixture, while water in the jar had a 
and risen to the same height as if it had been *e™perature of 39}°. The upper thermometer descen- 
ed to 75. Hence, it must have been cooled down So while the lower 
to 10°. soon as it was frozen, it up to 128°, One su . a » the current of cooled 
\ These remarkable appearances wereregarded by seve: Water. ascending to the tp of the jr. By thas vary 
~ ex ina ilful 
zal philosophers as so anomalous, that they were probably a Dr Hope decided — engge y+ = 


: uestion of the maximum 
ments ; and even Mr Dalton himself was induced tobe- ‘ensity of water, and is entitled to the honour of ha- 


lieve, that the anomaly exhibited by water was only Ly. hig, the first who really established the existence 
apparent, and arose from. the contraction of the vessel gypenaly. 
sestigts Unie poe he aapeded tne. nears es msing Moxsicar.Acopo.ot-Pasis tn in cee of te SS 
ve ; at Paris in course o: fM, 
earthen ware and metallic vessels, and com the summer, he mentioned to him a series. of experiments Arzo.. r 
remults with those made in glass. In all these trials, ™atle on the reftactive power of water at different tem- 
the point of maximum density, instead of being the ee =a fill if its maximum densi- 
| e, varied with each substance, as will appear from ‘Y Was above 32°. He filled a prism with water at the 
'. . the following Table : tem wiry del a ha 9 ere ee angle of deviation 
; Water the refraction, w its tem ti fi 
Meet | come 32° to 212°. ‘The angle of deviation Was greater at 32°, 
height. it gradually diminished to 212°, exhibitin k 
Brown earthen ware, No. t. at $6° at $2° and 40° whatever of a variation of refractive power at 40°, or at 
Brown earthen ware, 0.2. °38 34 44 any point between 32° and 212°. Hence Monsieur 
Queen’s ware, - . 40 82 48 Arago concluded, that since the refractive power always 
= i) shin 41 $2 51 _ increases with the density, the density of water must 
ton, thin p p $2 53 at a maximum at 32°. This conclusion might have been 
Copper. ‘ 32. 59 admitted to have considerable weight, Dr Hope 
pe pow Ser - 46 _ 820 60. had established the ite conclusion by direct expe- 
pita : ris “ ms riment ; but, it of this circumstance, we have 


VOL. IX. PART 1. no hesitation in saying, ol M. Arago’s conclusion is 


te 


258 EXPANSION, 
Fxpansion. not legitimately deducible from his i Itis that it may be’ visible, if it does exist, by the 
A Samet in his soning, thet the rfatve power of action of the water in pyrene yee | 
bodies increases with their density, a doctrine which re- light, a property which is the water as 
quires to be established by direct experiment, before it soon as it is converted into ice. We have shewn from 
can be admitted as a valid argument in favour of any numerous experiments, that a piece of glass which has 
other position. Nay, it has actually os pd no ceives it by a a 
Albert Euler from numerous experiments, the re- tion of temperature, and aga inoe i 'yrling tem- © 
fractive power of glass is increased by heat. An au; re diminishes, and communication and de- — 
mentation of of 60° of Reaumur diminish- cracticel of te pee a eee 
ed the focal part, and an ion of Peg Agee ore ‘Hence it is reasonable to in« 
$3° produced a i eke M. Euler concludes, er, pepe ame, mppene e tyriabarn 8 poe! 
all fluids pectin gos? evap elhgewee fp Add iar erangement is necessary to a 
ids is ; is rm r 
viously erroneous, yet the experiments which he has and whi pent whic i necssy to dpolarie 
that the density oye ve leanre omiyehingpes cig id pai of ee plates 
ma. od ner, by m a snow een 
ferred from the refractive power, and leave the éub- of gest, and. the snow was com 
of the maximum density of water in the same state considerable of light was depolarised. As thi 
as it had been left by Dr Hope. effect, however, t have been produced by some in- 
ag Dee placa engurier eigenen Pps r manaliag steppe do 
view of explaining singular property as worthy of any confidence. We have, 
the writer water, nor does it readil how such experiments however, begun a experiments, for the 
of this arti~ could be made. We bere chon thought thea an. incie ining this point. ~ 4 


crystallization takes place at the point of maximum Powe shall now conclude this branch of the subject, 
yeu qpadnally Sevweusie Gh. Aee eanaiasion with a tabular view of the different experiments that 


i 


. 
* 
-*. 


completed, in what manner are we to render this have been made on the expansion of mercury, water, 
incipient apparent ? It. isnot visible to the acids, and alcohol, which have been collected and 
the eye ; nor can it be iy eee et arranged in a tabular form by Dr Thomas Young, 
any instrument. It has occurred to us, 
Table shewing the Expansion of Mercury, according to different Authors. 
ori For 1° of 
Expansion in Bulk. | Fahrenheit. 
MANGER, > «15, nals amen akghcead 015385 .0000855 | Cotte, in 
» ealk® chvshuscakall Ga sath 0165 -0000917 S iilotoeeg, ied epee ex- | 
Specific gravity, 13.6 at 45° 01655 | 000092 Adhard in gi 
0185 .000103 |} De Luc La Place. 
——— from 32°tolo#® . . .. 00010415 | De Lue, corrected by Gen. Roy. 
Se eS een 000108 | Roy. 
———— Specific gravity 13.61 at 68° .000104 wat Charles Cavendish, mean of 
uckburgh’s experiments, 
SETTLiie tube wid: ey muteatlé od Gn .00010985 | Rosenthal. ie 
PEP TIEIIER C9: d's ein situsl cones i pre bans 017583 ~ .000097 | Hillstrom. ‘ 
Table shewing the Expansion of Water. 
Speci vity. i of 8 v 
ipecific gravity. oman Sp. Gr. ae Expansion. ber 
10° |As69°Dalton ¥ 
30 | .99980 Gilpin, 20 18 .00020 -00018 | .00004) 
1794. 
$2) .99988 G. 12 ll -00012 -00011 |.0003 
(.000144 M. Inst.) 
4 $4) .99994 G. 6 5 -00006 -00005 
89 | 1.00000 G. 0. 0 -00000 -00000 
44 .99994 G. 6 8 .00006 -00005 
48 | .99982 G. 18 18 00018 00018" 
49 | .99978 G. 22 22 -00022 | 00022 |, 
54} .99951 G. 49 48 00049 > 00048 |. 
69} .99914 G. 86 84 .00086 _ | 00084 }. 
64 | .99867 G. 183 190 | .00183 00180 |.0001 
69 | .99812 G. 188 186 | .00188 00186 |.100r2 
74| .99749 G. » 251 . 250 | .00251 | 00251 |.00014, 
77 225 De Lue, .00299 Achard. rs 


259 
“Expansion. 4aaf ig a ity oy : pep gary ae ‘ 
=~ | _ Specific gravity Sistansion a Sp. 6 “a3 *g rae retaiea.| Fo* 1° 
ee: Ae "99680 G. $20 “$22 | .00321 .00326 |.00016 
Baht )| ‘99612 Kirwan. | 388 368 | .00389 ‘00372 |.00017 
~| 90] .99511 G.1790. | 489 509 | .00491 4 00513 |.00020 
' {100} .99313 G -| 687 711 | .00692 .00720 | .00024) 
102 | .99246 K. | 754 753 | .00760 .00763 | .00025| 
122 | .98757 K. 1243 1247 | .01258 .01264 |.00029) 
= 1128 De Lue. 00949 Achard. 
142 | .98199 K. {1801 1818 01833 .01859 |.00031 
162 | .97583 K. 417 2448 02481 02512 | .00034 
167 hes 520 De Luc. 
182 | .96900 K. 100 $109 | .0$198 .03219 |.0003 
96145 K. 855 3802 04005 .03961 |.00037 
12| .95848 K. 152 4140 | .04333 .04332 |.00038 
; De Luc, by comparison 
The formula from which Dr Young has calculated .f being the degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, either 
the expansion in the ing Table, is -way from 39°. The diminution of specific gravity is éx- 
-* ,0000022f*—.00000000435/3, pressed by ' 
or more shortly 22/7 (1—.002/) inten millionth parts, , 0000022 /* —-.00000000472 5. 
Table shewing the Expansions of Acids, &c. 
For 1° of Fahrenheit. 
.00031 Achard. 
.00026 At 60° Kirwan. Irish Transactions. 


EXPANSION. 


Sulphurie aci 
i acide sp. gr. 1.7, I 
caeid, sp. gr. 1,84, .00021 At 55° Kirwan. 
_ ,00029 At 60° Kirwan. 
-00037 At 65° Kirwan. 
Muriatic acid, sp. gr.1.185, .00035 At 50° Kirwan. 
Nitrous acid, sp. gr. 1.43, .00037 At 53° Kirwan. 
—_——— .00055 At 60° Kirwan. 


.00070 at ha! Kirwan. 
irit of e, .00052 Acliard. 
nia SO, 0072 Achard 
’ Olive oit 0007 about 100° Achard. 
Table shewing the Expansion of Alcohol. 
~Coinparative Specific Gravity. 
. |) P By Obser- E the |For each 
vation. | By Formula. Unit at 32°. Degree. 
; 0° Fahrenheit. 1.0826 0° F.|~.0162 _ 00047 
10 1.0275 |12 |—.0105 .00050 
20 1.0222 | 32 .0000 .00054 
: 30 1.0169 | 1.0168 | 52 .0110 j.00057 
$5 1.0142 | 1.0141 .0132 Achard. 
40 1.0114 | 1.0114 | 72 J 00061 
45° 1.0087 | I. 4 2 0355 ,00065 
50 1.0068 | 1.0057 [112 .0489 00069 
Spirit” highly rectified, | 55 I.00zg9 | 1.0029 182 0633 0007 % 
specific gr. at 60°, 825, 60 1.0000 1.0000 ‘ he .0784 |.00078 
; 65 9971 | 9971 [172 | .0946 00083 
70 9942 | _ Ost 175 0971 
S/R? 9913 9912 | 
80 Gilpin, Phil| = 
a | Trans, 1794.| 9.882 |  .9882 
the 120 - ; + .9630 7 
et 140 : 4 9496 : 
{160 9858 - 
: sof. fi de tat) 9214 y shal 


(260 EXPANSION. 


Table of the Expansion of Gaseous Bodies. 


Gases. For 180,; For 19 : 
air, 1, at 32° 7 6] .00209 Mean of six observations, Lacaille making it .04, 

Dy 46, Bonne 0877, Shickburgh O05, Bradley 
and De Luc .047, for the expansion. From 32° 
to 54,8°: the mean .0476. De Luc. . 

Do, a oe ane 377 Mayer’s refractions, Gilbert. : 

Do. hy naw Seo: .370 | .00206 | Lambert. y ie 

Do. -388 | .00216 | De Luc, reduced by Gilbert. © 

Do. 381 | .00212 Luz. Csi 

Do. 00214 About 95°, Luz. 

Do. 00210 | About 172° Luz. 

Do. ; (.484)} (.00243) ;_but moisture was admitted. . 

Do. aS ee -357 | .00198 oe : thinks it perfectly uniform, becoming 7. at 


00212 | About 172°. Dalton. 


Hydrogen gas. : , 
Oxygen gas. 
Azotic gas. 
Murietc acid fae All as air. Gay Lussac, and Dalton. 
Nitrous gas. ‘ 
Vapour of sulphuric ether. ab — 
It follows from these experiments, that all the gases 1805. Croune, Birch’s Hist. of Soc. vol. iv. 
“ths same expenidn: from tial ieend “Stead a p.263. De Luc Recherches sur les Modi ms de? Ata 
temperature, the expansion for each of Fahren- , tom. i. p. 225. Biot Memoires a tom. 
heit being .}, according to Dalton, xyes according 3. (not yet ) Gineau Mem. de U'In- 
to Gay Lussac, An account of the expansion of the va~ _stitut. Manchester Me vol. v. p. 59. 
of water, will be found in our article S: Dalton, Nicholson's Journal, vol. x. p- 95; xiii. 3 
For information on this subject, see Elli and xiv. p. 128. ‘ Transactions, vol. v. 
Phil. Trans. vol. xlvii. p. 185. F ’s Lectures, vol. pe Gough, Nich 's Journal, vol. xiii. p. 189. 
i. p- 20. Smeaton, Phil. Trans, vol. xlviii, pt. 2 p. 612. Mushet, Phil. M , vol. xviii. p. 1. Gay ? 
Roy, Phil. Trans. vol. Ixxv. p. 473. rea oe Annales de Chimié, tom. xliv. p. 87, or Nicholson's Jour= 
cholson's Journal, vol. ix. p.225. Wollaston, Phil. Trans. nal, Oct. vol. iv. p. 207. Brewster, Phil, Trans. 1814, 


EYL 


E ATION or Lire. See ANNUITIES. 

EXPONENTS. See Aucrsra. ’ 

EXPORTATION. See EnGLAnp. ° 

EXPRESSION. See Paintina. ; 

EXTENDED Turns, in Music, according to Mr 
Marsh, Theory of Harmonics, p. 20, are the same as the 
« wolf thirds,” or those on which the greatest imperfec- 
tion or result of the ; falls: usually on Gc, 
Bye, XF)B, and XCF, in the major thirds ; pEXF, 
»pBxXc, and FXG, in the minor (e) 


EXTRACTION or Roors. See Attealontté and 


ALGEBRA. 
EXTREME Intervats, in Music, are, ing to 
Dr * such diatonic di ces as are ii or 


imini a chromatic semitone,” (Gram. 1st edit. 
phen, rather ear army 112; is defined to 
in the 


chromatic 
(Essay, p. 24.) denote all those intervals extreme with 
to C, which arise in ing therefrom by 
either above XG, or below pE. several ez 
; flat intervals of the above authors when R 
are bil, or 2 (2), ¥8 (—S),. b+ (—) ; pIV, or 4 
5 ord 3} 3 DVL, or6(—32), b7 (—d,) 


aes 
picid Sr i ent sory. (—#—S) ; and 


the extreme double interval %K1 (f , and 
%K4, or RIV +i." Shae 
The letters J or eee —, deno- 
pert tie rot jecly, hades vl 
m, or m 9 
value of any of be ; or see the se- 


pec, coe to Mr Chambers, imini 
increased by 2S ; but Mr Overend na $43, which 
Seay Coen toca” hs Be le sharpening 
¢. 
EYE. See Anatomy, Mepicinz, Optics, Puysi- 


oLocy, and Surcery. 
_EYLAU, Preussisch, or Prussian, a small town in 


261 


EYL 


the Russians not exceeding 60,000 men. On the even- 
ing before the battle, there was a most sanguinary strug- 
gle for the town of Eylau, which finally remained in 

ion of the French. The armies the night 
in the immediate neighbourhood of other, and ea- 
ger for the app’ conflict. The cannonade be- 
gan at day break, and was conducted at first with great- 
er effect on the part of the French, in consequence of 


the Russian line standing more exposed. je space 
between the armies, though marshy in weather, 
‘was passable at this season of ice andsnow. Bo- 


naparte accordingly made two large columns move for- 
ward, the one against the centre, the other against the 
right of the Russians ; but after advancing 300 yards, 
the havoc of the Russian artillery was so great as to 
break their order, and they returned in confusion. A 
subsequent effort directed against the Russian left, was 
equally unavailing, the Russians advancing and driving 
back their opponents with the bayonet. 

These operations, however, were merely preparatory 
to ’s general attack. Calculating that Da- 
voust, he detached to take the Russians in 
the rear, oe arrive at his-station a noon, Bo- 
naparte di a general movement is army, in- 
cluding the guards, in six separate columns agai at the 
Russian line. A heavy fall of snow concealed his ar- 

= and ee — columns, 
so were not discov till come very 
near to the Russian line, upon caked Beningsen, 
aware-of the im ce of the moment, made his re- 
serve advance, join themselves to the main body, and 
rush forward, with united strength, to charge the ene- 
my. ‘The French were shaken, gave way, and all the 
efforts of their officers to rally them were ineffectu- 
pee, tr ing to turn the fortune of 

y by by ates were cut up in great 
numbers ; but the Russians hardly effected this re- 
pulse, when they were ordered to face about, a nume~- 
rous appearing on their left, and threatening their 
rear. This was the corps of Davoust, who had fortu< 
oe retarded by the wretched state of the roads. 
The Russian main body was drawn back from the field 
of battle to meet him ; and a Prussian under ge- 
neral having, after a most di t march, 
reached the scene of action, advanced to attack Davoust. 
Their number did not exceed 6000 ; but they were ad- 
mirably commanded by and the Russian left 


wing them the Erench wan tepeiert 
ight now came on, and a= 


with very heavy loss. 
parte recalled Davoust. the Russians been in a 
condition to make an attack -the next day, their success 
would avec manny but their ey ge was 
expend ir men: were. fainting want of 
food. By an irregularity unfortunately too common in 
ame that day a Psa «haem aa 
provisions ; 5 a) ensive for 
the eventual. safety of i g, took the determi- 
nation of retreating, contrary to the concurrent wish of 
So The Russians acknowledged a loss of 
nearly 20,000 men in killed and wounded, and main- 
that that of the French exceeded 30,000. Bo- 
naparte remained for some time at Eylau, but finding 
that the Russian cavalry were competent to the 
tion of the surrounding country, and that he could make 
no effectual progress against so resolute an enemy, he 
retired in the direction of Dantzic. (x) . 


Eylau. 


Fabius 
i 
Patlun 


FAH 


: eve aa" 
5 on - 
F 1 
‘ as | : 
4 : : - + 
het exer 
. . PAP ey J 


Fasws. See Rome. 
FACE. See Drawine. 
FACULZ. See Astrroxomy. 


’ FAENZA, the Faventia of the ancients, a city of 


Italy, aud capital of the department of the Amone, is 
pron ew fay su of Ravenna. Mr Eustace, 


the latest author of travels in Italy, describes this ancient 
town as spacious and well built. Its great square has a 
fine of porticos on either side, and a Corinthian 
church ing to the Dominicans. The cathedral, 
which is ic, stands in the great square, and is or- 
namented with a handsome steeple, five stories high, 
with ballustrades. There is a fountain near the church, 
having a beson surrounded with four lions of brass, and 
with a wrought iron rail. -Faenza was 
once ted for its pottery, from which it received its 
name. The pottery obtained also the name rabor yo i 
ca, from the inventor of - Mr Eustace in 
the vicinity of this city, a few traces of the pi ves, 
which sonar to jase hamadl one of its icingnaht 
features in ancient times. Distance from Ravenna, 20 


miles south-west. North Lat. 44° 18’, East Long. 
11° 51’. See K s Travels, vol. iii. p. 246; Euse 
tace’s Classical Tour through Italy, vol. i.. p. 142, 


243. (w) 

FAEMLUN. a tome of Sweden in the province of 

Dalecarlia, is situated about 300 feet above the level 

of the sea, between the two lakes of Run and W; 

ba all plain, ewrreursiedl-en all eides: by Uaelaue 

The town, which owes its existence to the celebrated 
mines in its neigh is very 

pec a. ghbourhood, hha Ai 

are 


The following very interesti 


fell in, . Jea 


i 


| 
fi 
: 
i 


3 
i 
be 
i 
i 
flr 
Safe 


F 


‘Thee ie Gnd Senate 


ore is extracted part] the mallet, 
blasted by gun-powder. yrgage fists oor, ae 


262 


a 7 il" p 


dom yielding more than 1} ‘cent. of the r. 


To the 5 awe a nee hopper 8 . 
tiful crystals oF acdioclion of considerable : 
which gives it when fresh broken, vey send 
appearance, actinolite is likewise in the 


H 

i 
Bf 

: 
ae 


Fé 
| 
a 

i 
f 
EE 


i 
F 
i 

t 
E 
ATs 


. 
fi] 


| 


iE 
i 
rath 


He 
i 
: 
g 
i 
fs 


i 
il 
ii 
HT 
i 
y 


ii 
ail 


sf 
| 
i 


E 


Hf 
a 


F Fae 2 
ate 


6 RAI 


ce 


i«) which it contains... The church, which is dedicated to 


the Virgin. , is.a fine specimen of the Gothic 
which recsiled chituk the end of the 15th century. It 
consists of a lofty nave, achancel, side-aisles, and a low 
tower rising from the centre of ‘the edifice, which has 
supposed to have been intended for the founda- 
tion of a spire. The whole of the building, which is 
120 feet ; and 55 broad, is embattled, and:sustained 
i buttresses, those of the tower being flat~ 
tened, and ually i 
as large as life, are rudely sculptured on their bases ; 
and round the architrave is a series of jue fix 
gures.. The exterior is adorned with many niches, 
which had once contained carved statues. The archi« 
tecture of the interior is + rere weer light fluted 
pillars, sustaining four arches on side, divide the 
aisles from the nave: The aisles are continued paral- 
with which there a communi< 
ual height. e chancel is 
yy adorned with finely 
carved tabernacle-work, and — vhs pe mane work, 
eee blue and white stone. 
magnificent edifice was founded by John Tame, 
lent merchant, who eas in 1492, taken a 
with painted glass, and bound from a Fle« 
to Italy, resolved to have a large building 
i i Having been for some time 
at Fairford, 


ee ee each having 
partments. principal subjects of 
i slab abiditex dvtenelie 
ho opposed and who favoured the 
i of Christianity. The designsin the 
window are the Resurrection and the Last Judg« 
the colours of which are so brilliant, and the dra« 
delicate, that Mr Dallaway regards them as 
i i of ancient art than will often 
or on the Continent. Vandyck 
ree ne es Palin at ihr dentin ig that 
could not be y the pencil, 
per Spr ony omders spa of monuments and se« 
A tomb of Italian marble is 
of Sir Edmund 


i 


< 


E 


B 
3 


PLE] 
ne 


i 


Fairford 


ll 
Fairhead. 
—_—— 


diminishing to the top. Statues, - 


the present church in 1493, 


There is here a free school endowed for 60 boys, and’ 


other charitable institutions, The Colne is crossed 
three bri 


Number of inhabited houses, 295 

De tugs ae yf 295 

employed in agriculture, 129 

Do. in and manufactures, 133 

Malye) 5) 22 fe Searls om G88 

PF yi Do 756 

Total population, . . . « 1444 
See 's Gloucestershire, and the Beauties of Enge 

land and Wales, vol. v. p. 629—636. ( 

FAIFOE, or Harro, the name of town of 
inchi — re Banal ence tn er commu- 
nicating with Turon Bay. The river was ‘na- 
vigable for large junks, but it will now admit only 


vessels of 100 tons burthen. The junks lie at the dis- 
tance of about $ miles from the town in another river 


Paifoe 


FAI 


communicating with that of Turon, and capable of re- 
ceiving ships of 200 tons. The best anchorage is on 
the west side of the island of Cham Calloa, in N. Lat. 
15° 54, opposite the river, and about three 
from the main. The town of Faifoe, which is 
10 miles from the ses, was once wery lange, snd pos: 


wars, but is now re- 
portance. The vessels which ar- 
rive at Faifoe are gna cap! Chinese, Japanese, and the 
country ya, aber I A hundred Chinese junks 
are said to have come annually tan top ome are 
cline. The principal articles whi ex in- 
to Faifoe were Se ches ware, tea, dined fruits, 
drugs, sticks of sandal wood, linen cloth, false Js, or- 
naments, of various kinds, dried blubber, dam- 
mer, ink, isin , sweatmeats, talc, lackered ware, and 
great quantities of tutenague, the last of which the king 


always engrosses to himself. The Japanese import 
chiefly 


copper, and several articles similar to those enu- 
merated. ‘The country ships import several E 
and Asiatic commodities, such as. braziery, c ® 
cloths, guns and gunpowder, saltpetre, silver, cl 
and watches, tobacco, opium, gold lace, brimstone, cam- 
blets, furs, glass ware, hardware, ironmo! 


tin, sandal wood, ee one pally 
The exports from Faifoe to China were’ princi 
beetle cat Deck wood, bullock’s bones, : calavances, 
cardamoms, cotton, dried sea snails, dried fish, drugs, 
pepper, Ja 
mer, birds cote blue, (a kind of smalts), cassia, cloves 
and nutmegs, deer’s sinews, mats of rattan, elephant’s 


teeth and es, fish glue, boge, coarse linen, rat-. 
¢ pi op 


tans, wood for aa of vances deer 
and elephants, stil tin, wax, 5 | sugar 
candy m t quantities, which reckoned the fins 
in the wor’ he exports to Japan were ebony, nam- 
morack, , fish skins in great quantities, hare- 
skins, cow hides, buffaloes horns, white and dark sugar, 
Cambodia nuts, bark, drugs, Sellaw, and silk stuffs. 


The exports to India are principally ly and 
sugar. Various articles are also to Batavia, 
Manilla, and Siam. The duty on all imports. is 12 per 
cent. ; and the master of every vessel must give in a 
statement of all his goods, and agree to pay a certain 
sum every time that the ship arrives. The 

pay annually 3000 quans, (600 of which is equivalent 
to2 rupees, or 1 Spanish dollar, ) and the Chinese only 


from 1500 to 2000, according to the size of their junks. 


It is necessary to present the king with a piece of scar- 
let cloth, some fine long cloth, a sword, telescope, &c. 
and the principal mandarin at Hue, which is the royal 
residence, must also be attended to. See Milburn’s 
Oriental Commerce, vol ii. p. 452. (w) 

FAIRHEAD, is situated in the county of Antrim, 
my 3 the fe ME ee angle < Ireland, and ag 
to the is in or » in . 6 2’ W, 
of Greenwich, and Lat. seat N- vane ; 

This bold headland is composed of the most consider+ 
able mass of greenstone in the British islands, The 
greatest thickness of the bed is 260 feet, and its eleva- 
tion above the sea 545 feet. The greenstone rests on 
strata of sandstone, which dip south-west, and in these, 
a little to the west, the mine of is si- 


t 
Fairhead, in consequence of its superior elevation, is 


» lead, 
looking glasses, mathematical instruments, piece goods, 


wood, powder, agala wood, beech de: 


west by south, and is overlaid by sandstone at the dis« 


fall with a tremendous crash elow. 
rr tcimarger pe ars ay, place ; and, from the 


the same substance, very ing ba~ 
salt.on the and the surfaces, and very 


fine grain is again observable... Fairhead dips, alittle: 


Ntieraing te, Dabourien,, a apesine alaaaieeied 
ing to Du ieu, a i ; 

which promises to be a profitable return tothe proprie- 
tors, has been found in the strata the green- 
stone on both sides of Fairhead ; and what is remarka« 


"ved one about a yard in diameter, the ring 


FAIRY-RINGS. 


FAIRY-Rivxes, or Circles, is a name which has been 


iven to spots or rings in grass fields, which are either 
; Toocdiied chexecansa the field, or covered with grass 
more 


of n grass, incl a circular portion 
with grass less luxuriant. Dr Priest 

os aee eg 
about a quarter of a broad, so in the 
Sacheubdngainmaetaies but there was no appear- 


r led the withered grass of a foot- 
path, but they traversed the -shoulder of the hill im 
such a direction, as to correspond neither to a sheep- 
track nor a foot-path. Upon a near inspection, a nar- 
ipe of the grass to be quite dead and 

The breadth ipe was about nine, 
, ides of it were per- 
fectly defined, without any gradation from green to wi- 
thered grass, all me rer abe on e-em no heme 
without the i s ing suffered in east. 
The! oe tao trad ares ‘shout 160% 200 yards, 
“. i rer pecan eat merle patad ost 
hill, css a ow, ascending obliquely the 
shoulder of the summit of Arthur’s Seat, on the oniali 
east side.” Similar tracks of various extent were found 
in all the different and situations, from the south 
side of the summit to the north side of the hill, half 


year 1776, by Dr Ferguson, Dr Black 
err why thea 


. pe erin the plain, but none at the bottom. Pa- 


had been made the year before, and 
was then black, from the grass having rotted, the 


These tracks are not always continuous, 
but frequently consist gear ‘spots. tracks 
: rf and ery 


among the rotten grass in 
e 


The — part, however, of 
the dark green was behind last year’s track, and 
‘was owing to a similar growth of grass in places where 
the grass ‘been formerly killed or withered, and 
ber: wants apes ne tla sah peso which 

a deeper shade of green e rest of the hill. 
‘Hutton sometimes noticed five or six successions of 
tracks, but those which had been made above three ér 


the rw By ‘idadha ea roadie 
rings ; a line drawn 
from the centre bisecting the segment, that is to say, 


those portions of concentric circles are never i 4 
porns edo Ser pe and for this reason it will 
appear those circles of which segments are exhi- 
bited to our observation, must be increasing and not 
iminishing in their diameter. ’ is 
April, the peas Dacina groltoa hisul deca 

» the gre ins ly to wither and z 
Ie is: petipell yada a Weslo tone, chat i: Surg wee 
" -WOL. IX, PART 1. 


‘rounding the dark ring 


265 


or two, and then wreowe white or withered. Thus, 
every plant being killed in the new track, those ve. 
table bodies exposed to heat and moisture gradually de- 
cay, so as next year to exhibit a dark or black, instead 
of a light or white track, which it had been the year 
before ; but, during the second year, the dead plants 
are still observed in the turf, which, as it begins to get 
new plants, loses gradually the appearance of the old 
ones, until at last little more can be observed than a 
broad shade of a much deeper green, which, on the 
one side, is compared with the natural verdure into 
which it sometimes seems gradually to terminate ; 
whereas, on the other side, the deep green colour of 
the ground formerly tracked, is contrasted with the 
yellow or light colour of the withered grass.” After a 
careful examination of the ap s, Dr Hutton 
could think of no other mode of explaining them, than 
by ing that they were produced either by light- 
ning, or by the tion of insects. 

Dr Price, Dr Darwin, and Mr Gough, without any 
plausible reason, ascribed these phenomena to lightning ; 
but Dr Withering, with much more reason, accounted 
for their formation by the growth of fungi. He always 
found the spawn of the fungus below the brown and bare 
portion, by digging to the depth of two inches, whereas 
it was never found below those parts where the grass 
was green and luxuriant. ' 

Dr Wollaston has examined the subject of fairy cir- 
eles with his usual ingenuity and success. He observed 
that the fungi or mushrooms, first noticed by Wither- 
ing, were found solely at the exterior margin of the 
dark ring of grass. The breadth of the ring, in-that 
instance, measured from them towards the centre, was 
about 12 or 14 inches, while the exterior ring, occupied 
by the mushrooms, was only about four or five inches 
broad. Dr Wollaston conjectured, from the position of 
the mushrooms, that the rings were formed after the 


Pairy- 
Rings. 


, 
ws 


dif i 
lALéE ANE 


Cause of 
fairy rings 
first ex- q 
plained by 
Withering. 


Dr Wollas- 
ton’s obser- 
vations. 


mariner described by Dr Hutton, by a progressive in- _ 


crease from a centre, and this opinion was strengthened 
by finding that a second species of fungus presented a 
similar t, with respect to the edlative posi- 
tion of the ring and fungi, the fungi being always upon 
the external margin of adark ring of grass. “I thought 
it not improbable,” says Dr Wollaston, “ that the soil 
which had once contributed to the support of fungi might 
be so exhausted of’ some peculiar pideline necessary for 
their production, as to be rendered incapable of produ~ 
cing a second crop of that singular class of vegetables. 
The second year’s crop would consequently appear in a 
small ring surrounding the original centre of vegetation, 
and, at every succeeding year, the defect of nutriment on 
one side, would necessarily cause the new roots to ex- 
tend themselves solely in the opposite direction, and 
would occasion the circles of fungi continually to pro- 
ceed by annual enlargement from the centre outwards. 
An appearance of luxuriance of the grass would follow 
as a natural consequence, as the soil of an interior cir- 
cle would always be ‘enriched by the decayed roots of 


fungi of the preceding year’s growth.” : 

In oppidiian to ae sana of Dr Withering, that 
he never could find any spawn of the fungi among the 
green grass, Dr Wollaston tedly observed undecay- 
ed spawn, even > he the av luxuriant Brass. 3 2 

ing the growth of the fungi, they so entirely absorb 

pelea from the soil beneath, that the Rerbagh is for 
a while destroyed, and a ring appears, bare of grass, sur 
. If a transverse section be 


made of the soil beneath the ring, at this time, the part 
iL 


Yims 


; 
Lteld 


~~ 


Bairy- 


Ring. side of it, but that whi 
pe Wolke. of dark 
ton’s ober ably dar 


vations. 


FAI 


paler than the soil on either 
is beneath the interior circle 

is found, on the contrary, to be consider- 

the general surrounding soil. But, in 
the course of a few weeks after the fungi have ceased 
to appear, the soil where they oot grows darker, and 
dy rehaapentign sacri pee wi iar vigour, so 
that I have ecen the surface covered with dark s, al- 
though the darkened soil has not exceeded an inch 
in thickness, while that beneath has continued white 
with spawn, for about two inches in — 

The section of the space occupied by the white spawn, 
has, in general, nearly the same form, and may be com- 
pared to that of a wave, proceeding from the centre out- 
wards, as its on the inner side ascends ob- 
liquely towards the surface, while its exterior termina- 
tion is nearly in a vertical position. The extent occu- 
pied by the spawn varies considerably, aceording to the 
season of the year, being greatest after the fungi have 
come to perfection, and is reduced to its smallest dimen- 
sions, and may, in some cases, not be discernible before 
the next year’s crop begins to make its appearance. 

For.the, purpose of ing the progress of various 
eircles, I marked them three or four years in succes- 
sion, by incisions of different forms, by which I could 
distinguish clearly the successive anmual increase, and 
I found it to vary in different circles, from eight inches 
to as much as two feet. The broadest rings that I have 
seen, were those of the common mushroom, (ag. cam- 

tris) ; the narrowest are the most frequent, are 

those of the champignon (ag. orcades of Dr Wither- 
ing). The mushroom acco ly makes circles of the 
largest diameter, but those of the champignon are most 
regular. There are, however, as many as three other 
fungi that exhibit the same mode of extension, and 
produce the same effect upon the herbage. These are 
the ag. terreus, ag. procerus, and the lycoperdon bovista, 
the last of which fs far more common than the two 
last-mentioned agarics. j 

There is one circumstance that may frequently be 
observed respecting these circles, which can -satisfac- 
torily be accounted for, according to the preced- 

ing hypothesis of the cause of their increase, and 
may be considered as a ion of its truth. 
Whenever two adjacent circles are found to interfere, 
they not only do not cross each other, but both circles 


beneath the fungi 


are invariably obliterated between the points of con-_ 


tact; at least, in more than twenty cases, I have seen 
no one instance to the contrary. The exhaustion occa- 
sioned by each, obstructs the progress of the other, and 
both are starved, 

I think it also not unworthy of observation, that 
different species of fungi appear to require the same 
nutriment; for in a case of interference between one 
circle of puff balls and another of mushrooms, oe 
not intersect; but I cannot say positively that I 
seen more than one instance. 

I once found that a tree had interrupted the regular 
progress of a circle ; but this appeared to be only a 
temporary learner, as_the extension had ga 
ed at the u rate; and by passing obliquely front 
each side into the soil beyond the tree, had given the 
ring the form of a kidney, so that another year or two 
would probably reunite the two extremities into one, 
curve surrounding-the tree. Being desirous of ascer- 
taining in what length of time a soil might again re- 
cover the power of produsing.a fresh crop of fungi, I 
cut a ve, in one or two instances, along the diame- 
ter of a mushroom ring, and inserted a quantity of 


266 


FAK 


but the experiment failed altogether, as [ shortly after 


try. ht wena 
to the action of grubs, 
the roots of the ; and he supposes, that th 
ive a preference to ‘rings, on account of the abi 
ce A dead - le matter — be found in — 
Mr Florian Jolly su iry rings, and 
fungi which they pbb 4 are ropa: Ane 
horses, diluted by the rains, and imbi 
Jessop, Phil. Trans. No. exvii. p. 391 ; 
burgh Transactions, vol. ii. p. 1—11 5 Wi 
rangement of British Plants, vol, iv. 
Gough, Nicholson’s Journal, vol. ix. 3; Wilson, Id. 
vol. xiii. p. 1; Florian Jolly, Id. xiii. p. 98, 415 ; 
Monthly Magazine, vol. xv. p. 219; Gilbert's Journal, 
vol. xvii. p. 351; and Wollaston, Phil. Trans. 180%, p. 
133, or Nicholson’s Journal, vol, xix. p. 367. (w) —  . 
FAITH. See Turoroey. : 
FAITH, Conresstons or. See Conrrssions. 
FAKIR, or Faguir, from the Arabie Fakar, signi 
fying a poor person, is a kind of dervise, or religions 


, Very common in countries, 
sometimes travel alone, or in of 200 or 800, 
having a superior , who is disti 


wound somne een fogs ee tee of all colours. 
strew their hair, which hangs half way down the 
with ashes, with which they sometimes besmear their 
whole bodies. They are not allowed to marry. “They 


gees take up their abode,” says Stavorinus, “ in 

2 Se ag? er in the open air, or in old and 
oh i 

vows that they will perform penance by remaining du- 

ring their rare tives in some unnatural NOR ig 

torturing their bodies by various m ; 

or 


and honour. I met. wi 
i others, were some who, by 


z 
if 
i 


It would be a waste of time to give an account of 
the various tortures by which these Fakirs seek for re- 
ion. Tavernier informs us, that some of them 


vernier’s. Travels, and Stavorinus’ Voyage to the East 
183, 142; and vol. iil. p. 147. (7) 
FALCONER, Wisin, an ingenious poet, of ob- 
» Witrram, an in $ 
of whom little more is see Po 


part 
element, in very subordinate stations. In such unfa- 
vourable circ , it is difficult to conceive how 
fr =: oy Aca da Aen gaggorsf 
acquiring taste, ‘or culti- 
vating those poetical talents, which he afterwards so 
a py Hr aN On this. subject, the 
memoirs of his busy and obscure life, afford us li 
ee ren ntnn, sonnei 0 sondtete, des Sel. 
eoner possessed one of those ardent and vigorous minds 
which seem destined to surmount every obstacle op- 
ean te Sasion into ccabsenee: by theis 
own natural elasticity. The late ingenious editor of 
the works of Burns, however, informs us, that Fal- 
goner, W ing on board a man of war, attracted 
the ; Campbell, the author of Lexiphanes, who 
4 im as his servant, and having discovered his 
emer ne ing his instruction. 


Rel 
G if 


| 


which di considerable powers 

eel widen In 1762, “aoa 
a Poem, in three Cantos, by a 

hich has insured to Falconer an eminent 


i 


267 


FAL 


scribed to Edward Duke of York, brother te his pres Falconer 


<n and was very favourably received by the 
pe 

- Through the influence of his royal patron, whom 
he further complimented b: 

cond rture from England as Rear Admiral,” Fal« 
coner obtained the lucrative situation of purser of the 
Royal George, one of the finest ships in the British 
navy. It was probably from motives of gratitude, that 
he was now induced to enter the field of political con- 
troversy ; and having enlisted under the banners of 
the party of * King’s Friends,” he published a satiri-. 
cal piece, entitled, “ The 

inveighed against Mr Pitt, (afterwards Earl of Chat- 
ham), sith ie piliatents 


In 1764, he gave a second edition of the Shipwreck, 
with Gonpelerabl le addi i 


additions, having extended it to the: 


length of about one thousand lines more than the for- 
mer. In 1769, he published “ The. Marine Diction« 
ary,” in one volume 4to; a work of considerable uti-« 
lity; and, about the same time, he gave a third edi- 
tion of the Shipwreck, with some alterations. 

Towards the close of the year 1769, he embarked, 
with several East India su , on board the Au< 
rora with the view of endeavouring to improve 
. This vessel, however, was never 
heard of after her departure from the Cape of Good 
Hope, in the month of December; and there is no 
doubt that she must have foundered: at sea, and gone 
down with all her crew. 

The title of Falconer to the name of a poet, is suffi< 
ciently established by his Shipwreck. The subject was 
new, and eminently le of poetical effect ; and the 

derived additi interest from the reality of the 
incidents which it described. The ional know- 
and ical powers of the author, enabled him 
to do ample justice to his theme; and em mer 
— and melodious versification of the Shipwreck, 
ve secured for it a place among the standard and po-« 
pular juctions of the British muse. (z) 
FALCONRY. See Hunrine.. 
FALKIRK, is the principal town of the eastern dis« 


«© An Ode on his se-- 


ue,” in which he- 


Falkirk, 


trict of Stirlingshire, and is beautifully situated on an Situation. 


eminence above the Carse and the Frith of Forth. The 
whole scenery of the river Forth is delightful, and that 
part of it which is seen from Falkirk is rich as well as 
diversified, and never fails to captivate and astonish 
—— Taking Falkirk for a centre, you are 
sented towards the north with a prospect in the form 
of an amphitheatre, which extends every way to the 
distance of ten or twelve miles. f 
Toward the west, it is bounded by the termination 
of the Campsie hills, and the 1 camo above Den- 
ny ; on the north by the Ochil hills; and on the east 
by the Saline hills, part of the coast of Fife, and the ri- 
sing above Bo'ness. This view comprehends 
Stirling castle on the north-west ; and there is an open- 
ing i which runs far back in- 


clly 
Carses of Falkirk, and other alluvial lands upon the 
banks of the Forth, which are so justly celebrated for 
This. ] is diversified 
ishing iron works at Car- 


canal. These, together with the ancient seats of neigh- 
bouring gentlemen, the villas and villages occasioned . 


Falkirk-- 
—\y— 


Population. 


Police. 


268 FALKIRK. 


by the vast Sopa weet pepe te 
tion with the shi vessels passing to ive 
the whole scene 3 air of grandeur and activity, sation 
tobe met with, bat in the neighbourhdod of large com- 
mercial towns. 

When Falkirk is viewed from compan seen at a 

t distance, and is conspicuous for an old tower con- 
Gcted with the eliurch, anil ait degant spire 140 feet 
high, lately erected in the middle of the town. This view 
of Falkirk is grand, on account of the bold risings of 
the ground behind it; and seen from the north-west, 
it is peculiarly striking by the Callander wood, or part 
of the ancient forest of Caledonia, which forms the back 

nd. 
orThe situation of this town is no less healthy than 
beautiful, and it is well supplied with water, which is 
conveyed to it by pipes. Standing on an eminence, 
it has a free circulation of air; and having a declivi- 
bo, every side, it is easily kept dry and comfort- 

. The houses are, in general, well built, and though 
it has risen to consideration without a plan, yet it is 
more regular than might have been ed. It con- 
sists of several streets and lanes ; and the principal one, 
though narrow toward both ends, where the ports were 
formerly situated, yet upon the whole it is commodi- 
ous at 4 regular. ‘The inhabitants of the town may be 
reckoried about 4000 persons. The lation of the 
parish is about 10,000, and includes thriving 
of Grangemouth, which is the opening from the Frith 
and eastern seas into the great canal. 

That port has latel favoured with the esta- 
blishment of a custom-house ; and the revenue received 
at that office for the last quarter has been stated at 
£30,000, and the preceding one not much less, But 
these sums far exceed any former receipts, and are chief- 
ly to be ascribed to the prodigious number of vessels 
pouring into that harbour, after so long a stagnation 
of le, by the inconveniences of a protracted war 
fare. But tho such returns of revenue are not 
to be ex in continuance, yet Grangemouth 
is a thriving village, and is likely to rise in impor- 
tance, 

Justice of the peace courts are regularly held in Fal 

kirk, and also occasionally other meetings respecting 
the turnpike roads, or the particular business of that 
quarter of the shire. It is the market town of a popu- 
lation not less than 25,000 persons ; and yet there is not 
a magistrate in the town, nor a place of confinement 
where a culprit may be shut up for a single hour. In 
these circumstances disorders occasi ly ensue, as 
must frequently be the case in populous districts ; 
but instances of violence and —— are exceedingly 
rare, and the general deportment of the people shows 
their quiet an nae disposition. 
-__ Falkirk was formerly a burgh of regality; and the 
different trades had acquired certain privileges and 
immunities ; and the office of the stint-masters is a re- 
sidue of the powers which the burgesses formerly ac- 
quired. When the feudal jurisdictions were taken 
away, after the rebellion of the year 1745, Falkirk was 
converted into a burgh of barony ; but a baron bailie 
is seldom appointed, and the town is thus deprived “of 
the pre ~ which he might afford. 

: Falkirk was a burgh of regality, it was fur- 
nished with a jail and ccext hbueb by the noble family 
of Callander ; but after the honours and possessions of 
that family were forfeited, they were suffered to fall 
into ruins, and the site and materials being sold, the 

4 


whole is now converted to another purpose. The ge- 
neral advantage of a place of confinement in a populous 
situation like this has long been felt, and there are now | ~~ 


egret serene Sr, established in Falkirk. It 
also been to have a sheriff-substitute ap< 


J 
peace for the county of Stirling, which would afford 


ample means of order and protection. 
Falkirk being 24miles from Edinburgh; and not much 
less distant from G , has advantages in point 


of trade, which towns are nearer those large cities 
do not enjoy. Though there is no species of manufac- 
ture carried on but for the use of the country, unless it 
be some trifling branches of the cotton trade, together 
with leather and shoes, it is but occasionally that the 
people of this district purchase from Glasgow or Edin- 

, and thereforethe shops of F alkirk are well provided 
with the conveniences as well as the necessaries of life. 
It has long been noted for one of the best butcher meat 
markets in the country. But as there areno magistrates, 
and few means of public improvement, there are no 
peo pe ak on market-house; for exposing it to 

e. . 


The same want of accommodation is severely felt by 
the farmers, who bring their grain to market on the 
Thursdays. Falkirk has its proportion of fairs, 
and there are three trystes, or cattle markets, 
which are held in its neig on the second 
Tuesday of A the second Tuesday of A 
and the second Tuesday of Octoberannually. These are 
more numerously attended, and more business is done 
in buying and selling cattle and sheep, than at any other 
similar markets in the kingdom. A few horses also are 


none of the epi persuasion. There is one 
= dnat sok toe abdaeratie aimee 
he church is large, and was built a few years ago af 
ter the Gothic form, according to a plan Mr Gilles. 
pics but it has no pillars nor arches in the inside. Fal- i 
irk was of great consideration in ancient times; and cal state, 
the parishes of Denny and Muiravonside were i 
connected with it. In the year 1724, a portion of the 
parish of Falkirk was erected into a parish, and deno- 
minated Polmont. A considerable part of it was at the 
ee a ee tae Reg. 
TE appears thatthe charch of Falkirk had been found 
ed by Malcolm Canmore, one of the kings of Scotland, 


A. D. 1057. The and ri ed cern 
belonged to the archbi and <tr Andrews, 


till that religious body conveyed them to the monastery 
of Holyreothouse in the year 1166. That celebrated 
convent was founded by King David in the year 1128, 
and if not the first, was one of’ the earliest in Scotland. 
Consistent with the credulity of the times, the reason ' 
assigned for its erection was.a vision, which was said 4 
to be seen by the king in a moment of danger while he . 
was hunting, and on the spot where the vision appear~ 
ed the monastery was built, r 
It was called the Abbey of the Holyrood, because History. } 
; 


upon that festival day the me mele paar 
seen, and renee stag, which se to attack and 


LA 4 FALKIRK. t 
perhaps it was so denominated by being situated upon Falkirk. 


left of across. In. memory of this 
occurrence, a black cross was deposited in the monas- 
tery, and being supposed to thane, 8 DoWereih influence 
in times of , King David Bruce wore and 
lost it at the Porhapo, wanes. se, Lise ati 


‘ The monks of , 
a A order of St Andostinsatudoaaenieiietanine 
castle of, Edinburgh, till the monastery was. ready for 
their reception, to the exclusion of the nuns, who had 
i ided in tuat part of the castle. Several 


ning u the of Holyroodhouse, and the 
oldest. part of it was erected in the vicinity of the 
church, of Callander having 


for the su which ; rie 
Ss pone eatery 


* «David Rex Seat templum et monatriun Tonge magaifcentisimn fundav onicis ‘ 
burghi, Ubi die festo ventatus, it can regularibus, A.D. 1128, in subw 
Nam wee Dion edict Ei es mn engin oh a om leben 


269 


an eminence, when few or no houses were near 
it. The nameof Falkirk seems to have been of a later 
date, and was probably derived from the Latin word 
vallum,-a_ wall or and the Scotch word sirk, 
meaning the church upon the wall, for in truth the 
Roman, wall, or Graham’s , dyke,. ran, along the south 
side of the town, and. even, through the ground on 
which a part of it is built. One of its more early 
names seems to. have been Eiglisbrec, which is a Gaelic 
denomination, signifying the spotted church; and, in 
conformity to this, in ancient writings and charters, it 
is called Varium , or more commonly, Varia Ca- 
lla. In the.charter of the Archbishop and chapter of 
Andrews, to the convent of Holyroodhouse, A.D. 
1166, it is denominated. Eiglisbrec, and Varia Capella, 
It is oly in subsequent times and documents that we 
net alkirl being the boundary bet: he Caledon 
i ing on the ween the fin 
an and Roman ions, was the scene of many sangui- 
nary conflicts; and at Camelon, in the immediate neigh 
bourhood,there wasa Roman station of some note. About 
the beginning of the 5th century, while the Caledonians, 
under the conduct of Robert , a.friend or con- 
nection of King Fergus II. were repelling some incur- 
sions of the-Roman forces, the gallant Graham lost his 
life ; and from the eminence of his character; the Roman 
wall. of Severus, or.as most will now have it, of Anto- 
ninus, was from. that time known by the name of 
Graham’s dyke. 3 
When the south. aisle of the. old church of Falkirk 


number, py conned “? Found wit ey seen ; ea je oe 
2 > none to enter, ) were with wing inscri in us 
Tale Spenser seciain, poeiclerations, te ) Hibs tin — i 
whole of the of that into the hands 
of the king; and it was granted in farm and. abso-~ , 
lute erty, to Sir Lewis Ballenden, son of Sir J FVNERATVS 
Filled the barony of Broughton. On the death of HIC . DEYN 
fis Lewis in fhe. year 1691, the property eaemeed ROB . GRAHAM 
upon James, son, W. conveyed a 1 
barony of Abbots-kerse, A. D. 1606, to Ris “ = atin Geomeent 
the seventh Lord Livingston, and the first Earl of Lin- Lam FRY ESUS 
lithgow. ba baroay af Abbots kare comprehended AC. LIS 
the greater part of the old parish of Falkirk, before FERGVSIVS . IL 
Polmont and other parts were separated from it.. It R. sco 
included also other lands and ions in the coun- con re 
ty of Stirling ; but pe, So of Abbots-kerse 
was to the 9,08 Callanslan, yet considers: This inscription, like many others, must have been 
made long after the event, but it shews, that Graham 


Hi 
Fr 


Falkirk, and half a mile distant from the 
town. the troops were Sir John de 
Graham, Sir John Stuart, Cumyn, and Wallace the ce« 
lebrated champion of Scotland. That there might be 
some jealousy among those illustrious , is not 
inconsistent with the infirmities of human nature ; but 
it is not ascertained, on good authority, that the for« 
tune of the day was injured by any fault of theirs, (Dal. 
rymp. Annal.) notwi ing the different opinion 

his Edin- 

loco ce#no- 


Yakhed which some historians 


Islands 


Discovery, 


History. 


‘in conformity to his. instructions, took 


F 
ians have expressed ; but 
memorable day, De Graham and Stuart were 
battle, and both of them were buried in ‘ 

of Falkirk. Till of late the grave of Sir John 

was only distinguished by a stone, shaped like a 

coffin, and without a name; but now his name and 

fate are inscribed u the stone. Sir John de 

Graham's was origi marked by a sculptured figure 

in homan —_ At three rade pray times, stones sm 

rted by pillars, were over his grave, one above 

as es the care of relations, namesakes, or friends, 

and the last was erected by William Graham, of Airth, 
Esq. A. D. 1773. 7 

In the beginning of the year 1746, a battle, or rather 
skirmish, was fought between the king’s forces and the 
Highland troops, in the interest of the Stuart family. 
The king's forces were routed, and fled toward Linlith- 
gow ; Highlanders took possession of the town of 
Falkirk, and conducted themselves with a considerable 
degree of order and moderation, though they knew that 
the people in general were hostile to their views. A 
monument was erected in the church-yard of Falkirk, 
over the bodies of Sir Robert Monro, bart. of Foulis, 
and his brother the Doctor, who were both killed in the 
field of battle. 

The Callander estates, after the forfeiture of that no- 
ble family, were sold to the York Buildings Company ; 
and when their affairs had run into disorder, they were 
exposed to sale by the authority of the Court of Ses- 
sion, and purchased by: William Forbes, Esq. a native 
of Aberdeen, who is the present proprietor. (3. w.) 

FALKLAND Istanps, a group of islands in the At- 
tantic Ocean, situated at the utmost extremity of South 
America, and about 80 leagues from the Straits of Ma- 
gellan. Two of them are of considerable extent, being 
more than-70 | es in circumference ; and lie be- 
tween 51° 10’ and 524° South Latitude, and between 
58° and 62° West Longitude. These islands were first 
seen by Captain Davis, who sailed under Sir Thomas 
Cavendish in 1592 ; next by, Sir Richard Hawkins in 
159+, who called them Havwkin’s Maidenland, in ho- 
nour of Queen Elizabeth; in the year 1598, by Sebald 
de Wert, who named them Sebald’s isles, and they are 
so designed in all the Dutch charts ; in 1683, by Dam- 
pier, and probably about the same time by Cowley ; 
in 1689, by Strong, who gave them their present ap- 
pellation in honour of Viscount Falkland ; in 1699, by 
a Frenchman named Soede pe a 1721, 
by Roggewin, a Mecklenburgher in the Dutch service, 
ms circumnavigated the whole group, and called: it 
Belgia Australis. The Dutch mistaking the numerous 
capes for portions of different islands, gave to the whole 
the designation of New Islands ; the French genérally 
call them Malouines, from the people of St Maloes, 
whom they wish to consider as the first discoverers. 
The navigators of the last mentioned nation were, with- 
out question, the first settlers on these islands, when 
their government, after the loss of Canada, in 1763, 
selected them as a new American settlement, particu- 
larly as a place of shelter and refreshment for vessels 
bound to the South Seas. A colony of Acadian fami- 
hies, above twenty-seven $s in all, was carried 
thither in 1764, by Commotore B inville; and in the 
following ear, by the addition of new colonists, the 
number of inhabitants amounted to about 150. In the 
beginning also of the year 1765, Commodore Byron, 
i i ion of 
these islands in the name of his Britannic Majesty ; and 


270 


FAL 


very little value, i ly from the total want of 
wood ; and first the French ceded their settlement to 
the Spaniards in 1767, and the English abandoned 
theirs in 1774. They are now | by 
niards as a receptacle for criminals from er 
can dominions. ¢ 
The two largest of these islands are sepai 
channel about twelve leagues in length, to three 
in breadth ; and wace*tetstahed with the ont secure 
and capacious harbours. Port Egmont, on the north- 
west coast of the largest island, is described by Byron, 
as one of the finest havens in the world, and as capable 
of containing the whole British navy in perfect secu- 
rity. The general of the coast is rocky and de- 
solate ; and no kind of wood has been found on any 
part of the islands. They to the first naviga- 
tors, while sailing along the shores, to be completely 


covered with trees ; but these, upon a nearer a ‘ 
wore diacdves6ih tobe neibdhagr bat tidal af walt anaes 
height of 


and reeds, which in clusters to the 

three feet, and then shoot out other stalks about six or 
seven feet in length. The higher lands are covered 
with heath, and is great abundance of excellent 
turf for fuel, capable even of supplying sufficient heat 
toa forge. There is no appearance whatever of thos 

islands having ever been inhabited ious to their 
discovery by Europeans; and the navigators, who first 


Janded upon their shores, found the animals so unac- 


quainted with man, that the birds suffered themselves 
to be taken with the hand, and even settled upon the 
heads of the people when they stood still. The sur. Soi 
face is marshy, and the soil is composed first of a thick 
turf, then a black mould, from eight to twelve inches 
deep, and next a yellowish clay, resting upon strata of 
slate and stone. In most places on the coast is stone 
fit for building ; and, in the interior, there is earth ca- 
pable of being manufactured into bricks and potter's 
ware. The rocks are chiefly of quartz, with some 
yrites, and marks of . Red and grey slate, and 
ifferent kinds of ochre, are common ; but no mines or 
metals have been discovered. The climate is re 
and salubrious, free from the extremes of heat or cold ; 
but there are frequent rains and stormy winds in all 
seasons of the year, The ing streams are never 
frozen; and the ice on the lakes and pools is seldom 
sufficiently strong to bear the weight of a man, above 
twenty-four hours in succession, Snow remains upon 
the tops of the highest mountains about two months in 
winter; but seldom above a day or two in the lower 
grounds, The hoar frosts in spring and autumn occa- 
sion no injury to the plants, but, being thawed by the 
sun, are converted into a refreshing dew. TT. is 
seldom heard in summer ; but, even during that sea- 
son of the year, the winds are almost uniformly vio- 
lent ; and, from the want of fuel and shelter, all the 
settlers have suffered 
peculiarity has been observed in the tides, which do 
not rise at settled periods subject to calculation; but 
just before high water, the sea, in less than a quarter of 
an hour, rises and falls three times, as if shaken up and 
down, and this motion is always more violent during 


the solstices, equinoxes, and full moons. The surface Vegetable 


of the ground is covered with turf, shrubs, 
and a variety of ts. The turf, which is found 
chiefly above the clay soil, is.formed-of the roots and 


Wan \néttled,, ‘the! yet after, in! Port Fatale 
; Kea rene | Port Falldand 
gg ve 


by & Aspect 


greatly from cold, A remarkable Tides. 


ey 
i 


z 


: 


i 

i 
a 

é 

uF 


: 


z 
f 
Be 
3 
i 
: 
a 
i 


Fee 

44 
ul 
= s 
| 
ike 
ae 
id 
af 


i 
3 
E 
g 


RS eee 

i 
a 
é 
eg 

an 


Hi 
- 


E 
c 
cf 
ah 
ie 
Ht 
é 


Fish. 


Q71 


great adyantage 


_ FAL 


and a fresh water trout of a green colour, without scales, Failing 
There is no want of muscles, cray-fish, crabs, shrimps, Bodies 
and other small shell-fish; but they were found very 
inferior to those of in taste. See Byron’s Voy- 
age round the World in 1764, &c. 3 Bougainville’s. Voy- 
in 1766; Pernetty’s History of a Voyage to the 
nes. (q) 

FALLING Bonne, See Dynamics. 

_ FALLING Srones.. See Mereortres. 

FALLOPIAN Tuses. See Anatomy, 

FALLOW.. See Acricunrure. 

_ FALMOUTH, a sea-port town of England in Com 
wall, of modern. erection, its charter being granted. 
bys Ranies. 1, in 09. Its Flap anid inensese pk eet 
owing to the progress of commerce, and par-~ 
i og to the establishment of et boats for aan 
rica, West Indies, Spain, Portugal, Brazil, &c. 
Its harbour is accounted the finest in England, next 
to Pl uth and Milford Haven, and being land~ 
, it affords complete protection in tempestuous 
weather. The town, situated at the bottom of an 
eminence which commands the harbour, consists of 
one street, nearly a mile in length, extending along 
the side of the beach. The pilchard trade is an object 
of considerable importance to this as well as to other 
of Cornwall. Pendennis castle, a building of 
much older date than the town of Falmouth, stands on 
a rock, joined to the main-land by a narrow neck, 
and defends the west entrance into the harbour, The 
rock is three hundred feet above the sea, and 
to rise from the bay like an island. This fortifention 
was begun by Henry VIIL. and improved in some mea- 
sure by Elizabeth, but more by Oliver Cromwell, hay~ 
ing been much damaged during the civil war. It is — 
now modernized, and mounted with seventy pieces of 
cannon. St Mawe’s castle is a much smaller, and less 
remarkable erection, standing on the eastern side. of 
Falmouth harbour, and tracing its, origin likewise to 
Henry VIII. The houses in the neighbourhood, though 
few in number, constitute a Cornish borough, while 
Falmouth, in consequence of its comparative recency of 
wth, is unrepresented in parliament. 

Outside of Falmouth harbour there isa safe and com- 
modious roadstead for vessels of the largest size. It is 
the opinion of many naval men, that the value of Fal- 
Pent as a is not yet fully known. Its great 

lies in its to the Western Ocean, 
oe = of which bai Portsmouth, and even 4] 

outh, is experienced every season by our outwa' 
foul vessels. Now from Falmouth e distance to 
the Lands-end is less than from the Thames to the south 
eens there + shy hay shoals nor pact inetd fre 
way, and it is highly im t to consider, that the 
French side of the Chaxtnel evens on the meridian 
of Falmouth, so that if a vessel going from that port 
gains a Jeague of westing in her southward prog 
she is forthwith received by the ocean. 
‘wind to round to the westward the day after her 
leaving Falmouth, the vessel ‘has still a clear course of 
more four hundred miles to the southward before 
meeting with land, viz. the north-east coast of Spain. 
The difficulty of getting into the ocean from Portsmouth 
or Plymouth, will be apparent on computing the small 
number of days inthe year during whith t 
fair to come down the Channel. On examining a diary, 
‘we shall find that sixty or seventy days in the twelve- 
month are rather above than below the average. In 
1808 the expedition under Sir David Baird sailed from 
5 


Falsdouth. 
Sis iy nest 


ere the 


wind is 


ae T down Channel. It is however to 
acknowledged, that the remote situation of Fal- 
degree of hazard to an enter- 
prizing enemy who might venture on an attack, is an 
Seca it an arsenal or dock-yard. 

following is the statistical abstract for the town 
of Falmouth for 1811: 


rl 


Inhabited houses... .....5,...-.. 465 
Families that ory ie aie ae where 1017 
Families employed in agriculture 10 
Ditto in and manufactures 427 
Mee. ss ee eens 1453 
Jaw et ioc obo ak 2480 
Total population in 1811 ........ $933 

W. Long. 5° 2’ 5”, N. Lat. 50° 8’, to trigo- 

nometrical observations. See Beatties of England and 


Wales, vol. ii. p. 442 ; and Manderson’s s on Fal- 


Set aod Boa at cowed We ident Moke Te 

‘ best towns ei t 

ir tasted on the eastern coast, about three leagues from 
The inhabitants hare of corn, and‘have 

a it number of cattle. ir chief wealth, how- 
ever, is derived from their brandies, which are reckoned 
the best in the island, and form one ofthe most advan- 
8 branches of commerce of Majorca. 
Augustine have here a handsome convent. About 
pr Se te from this village, is a small hill called San 
, on the summit of which is a chapel, where 

the islanders pay their devotions to an image of Christ, 
There is an inn near the | for the accommoda- 
tion of ims; and an ascent has been cut in the 
rock to the top of the hill. P on 5000 or 6000. 
See St Sauveur’s Travels through the Balearic and Pi- 

jan Islands, chap. 1. (7) 

AMAGUSTA. See Cyprus, vol. vii. p. 537. 
FAMINE. See Anstinence and Fastine. 
FANDANGO, the name of'a national Spanish dance, 

only among the lower classes; an 
in Townshend’s T'ravels ; 
to South America, vol. i. p. 39; but 
Laborde’s View of Spain, vol. v. page 


257. (w 

TANG) Passi Pectin e's lace 
town of Italy, in the duchy of Urbino. It is a well 
and very handsome town, surrounded with a lof- 
having towers at a small distance, and 
bastions towards the sea. The churches are remark. 


w 


: 


a 


in) 

tween ‘town and Il. 
still lying, (when Mr Eustace visited the 
seem to have fallen on the above 
There are three different on the three cor- 
nices, The theatre was formerly a magnificent and com+ 
modious building, but it has now the 
ruin, “The Via 
wards the Appennifes. See Eustace’s Classical Tour 
in Italy, vol. i. p. 153, (w) 

FANTIN is the name of a in the west of 

a 
, is 


Africa, which extends about 30 

coast. The capital, which is also called 

twelve miles from the coast. Fruits, maize, and palm 
wine, are produced in abundance. ‘There are nume- 
rous small towns on the coast, which are inhabited: 
about 4000 fishermen, The ty bee ee and 


are Anamaboa; or ,w the English 
have a fort ; Adja, or ; Great and Little Corman- 
tin, or Korm ; Tantim, Guers, and 
Maufran. See ANAMABOA, Labarthe’s Vo a 


la Coté de Guinée, Lett. viii. -:p. 69. Paris, 1803. (w) 
FAOUE, or Fovan, is the name of a town of Egypt; 

situated on the west branch of the Nile, and 

miles from the sea. It was formerly a large and flou- 

blishments belonging to Europeans. The ancient edi+ 

fices, however, are now in a state of ruin, and: the 


place is falling rapidly into’ . Itis 

Be A Wey, a a Dont gee 
of the ancients. The surroundi ‘is rich, and 
the gardens fine fruit, which is held in great 
estimation. ong. 31°, North Lat. 81°10’. “See 
Lord Valentia’s , Vol iii. :p. 443. (mw) ; 


FARCE. See Drama. 
FAREHAM, a market-town of England in Hamp- 


shire, is situated at the north-west ity of Ports« 
mouth harbour. The houses are tolerably well built, 
There are two meeting-houses and one ‘ , which 


stands at the entrance to the town. ‘The inhabitants _ 
are principally employed in the manufacture of sack- 
ing, and ropes for ing, of which they send great 
quantities to the dock-yard at Portsmouth. In the sum- 
mer season, this town is much frequented as a bathi 

place: a commodious ing-house has been late 

erected. Vessels of consi burden are built at the 
quay. There is here a good market on W. ; 
and an annual fair on the 29th of June, which is sup- 
plied with corn, cheese, hops, &c. The town also cars 
ries on a considerable coal-trade. The following is the 
statistical abstract for the town and parish, in 1811: — 


Inhabited houses, . . . Z 
Families that them, . . 698 
Do. emp! in agriculture, . . 255 
Do. in and manufactures, . 179° 
Wraes, Se 
Tene, oo. ee 
Total jon in 1811, . . . 3825 - 


See Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vi. p, 308. 


(~) ne 


was induced to pa 


convinced 


y 
onvinced was at 


FAREY’S TEMPERAMENT. 273 


best but a most 


Ss q 

LET] 

eraiok 

5 ie 

Faye 

: = 

ri 

& 

E 

z 


iff 
ifs 
| 


tl 
it 
S 


< 
g 
8 
| 


ily 
ile 
i 


only. Thatis to say, ifon C (on a range of pipes) 
the five successive perfect fourths. CF, FBp, Bb E p, 
Ep Ap and A’) D'p, be very correctly tuned upwards, 
and from the hi these notes, descending again 
by two perfect fifths, D'p Gp, and Gp F,X, and a 
major third F,% G, (which notes, in Farey’s arti- 
ficial commas, are, 0, 254, 508, 762, 1016, 1270, 912; 
554, and 357, ively), the last of these sounds, 
Eek edb enettine sae common notation, is the 
proper fifth above C, in this system. After this, new 
G has been transferred to the range of pipes intended 
to be tuned, sume laguna: is to be made at this note; 
ths 


which are discords!—the length of and 5-4ths up, and 2- and a IIId down, are to be 


carefully tuned for obtaining D, a proper new fifth, 
‘nore bile to G. From this'D, A is.to be tuned 
in like manner, and likewise E, B, FX, CX and GX in 
succession. . This: process is then to be discontinued, 
and a new beginning made from C, by tuning upwards 
the three fifths CG, GD, and DA’, and the major third 
A’CX, and thence downwards, the four minor fourths 
CxG’%, G’KD’%; D’ A’, and A’F*, which last 
note (being the same with Mr Liston’s E’) is the pro- 
per fourth of this system, 7. e. in Art. Com. 358, 716, 
1074, 1271, 1017, 763, 509, and 255. Upon F*, two 
other schisma-excessive fourths are to be tuned in suc- 
cession, as above, for Bp and Ep ; and thus eleven fifths 
will be obtained, each equal 5-4ths—2 V—III, and a re- 
sulting one, GKEp, equal 29 V+11 I[I1—48-4ths, 
Its fourth CF*, and complementary fifth F*C, being 
found ready tuned on Liston’s organ ; and whereon also 
there are 14 other pairs of notes, at the exact distance 
apart of this fourth, and 14 fifths (their complements), 
which agree exactly in their quantity therewith, but not 
with their in the scale, as Mr Farey has obser- 


or eq 
ing Table, consisting of 11 columns, numbered at top, 
sill tenticlod at/cntsen, bettisse intemladlan:be read are 


wards, according to the practice of musicians. 


7 8 9 10 I 


Ugnagagh awa i & 


ao 
3 


24.4551 | 17,9658 | 2.0464 | 1.5330/28.5507 | 20.5644 
23.0595 | 16.9766] 1.9315 | 1.4470] 26.9183 | 19.4103 
21.7871 | 16.0239) 1.8229 | 1.8658 | 25.4366 | 18.3206 
20.5644 | 15.1075) 1.7149 | 1.2993| 24.0085 | 17.2752 
19.4103 | 14.2753 | 1.6240 | 1.2169| 22.6614 | 16.3218 
18.3206 | 13.4591-| 1.5330 | 1.1483| 21.3892 | 15.3907 
17.2752 | 12.7183| 1.4470 | 1.0889|20.1655 | 14.5412 
16.3218 | 12.0043 | 1.3658. | 1.0232/| 19.0556 | 13.7251 
15.3907 | 11.3307} 1.2993 | .9657|17.9658 | 12.9548 
14.5412 | 10,6946) 1.2169 | .9115|16.9766 | 12.2975 
13.7251 | 10.0828]1.1483 | .8574|16.0239 | 11.5298 
12.9548 | 9.5278|1.0889 | .8120115.1075 | 10.8936 


i 


Flat Srds. I1lds|Sharp4ths.|Flat Vths.| Flat 6ths. | Sharp VIths. 


(Harmonies, 2d edit. p. 166), that its 
-raments of its V, VI and On eobe ieloue ns 
may nevertheless be 


‘OL. IX, PART I. 


coarse and disagreeable ;” and has, at p. 167,. erroneously stated the tempe- 


wand 10th 


if 


ae 
FE 
£ 


z 
x 
g 
a 


feu 
if 


i 


f 


E 


FAREY’S NOTATION: | ° 


‘ways, 
t of the above system with the Isotonic, 
(which agree in sel , it may be proper to state, that 
in lengths of strings, the greatest difference (on Gi) is 


Viths. | Totals, 


J. Farey’s System, 
sotonic, 


18,2413 
Ep .0092 
0006 


183.1550 |847.2849 
183.1527 |847.2912 
%,0126 .0063 
0002]  .0001 


254.2596 
254.2546 


or Bp. 

FAREY’s Noration or Musicat Intrrvars. This 
new mode of expressing the magnitudes of intervals ha- 
ving been in our work, it may be proper to say 
a few words in this place on the discovery of this nota- 
tion. The late Mr Marmaduke Overend, organist of 
Isleworth Church, near London, and author of “a brief 
account of, and an introduction to, Eight Lectures in 
the Science of Music, (intended) tobe read,” &c. 4to. 
pp- 20. Payne & Son, 1781, bestowed inconceivable 
pains and labour on the calculations and ison of 
musical intervals, by actual involutions, multiplications, 
&c. of the terms of their ratios, never using logarithms, 
and but rarely resorting to the indices of the 
nent primes, for shortening his work: he pdageohb 
consistent nomenclature hout, to which 


At the conclusion of of his arithmetical calcu- 
lations, as above, Mr Overend was careful to express 
his results in form of equations, by means of his sym- 
bols, and to transcribe the whole neatly into thick = 
to volumes. After Mr Overend’s death, Dr John Wall 
Callcott, one of the most able but unfortunate of mu- 
stcians, havin all Mr Overend’s i 
from his family, kindly offered the use of the above men- 
tioned quarto volumes to Mr Farey, with issi 
to make all such extracts from, an 


volumes, in June 1807, Mr Farey fo 
namber of intervals 
-aad expressed in his 


(to be read «* fall schisma,”) and the asterisk in its-usual 
united, *, will denote the fall of a 
queticeanum ae or &, and ™ 
ATION ‘usical Intervals, 
And he marked the sameat the time, in 


an immense 
deduced by Mr Overend, 
which no previous wri- 


position 


Bp acy aber peice el — 
2 


minor eomma or €:, and ** the rise of the same interval: and, in like ma 
the fall of aren Sohated, stachel ether the Menlo the humeteal es 


ae pencil, in Mr Overend’s volumes, where stilh remain, i the library of the Royal Jpstitw- 
tion-in. Albernatle Street ; to which public bedy Dr-Calloott soon after presenved thous etcious toanuseript volumes 7 


discovered, viz. d, f and m ; but this notation, as well 
as that by F, f and m, proving to have negative signs 
to. m, in every instance, as remarked in our article 
Common Measures of Musical Intervals, he next trie 
=, fandm, which has been found in its most exten 

use, the best adapted by far, than any others of the nue 


petits tre 58247f +31 m, and 6 
E44 f4 17m, 358547 f 431m, and 612 54. 
12 fia ag tb age may easily be peti 
true, by either the indices of the. primes, or the log 
rithms “of these intervals, in our Table, Plate X3%. 
Vol. IT. by adding together 197 times 5, 4 times f, and 
17 times m, and so of the others, the following resolu- 


emeunticapenes would readil 
®, to denote the rise of a schisma, (to be read «rise schismia”) ; so 


I 


pressions for all the intervals in the 


9m 2 


FAREY’S NOTATION. ats 
ble us to find the expression for any interval whose ra Farey’s 


= tm 
less 5 22 tio is given. We can, on the present occasion, only N' 
161 3 14 find room, for the first 25 numbers of Mr Farey’s Tae pa ft 
hos 2° 9 ble of this kind, viz. py 
93 2 8 ' — ; 
a7 1 5 New Notation | 
11 0 1 Nos. | 
46 1 4 = f m 
58 1 5 
44 0 4 2} 612.00000 | 12 | . 53 
210 3} 970. 19 | 84 
— 4) 1224, 24 | 106 
010 5 1421. 28 123 
» Ba A » | gazseooorr |. 34° | 199 
remaining in- 7 34 1 
; 1718.05290: 84 149 
lien poy 8 | 1836, 36 | 159 
310 9} 1940. - 38 168 
roo 10| 2088. 40 | 176 
5 10 11 | 2117.10204 | 42 | 188 
12 pa 45 an 
; 3073 | 44°] 1 
After several lundred intervals, 13 | }.2264.58107 | 45 | 196 
ap te 6 been collected 14 46 | 202 
; -other sources, 15| 2391. 47 | 207 
eteaiingsnbon 16} 2448. 48 212 
was observed, that all but a 17 2501.53067 49 216 
a regular series, in which each of the three 2501,53181 49 217 
formed a ‘tnoreasing | 18 | 2552. | 50 | 221" 
“that, 1, 2, 3,4, &e. first appeared with Z, 23, 80, 12 19 | 2599.72902} 61. | 225 
174, 231, “tener or a 20 | 2646. $2 229 
respectively ; and m, 1, 268806077 | 53 | 232 
Sialed with, & 19; 34,44, 21 |} 2688.20257' | 52 | 233 
123, 149, 159, 170, 185, | §2729.25171 |. 53°} 236 
258, 268, 274, 289, 300, 310, 22 | J e729.24884 | 33 | 287 
378, 298, 404, 414, 425, 440, 497 23 | 276846027 | 54 | 240 
508, 518, 529, 544, 554, 565, 576, ; 622, 24] 2806. 55 | 243 
633, 648, 658, 669, &c. respectively. i »251 2842, | 66 | 246 
Jr ni pe — eas 
sometimes 5, commencing = m; 4 = f 
intervals of the beginnings of the ee From this Table the. primes 7,11, 13, 17, 19, &c. 
commencing with 8 © 4 m’s, by and their multiples, are not excluded, because intervals 
tal aden ray ren ‘conatrac involving these do sometimes to be calculated : 
of the above 71 the reason why two values are to 7,.and to some 
‘wiaisiaast cenit OiietSon want of soon. others of the primes differing. by m.or f, is, in order 
‘All such i in Mr Farey’s general Table, asdo that a regular interval may be made betweenevery ad« 


not conform to the above, with to the number of Saget BUDE edad Ae, A simple subtraction 

t's and ofm’s that they contain with their 2’s, have been Will give the value, whenever the terms of the ratio are 

denominated irregular intervals, such as d, F, r, x, $e, in the first column ; and when this is not the 

Feed eek By mene: of wih ought to have either or case, the ee ROE SE SP AN a De waips - 
, but consist 's only, to constitute them corresponding notations of eachadded % 

aa Pp and and fto then the sums are to be subtracted ; thus if the value 

“have anand only two m’s, &c. and these changes may ote evans tails were wanted, we have its ratio 


fiom byhdeake 2 deciunls, in the schiera celewn, 35 


equivalent to the f’s or m’s, that may be added or taken 970 19) 8% 612 12 58 

away ; reckoning each f as .14966096 =, and each m as 970 19 8 and 1421 28 123 
007862412 ; thus, for example, d in a regular Ta- 

ble, will be .5588795 2,9 = 10.149661 = 4 m, f= 1940 : 38-168: 8033 40 176, the dif. 
31-8582014 © + f m, &c. ? ference of which sums, is, 932 4 2f 4 8m, the value 


is found involved or multiplied in the numerator, or _Since; in the use of this notation, a carrying or bor. 
least term of any musical it is equivalent to de. rowing to strat radia tories to another, never takes 

ting an octave 4 from it; and if, in thedenomina- place, in whole numbers at least, as with columns of 
tor, tothe addition of VIII; so 3 denotes the es 20 ee ee 


that a Table of theintervals [cocdescimecns aspneear eliotn some cases. 
2) to d fy See, expressed in the new notation, wilbenas | The middle column having 12 £’s to the octave, it is 


FAR (276 FAR 

Farming, eviclent that the number of f's ea Number of inhabited houses... 2... .. S527 
Fernba™, for any interval, will shew, to which of the 12 finger- | Number of families which oceupy them. . . » 570'” 
-_——_— s, or notes of the half-tone system, the same Families PRA ee wy Sh aio. BIH 
be! : thus all in less than 23. -4-f-2m may —_Do, in trade and eae! pe SORT 

be classed with the unison, or first di , and consi- Males -. .. 3.0 Ba ses Seip Bente eels 

dered as temperaments; all between this and 80 © + Females . «5-4 see eee eee s 1 1560, 

2f + 7 m, may be considered of the second degree, or Total ON ee ee ee ee QOL 

as minor seconds, &. * See the Beauties of E: Wales, vol xiv. page 

In like manner, the third or m column of 53 parts in 241. West Long. 47’ 52”, North Lat. 51° 137". See 

the octave, are the Artificial’ Commas of Mercator, asis Sunney. (je o 6. 6 or oe 

particularly explained in our article Common Measures | FARO, the name of a town of P , in the pro- 

of int and by help of which commas, the calcu- vince of » It is situated in a level and sandy 
lations of ‘most intervals, except those near to or less plain, about a league from the sea, and on the bank of 

than a comma, may. be correctly perfurmed. And, in the river Da Quarteira. The town, which is quite open, 


like manner, the first column, tely considered, of 
a table of regular intervals, constitute Mr Farcy’s Arti- 


Jicial Commas, 612 to the octave: ‘by means of which, 


the utmost facility, and every requisite degree of accu- 
racy, is given to the calculations of all real or diatonic 
intervals r than =, (except sometimes confound- 
ing R and» ¥c, and also € and ¢), mostly in whole 
numbers ; and in the calculations of po) ener or 
where decimal or vulgar fractional parts of this artificial 
comma are used, even the smallest intervals, as well 
as the largest, are represented by them and decimals, 
with greater oo pms than it is practical to make ex- 

iments, or to apply musical ‘calculations in practice. 


ARMING. See AcricuLTURE. ; 

FARNHAM, a town of England, in the hundred of 
Farnham, and the county of Surrey, is situated partly 
on a hill not far from the north bank of the river Wye. 
The town consists of one principal street, with some 
smaller ones branching off to the north and south, and 
the houses are in general excellent. The principal pub- 
lie buildings and establishments at Farnham, are the 
castle, the church, and the market house, with a free 
school, and a charity school. The castle is situ- 
ated upon a hill, on the north side of the principal street. 
It was built by Henry, (brother of King Stephen,) Bi- 
shop of Winchester, and has ever since the sum- 
mer residence of:the Bishop of Winchester. It was 
greatly injured in the civil war in 1642, but was rebuilt 
and fe oy the Restoration by Dr Morley, Bi- 
shop of Winchester. . It is built of brick, ‘Sveted! with 
stucco, and is embattled, and of a oma 
Some remains of the keep of the ancient e are con- 
tiguous to the edifice. It is called Jay’s Tower, which 
is ascended by 68 stone steps. It contains a kitchen 
garden on its top, consisting of 48 rods ofland. ‘The 
whole is surrounded with a strong stone wall, at the 
foot of which is a moat planted with oaks. The church, 
‘which was formerly a ¢ of'ease to Waverley Abbey, 
is at a little distance to the south of the High Street, and 
is a large building, apparently built about the end of the 
15th or the beginning of the 16th century. It consists 
of a nave continued to form the chance), with a north 
and south aisle, . Its numerous windows are -adorned 
with tracery ; and the interior contains several hand- 
some monuments, ‘with a painting of the 12 a -on 
an altar-piece The tower, which is very substantial, 
has a small turret at each cornice ; end Giersiontlibe. 
kgt at the west end, which seems to have 


hops cultivated in the 


; Feroa Reserata, very j 
wi 


built, and has , 
Sites Sale 


. 
1s 


large ones are obliged to un 
load roy tie road or lower down the river, which,:af- 
ter numerous windings, forms the narrow entrance ‘of 
the harbour a league and a half to the south-east of the 
town. The harbour is defended by the fort of San Lou- 
renco de Olhaé, situated on the east side of the river. 
Anithier narrow arm of the river, or i 

of the sea, called a Baretta, forms an island, on whi 

is the sandy cape of Santa Maria. In all the maps, this 
island is laid down at too great a distance from the land: 
The tract between the town and the sea is very A 
and is covered with marine plants. It is flat and 


on the i bres - op oe Se 

tains of Miguel, which are high and steep, but: 

cultivated taietatla their base. sev er 
The gi part of the trade of Algarvia is carried on 


v the country people in a , ina building for this 
purpose, The syru wiath ior haendedaomaanie 
making brandy. They are then spread in the sun in 
an open situation, and are afterwards p into small 
baskets made of the leaves of the fan each con- 
taining 28 os grrr ye i dag omer 
th the red, cularly the Figo do Enchario, an 
do Bispo, are most. and Spanish 
reeds are also exported from Faro to « Number 


of houses 1200; population 5000. West Long. 7° 52’, 
North Lat. 87° 2. (j) 1 ritsvite +4 
. FAROE, the name given to a group of islands in the 
Northern Ocean, ing toDenmark. 


presen 
interesting. They to have been resorted 
& long before Diienia Ba 
cause, the subj petty 
Harold the fatr-haired, led to the colonization of 
in the 9th century. Those inhabitants of Norway who 
did not chuse to submit to that victorious left 


ple of Faroe, who were of the same rank with those who. 


FAROE. 


= sinter It is not im vit - 
employed themselves in piracy, were ob 
Siete ok Sealeiion ind sttack ; and ing thus constantly 
aged either in molesting their nei or in de- 
cone See education and literature would of 
‘course ni . ' 
sri takendlt pees Std of various chiefs, 
whose petty warfare seems to have 1 a long time, 


‘familiar to the Faroese, of whom a considerable 
n is’ yet to be met with who speak it with flu- 
ency. The ‘war with France, and the destruction of 
the Dutch and Danish East India trade, put a final stop 
to smuggling, and reduced the islands to a state of great 


aw md In the year 1808, Captain Baugh was sent to 


to privateers. Some time:afterwards, a German, assu- 
ming the-title of Baron Hompesch, who had obtained a 
letter of , landed at wn, plundered the 
inhabitants of every thing, and broke into the church 
where the public chest was deposi A small crucifix 
_ of silver, which stood on the , was seized with ea- 


gerness, but when it was found to be hollow, and of no 
‘great value, it was restored. The British government 
very properly and humanely refused to sanction these 

3 and some disturbances having happened 
m_ the year 1809, between some British merchants and 
an order in council was issued, com- 
British ‘subjects to consider the Icelanders, 
Faroese, and the Lee of the em settlements in 
Greenland, as stranger friends, and permitting a trade 
between these places and the of Londen, Leith, 
and Liverpool, on certain conditions. The money, and 
the of all the goods of which Faroe and Iceland 
had been robbed, were restored. 


£ 
& 


to government, that the were in distress 
on account of the scarcity of provisions, Two ships, in 
consequence of Mr Banks’ were permitted to 

ors seta articles aoe - to Faroe, and to 
Leith to have their licences reoeewoa whe 


277 
the means of improving the little soil capable of cultiva- 
ti 7 


on. my 58! ; 

The Faroe islands lie between 6° 15’ and 7° 43’ Lon- 
itude West from Greenwich, and between 61° 20’ and 
2° 25’ North Latitude. The group consists oftwenty- 

two islands, of which seventeen are inhabited. Their 
appearance, whether when approached in fine or in bad 
weather, is inconceivably grand, ially from the 
south-east and west. While the sun approaches the 
western horizon, and the. sea is smooth, with a gently 
undulating motion, nothing can exceed the sublimity of 
the scenery. The stupendous masses of light and shade, 
and the varying tints reflected from a thousand fantas- 
tic forms, hewn by the hand of nature from piles of 
rock, many of which soar to the height of 3000 feet, 
produce an effect beyond description. 

The central island of the group, Stromoe, is likewise 
the most extensive, and contains the highest mountain. 
This island stretches (as all the others do) from nearly 
north-west to south-east, ae length 25 geogra hi- 
cal miles, and on an average about 5 in breadth. It is 
deeply indented by bays and creeks, some of which form 
‘ccommodious and safe harbours, particularly that of 
Westmanshayn, which is fit for the reception of every 
description of ships. The south-west and west coasts 
present finely varied and magnificent rock scenery, 
more ially the west, where, for a distance of about 
12 miles, the eye meets continued changes in the forms 
of the precipices. To enjoy such scenery im perfection, 
and to give it the fullest effect, one must coast along in 
a boat at a short distance from the rocks. The curious 
traveller may, in this manner, obtain the greatest en- 
joyment. Sometimes he may enter a cavern, and, after 
exploring it till he almost loses the light, may find himself 
yet at a distance from the place, where the swell meet- 
ing the bottom of the abyss recoils with a tremendous 
roar. Often, while he is owe the singular forms of 


the ine ices, the boat rough a perforation, 
and he finds them di éd from the mountain, and 
standing like huge walls, towers, or castles, surround- 


ed by the sea. On these the sea birds haye their nests, 
and there the hardy fowler fearlessly robs them. On 
this remarkable coast, the rocks soar from 1500 to 2000 
feet. Each island has its beauties ; and there is scarce- 
ly a promontory or detached rock, that does not pre- 
sent something combining singularity with magnifi- 
cence. Of these, the rock called the Witch’s Finger, 
and the little island called Tindholm, the one on 
the east, and the other on the west side of Vaagoe, are 
[oe the most remarkable. The former is detached 

e adjoining precipice almost to the bottom, From 
some points of view, it has the app ice of a grand 
square tower, surmounted by a lofty spire ; and when 
the light falls in a particular direction; the resemblances 
of a door and windows are quite distinct. This was 
‘observed by the writer of this article at a distance of 
five miles. When viewed in that position in which it 
appears detached from the rock, it is not unlike a huge 

pointing upwards. Landtstates the height of this 
peak to be 1200 feet, and we believe that this does not 
much exceed the truth. The elevation of 'Tindholm is 
probably about 500 feet, and its singular appearance is 
much more striking. On one side, though very steep, 
it is covered with verdure almost to the summit, which 
consists of a number of long and slender peaks ranged 
along the ridge, which terminates on the opposite side 
a di face of rock. In crossing island of 
Vaagoe towards this rock; its summit is seen in a form 


278 FARO E, 


Pare bearing a very close similitude to the towers and pin- 
—y" nacles of Westminster Abbey. In some places, e 
are ranges of columnar rocks ; but, in general, they are 
not in such situations as to render them of much im- oy! : 
in the scenery. The promontory of Niepenin poor Faroese are compelled to ‘own 
Remenos, presents a very beautiful e of columns. and unripe corn. Boa pak ak , 

There are some in Osteroe, which are lofty, but from a yellow sort, but small and hard ; and the 

their situation not very striking. Several if curious diminutive and watery. Such, how 
columnar rocks are to be seen in Suderoe Mygge- try of the people in some places, that soil is o 
nes. laid on the flat surfaces of large stones, in which 


Skielinge Field, which rises very abruptly, termina The are very small; andno. being 
in a small platform. Tt exzeeto’ 9000 fost in height® to select the best for ing from, few are / me 
but it has not yet been very accurately measured. The with that are well shaped. ote a small 


adventurous traveller, even in fine weather, renders the vary a little in appearance, and. it 
ascent of the Faroe mountains a very hazardous under- wool. This is owing to a supply 
taking. The height of Slatturtind, in Osteroe, is 2825 to the country, after a season of un 
feet; and there are several mountains in the same among the native sheep, partly from I 
island, Wine eper ually high, ly from Zetland. From wool, strong 
There is nothing in Faroe which can be called a val- stockings are manufactured, and likewise close jackets, 
ley; the mountains for the most part meeting at the Which, arg Maen see TEA HAC Om ires, and orna- 
wor- 


i 
Bs 


bottom, and having only a small rivulet as a boundary, mented with apres variously 

There are afew lakes, the largest of which is in sted, dyed in the country, © give a yellow 

island of Vaagoe, being about three miles ny Nai the Anthericum ossifragum, Polygonum 

one in breadth. Beyond the upper end of the lakes, /ygonwm persicaria, and the Lycopodium. con 

there is Resaliy  senall expen, oF Hi aperet are used ; for black, the ; far 
Rural The inhabitants have chosen for th jaa 3 such the Lichen calcareus.and the Lichen. tartareus ;. 
effhir. spots as are dry, or may be rendered soeasily, and brown, Lichen sazatilisand Omphaloides; and for or 


which have the advantage of a commodious landing the Lichen parietinum. ' 3 tanpetalh: 
ees Sa posts: hong ta last, in a few instances, The wool en an Se ae Fee He. EON 
ives to the former. ins te loosen ; but frequently that event.i wai 
ah of the occupiers of land hold it in property 5 r, and the skin of the animals is often mat ay one 
and others of the crown of Denmark, paying a tax ted. The h re small, e] ; 
it of from 20 to 40 skillings for each mar. A markis shaped. _The best,.are to be seen in the island of 
an extent of land which rarely supports more thantwo deroe. They are very seldom used, except for, carry« 
cows during the yeat, thongh samme maintain for. ‘Tt ing home Ma pci mosses ; there being no roads 
is generally reckoned to ut 8000 square Danish no w carriages, , . 
=; ye mark Ae iad in different ai and is va- samen be supposed, that Senger spate around. these, 
ued at about 600 l was a never- source istence 
The whole surface of the country is very wet; and, profit to the people who inhabit them. pn Corn ay 
in general, the soil is thin, and for the most part con- siderable fishery for cod was carried on; but now 
sists of peat. On such a soil, under a climate, not in- pears, that the only bank im the vicinity (arhich ne 
deed rigorous, but excreting moist, and consequent- about two miles north of Kalsoe) is almost totally. 
le-engenial from the rays sun being so much ex-  titute of fish. The accounts of this failure, which the 
from the surface, agriculture cannot be supposed writer of this article received, may, 
pk a Aerething eosin. She iobaeanta bes ‘whet gxagaeetarh It ie EE AT SAAN not 
rye, and 0 with pease, the cultivation of 2 grain ment to prosecute the fishery with vigour, It seems 
is carried to a very smal] extent, while hay for the cat- to be the policy of the Danish government, to keep the 
tle during winter is an object of the first importance. natives o by a aig Wry erp 
By repeated working, the land is thrown up into ridges, t oop alg d ce, 
. Han een es A Pr gh ne “which, we exchanged for the woollen 
' acture. is the 
—the of the ridge lying along the acclivity, Thi ief employment both » 
is undoubtedly the bee fees that could be device for ot 


carrying 
the soil. When or turnip seeds are to be sown, 


made 
turf is then cut from the next, and laid with ) pr 
side downwards on the dung, This is chop Pith ‘ 
* pe ad ite more i do, a on eee ; 
aamabadct en it is again stirred wi : pepe wre 
Sarees ark: fe eerismame ge pat cmienl = 2 nufame my P 
can d e m 5120 7 1 7 " 
years, when a coarse herbage, thegreatest part of which people in conmyey ae sy each emer 4 


i 


tothe stock on their shoal came on shore, and the other to 
an . The ed in driving them. 
proportion of ‘There can be little doubt that the herring 
; might be about Faroe with success ; but it 
. has never attended to. 
and the clergy, send Certificates of the cases § The only other source of subsistence which remains Bird-catch- 
tive districts to the commandant, who to be mentioned, is — number of sea birds which ing- 
Ly eveeeng and distributes the corn ac- nestle in the rocks. these, the puffin (Alca arctica) 
‘The farmers are divided into four classes, is the most numerous, and the most sought after. But 
i various other kinds are taken. The eider duck, which 
in some other Countries is so carefully protected for its 
down, is here often shot for food. The bird-catchers 
are exceedingly adventurous; and as this is the first 
ity we have had of describing this hazardous 
occupation of the inhabitants of many northern coun 
tries, an account of it may entertain our readers, | 
in the event of his losing: How The fowlers are provided with long poles, to the ends 
are settled seems to be a mystery ; but it of which ate fastened small poke nets. With this in- 
i rome te strument they generally display great dexterity in cast~ 
ing it over the birds, which ne en gee! make towards 
. the water when they are disturbed. It is this anxi 
Dg Ie eR Na ol ne To- of the birds to seek the element in which their securi- 
request, it is likely that the ty is to be found, which gives certainty to the ex- 
i profit, asa good ertions of the fowler. The birds push their heads 
exchanged for a few leaves, But through the meshes of the net, which being dexterous- 
i j ly inverted, keeps them suspended by the neck, 

When a en a is undertaken, two men 
keep carefully concealed. It t to be fasten themselves a rope, so that there may be eight 
ever, that the writer of this arti was in- of ten fathoms of it between them. One assists the 
the year 1808 other to ascend the rock by means of a pole, at the 
end of which is a hook, which is fastened to the band 
of the climber’s breeches, or to a rope tied round his 
waist, and thus he is pushed up: But the most com- 
considerable size used to be loaded once a year at the yion method is for the climber to seat himself on a 
prone kA Osteroe, and cargoes were made up board fastened to the end of the pole. They often as- 
at other places. At times, the caiig whale, cend frightful cliffs without an assistance. When the 
as it i Orkney, (and which is now su first has got to a place where he has some footing, he 
to be a ew speties,) comes to Faroe in vast shoals, helis the other up by nieane of the rope: to. witich hey 

are both fastened. When they have gained the eleva~ 
and the’ Higence is soot Spread to every cor- tion where the birds are pretty numerous, they assist 
a vous fleet of Boats is as- each other from cliff to cliff. It sometimes 

: for, Whatever may have been their employ- that one of them falls and pulls the other after him, 
ment, it is instantly forsaken to pursue these es, whien both are precipitated into the sea, or dashed to 
shoals of a thousand and upwards are seen pieces on the projecting rocks. When the rocks are 
pon Tape the islands. Being surrounded, they so high and as to render it impossible for the 
ew a where gd fowlers to pe 7 let down ts means of a 

a as th aag in Vaagoe, strong rope from above. To event the rope bei 
Sel renlis hetace toa a watt wificient to Sone cee oF wood is placed at the verge of the pre- 
float ther into the créek, and wlien they take ground cipice. means of 2 small line,’the fowler makes 
of death begins. ‘The animals are destroyed signals to above, and they let him down or pull 
ed Their oil is the chief object ree | alge lie reaches a shelf of the 
it is in rock where the birds have their nests, he unties him- 
is cut er ph Rg self, and proceeds to take them. Sometimes he places 
Fa ep ea: spars 80 a§ to admit himself on a projecting rock, and, using his net with 
pletity of air. its dried state, without any other Heed , he catches the natn BH t 

im ; and this they call heining. This mode of catchi 

several yards of birds is even practised while the fowlers are suspend 
' ‘When a projection of the rock is between the fowler 
When these welcome visitors have- been slain and and the place where the birds are, he swings himself 
secured, ate valued by the syssélman and his as- from the rock so far that he turns round the projec- 
es tythe is first set apart; but the largest tion. In this, great address and courage are requi« 


diem about half an English p of barley or animal is given to the boat’s crew who first discovered Fares. 
pose, lve per diem bout Balt sm Engi Ent tere ae the shoal, the head being’the property of the man who 
fishery @ of considerations ‘which render it a complica- first descried it. Another is set aside to be distributed 
nd provi- ted and troublesome business. The bette ee among those whose boats may have been damaged in 
ante town, Thorshavn, not being it , Yeceive a the attack. The provost, or dean of the clergy, has 
ed eamual allowance of one el and five-eighths one ‘allotted to him; and one is given to the poor: 
each person ; and this is not given to them all at once, The rest are divided into two equal portions, one of 
ions. The ‘people in the coun- which belongs to the pro ge Meg eo olin ig 
farms, and their Setar be een, fe agi 
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The town. 


Country 


houses, cha- neral good, In all of them the traveller 


racter, and 


manners of 


the people 


swing far enough, he lets down 
om in a boat below, who swing him, 


as far as is necessary to enable him to gai a safe place 
to stand upon. Betis ing eon to he wk of 
i i uently in 


these people resort for procuring food, 
rot agg a ‘pueerly net in caverns which 
abound on the coasts, m great numbers ; but are 
either not so numerous now, or there is less in 
ment for their capture. 
Thorshayn, the principal place } 
tuate on the east side of Stromoe; the houses being 
built on a narrow tongue of land jutting out into the 
sea. Two small creeks are thus formed, in either of 
which vessels may be safely moored, large iron rings 
being fixed in the rocks, on both sides, for that purpose. 
The houses are constructed of wood, and crowded to- 
gether without any regularity. The roofs are covered 
first with birch bark, brought from Norway, over which 
tarf is laid. The green colour of the tops of the 
houses assimilating with that of the soil around the 
town, renders the place almost invisible from the 
sea, ata very short distance. The house of the com- 
mandant is the best furnished, but. that of the land- 


JSoged, (who is here Ingh sheriff as well as treasurer, ) is 


the most spacious. h the exterior of the build- 
ings does not promise “at yet the rooms are generally 
neat and clean. The church is a large wooden edifice, 
covered et aa painted white. It has a small 
steeple, together its appearance is v: om 
ble. . There Banh oe lar; etna ifferent 
parts of the town, several of which are now locked up, 
on account of the almost total annihilation of e. 
The pri is a small wretched building of stone, in. 
which those convicted of crimes, such as sheep-stealing, 
are confined for several years. . They are brought out 
occasionally, however, to work when any thing parti- 
cular is required to be done. At the mouth of the 
harbour are the remains of a small but strong fort, the 
guns of which were destroyed in the year 1808. 

The houses of the farmers and of the clergy are in ge- 
ill find him- 
self hospitably received, and accommodated with an 
apartment as neat and cleén as he could desire, though 
not elegant. The hospitality of the poor Faroese 
is really remarkable; the readiness with which they 


oar to anticipate them, are, to a mind not al er 
devoid of feeling, truly affecting. In their deportment 
they are ingly 


tives, raised their moral 
timation, To religious duties they pay the most regu- 


day evenings, and on holidays, the ive them- 
iy elgg of 


selves up to merriment. In fine 

them are seen in the fields, formed into circles, moving 
round in slow cadence, (which they call dancing,) to a 
song in which sometimes | 5 or 20 voices join. sub- 


Pi oh ong io usually some atchievement of their 
a the history of faithful lovers ; and the 


in the country, is si-: 


aracter very high in his es- . 


with scarcely any intermi it rtp hte 


valent in his time, but which are now de 
however, some remnants of lity may be traced, and 
some persons are to be found,.who believe that they 
have seen the of at a distance, at the. 
moment they expired, and thus had notice of their death, 
In this respect the Faroese are not more onpraseangne 
than the common people in many districts of our own. 
country. : ; 


Barley bread is that which is 


roe, e imported in vi ; this, 
with silk or fat, constitute a in the, umn, 
when the lambs are’ htered for drying, the blood 


a lar; seploced ent ene & uantity of sea- 
bird’ boiled or su ne “4 


and Landt asserts that the stone is more frequent in 
Faroe than in other countries, The small-pox seldom. 
visits Faroe ; and, at the present time, there is not a 
native who has had the disease, except one who caught 


the infection in Denmark. Elephantiasis 


, such as 

silver coin, or some ornament, is put, and decoc« 
performed externally cxtinpation eee 
on is. of 

w ~ from. relaxation, it 
structs the 

isa auap Teaetobel at rye 
from the Danish government ; but his skill is not mu 


improved by practice... ~ 
The dress of the men of Faroe consists entirely of 

woollen stuffs, manufactured in the country. . i 

jackets, which are worn in their ordi occupations, 


deemisnee Sornate ot Seapets 
the root of tormentilla. ‘They are formed by cutting a 
iece of skin of a length and breadth, and pue~ 
ing, very neatly, be peste forthe tose eae 
ca re mY en , knitted for the pur« 
pose, and tied round the legs. e dress cap is form- 
ed like a bishop's mitre ; on ordinary rorprtuggaarn 
wear woollen caps, and sometimes caps of skin, wi 
the hairy part outermost. The men never cut their 
hair ; and to appearance seldom comb or wash it, .__ 
The women wear their hair combed backwards from 
tho frahertlnsa0 enna linen caps ee 
stiff border of coarse ising perpen ey 
cap is fastened by a coloured silk or cotton kerchief 


ie or sovkef’> 
commonly used in Fax yfanner of 


Faroe. 
7 aes 


as It ma 


Almost all the natives 
ey 
05 
is 


this 


and guide of the writer. of 


281 


be traced, 
per- 
tanl 


curiosity, was 
to comprehend 
mountains. 

but that he 


ts of 


but parents donot Education. 
3 and several of 


to teach their children to read, and sometimes to 


. 
2 


navian, or, 


it was origi aoa 
ose 
the Icelandic, 


patent 


great 
pond 
a 


remarked that he was now an oli 


eh 


upwards of 20. years 


‘th 


measuring 


no schools in Faroe 


Danish language, in which divine service 
some of the islands 


be too old to learn. The name of this 


delighted, and 


are now 
its use In 


<8 


from w 
mare, 
cape th 


Hans Alaik... He conducted. Sir John S 


The people are fond of reading 
rometer, which seemed to excite 


them, with whom the writer of this article conversed, 


shewed great eagerness for information of e' kind. 
Mnaieh-thewlteitheun halexplainesdthoseeaed tation 


_—— 


ii 


Le II 
Ut a fi 


ae a 


write. 


HE 
niet 


HE 


ee 


diet 
: 


aii 


Statistical Table 1812: 


iil SBQARRs |B 
s48 YORUM 19 3 
iL ARS “SIs 1S 
be eaten ls 
Lip |szgeuas 2 
ars ‘i 
af [REBRES5 [3 
Hy Ras Scr 
ag |p8aagze |s 
mee sgke885 |3| 
RSSERSS 
& 8/2aR 12 
hea | 23a8258 [3 
i) |S265888 8 
71 |easzaas|9 


Northern Islands 


= 


“#3«@ 


eand 


the contrary, they are very in their botas 
os : 


fe de eee 
Ui (Hen spe te 
ie] Ge a 
i + i i Hua iv i 
os se teegtgsy. Sige : 
HME HIBE ai 
en i 
iene Tp 
te huey FERRET 
HUE art 4146 
iy ite Ae ‘all Lai 
Hstlyii elie Heed 
fe dauaill SEG 
tanith Gti 
F i i ie i el 
i aia sepea 
H Hl : eae 


gdaloidel and porphyritic; greenstone 
sing chicky in the oe form, and basalt ai eide 
assuming commonk same form. am 
iety of zeolite in the grea' 


semi-opal, are to be found in great abundance ; and the 
island of Suderoe furnishes elegant jaspers. There are 
some very remarkable geological facts to be seen in 
different of the islands; but as these are closely 
messed rane some, equally curious and important, 
which were discovered in Iceland, we will defer giving 
a i account of them, till we come to that arti- 
cle.* See Lucas Debes Feroa Reserata, 1670. De- 
scription of the Faroe Islands, by the Rev. G. Landt, 
translated from the Danish, London, 1810.‘ Transac- 
tions of the Royal Society of Edinpurgh, vol. vii, 1814. 
FARQUHAR, Geoncer, an eminent English comic 
writer, was born pag nip wd ere. a gic 
respectable clergyman in the n Ireland, who, 
ving a numerous family, could not bestow any fortune 
upon him, but resolved to give him such an education, 
as might enable him to prosecute some genteel profes- 
sion. 
Farquhar discovered an ‘early taste for literary pur- 
enits, and is said to have, wuten verse ae onl = 
ears of age. In 1694, he ired to Trini 3 
blin, where he*made such progress in his studliger as 
procured for him considerable reputation. It would ap- 
, however, that his prudence was not equal to his 


i attainments; for he was expelled the college, au 


in consequence of having adventured profane wit u 
asacred theme, given to him, as a by Ris 
tutor. 

At an early period of life, he turned his attention to 
the stage, intending to follow the'profession of amactor ; 


in which career‘he was’not very eminently successful. . 


‘He possessed an engaging person, and genteel manners, 
but his voice was weak, and'he had a natural timidi 


however, to-‘continue'the exercise 


ee ae eee sti 
ve'abandoned, - 


to kill Vasquez, one of the ores 
forgotten to: exchange his sw 


proved himself to be a man-of' 
In the year 1704, he married a , who was 80 'vio- 
lently in with him, that, despairing to win him by 


“® The Bditor has been indebted for this 
counpany with Thomas Allan, Esq. in the summer of 1612. 


to the honour of F , that, after he had ere 
sh dt whieh Bad an ec wpa sh 
ve the lady her 


« [have net.any thing taleave you to perpetaste miy 
memory, ‘two irls ; look upon them 
sobetinent eoth thik bry cre ‘dat was, to the Ee mo- 
ment of his life, thine, a elasetaae 

EORGE Farguuar.” 
Wilkes humanely complied with the dying request of 
Their mother died in great dig owe 


writer, 

as man of fashion, an actos, an offcer in the y, an 

author, a lover, anda husband experience 

pied "hin web eeiees and his observation e3 
with a know of human nature. His sub- 

jects are ly well chosen, his characters well sus- 

tained, his pure and lively, his dialogue easy 


He’ seven comedies, of which the most « 


: tJ ¢s 
FARS, or Farsistan, is a of the ki 
oleae ee 
Suen datouls by the Sea of Oman. inane 
into two climates, the warm and the cold, which are 


; : latitude of 
‘Kazeroon, el with the Gulf from 
thecbanks of the Tab to the confines of Lari When 


the periodical rains are abundant, the sandy og 
the oot of the mountain roduces a ¢ juan- 


interésting account of the Faroe Isles to Sir GEORGE MACKENZIE, Bart. who visited then in 


; 
i 


“ 


FAR S. 283° 


Fors, each other by the projecting mountain called Kopi in the mountains immediately behind Behaban, and after __ Furs. 
nae : hog af flowing within a few miles of that it passes through — 


the vale of Ram Hormuz to old Dorak, in the territory of 


These districts, which contain only a few wretched 


mud are badly cultivated. The Cold Re- 
gin arcs from the of Kazeroon to that of 
-Yezdekhast, on the of Irak. Tt comprehends 
most of the mountainous part of Fars, The mountain 


the Chab Sheikh, where the Arabians have erected a 
dam, for the purpose of irrigating the fields, leaving 
two chief brenches, one of which passes on the outside 
and the other through Dorak. The marshes in the 


vallies are generally 8 or 10 miles broad, and from 15 nei urhood of this town are occasioned by the lesser 
$ to 100 long. They afford abundance of pasturage, and branches. One of the principal branches enters the 
ill cultivated. The plains Karoon above Sabla, and the other empties itself into 


are commonly fi 3 
of Sheeraz, Ribeeoba; Merdesht, however, are in 
cultivation ; but, towards the north and 
west, they are almost unpeopled. Mr Kinneir travel- 
led, in 1809, above 60 miles between Behaban and 
Sheeraz, o—. =~ — . i ee vallies, 
without seei e face of a human being. An/ancient 
tribe peeve fase inhabited them, 
most exti by the orders of the prince; and the 
few which had escaped to the summits of the lofty 
mountains, ‘subsisted upon a wretched kind of bread 
made from acorns, and upon the pillage of travellers. 
The eastern part of the province towards Darabgherd 
and Fesa is more open. The soil is more sandy, and 
the plains more extensive. 
The cocina er ge oe eee 
separate range, but a bran ount Zagros, which 
stretches in a continued succession of ridges from the 


borders ‘of the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea and . 


Mount Caucasus. _ 

The hills in this province towards Bushire, are about 
24 miles from the sea. The. 
wards Bunder Reig ; and to the west of the village of Gu- 
nava,a low ridge suddenly projects to the south, and ter- 
minates at the sea shore in the projecti int of Kohi 

, which se the districts of wee and 

i This point is not high, but is about 7 or 8 
miles broad, and it lies the plain of Leerawee. 
Wee: ad for Dbink COr pou ahepy peenacee Gale’ dntanee, 
sea, and for 18 or 19, e this distance, 


had been als. 


in becomes contracted to- - 


the sea at Goban. In passing through the vale of Ram 
Hormuz the Jerahi receives a rapid river which flows - 
from the mountains about six miles east of the town of ~ 
Ram Hormuz. This tributary stream contains a ws 
body of water, and is not fordable after the melting of 
the snows. It-is the river alluded to in the marches of « . 
Timour. The river Bund Emeer, called by some of the 
ancients Cyrus, and by,the Greek historians Araxes, 
flows through the delightful valley of Merdesht, adorn- 
ed with the ruins of Persepolis, and in the rich districts -- 
of Kurjan it is subdivided into-.numerous streams for ~ 
irrigating the fields. The remaining part of the river 
is. joined by Shamier, a small stream which rises in a 
hot fountain, three miles from Gazian, a'town about 90 
miles from Sheeraz, and afterwards passes:the villages 
of Kumu and Syvund. The united streams then dis- 
themselves into the Jake Baktegan. 

In travelling from Bushire to Endian, Mr Kinneir - 
passed other four-rivers. The first of these rises among 
the mountains behind the old. city of Shapour, and after 
running through this city, and watering the villages - 
of Kesht and Dalkee, it.enters the Gulf alittle to the - 
south of Rohilla. Mr Kinneir supposes it-to be the.an- 
cient Heratenis. At Rohilla it is 60 yards broad and 
six feet deep.. The second-river, which he.supposes to 
be the Granis of Arrian, is.only.seven miles. to:the . 
north-west of this. It apse itself into the.sea 
half way between Rohilla and Bunder Reig ; ‘but. it is 
neither so wide nor so deep as the former. The third, 
which is the Roganis of Arrian, runs with a south-west 


form near’ Bunder Deelum. On turning the south- course from the mountains, and throws itself into the 
par Boyt ema dow and advanced branch, which is sea three miles north-east of Gunuva. It,is almost 
f Zeitoon, from a small town near Behaban, they in breadth to that of Rehilla. At high water it 
again retire to the north, and at the port of the Mashoor is im e, but it is only three feet deep during»the 
‘are 30 miles from the sea. eir most southern ebb. The last and the smallest river, which is pro- 
extremity at Shuster, crosses the 32d degree of North bably the Brizana of Arvian, flows between Hissarand . 
Latitude, in the 49th degree of East tude. Bunder Deelum. After a wandering. course from. the 


rivers, are the Tab, the Arosis of the 


ancients ; the Jerahi,; the ancient Pasitigris ; the Bund 


Emeer, and several others, whose modern names are not 
mentioned. ‘The Tab, which is the largest, is formed 


_ union of two streams near Zeitoon, one of which 
of the high hill of Kamarah, and the 


of Sheeras. - Mr Kimneir considers this latter branch as 
the river mentioned by Arrian in the march of Alexan- 
der. ‘The ‘Tab: Fars from Kuzistan, and pas- 
ses thre the town of Endian, where it is 80. 
wide (in Feb:) and for boats of 20 tons bur- 
then. ‘There is a ford about 9 miles above the town ; 
and the Tab discharges itself into the sea about 16 miles 
below corey The me of this river is. perfectly 
eweet when it passes Zeitoon ; but in running over 
hills towards Endian, it becomes so-brackish as hardly 
to be fit for use. This is also the case with all the other 
rivers in Fars, which empty themselves into the Per- 
TheriverJerahi, which is next in size to the Tab, rises 


) 


hills of Zeitoon, it discharges itself into the Gulf, eight 
miles south-east of Bunder Deelum. wield 


The salt lake of Baktegan is about/75'English miles poke, .. 


in circumference, and is situated about: 10°miles south- 
east of Sheeraz. In summer, when it is nearly. dry,’ 
the people on its: banks collect the salt, which encrusts . 
the bottom. This salt. is generally used throughout 
the theres and is reckoned. very fine: 

‘he 


principal towns in Fars:are Sheeraz the capital, ‘Towns, 


Kazeroon about 70 miles. nearly west of. Sheeraz, 
Shapour, Bushire, Bunder Reig a sea-port with about . 
300 or 400 inhabitants, Bunder :Deelum another sea~ — 


ing about 700inhabitants, Zeitoon with a popu« 
fase scuttoumnoens Behaban, the capital of the moun« 
tainous district of Khogiloea; having walls about three 
miles.in circumference, and nearly 10,000 inhabitants, 
Fallayoom, ‘Selbistan with 4000 inhabitants,  Niris, 
Feza, Darabjerd with pr inhabitants, and 
Ursinjan. - For more com; information respecting 
Raseewns, see Kinneir’s | ical Memoir of the 
Persian Empire, cata which -we arein- 


FAS 


ee aaa 


cle. (w) 

FASCINATION is the name given to an influence 
which certain animals are supposed to possess over 
other animals, which serve them for food. This fa- 
culty has beew ascribed to toads, hawks, eats, owls, 
tigers, and various other animals, but particularly to 
the rattlesnake and other American It is sup- 
posed by some naturalists, as Kalm, that the small 
birds, squirrels, &c.. which have been seen to fall from 
the branches of trees into the mouth of the rattle- 
snake, must have been previously bitten by the snake; 
and being thus debilitated, were unable either to esca 
or to remain the tree, Others, nadia Ohpedd, 
—— that rattlesnake produces the effect by 

stupifying vapour emitted from its body; while 
ching as Linneus and Blumenbach, ascribe the effect 
pane neve terror inspired by the rattle which is 
to reside in tail of this animal. Dr 

Smith Barton of Philadelphia, has drawn 


up two interesting memoirs, the object of which 
is to prove there is no solid foundation for the opi- 
nion that ts are endued with the faculty of fas- 


charming other animals, and we think 
that he has succeeded, at least, in rendering this opi- 
nion very doubtful, if not in completely overturning it. 
Such of our readers as wish to prosecute the subject, 
are referred to the following works, where they will 


find information on the subject. 
See , Hist. Nat, lib. viii. cap. 14. Linneus Sys- 
tema Nature, art. Crotalus Horridus. Professor Peter 


‘Kalm, Travels into North America, vol. i. p. 317, $18 ; 
vol. ii. p. 207, 208, 209, 210, Eng. Transl. London, 
1770—1. Kalm, Memoirs of the Swedish Academy of 
Sciences for 1753. Mather, Phil. Trans. No. 339. 
Hans Sloane, Phil. Trans. 1734, vol. xxxviii. No. 433. 
p. 321. Dudley, Phil. Trans. 1723, vol. xxxii. No. 
376. p. 292. La Cepede, Histoire Naturelle des Ser- 
pens, p. 409—411, Paris, 1789. Pennant’s Arctic 
welt App: pcbil., Blunsenbech, Hlondbwol der No- 

511 lumen ch der Na-~ 
frgesclaht 253. Gotting. 1791. Benjamin —_ 
Barton, American Transactions, vol. iv. This 
was published separately under the title of A a 
concerning the Fascinating Faculty which has been as- 
cribed to the Rattlesnake, and oth American Serpents, 
-~ -Philadelphi Barton’s S to the above 

lemoir, . elphia, 1801. The preceding papers are 
published also in Nicholson's Journal, vol. vii. p. 270 ; 
vol. viii. p. 58, 100; vol. xiii. p. $00. Blumenbach’s 
Reply to Dr Smith Barton, was published in Voigis 
Magazin fur-der neussten astand der Naturkunde, Part 
il. 1798, andin Tilloch’s Phi ical Magazine, vol. 
ii. Pe 251. See also Ironside in the Phil. Mag. vol. xiv. 
= 19; Gentleman’s Magazine, 1765, p. 511; T 
os ~ ae p. 879; and Michaelis, 

pe orp wary 1785. (7 

Gre ‘partial or total abstinence of man- 
Kind andl anisole hen the ordi rondnatin 
ply of aliment, by which is to be understood that 


gener eaallsiliewas in a heal- 
ay aod goon given - few examples 


of the faculty —s 
STINENCE, creatures to resist 
, while ovina privation of sus 


serena eel oye ae ro 
uences ing of 
mankind. It is a prevalent opinion, that the sudden 


284 


FAS 
reduction of food will immediately 


q 


extent am dat death will ene See 
especially if to a great extent ; and death will ene 


sue from total privation, ‘even for the shortest term be-- 
rte ere our accustomed necessi- 
ties. ut n 


othing can be more erroneous ; for the re- 
verse is satisfactorily established by pee cr anew 
instances, 

me os animated tribes peace subsitene nee 
from the uncertain capture ’ in this num- 
pramarnoae ranked in hit orginal state ane in 
general capable of resisting impressions of hunger 
tor a considerable period. Sleep follows the labours of 
the chase, and digestion is not conducted with rapidity. 
Removed from that ori state, however, custom 
usurps the place of nature ; and, on looking to the enor- 
mous quantities of food consumed by those atound us, 
we should be apt to conclude, that not less than several 
pounds daily are required for the preservation of health 
incor giche, ths ecu snclias ooaipenseanueete 

n glo’ t an ce 
tite asa proportion of the population of these king~ 
doms, nor by whom any abridgment would be more 
sensibly + felt and it accordingly appears, that in war- 
fare, on occurrence of such occasions, the same ener- 
gies decline, which, to the combatants of other 
nations, have previously proved successful, — - 

In some eens seme a the supplies of fot 
are scanty and enjoying one a 
long interval ma: Sy clapes | before obtaining another ; yet 
the! aN ow do not —— Hy wees Continent of 

urope, the meals of the e for the most are 
few vane aiithe bicbioas qt asenrahe 
most universally abstemious: a cake of meal;and camel’s 
milk, are the chief subsistence of the Arabians :: millions 
of. Indians:subsist on rice alone, with water for their 
pen es be if we look into the state of the 

in some = the British dominions, 
we Scholae find many on ergeres | bat: 

Bi eva iis aniade wate ipcmnans 

ut there are countries 
though inhabited by men ; others have not yet been re~ 
claimed by agricultural operations, or, if sataen 4 
uncertainty of the cuales frequently disappoin 
paar of the husbandman ; and in this way does the 
tion of fasting arise. The vast continent of 
New’ olland, except for few and distant patches, ex- 


peer reste denn of steri berth mas 
searce offers any pacion 


persone Srblbeuneeeterpaneaidincbieneionten 
in so wide and ‘aterritory, the animal tribes can sel- 
dom be obtained for sustenance. ‘The incessant pursuit 
of those of size, as the ‘and kangaroo, 
has rendered ‘shy, while it diminishes their num~ 
bers. isa ous resource, both.from the 


precari 
- imperfect implements of the savages, from the. 
which constantly assail their coasts, and more 


from the of the fishes themselves. _ 
visages and emaciated bodies of the natives of the An- 
daman islands, indicate how sparingly the of 


nature are satisfied. They live in an : 
ded. state ; and, like brutes, their nat occu- 
pied in ly of food. Hitherto no at~ 
tempts saree stad bp them to cultivate the lands 
upon which they dwell ; and their whole subsistence’ is 
derived from what they can collect or kill. Though their. 
country be less i itable than that of the New Hal- 
landers, and their’ vegetable diet consist of the pro- 


| 
| 
: 
i 
; 
f 
‘ 


i, Hy | 


q 


ae 


= any eg 


‘great emp ee teeete Wome heyinnen sp dhrestes the 
ver expation a affords too many examples of 


BASTING. 
his hands and feet were cold, and pulsation almost ex- _ Fasting. 


ahesheiy meapce little. found thére which is pa- 
e to Europeans; and, as they have no vessel 
which can withstand the action of fire, they are unable 
to reap much advantage from such esculent herbs as 
ay be containedinthem. Their principal subsistence 
on. collecting fish from the reefs at the recess of 

tide ; and the greatest part of the drudgery of do- 

pe Leet) en nb ag ty tome rien A 
es with hunting in theforests. _- 


dent of natural sterility 


of 


1e bark of trees, which, with the addition of a little 


presented not to be unpalatable, while they are suffi- 


ient for the preservation of life. Famine more terri- 
experienced in populous countries, such as occur- 
in. , when’ many, 


the su: of abstinence ; but those 
peculiar mental 
morbid ‘state, or 


neipally 


nt 
sodsualnr 


Pissed ae ace a 
on acavity. He could raise his head, but 


285 


tinct. Immediate relief was afforded ; but next morn- 
ing he became indifferent about food, and, having an- 
nounced his own dissolution, expired in a few minutes, 
on Sunday afternoon, after’ seven days. This 
example illustrates the opinion of Hippocrates, though 
it is not corroborated by others, namely, that fasting 
less than seven days is not invariably. fatal, but after 
that period, notwithstanding individuals may. surviye 
and take food, their previous abstinehce will occasion 
death.. It is to be observed, that here was an instance 
of absolute privation. In the year 1768, Captain Kenne- 
dy was shi eked, with 12 companions, in the West 
Indies. They | served a small quantity of provisions, 
which were ly consumed in seven days, amidstextra- 
ordinary distresses. During eight succeeding days, 
though in absolute want, of meat.and drink, and 
exposed in an boat, the whole survived ; but, af- 
ter obtaining relief, some of the people perished. In 
this case they were evidently supported by being fre- 
quently drenched with sea-water. Sir William Hamil- 
ton, in an account of a dreadful earthquake which de- 
vastated Sicily and Calabria in the year.1783, relates 
that he saw two girls who were miraculously preserved 
in the ruins of ahouse. One had nm eleven en- 
tire days, and the other Six, totally deprived of food. 

_ It must not escape observation, that the difference be- 
tween absolute privation,of food, and a supply of any 
portion of it, is incommensurable. The same may. al- 
most be said of water ; for it materially contributes to 
preserve life :, and hence the difficulties. of ascertaining 
what is truly protracted fasting. The Negro couriers, 
i Stag Nase ig io on the western coast of Adee, 
tiguing journeys on about four 

ounces yi daily... It is Sail that, in common situa- 
tions, both they and the Moors are frequently seen to. 
subsist eight days on three ounces of gum daily, with- 
out diminution of health. or vigour ; and some 
maintain, that they can fast three days without any in- 
convenience. The whole store of a courier at his out- 
set, consists only of a pound of gum, a little grilled rice, 
and several ounces of hard animal jelly, compounded 
with a fourth of its weight in gum. This substance is 
decidedly nutritious ; we are told, that when the 
whole provisions. of a caravan had been exhausted in 
the desarts between .Abyssinia and. a thonsand 
subsisted on which was found to fee 

of the ; and the caravan 
bh am, tole The cor sae one, 

unger or di cony Negro cou~ | 
riers may possess particular qualities in re ay 
ger, such as that which, among the primitive inhabi- 
tants of this island, is said to have proved sufficient, if 
equivalent to a bean, for a whole day ; and some of the 
American Indians, when. i 
have similar ients for 


hip's biscuit divided into a number of 
daily. Captain Inglefield, and eleven men, of the 

taur man of war which fou -at sea in the yeay 
1782, sailed 800 miles in a yawl, while their sole provi- 
sions consisted of a twelfth part of a biscuit for each 
of two meals a day;.and/a glass of water, continued 


286 FASTING. 


‘of Captain and 18 of the Bounty. 
i i 18 men > 
who lied a qrent paren of 3600 miles in an open 


q : 
size of a , was accidentally caught, it served for a 
dntal to (oe whole crew. We dull not be woth ourpri- 


sed, therefore, at the — made by some le 
en hcmselvs, from ‘hich appeared. that ting 
on half a pound of bread daily with a pint of liquid was 

ive of no inconvenience. Still there is an infi- 
nite difference between all this and absolute privation, 
because nutriment is derived from the solids received, 
and these solids may be of very various descriptions. 
Sea weed has afforded many grateful meals to fumished 
sailors. Inthe year 1652, two brothers, accidentally 
abandoned on an islet in a lake of Norway, subsisted 
twelve days on grass and sorrel, and suffered nothing 
in consequence of their diet. 

Few instances can be given of absolute privation both 
of solids and liquids ; but in the case above referred to, 
where 72 persons took shelter in the shrouds of a ves- 
sel, fourteen actually survived during twenty-three days 
without food, though a few drops of rain were occasion- 
ally caught in their mouths as they fell. Some of the 
survivors also drank sea water, but it was not so with all. 
In the year 1789, it appears that Caleb Elliott, a reli- 
gions visionary, determined to fast forty days. Du- 
ring sixteen he obstinately refused all kinds of suste- 
nance, and then died, being literally starved to death. 
It is said, that not long two convicts in the jail of 
Edinburgh lived folarecth di s without food, and recei- 
ving liquids only ; and in the records of the Tower of 
London, there is to be preserved an instance 
of a Scotchman, who, strictly watched, was seen to fast 
during six weeks, after which he was liberated on account 
of his uncommon powers of abstinence. Morgagni, an 
Italian physician, refers to an instance ofa woman, who 

ly all sustenance, except twice’ during 

fifty days, and took only a small quantity of water, 
the died. An avalanche some years ago over- 
whelmed a vi in Switzerland, and entombed three 
women in a 


fla with the juice of oranges. He took no exer- 
cle, slept Tito, ani 


successfully dispelled his religious aberrations: but 
aay Tom i 


ty-eighth from the date of his abstinence. An analo- 
gous case has been quoted by the same physician, of an 
Insane person, who survived 47 days’ on a pint and a 
half of water daily, during which time he obstin: 
stood 88 days in the same position. From extreme 
weakness he lay down during the remainder, still refu- 
sing any thing’ but water ; nor did this extraordinary 
abstinence prove fatal. f 
Perhaps we should find many examples of fasting for a 
much longer period, on ing to morbid conditions of 
the body ; such as that of Janet M‘Leod,a’ Scotish 
female, who, after epilepsy and fever, remi red five 
eee in bed, seldom , and receiving food or 
yy constraint. At e obstinately refused 
sustenance, her jaws became locked, and in attem 
to force them two of her were broken. 


small quantity of liquid Sita ne 


rs. 
ae of 
eS 


palm of her hand. It is not evident that her con 
cence ever was complete, and it rather is to be 
that she always remained in a debilitated con 

After these ‘ i instances chiefly 
to our own wra, to which many more might 
we shall probably be less in us in lists 
accounts of the older authors ; and although we 
refuse to go to the same extent ‘that they have do 
cannot reject those exampl cee 


Pe | +f 


; 


I 
: 


Fl 


es which do not ex 
terms of duration here specified. Yet it i 
to be too careful of imposture, of which the: 


bs 


clines tomake a systematic division of the duration of fast- 
ods, which he designs short, inter~ 


mited to three days; the’ second happens ‘ > 
but life is in hazard, and it embraces an interval with- 
in the sixth day. AJ fasting beyond that time; belongs 


att Me * 


FASTING. 


voured, to ase the cravings of h 3 every 
animal, the most istherene sapien are welcome sus- 
of trees. John Lery, who endured the extremity of 
famine in a voyage to Brazil, Lay ere declared, 
had been ashore ; 


famine from sieges, shipwreck, or the failure of ex- 


Diminution of size, and the prostration of 
strength, are almost immediatel, ent to 
abstinence. The extremities of Datives of 


i ; his arms alone remain withered, stiff, 
and motionless, and as hard as timber.” Extenuation 
and v s follow sudden. changes from sustenance 


on animal to vegetabl 


: e i M1 
known, those who subsist solely on othe aoe 


the latter are not 


237 
capable of the same personal exertions as those copi- 
ah supplied with th e former. Along with vk. 
tion, there ensues the suppression of the alvine excre- 
tions, though secretions by the kidneys continue, and 
it is remarkable that drenching the og frequently 
with water uces an augmentation of the latter. 
Duri is period a material alteration is taking 
lace in the mind; men become wild, and ferocious, 
ey view each other with malevolence, they are quar- 
relsome, turbulent, and equally regardless of their own 
fate as of the safety of their neighbours ; they actually 
resemble so many beasts of prey. The sensations of 
hunger from protracted fasting are not alike in all, or 
it may be, that immediate languor operates strongly on 
those by whom it is not so severely felt. But it is 
certain that, after a icular time, ri ae inclination for 
food is experienced, though great {desire remains of 
quenching thirst. The Genevese physician describes 
his hunger as having been keen, but never painful. 
During the first and second days of abstinence, he be- 
came faint on attempting any mental or personal exer- 
tion ; and a sensation of cold was diffused over his 
whole frame, more ially affecting the extremities. 
Captain Inglefield, of the Centaur, expresses his conso- 
lotary feelings on seeing one of his. companions perish, 
“ that dying of hunger was not so dreadful as imagina- 
tion had pictured.” A survivor of that miserable ship- 
wreck, w so many people hung twenty-three days 
in the shrouds, observes, that he did not suffer much 
during the first three from want of food; that after 
more he was surprised to have existed so 
long, and concluded, that each succeeding day would be 
his last To these examples may be added that of Cap- 
tain Kennedy, who considered it sin r, that although 
he tasted neither meat nor drink during eight entire 
days, he did not feel the sensations of hunger and thirst. 
niess for timely succour, the human frame yields 
under such privations, idiotcy succeeds ferocity, or the 
sufferer dies raving mad. Should the consequences 
not be fatal, Jortings disoneee are frequently occasioned, 
by the tone of the different organs being injured, some- 
times incurable, and sometimes admitting palliation. 


It is evident, however, from the preceding observa. 


tions, that protracted fasting is not so destructive as is 
commonly credited, and mankind may, without 
danger, remain entire days destitute of food. Liquids are 
an effectual substitute for solids in. preserving life, and 
drenching the body with salt or fresh water, or laving 
it copiously on the head, materially contribute in avert« 
ing death by famine. See Philosophical Transactions, 
1783... Memoirs of the Manchester Society for 1785, 
vol, iii. Lerius Navigationes in Brasiliam. Asiatic 
Researches, vol. iv..p. 386. Syme’s . to Ava, 
p- 130. Mackay’s Narrative of the Shipwreck of the 
Juno. Annual Register for 1768 and.1783. Gentle 
man’s Magazine, 1789, Licetus, De his qui diu vi-+ 
vunt, sine alimento. (c 

FATA Morgana, is the name given to an optical 

enomenon, sometimes seen in the straits of Messina, 

ween the Island of Sicily and the,talian coast. This 
remarkable phenomenon, which has nothitherto received 
any explanation, has been described by Kircher, Ange- 
lucci, Se Giardina, Gallo, Leanti, Brydone, Swin- 


-burne, and F. Antonio. Minasi, the last of whom pub- 
lished. a dissertation on the subject at Rome, in 1793. 


Pr on ei nengtiy: me Fata Mor; three ime, 
Minasi yen us. ollowing description of it, 
which we believe to be the most correct thethad hither- 
to been published, 


Fasting, 
Fata 


Morgana. 
— 


b Be Sied'ts the caeant "the Aseteliee placed 
ik cniants ofthe city, ie recat ting plas 
and his face to the sea; on a sudden there appears in 
the water, as in a ca theatre, various multiplied 
less series of arches, 


wise in the air, though not so distinct or well defined 
as the former objects from the sea. 


Lastly, if the air be slightly hazy and opaque, and ‘su 


at the same time dewy, and adapted to form the iris, 
then the above mentioned objects will only at 
the surface of the sea, as in the first case, but all vivid- 
ly coloured or fringed with red, green, blue, and other 
ic colours.” 
Minasi divides these phenomena into three classes ; 


the marine morgana, the aerial morgana, and the pris- — 


matic morgana ; and he endeavours to prove, that all 


the appeara -es are representations of the objects u 
p= nner He comaiders the bok be" Saale 


um, on account of the rapid current which runs 
trough the straits; and he supposes it to be divided 
into t planes, by the contrary eddies which take 
place when the current its direction. He as- 
cribes the aerial morgana, to the refractive and reflec. 
tive power of effluviee suspended in theair. © 
Many other phenomena of a similar kind, have been 
Jong observed under the names of Looming and Mirage. 
In our article Sonnet states we have mentioned a very 
phenomenon observed by Dr Vince of Cam- 
Srilge and Dr Buchan has deseribed another in Ni- 
cholson s Journal, vol. xiv. All these phenomena ob- 
reer Rered from the rarefaction of the air in the 


neigh hood of the surface of the sea, in consequence - 


of which, a distant obj to be depressed in- 
sed of elevated by the refraction; ee 
seen depressed elevated, one of 

having in general an inverted position. Dr Wollas- 
ton has inv this subject with much ingenui 
and has shewn, that this class of rth 
imitated, either by viewing a distant object alo 

hot poker, or through a saline or saccharine so 


with water and spirit of wine ae upon it on 
Nieholeon’s te ae vol. i, 4to, and vol. xiv. page 840, ‘ 
8vo, Wollaston, Phil. Trans. 1798. Gilbert's Jour- - 


nal, vol. xvii.p. 183, DrThomas Young's Natural Philo. 
sophy, vol. i. p. 441, 442. Vince, h Transac« 
tions yol. vi. p. 245. Biot, Mem. de ? Institut. ; and our 
articles Armotrusne and Rerracrion. () 


of which it is composed form ‘an an irregular arin! 
ee a ee Many: 


formed of stone 

1s at west ali 

and termiasted by mtociaguiaeyies ? feet 

igh The interior of the church underwent @ thorough 

sepeie tn eee ras eke Se Oe ee 
aad z 


of the belfiy. ‘ rue 
The guildhall; de tacos was built “oF of tinier : 

in 1594, and has an open space between the i be- 

neath. sh aensaeeh eadcien founded 


pee 16, and supported chiefly 

ne taaeorheg amend Ponee 12 poor 
rane 12 winks. Tere are also shows snd ater 
benefactions, for the poor. The brent 
brated abbey of Faversham, were once extensive and 
numerous. © The two entrance gates remained till a 
47 years ago, when: er 
now remains but the outer walls of the ; 


pposed before 
the time of Elizabeth. The sin lr 
individuals by government in 1760, and were soon’ 
eae 2 ORE hE eS ‘The 
rent mills and storehouses are p 


quantity of powder manufactu 
red annually, amounts :to -between 12,000 and 13,06 
ene to about '400 
— The wn up in 1761, by the ex- 
The mis were ph ret noise was 

Pece so nage imeheete 

The oyster fishery is the: cures ofthe ra 
eHameatiann teal teas  farnlice being 
by it. Bc Pern oe ae 
annually exported to Holland to the eee 
Senden te neg aerien ibang fis en a pe 

wi uantities 
sham sup ripe great q P comm, 


oysters. “Eve 

‘he followi ence are 
in 46145 including’ the out-Hberty: Math 
Number of houses... ... Peay Sie" 
98 

- 

Females 2-04:5°5%).G00h, MEN cS ogy ae 

Vet popuain a SS Se ved 


eae <2 Peo 


eS 


Oo Ge Ar 


‘miles long and 9 wide. ‘The prin- 
cipal town is called Villa de Horta, before which is the 
semicircular bay or road of Fayal, about two miles 
an aed spree cede bea 


town, according to 
is West Long. 28° 41’ 48”, and North Lat. 38° 30’ 55”. 
See Azores, for a account of the Islands. 


FE ps Bocora Santa. See SANTA FE DE Bocora. 
FEATHERS... See Anatomy Comparative, and 

OrnirHoLoey. bole > apr L 
-FEEJEE, the name of a ——— in the 
ly of which were 


Several 


z 
i 


$ 
i 
i 
PE 
i 


i 
5 
: 
| 
i 


in 
north of those which he had formerly vi- 
ing.crossed his former track, he doubled 
of the in East Long. 178°, and 
19° or 15°. i 


sre 
Q 
; 
> 


f 
a 


& 
: 
E 


BF 


year 1794, Captain Barber saw six islands in 
western part of the p; and having anchored in 
bay on the western side of the largest one, his. ship 
-was attacked. by the natives in a number of canoes, 


In 


ef 


which were soon He found the navigation 
very difficult. and in Cook was in- 
formed that Feejee wasa but fertile island, abound- 
ing in hogs, dogs, fowls, and all kinds of fruits. 

ithe F ns are a distinct race from the inhabitants 
of Ti speaking erent language, and ma- 


metueereyaemi a 
i 7 3 west ¢ Li i, in » 14° 21’, 
pi ag op pp nabenceee pelo 


‘resembles a truncated cone, and incloses a hollow 


40 feet deep, and about 2640 in ci called the 

Ditch of Fern, which is now in cultivation. It is sup-~ 

posed - to have been anciently the crater 
VOL. IX. PARTI. 


289 


PEL 


from whose lava the island was formed. The soil is Felicuda. 


composed of. half pulverulent tufa, resting 

There is alsoa email isolated hill, to the south-east of the 
principal mountain, and about ‘half its height. It has 
the appearance of a broken cone, trun at the top, 
where it forms a hollow owing towards the bottom, 
and eed 6 PRE of lava imbedded in earthy tufa : 
the exterior e hill is lava. - ; 

Though yet unprovided with a lar harbour, Fe- 
licuda has two bays, the one on lie dontli the other on 
a ev ded side of the island, by one or other of 
which a landing may easily be effected, in any direction 
of the wind. A “A if 


The shore is almost wholly composed of various Ide Minerals. 


we — eather bay have eaters: base 
a lig elspar ; include needles of black 
Gnd Thseeas aches with small on nselbeminbpsaniben cr 
. Ime many parts. they resemble 
Perec Sen ddeeant o ity of their va- 
cuities, the production of which been ascribed to 
the action of gas, when the lava was in a state of fusion. 
About a hundred and fifty paces to the left of the bay 
stands a fine rock of prismatic lava, 30 feet high. From 
the top downwards itis perfectly smooth, to about 12 feet 
abovethe surface of the sea, where it begins to assume the 
prismatic form, dividing into a number of three-sided 
isms, and continuing this form under water. The 
of this lava is an.extremely: compact iron-coloured 
hornstone. It contains a great number of small rhom- 
boidal schorls, with some grains of amorphous felspar. 
A little farther to the left, is the Grotta del Bove Ma- 
rino ; the entrance is 60 feet in breadth, and above 40 
in height : it forms a kind of porch, which conducts to 
ahall 200 feet long, 120 broad, and 65 in height.’ It 
a PCH RE PN Nec RE BRIE ee 
porous schorl ; it is ofa colour, interspersed wi 
white shining rhomaboidal felspars, and is magnetic at 
the distance of half a line, but its power is increased 
by fusion : like the rock mentioned, it sepa- 
rates into prisms before eo water. Beyond 
this cavern is a high ipice, which descends into the 
sea, and is. oieasmnantenae alternate beds of lava 
and ‘Spallanzani counted .eleven of each. The 
remaining part of the shore consists chiefly of pris< 
matic lavas, having for their base the hornstone and 
schorl in the mass. “za 
The lavas of the interior are of three different kinds, 
of two of which the base is hornstone, and of the third 


converts them into a vitreous froth. The pumices are 
ity,,and always in very detached 
are of two kinds; the one light and po« 
rous, the other, entirely without pores, of a smooth 
fracture, and of considerable weight and 


Taaeasenliiaisanleaetnovsedcpellemnandaaiiaieg: 
All of them with very brilliant scales: of vi- 


treous felspar, and in the furnace contract into a shin- 
ing black enamel, interspersed with the whitish scales 
the felspar. 


The climate of Felicuda is bracing and healthy ; the Climate. 
20 


on lava. “v= 


laobabstants. 


air is remarkably , and seldom contaminated with erect queue, several inches long, is woolly, and of Feloopy, 
Sige ap wapeseey tho coll fo ecm , and consists entire- r length than that of ne in ger The 
ly of pulverised tufa. The island, however, abounds is allowed to grow, and is in like man- 
in vines, which afford an excellent wine. It has also ner, so as to advance in a point ¢ some inches 
Indian figs, and some olive trees, and gives a toler- from the chin. Rena ay om | aring greater 
able crop of wheat and barley. The value of the to- resemblance to those of the than of ne- 
tal produce, including that of the vintage, was estima- gee, Bay have a wild and melancholy east ; 
ted by Spallanzani at 4000 Neapolitan crowns. Its See ee te ee 
ima) productions are not more numerous than those ful disposition. They hold very little intercourse 
of the vegetable kingdom. Of amphibious animals, their neighbours, are ly jealous of their 


(the Lacerta agilis of Lin. rpent ot 
i i on any of the group, owing, it is 
thought, to the paucity of those insects, and other small 


are 
which 


s a scene of unambitious and cheerful 
tranquillity, which even in its highest anticipations 
scarcely looks beyond the wants of nature. Their es 
are mere hovels, rudely constructed of blocks of lava, 


and seem hung like the nests of birds to the precipitous 
eliffs of their mountains. This si custom was first 
occasioned by the ent attacks of the Tu- 
nisian corsairs, with which the i was formerly much 


harassed, and which at length compelled the inhabi- 
tants to transfer their residence from the lower parts. of 
the island to those declivities of the mountains, which 
are less accessible to piratical surprise. Their food, in 
, consists of wild fruits, and a sort of black bar- 
bread, before them in the coarsest dishes, or 
on the bare d,on which they are seated to receiveit. 
They sometimes indulge themselves with the luxury. of 
salt fish and pure water. This last article is extremel 
scarce, there not being a single spring on the island, 
which makes it necessary to preserve the rain water in 
cisterns. Few of these people employ themselves in 
fishing, in which they use the hook and line, Their 
principal ion is agriculture ; and it is wonderful 
with what industry they cultivate, and with what at- 
tachment they cling to wretched soil, which thus 
scantily repays their ever-patient exertions. 
would not exchange it,” sa; i, “ for the For- 
tunate Isles.” (v) Ap ea 
FELIS. See Mammauia, ; 
; FELOOPS, or Fenuprs, a tribe of inhabit- 
ing the western coast of Africa, between the Gambia 
prieemn we oe of the river Casamanza. The whole ex- 
tent territory occupied by them, is about seven- 
ty-five miles in length Sy a in breadth, ter- 
minating to the east near the sources of the latter river, 


_ In stature -are short and stout, but strong 
and swift ; pen Arapapaitonge pe ony ar e 
and their hair, which they collect on the crown in an 
5 


These in common with other tribes in diffe. 
rent parts of the world, cover their faceand skin by akind 
of tattooing or scarification, with strange and 
hey go almost naked, except for a scanty 


mathe hate known of th religion of the 
Nothing whatever is e relig e 
Foleops hut te focigs hy tie ae ol arte baer 
about their th eeply tinctured with 


is reputed difficult, and their traffic being carried on 
by means of a factor or third person, 


arya cewerriar SS and eed 
ans. But the simple savage is 3 de 

ot; for after having departed with brn 

pang ica recy cephatily esied oa 
tains a consi le ce, ‘ically desi 

« cheating mo "a0 the reward of hie tralia.” 
co in the woods is made into an intoxica- 
ting liquor resembling mead. This is one pri 
ingredient at their feasts, eager de cokes 
fatally, often ensue when the whole party is in a state 
of intoxication. One singular feature in their manners 
is now disclosed, intimately resi 


aa 
ee 
i 
i 
Ee 
fF 
i 
f 


i 
a 
ay 


: 
Eg 
F 
é 
i 
ef 
fF 


i 
z' 


u 
Ey 


‘ 
r 
i 


tion: tawanie. thes, beneiastoalil aaa) Whats 
trusted to their charge is preserved with 


< 
§ 


FEN 


‘eS Sirdkgein: «6 


blishments on the river Gambia, it is said to be other- 
Portuguese settlements on the Casaman- 
are common and familiar with the 


' ws Gol- 
otenusnies ly ee o! 
berry mare en Afrique, tom ii. Park's Travels, p. 
218. (c 
» FELSPAR. See Mineratocy. 

FENCE. See Acricutture. 

FENS. See Drarninc. 

FENELON, Francis pe Satignac De 1a Morte, 

: of Cambrai, 

cient and 


i, was 


able in the mode of his education, which was entrusted 
to the care of a private r; but, in a few years, 
he acquired under this instructor a more extensive know- 
oy Sis nosh metre cae yb ages, than is usual. 
25 meat and to this circumstance 
perfection iy Aco 


mitted to preach in public at the age of fifteen. 

id di ing relative, rather alarmed than 
gratified by the encomiums which this premature ap- 
pearance had excited, and anxious to secure his nephew's 


291 


FEN 

inexperience fromm the snares of youthful vanity, placed 
him at the seminary of St Sulpice, under the care of its 
learned and pious superior M. Tronson. From the ex« 
ample and instructions of this excellent person, the 
youthful Fenelon derived his relish of those clerical vir- 


tues, of which he afterwards exhibited so a pat- 
tern ; and received those impressions of elevated piety, 
by which he was Meandtanntin distinguished during the 
whole course of his life. When he was sixteen 


of age, he formed the determination of devoting 
himeelf to the missions in Canada, where the seminary 
of St Sulpice had a considerable establishment; and 
neither the influence of his tutor, nor the remonstrances 
of his friends, were able to shake his purpose. But at 
length his uncle, the bishop of Sarlat, on the ground 
of his nephew’s extreme youth and infirm state of health, 
explicitly refused to grant permission. for his departure, 
and ordered him to remain at St Sulpice, that, by longer 
study and retirement, he might qualify himself for the 
exercise of the ministry. Having been ordained at St 
Sulpice, he devoted himself for the of three years 
to i of his functions in that parish ; 
and, after that period, was appointed to explain the 
scriptures to the people on Sundays and festival days. 
About the year 1674, he was invited by his uncle to 
Sarlat, and resumed with additional zeal his missionary 
views, choosing the Levant as the scene of his labours ; 
but his friends succeeded in finding for him a more 
suitable, yet very similar course of ministration ; and, 
at 27 years of age, he was nominated the superior of 
an institution for ing in the faith the newly-con« 
verted female Cethciion.i sie this humble employment, 
which ired only the simpler forms of instruction, 
the more minute details of knowledge, and the milder 
topics of persuasion, he ten whole years in the 
prime of life ;-but, while faithfully engaged in these 
obscure and unhonoured duties, he was eens by 
study and meditation. those higher talents which con- 
tributed to'render him so bright an ornament of the 
Christian church, Though the Marquis his uncle, with 
whom he resided, passed his life in religious retirement, 


yet he retained the intance of a few select friends, 
to whose notice he introduced his ni w, and in whose 
society he enjoyed many ities of improvement, 


epportunities 
Among these were the Duke de Beauvilliers, who was 


afterwards governor to the Duke of Burgundy, and the 
celebrated Bossuet, who held the situation of tor 
to the Dauphin. He ily recommended hi to 


the esteem and confidence of that distinguished prelate ; 
and profited by his instructions, while he s his in. 
timacy. During wet esanh en om his first work, 
a treatise on “ the Education of a Daughter,” which 
he wrote at the request of the Duchess de Beauvilliers, 
and which has been rather imitated than surpassed by 
future writers on the subject. In 1686, he was placed 
by Louis XIV. at the head of the missionaries, who 
were sent to Poitou and Sai , to convert to the 
Catholic faith the Protestants in these provinces, whose 
pastors had been driven into exile; and having been 
allowed to choose his , and authorized to dis- 
miss the military who had hitherto acted.as the 

of the'chiirch, he repaired to the scene of his:duties with 
all the zeal of a Romish missionary, tem 1 with the 
spirit of Christian conciliation. But h he was 


received war TE RE ee and se- 


dulously removed every instrument of coercion, he per- 
ceived that his converts were chiefly influenced by fear, 
im consequence of the violent measures which’ were 
pursued in other provinces; and it would seem, that 


Fenelon, 


. 


vevekom his proteedings ; 
re In consequence of 
his own request, he ved permission to return to 


292 
sand 


Paris, where he gave an ‘account of his mission to the 
king in person ; and contentedly resuming his humble 
functions among the “ Nouvelles Catholiques,” he was 
more than two years without once appearing at court. 
He was too ind Gerent about his personal interests to 
employ the ordinary means of ion ; and even his 
ing character did not him from the 
machinations of envy and malevolence. He had been 
selected for the Bishopric of Poictiers, and his nomina- 
tion even sanctioned by the king, but it was revoked 
before Se public ; and at the earnest applica- 
tion of the Bishop of Rochelle, who had witnessed his 
fidelity in the Protestant provinces, he was on the eve 
of being nominated to assist and succeed that aged pre- 
late ; but means were found to prevent also the accom- 
plishment of this plan. In both these cases, his success 
was obstructed by the secret influence of Harlai, arch- 
bishop of Paris, who never forgave Fenelon the decided 
nee which he had shewn for his rival Bossuet’s 
iendship, and who is said to have gained his ends by 
rendering him suspected of a tendency to Jansenism, 
Having published, however, in 1688, his treatise on 
** the Education of a Daughter,” and another on “ the 
Ministry of Pastors,” which had both been long ap- 
proved by his friends in Manuscript, his merits became 
amore generally known; and an unforeseen event sud- 
denly placed him in a situation, which fully displayed 
the superior lustre of his character, His friend, the 
Duke de Beauvilliers, having been appointed by Louis 
XIV. governor to his grandson the Duke of Burgundy, 
and having been allowed to select his own jutors 
in this important trust, without a moment's delay, no- 
minated the Abbé de Fenelon p or to the 
‘prince. Fenelon, equally free in choice of those 
who were to act under his direction,’ selected as sub- 
ee a the Abbé de Langeron, Abbé Fleury, and 
‘his own nephew Abbé de Beaumont; and with these 
waluable friends, all men of talents and piety, he enter- 
.ed on his arduous office in September 1689. He had, 
‘indeed, no ordinary task to fulfil, the formation of a 
good king to twenty millions of people, and the most 
unpromising materials in the character of his pupil. 
‘The young Duke of Burgundy was naturally irritable, 
unfeeling, obstinate, proud, impatient of controul, the 
slave of sensual pleasure, and so furious in his’ 4 
that ‘ it was sometimes feared,” says St Simon, eae 
-very veins of his body would burst ;” yet the powers of 
his mind were of the highest order, acute, brilliant, 
profonnd. All who were entrusted with the of 
this i youth, acted as with one mind, and 


upon the same ; but Fenelon was the soul, which 
animated and their joint operations. A detail 
of their would furnish at once an interest- 


ing and instructive work ; and some idea of the method 
pursued may be formed from the Fables and Dialogues 
which Fenelon wrote for his pupil, and which were 
severally composed at the moment when the young 
prince required some fault to be corrected, or some use- 

maxim to be impressed upon his mind. Several 
curious particulars have been recorded by Bausset, but 
we have room only to state the result. So great’was 
the Duke’s proficiency in classical attainments, that in 
his tenth year he wrote Latin with elegance, and was 
eee tentiote tasinidat difficult authors with i 
sion ; and what was more important, his character was 
so radically changed by the instrumentality of his pree 


FENELON. 
ceptor, that his most fearful vices were succeeded by 


the ite virtues, and he was rendered mild, affable. 
pre patient, humble, and austere towards himself 


It was by religi inciple, that the sagacious p 
ceptor efaeand nc renainlte a transformation ; nik a0 
powerful was its influence over the mind of the 
prince, that his most imperious caprices were ofteit sub- 
dued in an instant by merely pronouncing to him the 
name of God. | ri so SRA tego 
Fenelon conducted, at the same time, and with equal 
attention, the education of the brothers of the Dake of 


two resolutions, from the observance of which he ne« 
ver deviated. The one was, to askno favour for him« 
self; and the other, to'ask none for his relatives and 
friends. It from his letters to his cousin, Mas 
dame de Saval, that, after he had been four years at 


some help. I will not suffer you to make: any efforts 

shojinennaitenh® & shall send back what 
you would lend me. I prefer to:suffer. Let them for- 
ward to me from Carenac as much money as they can, 
after having, however, distributed the mala 
alms; for I would+rather live upon ql in 
the strictest sense of the word, than suffer the’ poor 
of my benefice to be reduced to’ the extremity of 
want.” Fenelon,at this v ee 
est esteem and confidence of Madame de Maintenon, 
by whose influence he might easily have supplied his 
wants, and secured his promotion, In the year 1694, 
however, the king himself attended to the just claims 
of a servant, in whose behalf he received no solicitas 
tions ; and, with apologies for the delay, communicat- 
ed to him in person his nomination to the Abbé of St 
Valery. In 1693, he had been. admitted:a m of 
the French Academy, and was daily rising in reputa~ 
tion as a writer of SP rer me 
and honours were at length rewarding his merit, a 
storm was beginning to gather, which clouded: his fu- 
ture days. . ayes heal ay Madame on, who in 
1688 had been imprisoned, on account of her heretical 
notions, in a convent near Paris, had been released by 
the interposition of Madame de Maintenon, and by her 


introduced to Fenelon, who had expressed a 
idendh of, sesitizantite with Siar 1genérah dedteiabe aa a 


creasing influence of her tenets, and were part- 
commissioned, to confer tog’ on the subjects, and 
né disclose the opinions of church on: the difficult 


. 4 xe 
ints which it involved. These examinators, at. the 
ronson, the ealy and attached feendof Fenclon 
M. , the early an friend of. 3 
and Fenelon himself. who beget ta Sial how much he 
was concerned in the result, was frequently consulted 


preci- respecting Cele ne on the qués~ 


tion. In the mean time, his: supposed errors 
were made the subject of any meet he was nomi-« 


tayhont 
oe 


lhe 


FENELON. 


Bebeles. nated, in 1695, to the archbishopric of Cambrai, and 
1B Seatene’ of his divinterentednées of es 


293 


Cambrai has etréd'froni an excess Of love to God; the Fetter: 
Bishop of Meaux has sinned from a want of due love “~v~* 


racter, 


and probation of’ pluratities, by immedi- 
resigning the Abbey of St Valery. He was re- 
¢ by the King still to retain his situation‘ as’ 
ceptor, and to reside at Versailles three months of every 
year, as the laws of the church allowed, while during 
the other nine he should communicate directions for the 
education of his pupils.  Searcely, however, had" he 
arrived at Cambrai, when he heard that Madame Guy- 
on was arrested ; and at once ived that her ene- 
mies were powerful,’ and that their hostility might ex- 
tend to himself. Her impradences ‘had irritated Bos- 
suet to adopt the harshest measures against her; and 
Fenelon’s reluctance to coneur in the same severe treat- 
ment and sweeping censures, rendered’ him an object 
of suspicion to many of his’ ecclesiastical contempora- 
ries, and: particulary vee to from him ‘his’ former 
familiar friend, the Bishop*of Meaux. Having'p 
himself, in the course of the vatious diseussions which 
took place, to give a public declaration of his own sen 
timents} ‘he wrote’ his ** Maxims of the Saints,” which 
he submitted before publication to the Cardinal de 
Noailles, to M. Tronson, and to’ M. Perot, a Doctor of 
the Sorbonne, an acute scholastic theologian, who had 
been one of the examinators’and censurers of Madame 
Guyon,and who had long been devoted to Bossuet. With 
a docility, which extorted their admiration, he altered 
every passage to which objected ; and. received 
rie a metarae—tsae that his book was correct and 
' Nosooner, however; did it appear, in 1697; 


than it was denounced as heretical ; and a scene of al- 
most inexplicable persecution commenced ‘against him, 
under the conduct of: Bossuet, who. accused 


him of fanaticism to the king, and determined to be 
satisfied with i urbe pitcaapel i sama an 
absolute recantation. 3 ipal question in the 
controversy -was, that Fenelon maintained the existence 
of a pure and disinterested love towards God ; while 
Bossuet ‘that this love should always have for 
its foundation the hope of celestial happiness. * © The 
Archbishop of Cambrai resolved to submit his work to 
the decision of the P. with 
the full issi the’ King: » But this would not 
i L isiti of his enemies; and, from ‘an 
amiable desire of conciliation, he entered into a variety 
of personal discussions ‘and explanations; of which his 
availed themselves to effect his disgrace at 

court. He received a peremptory order to retire to his 
diocese ; and was, at the same time, refused permission 
kare cause in at Rome. -flis most va- 
luable friends retained their attachment to his person 
os ey considera — oe either = fear or flat- 
tery; and the y Bi 3; having in 
nibvtlotaeaaet aaa his aaben vailed atleast, 
{though this favour was soon revoked), that he should 
be allowed to retain the title of his tor. ‘Irmo: 
cent XII. was very desirous to the affair in the 
most conciliatory manner ; but, in compliance with the 


aa of Louis XIV. he ten examinators 
of Fenelon’s work, five of voted in .its favour. 
Sy hiya t rei bir anh 


seer 


nvm 


Opinions, apparently ‘80 opposite and 


to his neighbour.” It has ‘also been said of the two 
characters, “ L’un ‘prouve la religion l’autre la fait 
aimer.” But a fresh remonstrance’ from the King of 
Frarice prevailed with the Pontiff to refer the examina- 
tion to the assembly of Cardinals; and, after a struggle 
highly honourable to the friends of Fenelon, a formal, 
but moderate, condemnation of his book, ‘was issued 
from the court of Rome in 1699. During the whole 
course of this enquiry, the mildness and serenity of the 
Archbishop formed a striking contrast with the asperity 
and rancour of his enemies; and, when he heard of 
his sentence, as he was ascending the pulpit on the 
day of the Annunciation, instantly changing the plan 
of the® discourse’ which he had prepared for that occa- 
sion,*he delivered a sermon on the duty of passive 
obedience, ‘which drew tears of admiration from his 
hearers. Actuated by a principle of religious resigna- 
tion to the will of God,’ and love of peace towards his 
enemies; he published a formal submission to his sen- 
tence. His conduct commanded universal admiration, 
and the Pope was so touched with his meekness, that 
he wrote to him’ a letter with many expressions ‘of re+ 
— Inthe general feeling of approbation ‘which 
whole'nation entertained towards the Archbishop, 


it was e that he would in be recalled to 
court, and reinstated in his former functions. But the 
strongest antipathy against him now appeared to have 


the minds both of the King and of Madame 
Maintenon ; and all the circumstances of their con« 
duct concur to confirm the suspicion that there existed 
some secret and more powerful cause of his late perse- 
eution than his theological opinions. Their refusal to 
authorise his return to Versailles, has been ascribed to 
the publication of “ Telemachus,” which a’servant of 
Fenelon’s' had, without his knowledge, first circulated 
in manuscript, and afterwards sold to:a printer at Pa- 
ris, This‘admirable production: was- denounced by 
the cotirt as‘‘a satire: upon the government of Louis 
XIV. ; ‘and the utmost exertions were made to suppress 
it for ever. — hy this opinion, though solemnly disclaim- 
ed by Fenelon, Madame de Maintenon coincided; and, 
whatever had been the intention of the author, the king 
could not but feel that its maxims were completely con- 
tradictory of those by which he had been guided. The 
avidity with which it was , and the approbation 
which it received in every nation of Europe; expressed 
rr pe apVatcanatatinnn if not of Louis him- 
self, yet e politi inciples by whieh: his rei 
inadl been direct ire These 7 évidietioeny tule. 
ever, ofan earlier and more inveterate dislike towards. 
Fenelon, in the heart of the favourite Madamede Main- 
tenon, and to whicl: his future di may be consi- 
dered as principally owing. That lady, not satisfied with 
bein lis taletepati depirel to become the wife of Louis ; 
but king’s confessor, Father la Chaise, referred the 
point'to therarchbishop of Cambrai, as theablest casuist 
at court. ‘His opinions were hostile to the hopes of Ma- 
dame de Maintenon ;\ and, from that moment, his ruin 
was meditated, +» But whatever may have been the im« 
mediate cause of that avowed! or secret hostility to- 
which he fell .a victim, there can be little doubt that he 
had become an object of undefined antipathy to the in. 
Bin Tot ; } ? 


“yy 


a Seman on TE a cema, arémiost ingeniously and satisfactorily reconciled by Bishop Horsley in: 
“ 7 Jd ; 7 ie Pp. igen, Stay § ; 
ot 808 Guardian, voli, Nos, 46, 47,48; and, Yolaite’s Hing deta alse de Lovin, XP, 


294 FENELON. 


the maxims and manners of that unpri | aang oe 
ame Guy 


and that, sooner or later, though M on had 
never existed, he must have been to with- 
draw from the scenes of public intrigue, But the per- 


uniform in a remarkable \ 
pongo g 2m ton - at 0 Pema 
mass every in hi roe # e noon, ac- 
— to the practice of those times, and partook 
only of the simplest food. All the ecclesiastics of his 
household were admitted to his table, where he promo- 
ted chearful conversation, while he preserved the most 
decorous behaviour. After dinner, he 
more formal business of his diocese ; and unless he was 
induced by the weather, or called in duty, to go abroad, 
generally retired till half past eight o'clock, About 
nine, he appeared at supper, where he ate nothing but an 
or pulse ; and about ten, his domestics were assem~- 
bled in the principal room, where an almoner read the 
evening prayers, and the archbishop pronounced the 
benediction. The only recreation in which he indul- 
ged, was walking; and he took great delight in the 
placid views of nature, the pious meditations when 
alone, and the pleasing conversations with his friends, 
which he enjoyed amidst these rural scenes. In the 
course of his walks, he would sit down upon the grass 
to converse with the peasants whom he met, or would 
visit them in their cottages, to offer the consolations 
which they required, and would often ber pare a 
vitation to porega their table, —- 
their m e preached regularly during 
Lent in md of the churches of Cambrai ;.and there 
parish or town in his diocese where he 


Socity wae Sr tnale pulghhontheal, top se 
of his was in their nei F p 

ced a guard for its preservation ; and the towns and 
pie pare his jurisdiction, became asylums to the 
i i of the surrounding country. In 1711, 
when the allied armies within sight of Cam- 
brai, the little town of i principal 
domain of the Archbishop, 


bourmg 

tection of Fenelon’s name, he informed him of the neces- 
sity forremoving it, and escorted thecarriages which con+ 
veyed it to the outposts ofthe oe The 
ey prelate availed himself e mer or 
ed to his p ,and the safe conduct provided for his 
person, to furnish relief and consolation to the suffer- 
ing people under his care. His was attended 
with a temporary suspension of the horrors of war, and 
the season of his pastoral visits, observes one of his bi- 


to write to him, dated in 1701, strongly expressed 
suslonenao,of bie enanas sud the digas One Ta 


the he had regarded the treatment to which he had been 
When ing through Cambrai in 1708, to take the — 


of the army along with Marshal de Boufilers, 
he obtained penntiesian to visit the i but on- 


the only words which 
i atered were these," Etery te Sted d asunder ; 
nothing now holds me to the earth.” Yet 


In the beginning of the year 1715, he was seized with 
an inflammation in his lungs, accompanied with conti- 
nued fever. He yo re the event, and appeared 


of the sacred scriptures; 
interest Se eae 
verses of the , and the first nine of the fifth chap- 
ters of the second epistle to the Corinthians. He 
in the 64th year of his age, on the 7th of January 1715, 
In the character of Fenelon, there appears an extra- 
i union of intellectual greatness and of moral 
excellence. The governing principle of his whole mind 
and conduct was the spirit of Christianity. 


z 


tions undebased the ny pews of a corrupted 
church. But his plety, while I : re 

most conciliating and attractive nature ; and his talents, 
scarcely less unrivalled, were exerted with a degree of 


modesty and affability, which are not often found to 


os pera 
ible integrity, softened id t den 
ced by attractive manners: this is more like a charac- 
A goats ape 


of these combined attractions, that, in the words of the 
Duke de St Simon, « il falloit faire effort pour cesser de 


more o! 
hed as much by the charms of his conversation, as 

the superiority of his talents. He always brought 

to the level of his company. He never dispu- 

to yield to others at the very time 
ae ret oot ae? 
greatest subjects with facility, 

t trifling were ermobled b is ~ 
bei esg ity gervehel Ma ORs pores 
singulari who # 

in un fe bad sublime simplicity, gave 
the air of a prophet. The peculiar 
of expression which he adopted, 
believe that he possessed universal 
inspiration : it might indeed have 


creep 
Te 
i 


sat 
H 


(i 
H 
al 


fy] 
i 


i The same 
pulpit of opgeieatd church, 
in a language suit- 
een aad de weak~ 
ings, and afterwards descend to 
of contacting te concer ofa gion." When 
i concerns of a king en 

the affairs of Louis XIV. were in a state of derange- 
ment ing to ruin, the Archbishop of Cambrai 
generously rendered him the most valuable political as- 
sistance. Amidst the labours of his diocese, he applied 
himself to.devise measures for re-organizing the cabi- 


net, and repairing the resources of France, and display- 
ed all the promptitude and sagacity of the most experi- 


enced statesman. He even controuled in some 
ili pel A oe of Burgundy, w 
_ made un 5 i 
ved himself fi neat 
presented itself to his con« 


_ Of his writings we have left ourselves little room to 
give a detailed account ; but they are such as must ren- 


destined yet with a 


LON. 295 


consumed his palace at Cambrai in 1697, destroyed 
many of his most valuable manuscripts, especially those 
which were corinected with the education of his royal 


by pupil, and upon which he had employed the best years 


life—an event which scarcely disturbed for a 
moment the habitual serenity of his mind, but which 
the friends of religion and of literature can never cease 
to deplore.* His Treatise on the Education of aDaugh- 
ter, published in 1687, thougt not originally intended 
for the public, may be considered as a compendium of 
~ most useful r ts Be the subject, sees with 

greatest simplicity and precision. His Treatise on 

the Ministry 0, Past SO a in 1688, is intended 
to vindicate the spiri authority of the church of 
Rome, and is at least written with a degree of candour 
and temper seldom found in ecclesiastical controversies. 
His various replies to his assailants on the subject of 
Quietism, were composed with astonishing rapidity, 
icuity and precision which seemed to 
Initiate the into the most difficult points in theo- 
logy, and with a subtilty of genius which confounded 
the talents of Bossuet himself. He wrote many pieces 
against the Jansenists, ially Four Pastoral Letters, 
printed in 1704; and his share in this contest is cer- 
tainly the least amiable part of his conduct. The Dia- 
of the Dead were composed for the use of his pu 
pil, and intended to fix upon his memory the real me« 
rits of the most distinguished characters recorded in his. 
tory. They were first published in 1712, after the 
Duke of Burgandy’e death, and without the author's 
hame or consent ; and it was not till 1730 that a com- 

edition was given to the world, The Adventures - 

of Telemachus, which was not originally desgons for 
publication, but entirely for the instruction of the Duke 


of Burgundy, seems to have been composed between : 
Lo bes ei and 1697; and as it appears to have - 


to remain a secret er david aia 
no 


tor and his pupil, this admirable ormance, 
the lucky treachery of a eenaciher” prevailed, might 
have shared the fate of the other papers in the young 


‘ agate cabinet, which Louis committed to the es, 


Demonstration of the Being of a God, which he pub- 
lished in 1713, is, to say the least, the best book en the, 
subject in the French . His Letters on Reli- 
gion and Metaphysics, written to the Duke of Orleans, 
were published after his death, and are chiefly suited 
toa member of the church of Rome, His Dialogues 
on the Eloquence of the Pulpit, were com in his 
youth, but never made known during his life, and not 
published till the year 1718. This production may be 
ey with Cardizial Maury, to be the best di- 

tic work for preachers, and to be founded upon the 
principles of nature and good sense, His-Lives of the 
Ancient Philosophers is an excellent elementary worl. 
for youth ; and a very neat translation, recently pub- 
lished by the Rev. Jolin Cormack, has made it accessi~ 
ble to the E reader. His Quvres Spirituelles, a 
collection of to his friends, also published after 
his death, contain many maxims of the most,sublime 
piety, and many excellent rules of conduct in the vari- 
ous circumstances of life. The few sermons which 
have been printed from the pen of Fenelon, were com- 
aide ing his youth for particular occasions, and 
urnish no idea of his usual pulpit addresses. The dis- 


* Louis XIV. is said to have committed to the flames, with his own hand, all the letters of Fenelon to the Duke of Burgundy, with 
only one exception, which Madame de Maintenon preserved, and sent to the Duke de Beauvilliers, : 


der his name immortal, and contribute essentially to Feneloa. 
the improvement of the human race. A fire, which “Vv 


FEN 


Yeas. course which he delivered in 1707, at the consecration 
—v~" of the Elector of Cologne, was adapt 


ose ipte ee 
cence of the » and proves 

rivalled the most eminent met of his time ; but it 
was his ordinary practice, a 


bat which ordi men would do well to follow with 
caution, Phase atte Wid indienne si :tida axon 
ordinary man, are referred to Querbeuf's Vie de Fene- 
fon; Ramsay's Hist. de la vie de M, Fenelon;, Eloge de 
an M. D'Alembert ; apd peaticelany. Bausset's 

en 


Life clon, translated by Mudford. (9) 
NTON, Exisan, an ah ces some note, 


was born near Newcastle in Staffordshire, of an ancient 
very considerable, But he 


and afterwards to Cambridge ; but doubting the lega- 
seen © qualify himself 
& public employment, by taking the requisite oaths, 


university without a degree. 
“tre f was thus excluded from the ordinary 


tuitous livelihood. The obscurity 
mode of life, renders it impossible to trace. his varyi 
circumstances, or to discover what means he for 
his support. It is certain, however, that he kept his 
name unsullied, and that his character has never been 
subj to any mean or dishonourable imputation. 
hectlpler oAe cy cay Rigebegadrk a2 of q 
in Flanders, and tutor to the,son of that nobleman. 
one time, he was. assistant in the school of Mr Bon- 
wicke in Surry, and at another kept a school of his own 
at Sevenoaks in Kent, which he brought into consider- 
able te ; but was persuaded to leave it, in 1710, by 


Mr St John, under a promise of some more 
able em] of which, however, he appears to 
have been dia inted. 


In 1707, he published a collection of poems, which 
gr yok im ion to the company of the wits of 
is time ; and his amiable manners made him be es- 
teemed by all who knew him. Alth he professed 
the principles of a non-juror, he zealously Pathe ed his 
pen in the praise of Queen Anne; and very li ly 
pow vyahy dies of ay , when he was at the 
height of his glory. t his elegant penegyrics do not 
seem to have procured him any patronage from the 


P Rewihe ben ere Peres him ina situation from 
w ve derived great advantage. 
when he became secretary of state shout 120, fealeg 
his want of literature, desired Pope to procure him an 
instructor, by whose assistance he might supply the 
deficiencies of his education. Pope rocteuinentied Rais 
ton, and his choice proved acceptable to Craggs. But 
the epot pe barge tae carried off the patron, and 
put an end to the pleasing expectations of Fenton. 

When P resolved to’ auxiliaries in the 
translation of the Odyssey, he uted twelve books 
between Broome and Fenton, The books allotted to 
the latter, were the first, the fourth, the nineteenth, 
and the twentieth. In what manner Fenton perform. 


FER 


i , nor corrected the press, was su ; 
Gecandtile of ctacrriment, "To! this'edition ke-peelae 
- ne nt account of pee ph pe 
ikewise publi |, in 1729, a very’ i ion. 

7 often weefl: snd chpetainidlly B 


tion, he had been invited by che brite of Sir ; 
Trambull to educate her son, whom he first 


stead, in Berkshire, where he died in 1730. asf 
. Fenton was large in stature, and it to, oes pu 
lence, which tendency was increased by a s ish and 

His por fics bs 


paise. Asa poet, he did not discover much in 
genius ; but he has a good title to be considered an 
complished scholar, and a skilful versifier. =~ 
Pope, who had lived in habits of sincere 4 
with Fenton, honoured his memory. with the follow 
., ; ‘ , * Dah OA She 
« This modest stone, which few vain marbles can, thls 
May tay say, ete Hes a Benet ma Pang 
spy: ef ih gh hae 
‘Wyhom heuy's Sigs suared any 8 proud and great; 

= 
- Cofitent with ablenee im le wale of gemtec 


regret, j 

From nature’s temp’ rate feast rose <p aah 

Thank'd heav'n that he had liv’d, and that he dy’a.* 

~ FERDINAND. See Spar. a, eee 

FERE La, the name of a town of France, in the de 

ent of the Aisne. It is situated near the 

re, which runs into the Oise. The town is 

and contains many excellent houses. It-was st 
fortified by Cardinal Mazarine, but is now dism 

In approaching it from Laon, -we- over a fos 

by a paltry wooden bri Sagat ster it by 
old gate. A stream, with several mills upon it, runs 
through the town. On leaving the town for St Quintin, 


et ee 


FERGUSON. 297 


the writer of this article perceived a branch of the St Cb domeetall Selene meas suede spake Fergucen. 

Quintin canal, where many vessels loaded with coals him the copy of the tley was butler to Mr “Vv” 
_ The surrounding coun- Grant of Achoynaney, appears to have been a man 
try is rich and well wooded. Number of houses 550. of singular attainments. Ferguson had the good for 
omer (@) tune to be introduced to Mr Grant, who invited him 
_. FERGUSON, James, a celebrated lecturer, and wri- to live in his house,—a request with which he gladly 
ter on astronomy and other branches of natural philo- complied as soon as his term of servitude was over. 
bie pend: ofraned a ype acinar of Cantley taught him decimal arithmetic and algebra, and 
in the north of Scotland, in the year 1710. pop to geometry, when Cantley left the 
his father was teaching his eldest son to.read theScotch service of Mr it for that of the Earl of Fife, whe 
Catechism, James niesinad jpeeeyrenend the same‘lesson, lived at several miles distance. “Cantley,” says Mr 
without the knowledge person, and as soon as Ferguson, “was the most extraordinary man that I 
Gips Catichiaen arsafuenenaployints he studied the lesson ever was acquainted with, or perhaps ever shall see ; for 
which had been taught to his brother, and, on the oc-' he was a complete master of arithmetic, a good mathe< 
currence of any difficulty, he had recourse to an old matician, a master of music on every known instrument 
woman who lived in the neighbourhood. Some time ee ee ee, 
i let extremely well, and could even prescribe as 

reading by himself. He immediately taught him wri- a physician on any t occasion.” 
ting, and, with about three months attendance at the ———— this extraordinary butler a 
i present 


grammar school of. ‘this was all the education Gordon’s Geographical Grammar, Ferguson 
which our author ever received. > constructed a globe from the description which is there 
When he was about seven or eight years of a given of it; and having delineated upon it a map of 
part of his father’s roof fell in, and a prop and a world, he was led to solve all the common 
were to an upright spar to raise it to its former problems in geography and astronomy. 

ili i i i F next went into the service of a miller, ex« 


erguson 

reer Semeunenonta, mie kits to pecting to have sufficient time to study decimal arith- 
it was i He metic and geometry. His master, however, fond of 
immediately began to construct levers; he discover- drinking, left him the whole charge of the mill, and 
ed that the power was proportional tothe length of the almost starved him for want of . As soon as he 
different parts of the lever on either side of the prop. had recovered the strength which he had lost by the 
He invented the wheel and axle, by endeavouring to erty of his diet, he went into the service of a Dr 
make a lever that would raise bodies to any height; and Young, who acted in the joint capacity of a farmer and 
by means of a turning lathe of his father’s, alittle aphysician, and who ised to instruct him in the 
knife, he was enabled to make models of these different medical profession. This new master, however, was 
ines. Ferguson afterwards wrote out a short ac- as bad as the former one. He never even shewed him 


count of these machines, illustrated with fi,ures; and one of his books, and overwrought him to such a de- 
upon shewing it to a gentleman, he was to gree, that at the end of three. months he was obliged 
learn that the same s had been known before, and to leave him in a state of debility, and without 
was much to observe that his own account co- receiving a farthing of wages. This inhuman doctor 


incided with what he found in other books. 


the day-time he made models of mills and spinning afterwards, when a gentleman was riding past his fa- 
wheels. Our author next went into the service of a ther’s house, he him what o'clock it was; and 
peeeraied heen hvger mgr When his ing received a very good-natured answer, he 
was over, i 


work 
went into the fields with a blanket about ged of him to shew him the inside of his watch, as 
i beads could not conceive how it went without a weight and 
; 


700 then laying the down upon a request, and not ouly shewed him the inside of his 


nF 
Prk 
= 
2 
t 
= 
g 
; 


® piece of paper, he stars upon it accord- watch, but explained to him very clearly in what man- 
ing to their respective positions. His master at first ner the box was carried round by the uncoiling of the 
laughed at this apparently ridiculous occupation ; but spring. Ferguson then tried to construct a watch with 
as soon as he knew the object of it, he not only en- wooden wheels, and a whalebone spring; but u: 
Pct g ony padhersed powcr bre putting on the balance, he found that the teeth of the 
torn hantuiadilen OD that he might Sdvoapht icehaliotod tan ten ere A 
ve im during make clean copies of wheels ran enough when the balance 
his rude planispheres. He soon after received from the was off. He inclosed the whole in a wooden 


minister of Keith a map of the earth, and compasses, case, a little than a breakfast cup; but a chu 
r i i y looking at the watch, allowed it to 


one 
it; and his generous master frequently took the and crushed it to pieces with his foot. Ferguson 
ing flail out of his hands and worked himself, while was next employed in cleaning. and iring clocks ; 
Ferguson was sitting beside him in the barn busy with and when he was living at the of Sir James Dun- 


his ruler and compasses. Upon his return to the mini- bar‘of Durn, he painted a map of the celestial and ter- 
ster of Keith with the copy of his map, he saw a man restrial globe, upon two large spherical stones on the ~, 


© Berger au roi D' Angleterre en Ecosse. Astronomie de Lalande, tom. i. p- 163, 
VOL. IX. PART B 2P 


298 


= =< that of the earth, not only served oe he 
exhibited a number of interesting geographi 
nomena. Having drawn some for needlework 
for Lady Dipple, (sister of Sir James eee! LEE 
very extensively loyed in ‘this work by the ladies 
inthe vicinity, and he received so much from 
his new emp. eT oe 
the wants of his indigent father. i 

the goodness to Paar re Edin burgh, act offered 
him a year’s bed and board at sprees er might 
have an rap pe uiring a know mt- 
mg. He wuiaetianinset aoa Dopetsenn ae idin- 
burgh; and, by the of the Marchioness of 
he obtained a consi le deal of lucrative 
employment, and thus began a profession which he 
followed for 26 years. During his stay of two years 
in Edinburgh, he took a violent inclination to study: 
medicine, and he forsook for a time all his favourite: 
studies. He then went to the country with a cargo 
of medicines and plasters, but with a very scanty 
knowledge of the art, and began to practise medicine 
at the place of his nativity. He soon saw, however, 


that he was an unsu | practitioner; and 
that no one paid him for his medicines, he went to In- 
verness for the purpose of resuming his profession as a 


painter. During his stay at Inverness, he recom- 
menced his astronomical studies, and after much la- 
bour, he invented and completed a machine called the 
Astronomical Rotula, for exhibiting the eclipses of the 
sun and moon. Mr Macbean, one of the ministers of 
Inverness, compared the results given by this machine 
with the calculations given in common almanac, 
and found them nearly the same. At his advice, he 
wrote to the celebrated Colin M‘Laurin, Professor of 
Mathematics in Edinburgh, and requested his opinion 
ef the new instrument. M<Laurin returned hima 
friendly answer, and requested from him a drawing of 
his rotula, cee might pa it, and endeavour to 
procure a subscription for the pu of getting it en- 
capa upon copperplates. Mr Peapenaitniandiiaes 

y complied with this kind request, and a handsome 

iption was obtained through the influence of the 
Professor. The plates of the rotula were engraved and 
published, and went through several impressions, till 
the year 1753, when. they were rendered useless by 
the change of style. When he went to Edinburgh, 
he was received with the greatest kindness by M‘Lau- 
rin, who shewed him his orrery, but was not able to 
let him see its construction. Ferguson immediately set 
to work, and constructed an of wood, which ex- 
hibited almost all the leading phenomena in astronomy. 
M‘Laurin was so much pleased with this machine, that 
he desired Ferguson to read a lecture upon it before 
the mathematical class. He soon afterwards, in 17438, 
made a smaller and a neater orrery, having all the wheels 
of ivory, and he took it with him to London, where it 
was bought by Sir Dudley Rider. 

_ When he reached pene See 
sion of portrait painting, amusing himself at his lei 
hours with his astronomical studies. He now con- 
structed a simple machine for delineating the moon's 
path and that of the earth, on a oninetene 
on Some cee machine meets to Martin Folk 
President yal Society, who took Mr Ferguson 
to the meeting of the Society that evening, when he 
shewed his instrument, and explained the use of it. 
When the Society was dismissed, one of the members, 
Mr John Ellicott, a celebrated watchmaker, asked Fer- 

4 


FERGUSON. 
= tapetihinentetay. These globes had their axes pa- 


structed the very same machine many years before. ° 
In 1747, Mr F published a dissertation on 
the phenomena of the harvest moon, with the descrip- 


construct an 


other branches of experimental philosophy. These’ 


lectures were ted in various of the king- 
dom, and added both to the fame and wealth of our 
author. In the year 1754, Ferguson published « Av 
brief Description of the Solar System, to which is sub- 
joined an Astronomical Account of the year of our Sa= 
viour’s Crucifixion, and likewise an Idea of 

rial Universe, deduced from a Survey of the 
System.” In 1756, he published in one vol. quarto, 
one of his best works, entitled “ Astronomy pxphitied 
upon Sir Isaac Newton’s Principles, and made easy to’ 
those who have not studied Mathematics.” This work 


was written with such uncommon icuity and 
——— that it was translated into My eM and 
wedish and has undergone no fewer than 
thirteen or fourteen editions. A new edition of it has 
lately been published Dr Brewster, in 2 vols. 8vo, 
containing an account of all the new discoveries in the 
science since the time of Ferguson. enna u! 


In 1760, Ferguson published his “ Lectures on Se- 
lect Subjects in Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, 


Pneumatics, Optics, Geography, Astronomy, and Dial- ~ 


ling,” &¢. This work, which is perhaps the best and 
the most useful that he ever wrote, passed through se- 
vera] editions, and contributed more to the diffusion of 
mechanical knowledge among all classes of pé ; 
than all the works that have been written upon’ 


subjects. A new edition of it in 2 vols, 8vo, with an — 


Appendix, containing an account of all the recent in- 
ventions and discoveries, was published by Dr Brewster 
in 1805, and a second edition in 1806. 

In 1761, he his “ Plain Method of deter- 
mining the Parallax of Venus by her Transit over the 
Sun, and thence, by analogy, the Parallax and Distance 
of the Sun, and of all the rest of the Planets.” In 1763; 
he was elected'a Fellow of the Royal Society of Lon- 
don, and was excused the t of the usual fees, 
which had only been done in the case of Sir Isaac New- 
ton, and of that ingenious and self-taught mathemati- 
cian Mr Thomas Simson of Woolwich. In the same 
year he published his “ Astronomical Tables and Pre- 
cepts for calculating the true Times of New and Full 
Moons, and ing the Method of | ae 
from. the creation of the World to A. D. 1800, to whi 
is prefixed a short Theory of the Solar and Lunar Mo- 
tions.” In 1767 he published “ Tables and Tracts re+ 
lative to several Arts and Sciences,” and also “ A Sup- 
plement to. the Lectures on Mechanics, Hydrostat 
&c.” which is annexed to all-the subsequent editions 


“sm ee ene) - 


(ar ye pow" & 


Rents \ 


FER 

ing tenures are from 100 to 800 Fermanagh. 
acres. After all, the its of farming must be conside- =~ 
rable, if Mr W; s information be correct, that 
* Enniskillen market is attended weekly by about 30 or 


FER 
of that work. His “ Young Gentleman’s and Lady's 
Astronomy familiarly explained, in ten Dialogues,” = 
peared in-1768, and was reprinted in 1769, under 
uction to Astronomy, for 


299 
nufacturers, The 


eas 


& 


title of, “ An I 
1g Gentlemen and Ladies.”” ‘This little work has 
“through eight editions, and was translated into 
man in 1771. Madame Genlis remarks, in her pre- 

face to the “ Tales of the Castle,” that this work is so 
spic that a child ten years old may complete- 

ly understand the whole of it. In the year 1770, he 
ranma tar Seianlies kia Ree ven 7 

Society ; and, in the same year, e published his ‘ In- 

troduction to Electricity.” His ‘* Select Mechanical 

Exercises, shewing how to construct different Clocks, 

Cieienisind acai, saipinenel sep Lancia 

an 


40 farmers from the vicinity, whose en- 
able them to eat meat daily, and to drink port wine.” 
On the superior pasture lands, there are cattle:and 
sheep of a size. Lord Belmore’s sheep at Castle- 
cool, when fat, weigh 30 Ib. per quarter. consider- 
able part of the county is occupied with dairies. There 
is a small breed of cows here similar to those in Down. 
There are no flocks of sheep: the number of this 
animal is small, and the breed in general very infe- 


rior. 

Labour is paid as often in money as in conveniences: 
the bound labourer generally in the latter. In 1811, 
the prices of labour, provisions, &c. were as follow: 
aman,, the year round, 1s. and a woman 6d. per day ; 
a carpenter, per day, 3s, 6d. and.if constantly employ- 


ed; 2s.'6d.5.'amason, per day, 2s. Gd.; a thrasher, per 


sive ner These were day, Is. Id., or, by piece-work, from 6d. to 8d. per 
zi RR ena es nies vale eer: In the PPP ea hea alpine ome 1s. 1d. 
same year he published his last work, entitled «The to 1s. 8d. per do. of wheat ; a car and horse per day 
Art of Dri in Perspective, made easy to those 2s, 2d. ; a saddle-horse per do. 5s. 5d. ; a plough per do. 
-who have no Know the -Mathematics.” This 11s. 43d., and, for hing and sowing an acre, from 
work has through several editions, and was trans- 26s. to 36s. ; a blacksmith, per stone of work, 1s. 6d., 


-Mr Ferguson had always a weak constitu ni ame 
‘ . ees ing. illness, 
on the 10% of November, in 1776, in the 66th year 

an 


of ement. But i 
ae en 


or day 2s. 6d.; turf, kish, 2s.; sea-coal, 
ral) ree 5s.; culm, ried do. 3s.; lime, oe 
1s, 8d, to 2s, ; a car, mounted, £4, 10s. ; potatoes, per 
stone, 2d.to 4d, ; salt butter, per ewt. £4, 13s.4d. ; fresh 
do. per lb, 1s. ; hay, per ton, £3 to £4; whisky, per 
gallon, 7s. 9d. to 10s. ; strong ale, per quart, 4d.; por- 
ter, per m, 1s, 3d.; beef, per lb. Gd.; mutton, 7d. ; 
pork, 3d.; lambs, per score, £18 to £22; eggs, 
score, 6d, ; cheese, per lb. Is. 6d. ; Seacngeen tee dae 
shoeing a horse, 4s.; shoes, per pair, 11s. 44d.; salt, 
per stone, ls. 5d. ; undressed flax, per ewt. £4, 10s. to 
£5; wool, stone, 22s. to 20s. ; fowls, per couple, 
1s. to Is. 6d. ; wheat, per barrel, £2, 3s. ; barley, do. 
19s. ; oats, do. 13s. 6d. ; quartern loaf of wheaten bread, 
1s. ; flour, Ists, per cwt. £1, 9s.; 2ds, do. £1, 8s. ; Sds, 
Flatees oatmeal, - cwt. 16s.; labour in harvest of 
nd corn, Ys 2s. to 3s. ; ing grass, 
pee Rat om rabbsta, per souple,. 1s. 8d. ; > per ~ 
2d. ; — — Ta Ag ee tenant), 
acre, to £8; omen to weight 
grass, do.), £6 to £9 ; do. potatoe land, 66 Ihe 6 
.; do, flax, per rood (tithe free), do. £2, 5s. to 


here to a large size. There are also oaks, firs, 
and hazels, Elm is seldom raised. At 

the yew grows to an astonishing bulk. ‘ 
kinds. of wood found in the bogs, are fir, oak, and yew. 
Besides the inhabitants of this county make use 


rental of this 
course there is 


E 


FER 800 


Fermanagh. run for three lives, or thirty-one years: of late the pe- There are only 18 parishes 


are here a few estaies whose rental is from £1500 to 
£2000; but by far the greatest number of the estates 
are large, and there is no intermediate between the 

: and the leaseholders. Lord Enniskillen has 
an estate of £13,000 per annum, as also Colonel Arch- 
dale, and Mr Brook of Brookboro. The Marquis of 
Ely, Lord Belmore, and Sir James Caldwell, have pro- 

of from £6000 to £7000 per annum each. There 
— deal of church property belonging to the see 

Cc . 

There are several lakes in this county, but the most 
remarkable is Lough Erne. It consists properly of 
two lakes, the upper being nine miles long, and from 
one and a half to five wide, and the lower one about 
ten miles in length, and from two to eight in breadth. 
The two are connected by a broad winding channel 
of about six miles, resembling a river. id secre 
occupied by Lough Erne is supposed to uare 
ho Shs deanery is remarkably fine and striking, 

ing both the beautiful and the d. There 

are in it between three and four hundred islands, some 
ef them and fertile, and inhabited, many of them 
well wooded, the whole of them di in a Vv 
picturesque manner, and affording a variety of rich 
enteresting prospects. The. Erne and several other 
rivers run into it ; it discharges itself at the north-west 
end by a current of about seven miles, which runs very 
rapidly, and at length precipitates itself over a grand 
cataract into the sea at Bally: on. The falls of Bel- 
leek are esteemed very beautifal, and ing of the 
traveller's attention. Lough Erne contains all the fish 
common to fresh water The salmon here 
in a wonderful manner; some y: ones having been 
found to increase at the rate of 1 lib. a week. Great 

uantities of eels are caught near Enniskillen ; ei hey 
devuredantions in one night. Near the falls of Belle 
there is an eel weir, belonging to Mr Pakenham, which 
lets at L.120 per annum, and near it there are three 
others which let at L. 100 each. 

The chief sources of wealth to the inhabitants are the 
line manufacture and the rearing of black cattle. The 
linen produced here is what is called 7-8ths. There are 
several of those bleach-greens, which finish for sale 
the bleached linens that are sent to England. I 
distillation is carried on toa considerable extent. There 
are mills for grinding oats, but none for grinding 
wheat. : 

The principal, and indeed the only town of note in 
F is Enniskillen, It is situated on an island 
formed by the river or channel which unites the two 


This contains rich iron ore and coal, On 
Lord iskillen’s estate, west of Erne, there 
are ies of marble. It is brown white, beau- 


tifully veined, and of a fine grain. 

Fermanagh is divided into two by Lough Emme; 
the division on the east of the lake containing five ba- 
ronies, and that on the west containing three. It sends 
three members to parliament, two of these being from 
the » and one from the burgh of Enni . 
The in the county amount to 5000; and 

itical influence is so situated, that if the Earl of 
they Secu vember they please, Eouiskilieg 

may return what mem! . i 
has ve self-elected burgesses; and the Earl of 
Eaniskillen is patron, 
3. 


‘lived, he ra me 
idu 


—y—" vod ist and one life. There are in the diocese of C and the other three in “WY” 
riod adopted is twenty-one years aegis ond - * 


that of Kilmore. The 


church. The 
Protestant dissenters are few in number. Sir Richard 
Hardinge has an estate of 81 farms, and the tenantsin 
79 of these are Protestants. 


the superficial contents 694 English 
caer of the county is 71,800, on the number of 
ouses 11, being six individuals to a house. Exclu. 
ding Lough Exe, there are sbout $1: Ragtish sapbe:tp 
a house, or 54 acres to each individual. See Newen~ 
ham’s View of Ireland ; Wakefield’s Statistical Account 
of Ireland; Beaufort’s Memoir of a Map of Ireland; 
and Young’s Tour through Ireland. (+) : 
FERMAT (Perer), an eminent French mathema- 
tician, who was born at Toulouse in 1590, and died in 
1663. He was cotem with several mathemati- 
cians of the first order, among whom may be mention- 
ed, Pascal, Des Cartes, Roberval, Torricelli, Huygens, 
Meziriac, Carcavi, Wallis, &c.; and furnished 
tions of all the more difficult problems which these il- 
lustrious men hed tert ranches, nym ate 
another. His predilection for n ical researches, 
led him to direct much of his attention to prime num- 
bers, a subject which had been almost entirely neglect- 
¢ ae days raf re In these researches 
e affo’ striking proofs of the superiority of his 
nius, by the discovery of many general Anctree al 
pro ya 60 "edmabecs Wild baker divisors, and 
such as are composite. The indeterminate analysis al- 
so occupied a deal of his attention; and though 
Bachet de Meziriac had already greatly extended and 
sos op the wy bape prob antic his eo 
were far surpassed, in nce, simplicity, gene- 
ralization, by those of Fermat, When Pascal was en- 
gaged at Paris in investigating the nature of figurate 
numbers, Fermat was eagerly prosecuting the same 
eubject at Toulouse, by a different train of investiga- 
tion ; and, indeed, on many occasions, these two great 
men were frequently led to the same results, by me- 
thods of inquiry which had little resemblance to each 


other. Such interferences in their pursuits, did not, 
however, weaken the fri lip to which the confor. 
mity of their studies alone had given birth; and, 
though they were never inted, 


uniformly did justice to the merits of each other, wit 
a liberality which is unknown to little minds. > 
Fermat was scarcely more distinguished as a mathe- 
matician than as a general scholar; and, like most of 
the learned men who flourished in the age in which he 
sprudence and é -litera- 
ture with no less a: 


and algebra. ‘The universality of his genius, and the 


lr ee eee, nk 


a. 


FoeboRs 6 CP A BOK 2 FER 
‘Ferments- high authority, we mean La Place,* who affirms, with- 


f 
: 
A 


pir 


r> 
i 
f 
t 


printed at ‘Toulouse in folio, 1679, contain also several 
smaller tracts, and a great number of letters to learned 


“iat 
FE NTATION, an intestine commotion, 
certain substances of 


to 
or animal origin 
~are, more or less, liable, from the spontaneous reaction 
of their constituent elements. The embraces a 
series of changes of i terminates in the 
formation of new , which differ essentially 
from the original substance, as well as from one another. 
net ae gl ue a a Hebe oe Sar In eae 
and to these, epithets have applied descriptive of 
the products to which it gives birth, namely, the vi- 
‘nous, the acetous, and the putrefactive. ergs] 
some upon the process in general, we 
consider the subject under these three heads. 
It appears that no species of fermentation can take 
place without some portion of moisture, and a certain 
elevation of temperature. The of moisture is 
necessary, because no chemical action can be displayed 
aceon Aer the intervention ot ee ve 
t0'thed ‘el 
aeiaahaindn aie iteeien ter, tach ather? and 
re enciaees Shiels 286 Well 
dried, kept free from moisture, min Boa pon hen 
for many years without suffering any change 
in their composition. The degrees of heat necessary 
for fermentation vary with the different kinds of it ; 
but below a certain temperature, the process does not 


vinous fermentation; and a still greater number run Fermentas 
into putrefaction that never suffer any change analo- _ 4 
gous to the vinous or acetous processes. } _ 

The vinous fermentation has been examined by Vinous fer 
chemists with a.good deal of attention ; anda variety "Vcntahon— 
of useful facts connected with the process have been process be 
noticed, though the circumstances that may be deemed entirely con- 
essential to it are still involved in some degree of un- fined to sac- 

i It is well known that saccharine matter, in charinemate 

some form or other, passes most readily into the vinous 

state, and that the product of the fermentationis 

when the substance which is subjected to the process 

contains the largest portion of sugar; but it has not 

been decidedly ascertained. whether sugar is the only: 
substance capable of being converted into ardent spirit. 

When nutritive grains are employed to afford ferment- 

ed liquors, they are previously or at least in- 

e 


part, to the tion of malting. ject of which 
is to convert the farinaceous part into sugar by germi- 
nation. This operation was long held indispensibly 
necessary to the grain le of the vinous fer~ 


‘mentation ; but experience has proved this opinion to 

iia, th sichh shaktre; a cniatabe: «pica diatiliers, bare 

of late been in the ice of malting only part of the 
grain, and adding the rest in a mashed or ground state;. 

and they have found it to answer their purpose ex- 
tremely well, when the latter is used in a r pro- 
portion than the former. It is not a little singular, 

that when the farinaceous part of the mashed grain is 

mixed with water, it passes into the state of an acid, 

without acquiring any vinous quality; but when mixed 

Ed emer o of saccharine matter, it undergoes the 
vinous tation, and yields a larger portion. of spi- 

rit than the sweet matter alone would have afforded: 

ee orn eevee to ene that norte already 

in the state of su the roperty acting u 

this farinchona petal the ; an wounding ade 

it not fo tis pmopesty’ of the oun ego he = 
it not for thi farina, wi grain not 
frequently be sustained by the:farmers in unfavourable “““ ba 
seasons; as grain that has once begun to: grow, and Givitier, 


deg in. Such never ‘can undergo any 
iting: when grain has been made to grow 
in this manner, it can be supposed that the 
into saccharine matter is perfect or complete. 


It therefore would be less proper for the vinous fer- 


mentation, and would furnish a ‘smaller — of 


— than grain which had been perfectly “ 
his grain, Scirebies when mixed with a quantity of 
malt, and fermented, furnishes as much spirit 
ai deere oll Beer eee amy he 
persons in this trade even ee 
grain can % grain, it to- 
senha the % wick shote'adaly east art antichod Ghat 
they obtain more spirits in this way, than from an 
equal quantity of good malt.” — 
Though sugar, in some modified form, appears to be Other suis. 


the only substance capable of the vinous fermentation, stances be- 


certain other substances are necessary, both for the side saccha- 


‘commencement and continuation of the process, A Tine matter 


suitable quantity of water must be added:to the saccha- °¢ss*'Y 
rine matter : if the quantity, however, be in excess, arr hag 
the li is apt to into the acetous fermentation ; mentation. 
and if it be too little, the process on difficultly 

and slowly. When the liquor to be ented consists 


% Theorie Analytique des Probobilites. 


soz 
Feentta- of a solution of pure sugar, a quantity of yeast is also 
oe. necessary to excite the fermentation, and make it pass 
—Y—" into the vinous state. Nor is the influence of tempe- 
rature less essential: below 50° of Fahrenheit’s scale 
the vinous fermentation proceeds very rare and at 
the freezing point it is completely check Above 
70” the advances too rapidly, and unless it be 
duly moderated, is apt to into the acetous stage. 
Netareof ‘The nature and action have been the subj 
the fermem- OF chemical investigation. voisier ascertained, that, 
ciple, me besides the other e ts which are usually found in 
yout. vegetables, it contained a quantity of nitrogen in its 
composition, and so far evinced a connection with ani- 
malized matter, The researches of Fabroni, Thenard, 
and a re have demonstrated that the fermenting pro- 
perty of yeast is owing to the presence of a substance 
resemblirig gluten or albumen, which is derived from 
certain vegetable infusions, capable of spontaneous fer- 
When circumstances are sufficiently favourable for 
the vinous fermentation, the liquor, in passing into it, 
becomes somewhat turbid, and manifests a kind of'com- 
motion throughout its whole mass, Air bubbles begin 
to be separated, and being entangled by the floccu- 
Jent part of the liquid, occasion a frothy appearance on 
the surface. In the meantime, the temperature gradu- 
ally increases, and sometimes requires to be checked. 
The gas which is disengaged is found to consist chiefly 
of ic acid, mixed occasionally with a portion of 
hydrogen. At length, the extrication of air, and the 
intestine commotion with which it is accompanied, gra- 
dually diminish, and the process terminates by the li- 
quor recovering its transparency, If the fermented 
substance be now examined, it is found to have ex- 
changed its sweet taste for one of considerable pun- 
gency, and to have acquired the property of acting as 
a powerful stimulant on the animal system. 
The vinous fermentation depending in a great mea- 
the 
condurted without thevaid of atmospheric air ; and, in- 
deed, it has been found by experiment, that, if the air 
be excluded, while the gas disengaged by the fermenta- 
tion is to make its escape, the vinous product 
is stronger than when the process is carried on in open 
vessels, In that case, however, as Chaptal remarks, the 
fermentation advances more slowly. 
Products of — ‘The products to which the vinous fermentation gives 


Phenomena 
of the vi- 
nous fer. 
mentation. 


——— birth, resemble one another by ssing an intoxi- 

tien. cating quality, and Yielding, by distillation, a portion 
of alcohol ; but they differ considerably in their strength, 
odour and flavour. Their differences, in these respects, 
are owing, partly to the essential oils, and other proxi- 
mate principles which they derive from the substances 
submitted to the vinous process, and partly to the man- 
ner of conducting the fermentation. ey may be con- 
sidered as of two general descriptions : Wines, proper- 
ly so called, and the various kinds of ale or beer. 

Customs Wines are obtained by subjecting to fermentation the 

ings 


sweet juices of fruits, particularly that of the x 
The products are extremely diversified, and var oh 
vour and appearance with the climate, soil, and the na- 
ture and culture of the vine, as well as with the manner 
of carrying on the fermentative process. Hence wines 
are sweetish, and weaker or stronger, according as the 
saccharine matter of the grape is more or less abundant, 
and the fermentation more or less complete ; and th 

are and sparkling, when of the carbonic pes | 


wine. 


which is generated during the process, is retained, 


ion of carbon, the process may: be. 


FERMENTATION. 


Astringent wines derive their peculiar flavour from the Fermentas: 

astringent principle contained in the grape from which, p= 

they are formed. The colour is communicated by the —— 

external icle of the fruit, and t easily be pre- A 

vented, if necessary, by removing the husks, before fer, 

mentation. Wines of every description contain a cers a 

tain portion of supertartrate of potash, which’ gradual- 

ly separates from them, when they are left > i 

and to this is owing, in a great degree, the improvement 2 

Seer et r 
France producesa great variety of excellent wines, For prench 

daily use, carercy peaier> shonent Besgenes. heensanem wines. 

their principles are duly combined, and none of them pres 

dominates, so as to communicate a peculiarity of flavour: 

The wines of Orleans, after being matured by age, res 

semble those of Burgundy, The red wines of - 

pagne are highly prized for their excellence and deli« 

cng? though, in ;some cases, they possess, a pungent 

and sourish taste, from being, bottled before the cars 

bonic acid is sufficiently disctigeged by fermentation, 

The wines of Languedoc and Guienne are greatly - 

esteemed, on account of their tonic qualities, particu. ; 


larly when they are mellowed by age. Those of Ans 
jou are strong, spirituous, and intoxicating. ves 
The Rheriish and Moselle wines have a cool, 
taste, and readily intoxicate. Some Italian wines, such |lian,Spa — 
as those of Orviette, Vicenza, and Oran Christi, are mee and 
well fermented, and resemble the French wines. Those wines 
of Spain are in general boiled, sweet, and being but 
omg A fermented, cannot be reckoned wholesome, 
he wines of Rota and Alicant must, however, be-ex+ 
|, and are justly considered as useful stomachies. 
e wines of Portugal have been long in great demand 
in this country ; and, indeed, no wine can be accounts 
fat en craty mule yy og OL Se lies ha <a 
The wines formed other fruits, as currants, ae ope! 
eqooeelersiaty ANaDs pears, &c. are greatly inferior to \\° 
those obta from the grape. uices of these 
fruits abound too much with acid, too little with 
saccharine matter, to afford of themselves even tolera« 
ble wines; and they must, therefore, be ae omne 
the addition of sugar, before fermentation. e wines 
from the juices of the le and pear, denominated 
cyder and perry, contain a portion of the acids of 
ese fruits, and a considerable quantity . ic 
acid ; to the presence of the latter is owing their 
ness and sparkling property. Cherries furnish.a very 


» German, 


nee yan; 


en Ca ee ae 


pleasant wine ; apricots, and prunes, afford 
wines of an indifferent quality, ve. Sireuskey jatar 

The nutritive grains, and particularly barley, furnish Process of 
a fermented liquor of a vinous nature, called mi or beer, making ale _ 


The grain, after being converted into malt, is first re. ot beer. 
acid hatte chases auietsion ta eceadliocie Iealined Uae, | 
rollers. It is then, infused in hot water, at the tempe- | 
rature of about 160° or 170°, and allowed to macerate 4 
for a few hours; after which, the liquor is drawn. off, q 
and a fresh quantity of water is added. The infusion — q 
thus obtained, is i wort, Before being al- - ; 
lowed - ferment, the. wort ig ae with some. bitter. 
vegetable substance, commonly hops ;. partly. with.a 
view of correcting any ascescent tendency; and_partly 
of improving the flavour of the liquor. ‘0 
fermentation, a ppannity of yeast is added infu- 
sion, after it has been allowed to cool; but.the process. 
is usually checked before it has A a eM Ape oe 
ed, and the liquor is then off. When the object _ 
of the fermentation is to. obtain a wort for distillation. 
part of the grain, as we formerly observed, is used in a 


Fermenta- 
tion. 
» at aaa 


wT 
yaw or unmalted state. The process, in that case, is 
_ conducted more rapidly, and allowed to proceed to its 
vi iho Sherchnory of the ‘chentiell Aldiiges 

» With to the ical ¢ 
which the vinous ae The tabject have 
no precise know : su in- 
vestigated by Lavoisier ; ne ‘hough he was the first 
who gave. any thing like an accurate account of the 
process, the conclusions which he deduced from his ex- 


periments, are by no means free from objections. He 
dissolved sine of pure sugar in water, and caused 


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process ; which is to , as little more 
a art meee i To this it may be 
added, that’ contains less oxygen than sugar. 
Upon the'whole, the hypothesis of i ia pechape 
less probable than that of Thenard ; in 

sent state of our knowledge on this subject, it would be 


FERMENTATION. «9% 


303 


is Completed ; and: more especially if the fermentative 
principle has been used in excess. Hence, after the 
termination of the latter, the fermentation is usually 

by decanting the clear wine from the lees, cla- 


Fermenta- 
tion. 


rifying it with isinglass, corking it up carefully, and _ 
placing it in a cool situation’ where it may remain un- — 


By these processes, the yeast, which may 


“still exist in excess in the vinous product, is almost en- 


tirely removed, and thus the fermented liquor is not 
exposed to any decomposition from the reaction of its 
own elements. 3 ii? it ; 

The acetous fermentation is not confined to the pro- 
ducts of the vinous stage; for it appears, that some 
substances not su ible of vinous. fermentation, as 
fecula and sey ve an ascescent tendency ; but 

ve passed through that process, as 
wines, cider, beer, &c. are most susceptible of spon- 
taneous acetification, and the richest and most generous 
wines furnish the best and strongest vinegar. 

The vinous liquors do not readily undergo the ace- 
tous fermentation without the assistance of some fer- 
mentative principle; and hence, on converting wines 
into vinegar, a quantity of that substance, in some form 
- ere a-omaliy ee It in Sn ai Tray Sat 
lees of vinegar, and casks i with it, ide 

presence of air is no less | to the acetous 
fermentation, Wines well corked in bottles, and grapes 
pengerty closed up in casks, may be preserved a very 
pty dig without suffering much chan 
ed 


Substances 
susceptible 
of the pro- 
cess. 


The pre- 
sence of air 
necessary. 


; but if the. 


imperfectly excluded, they are gradually render- 


ish, and in a greater degree, the more free- 

ly the air is admitted. Saussure states, that in this case 
oxygen of the air enters into combination with the 
carbon of the vinous.liquor, and abstracts that element 
from it in the form of carbonic acid. . It is. probable, 
however, that a portion of it also combines with the 
same substance, and contributes to the production of 


the acetic acid which is forn 
The acetous fermentation on when the tempera- 
ture is below, 60°, but it is slow ; and ce 


has proved, that the adyances best when the 


temperature is between. 70° and 75° of Fahrenheit’s 
scale, In manufactories for making vinegar, the heat 
is kept up at this pitch by ial means, when the 
temperature of the air is too low. 


A sli itation, repeated at intervals, is extremel 
Ore one cas eer ae 
which are to contin i 
by any powerful mechanical instrument, sein eae: 
cei eae : Lby the 
catTiages, are very unfit for vinous liquors. 
By the agitation Ui ehich ‘eine is in such cases expo- 
sed, the tartar, the lees, the extractive principle, and all 


fhe ee substances which it its ms state of rest, 
ing rate incessantly as so man 

ferments, and mag depuration Which might 
otherwise take Hence the acetous fermentation 


is greatly promoted by, frequently stirring the liquor. 


gs: to its.action.. ; 
» general appearances. which present themselves 
in the acetous fermentation, differ but little from those 


Tempera- 
ture best 
suited to the 


process. 


Effects of 
agitation, 


frequent rolling of heavy , 


Phenomena 
attending 


in the vinous, A tremulous movement pervades the the acetous 


whole mass ; 
i tof carbonic acid than in the vinous stage 
of the process. The temperature rises, and if the quan- 
ity of liquor be considerable, sometimes reaches 90° of 
F heit’s scale. In the mean time a kind of fila- 


but this is attended with a less copious fermenta- 


tion, 


ments. or streaks are moving continually in the heart of. 


FER 


Perments- the fermenting mass; these divide, reunite, and at last 

as een ae ee 

. When all these phenomena have ceased, the liquor 

gradually recovers its transparency, and is found to be 
converted into vinegar. 

We shall now make a few observations on the theory 


Theories of 

the acctout of the process, though on this head we can offer no- 

- oe thing precise or satisfactory. According to La- 
voisier, ee of the wine, which consists 
of carbon ea is —— and converted 
into vi . is operation, he adds, can only take 
‘place with free access of air, and is always attended 


with a diminution of the air employed, in consequence 
of the absorption of oxygen.” This explanation is too 
general to be satisfactory ; and it does not at all bring 
into view the action of the ferment. Chaptal has given 
at of the process, which is less exceptionable. 


« The hydrogen and the carbon, says he, exist in al- . 


cohol, and in the extractive principle of vegetables ; 
but hydrogen predominates in the former, and carbon 
in the latter; so that if we oxygenate them separately, 
alcohol would furnish plenty of water, and very little 
acetic acid. The extractive principle would ish 
plenty of carbonic acid, and a little acetic acid. But 
when the two principles are united, and are oxy- 
qenated by any process whatever, water carbonic 
acid are then produced, which bring the two principles 
oe tee proper for forming the acetic 
Putrefactive The vinous and acetous fermentation are confined to 
fermenta- a very few substances, chiefly of a saccharine nature: 
tien. the putrefactive embraces a wider field, and takes 
place in almost every of a vegetable or animal 
nature. The vegetable matters which undergo putre- 
faction most readily, are soluble in water ; though 
those which are but imperfectly soluble, if kept in a 


moist state, are not exempted from this of de- 
composition. This: process is the same 
circumstances which are favourable to the , name- 


ly, moisture, and elevation of temperature. The pre- 
sence of air, also, has no less influence on the putre- 
factive, than on the acetous stage. y 
The elastic fluids which are evolved from v les 
during the putrefactive fermentation, are combinations 
of the elements of the vegetable substance, and have 
for their bases hydrogen and carbon. When the de- 
composition takes place under water, the hydrogen, by 
its greater tendency to elasticity, makes its escape, and 
the residual matter consists almost entirely of carbon. 
Hence wood, which has been long buried in the beds of 
rivers, is reduced nearly to the state of charcoal. If the 
s part, however, be to the air, it 
undergoes a gradual change, and is at last entirely de- 
bo re by being converted into carbonic acid. 
animal matters suffer putrefaction, they evolve, 
besides the usual elements of vegetables, a naerne A of 
ammonia. They yield also certain other products which 
are more to them, particularly combinations of 
sulphur and ; and to these substances must 
be ascribed, the fetid odour and noxious properties of 
the gases, which are extricated from them during pu- 


Animal bodies suffer any change when they 
are well dried, and completely excluded from the air. 
Even in the warmer climates, beef, which has been ef- 
fectually freed from its juices, may be preserved a long 
time without salt; and meat, which has been sufficient- 
ly roasted, and afterwards covered with melted suet, 
may be preserved in that state perfectly untainted for 
several months. Animals enveloped in ice, have been 


Nature of 
the process, 


Putrefac- 
tion of ani- 
mal bodics. 


804 


FER ; . 
preserved for without ‘suffering any change. It ne 

appears, also, that animal bodies: wrerfully resist pu- ve 

trefyction, which have been buried in morasses of peat; Perander., 

probably because, in ‘such places, the ceou: Yr ~4 

part of the woody matter being converted into a sub. a 

stance resembling tan, uces upon the animal ¥ 

that vegetable product. See , 

Chaptal's Chemistry, vol. iv. p. 510; Murray’s Chemis« 

try, vol. iv. p. 387; Fourcroy’s Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 302. 

: “io : 

# 

7 

q 


A 

f denuoy is a handsome and ing market~ 
town of Ireland, in the of Cork. It 
upon the river Blackwater, over which there is a good 


E 


two 
, and another for cavalry on the op. 


an extensive porter brewery, a flour mill, a woollen 
manufactory, and a bank. About thirty years ago, this 
place was a miserabl rhe and it has been bri 
mto its state by John Anderson, Esq. a 
ligations. Land in the neighbourhood 
soa Teataa sep bine aeaabaaete Distance 
from Dublin 107 Irish from 
(RNS. See Finices. feo 1 the ere pn 
FERNANDEZ, or Juan Fernanpez, is the’ Situation — 
of two islands in the Pacific Ocean, opposite to the and extent 
western coast of South America, and about $2 leag : 
distant from each other. One of them, as lying faxther ¢ 
off towards the west, is distinguished by the epithet 
De Afuera ; and the other, as being nearer the land, is 
called De Tierra, It is to the that the name of 


Juan Fernandez tly applies, an : 

it is supposed to lave received from a of that 
name, who resided upon it for some time, and after- 
wards removed to the continent. It is situated in $3° 4 
40’ S; Lat. and’79° W. Long. 110 es west from the r 
coast of Chili; and about 440 to the north of 

Horn. It is ofan irregular form, and is } 
a very steep shore, about ee length from 
north-west to south-east, and only two in breadth. 

There are three harbours and bays in the island; but po hows. 
two of these, one on the west and another on the east 


£4 


side, are very much exposed, and have ‘about fours r 
seed fathoms offraten The third, which the langest, fi 
and jis called Cumberland Bay, lies on the north-east ; 
coast; but the of the water, which is or 


fifty fathoms within half a cable's length of the shore, 
the badness of the ; which is a tenacious mud, 
mixed with shells and gravel, and the want of 
Sepsannty: taeenpics sitacer ety ave the an 
extreme gerous. e’ security, though not 
always Pare is to sail up to the farthest part of the 

bay, and to moor with one anchor in the water, and ano« 

ther on the south-west shore. Ata distance, the'whole general 
island appears like one entire rock, and is for the’ most pect. 
part very high land. In the northern” » the 
mountains are very lofty, steep, rugged, and almost in- 
accessible ; but it slopes away towards tenet ser 
where a remarkable islet, or large detached , ap- 
pears about half a mile from the main land. = 
proaching the coast, deep and romantic vallies are 
perceived, intersecting the most mountainous districts, 
shaded with different kinds of trees, and covered with 
the richest verdure. The air is generally mild and se~ Climate 


rain, and preserve the trees an 
ure. The land in the vallies, and on the acclivities 


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which grow 
the forests. Every part of theisland is covered wi 
‘sort of. or straw, like the stalk of oats,’ which 
ws to the height of a man; and there is a great va- 
riety of esculent canny antiscorbutics, 
as water cresses, sorrel, turnips, 


** 


3 


for ing, vi ing, wi and” ren- 
pyr vate ysl the B and 
other cruizers in quarters ; and, in order to'de- 
prive them of the supplies which it afforded, the Spa- 


fe FERNANDEZ. 


805 


sufficierit to heave the 


scarcely able to muster 


Juan 


anchor. In 1766, the Spaniards formed a settlement, Fernandez. 


and established a garrison on the island. In the year 
following, Captain Carteret, in the course of his voy: 

round the world, attem to enter Cumberland-bay, 
and was surprised to find it in the possession of the Spa- 
niards. He neither anchored, nor had any communi- 


i- cation with the shore; but was able to observe a num- 


ber of men upon the beach, a house, and four pieces of 
cannon near the water side, a.fort upon a rising ground 
about 300 yards farther from the sea, faced with stone, 
provided with 18 or 20 embrazures, with the Spanish 
colours fying on the top of it. There were 20 or 30 
houses i t kinds scattered around it, a number 
of cattle re ee the brow of the hills, and several 
spots enclosed for cultivation. Since that period no ac- 
counts respecting this settlement were laid before the 
public, as all access to its shores was invariably denied 
to strangers. But-in 1792, Lieutenant John Moss of 
the royal seas then commanding the ship William, 
Hs a Se on southern whale and seal fishery, visit- 
ed the islands of Fernandez; and ‘from his MS. 
the following notices were first published in the Athe- 
neum vc: 1807. rs was not aware of its having been 
occupi the Spaniards, and went in his boat to look 
Pp aed and to catch fish. Upon finding the 


pee inhabited, he landed, and ied to the governor 
‘or leave to anchor and fish. Neither of his requests 
was formally ; but getting into a position where 
none of the guns could bear on the boat, he caught as 


many fish as served the whole ship’s company. Several 
months afterwards, however, touching a second time at 
Juan Fernandez, ‘he obtained from vernor, ‘Don 
Juan Calvo de la Canteza, free permission to supply the 
wants of his crew. The town, or village, is pleasantly 
situated in a fine valley between two high hills. A 
battery of five guns is placed round’ the west’ point of 
the harbour, and commands the road. It is built en- 
tirely of loose stones, piled up breast high, and formed 
into embrazures ; but on the left of the valley, on a 
little eminence, another was then constructing 
of masonry, which had two faces with fourteen embra- 


‘the town, and several others in different parts ‘of the 
‘island. Every house has a garden, with arbours of 


grape vines ; and figs, cherries, plumbs, and almonds, 
= state. There was abundance also 


ptain Moss entered, the women ted 
him with maté, the infusion of the herb of ‘araguay, 


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wards the north; and at the south point also 
is a large rock, or islet, about half a mile 
island. Fernandez de Afuera is generally 
asafuero by the English navigators, which 1s 

ing more than a corruption of the Spanish 
which expresses its being more 
remote than the other from the American continent. It 
is igh and mountainous, appearing at a distance 
She.one MLscivee pnd in.dien maehe eae 
seen from Fernandez de Tierra. It is of a triangular 
form, and about eight leagues in circumference. Its 
cliffs on the south end are almost perpendicular from 
the sea; but on the ite side, h the land is 
likewise very elevated, is a fine low green point stretch- 
ing northward from the bottom of the cliff, and forming 


_ i 


ud 


the account of Lord Anson’s voyage, there is said to be 
no proper an except on the north side,.in deep 
water ; but Commodore Byron found good an 


anchorage 
there is anchorage about a mile from the shore in twenty 
fathom, and about two miles and a half in forty fathom, 
with a fine black sand at the bottom; and mentions a 
remarkable rock with a hole in it, on. the south-west 
point, as a good mark for anchoring on that side. _Cap- 


tain Moss, however, affirms that in no part isthere good 


eee any ar in the places where an anchor may be 
let go, is foul ground ; and that nothing but 

distress can warrant anchoring on the coast of thisisland. 
All the navigaters who have visited it, concur in their 


ions of the extreme difficulty of landing, on ac- 
count of the high surf, which breaks upon large frag- 
ments of rocks all round the island, so a boat can- 


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very easy to make a commodious landing, by building 
single ship to do, if she was to continue any time a 
s 


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pleasant aspect, shewing numerous vallies covered with 
trees, rich in verdure, and abounding in flowers of the 
lily and violet kinds, _Down every valley runs a co- 
pious stream of water, which expands in its descent 
among the rocks into several successive reservoirs ; but 
the seals go far up into these vallies, and the water has 
a bad taste, unless taken above the places which. the: 

frequent. These animals are so numerous on this islaid, 


that they literally cover the shores ; and Captain. Moss’s 
Sioa kinds of bch. clan yecticaleiy eal halen ae 
rious ly P t, 
fish, and cray fish, in such abundance that in two 

a single nek Ane Nanaia see ight take Te 
to serve a large ship’s company for two. days. 

are alkenchllent ia theieaieel, eee of them reinb 
from twenty to thirty There are goats 
in the which are not difficult to be » and 


which Byron compares to the best venison in 
Among the birds, were observ: od pertienlathe various 
kinds of hawks, some. very lar others as small asa 
ldfinch ; and the pintado birds were so numerous, 
in one night during a gale, Carteret’s people 
caught not less than seven hundred, which flew straight 
into the fire which they had kindled on shore. Among 
the angeables, the mountain cabbage was particularly 
noticed; and the trees consisted principally, of red 
cedar, and a hard yellow wood like box. See Byron’s 
Vo round the: World ; Carteret's Voyage round the 
World; Ulloa’s Voyage to South America, vol. ii. p. 219; 
and £xtracts from in Moss’s.MS. first published 
in the Atheneum, vol.i. p. 581. @) , Te 
FERNANDO pe Norona, is the name of an island 


ortugn ese. It produces every species of 
grain and fruits common in hot,climates; but, for the 
vm of meeeneras crops are peinrneraapely . Two 
or three years 0 without rain, 
canbe thn een sip of restesiate be ioeaainee 


a 


ahead eit eee 


om,» a am 


| Dennen. > 


Pe 


‘Ferrara. 
—— 


FER 


on the 19th of May. The inhabitants save the water in. 
pots cisterns. : 

There is in the inland part of the island a Portuguese 
town, in which reside a governor and the partes Pease 
When the Pi had compelled the Fren 
India Company to evacuate this island, they erect- 
i t forts, in order to defend it, Three of 
efe the north harbour, two the north-west, 
‘eastern of the island, where there is a 
only for barks. The forts are all built 
spacious, and are well garrisoned and 
ge artillery. Fort Remedios alone con- 
partly regulars, sent from Fernam- 
ieved every six months, and partly 

the opposite coast of Brazil. 
fort, called Fort Remedios, stands 


BB S8 
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255 


The princi 


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There are two harbours capable of reeei ships of 
the sede: Gall Pet onaith, etal maneher on the 


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island. When Ulloa visited: the island, they had had to the Adiiatic; and each having a harbour at its mouth, Ferrara. 
no rain for two years, but violent showerscame on up- 


FER 


Besides these, it is fertilized the streams Panaro, 
Reno, Tartaro, and numerous artificial canals. Only 
one of the preceding harbours belongs to Ferrara ; the. 
other is a subject of frequent controversy between it. 
and the neighbouring territories. » 

This duchy contains three cities; Ferrara, the. capi- 
tal, which we shall afterwards describe more particu- 
larly ; Commacchio, and Cento. Commacchio occupies. 
a situation in the midst of a considerable extent of low 
marshy ground, called the Commacchian Marshes, de- 
fended by a high alluvial bulwark from the sea, but, 
penetrated by a canal, at the extremity of which is Por« 
ta Magnavacca. These marshes are not less than be~ 
tween 70 and 80 miles in circuit, and communicate with 


recent census, but, 30 years ago, th 
of the Ferrarese territory amounted to 235,234 souls. 


eal government, ie porble are pany and languid in 


; from salt-works, and other 


such extent, when an annual fair, in a town 
ba cesesteresk a » semmerene ts Se 
errara bei papal domain, is governed 

ph teutaltone et — 


appointed a dignified 
gate, who rules in his absence. 
minal 


selected, to constitute an annual . Inre« 
spect to its ecclesiastical state, the duchy is divided into 
nine dioceses, at the head of which is an archbishop, 


generally a cardinal, endowed with ample revenues, 
and ing a jurisdiction over 135 

are sixty monasteries of different ; ini 
1350 monks and priests ; ten convents, ing about 
620 nuns ; and in which 50 boys are 


igious or a civil institution, , 

The cay ob Reaver da See soeve hem semenieel 
very anciently as an’ important territory. It was a 
of its own dukes, of the family of Este, who began to 


Clement VIII. declared the duchy had 
papal see, and he took possession of it 


in person. Along with the other Italian inces, it 
ieaplicated in the F the 


became ences of the French 
revolation. It was ceded by Roman pontiff in 
1797 to the government of France, and by it constitu. 


— vy" cent restitution of the 


t of the Lower Po; but by the re- 
Pope, it has again become an in- 
See of the territories of the byamasar pr pers oad 

ERRARA, a city of Italy, the capital of the duchy 
of Ferrara, situated on the north bank of the river Po, 
which here divides into two branches, called Po di Vo- 
Jano and Po di Primaro, both flowing to the east. This 
city is surrounded by a fortified wall and broad ditch, 
which may be filled with water by méans of a canal 
from the river. There are five gates, called the gate of 
St Benedict, St Paul, St George, St John the Baptist, 
and the gate of the Angels; and at the south-west ex- 
tremity there is a regular fortress. Within the walls 
are some gardens, which enlarge the dimensions as- 
éribed to the city. There are several squares, and the 
streets are tolerably wide and convenient. The suburbs 
of St Luke and St are without the walls, on the 
opposite side of the river, which is crossed by bridges 
near two of the 

The principal objects in the city of Ferrara, are 
churches, convents, a few edifices for public pu 
not ecclesiastical, and those belonging to private indi- 
viduals ; but of the first there is a very great superiori- 

with regard to numbers. The metropolitan church, 

icated to St George, the tutelar saint of the city, of 
cupies one side the Piazza di San Crispino, the princi- 
uare. The antiquity of this edifice remounts to 
the year 1135, when it was completed and consecrated, 
and exhibits a specimen of the bad taste which perva- 
ded the architecture of that period, intermixed with 
subsequent alterations. It contains many monuments, 
inscriptions, and statues. Among the last, are five in 
bronze as large as life, ornamenting an altar, represent- 
ing the crucifixion, the Virgin Mary, and other sancti- 
There are several of fine Carrara marble, 
of which one of ‘the most conspicuous, and as large as 
life, was erected by the citizens of Ferrara, in honour of 
Albert their sovereign lord, in 1898, who had repaired 
‘tothe Pope with a great cavalcade, and obtained two 
important bulls, sanctioning the erection of a universi- 
‘ty, and certain rig Fe regarding succession to pro- 
petty. Pope Urban IIT. having died in Ferrara in the 
"year 1187, was interred here, and his successor Grego- 
VIII. elected in the church. The architecture of 
tower, which was built in 1412, and consists of mar- 

ble, is much celebrated. 

About the year 1506, a spacious edifice, the church 
‘of St Benedict, was built by two native architects to- 
‘wards the western part of the city, to which a monas- 
‘tery adjoins. Here are deposited the remains of the 
famous Italian poet Ariosto, in a marble mausoleum, 
executed by Nano, a Mantuan sculptor, with two in- 
scriptions, one of which was composed by Guarini. 
This monument has attracted the notice of crowned 
heads in their visits to Italy, while the ashes of philo- 
sophers have in neglected obscurity. Ariosto 
was a native of Ferrara, and his house is still shown as 
a curiosity to strangers. It bears two inscriptions, com- 
posed * imself and his natural son, a literary ecclesi- 
astic: The former is in these words, Parva, sed apta 
mihi, sed nulli obnoxia, sed non sordida, parta meo sed 
“tamen aere domus, certainly neither very t nor po- 
‘etical ; the latter is, Sic domus hae Areosta propitios 
habeat deos olim ut Pindarica. The house was built by 
him, and he died there on the sixth of June 1533. In 
the annexed to the church of St Benedict, 
are preserved some i t archives, 

A church dedicated to St Francis was founded at an 
early period of the Ferrarese history, and after being 


FERRARA. | | 
frequently renewed and altered, was at last completed Fertital 
in the year 1495. This edifice is also rich in ete he <a 


Tm 


and statues, and presents several Hew -saihy Sgn 
different descriptions. It is besides” cable for an 
echo which father Lana, in his work Magisterium Na- 
twre et Arlis, considers one of the most wonderful phe- 
nomena extant. The voice of a person st: ina 
particular position, near the main entrance, is 
15 or 16 times distinctly, and afterwards more faint- 
ly, for some intervals, until totally lost. ‘The repeti- 
tions are so numerous, however, that, to avoid confusion, 
only a single syllable must be expressed, in order that 
the echo may be heard in perfection. PCIE 
The church of St Dominic, a spacious modern edi- 
fice, with a mo of Dominican monks connected 
with it, stands towards the south-west of the city. 
It was founded in the year 1710, and completed 
1726, but the Dominicans had an establishment as early 
as 1235. Like the former, the church has many pie: 
tures ; and Celio Cal ini, a celebrated scholar of Fer- 
rara, bequeathed a valuable library to the convent;'in 
the 16th century. nny Jessi Cacaipdi, a 
Besides these religious edifices, there are many more 
in this city worthy of attention: the total number of 
churches and chapels amounts to 60 or 70, in 2 
of convents for monks and nuns. The isition has 
also a tribunal here ; and the archbishop a palace ad- 
jacent to the metropolitan church. It is a modern 
building, commenced in 1718 ; it has some statues, and 
a staircase which is much admired, © me 
Not far from the last of these buildings stands 
square edifice, with towers at each angle, orn 
by a balustrade, which is called the castle, and is occu- 
pied by the cardinal legate. This was originally de- 
signed as a place of security, and erected by one of the 
lords of Ferrara, after quelling a ar tumult. A 
military guard is mounted here, and the grand council 
assembles in a large hall devoted to that purpose. © 
There are two foundling hospitals for male and fe- 
male children, one for orphans, and a poor'’s house for 
mendicants ; also different public buildings for the 
administration of justice, one’ of which, called the 
palace of reason, was erected in the year 1326. ‘The 


theatre is a modern structure of Ionic architecture; 


erected in 1786, pe Rpt Campana, a Ferraresey)  « 
Pope Clement VIII. after taking possession” of the 


duchy, resolved to build a fort, including a large 
of the city, and several churches ; but resel 
ture, which is of 4 pentagonal form, was founded only in 


the year 1608. It is entered by a fine marble gateway, 
erected in 1630, and there is a colossal statue of Po 
Paul V. in marble, under whose pontificate the fortress 


was completed. A small garrison was lately kept in it, 
Ferrara is said to have distinguished by its li- 


terati ata very ancient period, and we have 
remarked that the foundation of a university was'au- 
thorised in 1891. The seminary which now . 
however, is of more modern date, rot either 

built or altered in 1610. It is rather a plain structure 
‘a tower and 
cupola, and stands towards the south ‘part of the city. 


To judge by the extent of the li establishment, 
this should be a favoured place for y, but we be- 


theatre, a school for the fine arts, a museum of antiqui- 
ties, and a botanical In sculptures, cameos, 


td #4 


Fersk 


FER 


said to be considerable ; but it has most probably.shared 
in. the dilapidations which have lately diminished the 


Yr" curiosities of Italy. - 


‘account, of 


Zhe library of the university is of more recent institu- 
tion, having been commenced by the 


of that 
of Cardinal Bentivoglio, in 1743. _The'library of the 


Fee mi subjects in natural history, and mo- 
in 4 ‘ fh ak 
Many celebrated characters owe their birth to. Fer- 


( ‘ » 11° 86’ 25”, 
and North Lat. 44° 49’ 56”. See Sardi Historie Fer- 
tarese.. Bononi De situ, aquis et aere Ferrarie. Barotti 
Memorie istoriche de letterati Ferrarese. Compendio 
istorico delle Chiese di Ferrara. Frizzi, Guida de 

Forasticri per la Citta di Ferrara. (c) 

»F , or Hierro, the name of the most westerly 
ef the Canary Isles, is about 15 miles broad, and 45 in 
circuit. The coast is Tes peaeaatowe: sn difficult of 
ascent, but the summit is level and fertile. Ferro was 


astronomical 
17° 9 45", arid. North Latitude 27° 47’ 0’. For.a full 
the history and statistics of this and the 

other islands, see Canary Istes. (/) 
_ FERROL is one of the best sea-port towns of Spain, 
in the province of Galicia. It is situated to the north- 
north-east of Corunna, and ten leagues from Cape Or- 


lage, but large town, contaming elegan blie 
buildings, ha been erected on Ayes lan The 
school for midshipmen is a magnificen 


there is eniemronrs " 
ing copper eathing vessels. There 
are hospitals, one for the inhabitants, and ano- 
ther for the navy and army. The harbour is extremely 
safe, and is on all sides protected from winds. Its 
strong, being 


309 


FEU 
on by 600 galley slaves, who compose the presidario,. 


‘The approach to the coast between Corunna and Ferrol "=" 


is defended by' two castles, viz. that of St Philip and 
Palma, No expence, indeed, has been spared by the 
Spanish government to render Ferrol one of the. most: 
complete naval.establishments in the world. There is 
here a military commandant, a governor, an intendant, 
and a numerous staff. All foreign ships are excluded 
from Ferrol, only coasting vessels and Spanish ships 
which bring articles of necessity being admitted. Sea 
and river fish are caught in abundance ; and in the vi- 
cinity of the town there are numerous fountains of ex- 
cellent water. Ferrol contains but one: manufactory, 
which is for sail-cloth. ’ 
The town contains only one parish, and a convent 
of the Seraphic order. The population is about 8000, 
excepting in time of war, when it exceeds this number 
considerably. The position of Ferrol, according to 
the most accurate sidereal observations, is in West 
Long. 8° 15’, and North Lat. 43° 29’. See Laborde’s. 
View of Spain, x 441. (x) 
_ FEU, or Fer, ( feudum or feodum, Fr. fief), a word. 
of uncertain derivation, sometimes denotes an estate 
held by feudal tenure, but is more properly used to. 
denote the right resulting to the vassal from the feu- 
dal contract. In this latter acceptation it may be de- 


fined.a gratuitous right to the. property of lands, under 
the ition of fealty and tating service to be per- 


formed to the superior, who grants the right, by the 
vassal, who obtains it. Thea interest which the one: 
rior retains to himself, or rather the law reserves for 
him, in all feudal grants, is called dominium directum, 
because it is the highest and most eminent right ; that 
which the vassal acquires goes-under the name of domi- 
nium utile, being subordinate to the other, and the most 

le of the two, since the vassal enjoys the whole 

its of the subject. : 

Although, from the nature of the feudal constitu- 
tion, feus were originally granted solely in considera- 
tion of military services, yet services of a mere civil or 
religious nature were early substituted in their room, 
at glonrrs of the superior. And in the course of 
time, the spirit of the original system was so far left 
out of view, that services of all kinds were entirel 

i with.in some feudal tenures ; but, in pie 
cases, the vassal, who is exempted from services, must 
be liable in the payment either of a yearly sum of mo- 
ney, or a quantity of grain, or something else, however 
inconsiderable, merely as an acknowledgment of the 
superior’s right. : 

Fees have been divided, with reference to the sources. 
from which they flow, into feuda ligia and non ligia. 
A liege-fee is that granted by a sovereign, to whom the 
v. owes absolute fidelity, without exception: Feu- 
da non lizia, on the other hand, are those derived from 
subjects superiors, in which a reservation is always im- 
plied with to the fealty or allegiance which is. 
due to the highest or liege lord. By the written feu. 
dal usages, feus are divided into antiqua and nova, The 
former are such as come by succession ; the latter such 
me are acquired by gift, purchase, or other singular 
title, 

. Some things are considered as essential to the con- 
stitution of a feu; ‘some are natural to it, and others 
only accidental. No feu can subsist without its essen- 
tial characters ; and, upon the least alteration made in 
these, the right must resolve into one of another kind. 
Such essential requisites are the reservation of the right 
of superiority, and the acknowledgment of this right. 

3 ‘ 


Feu 


FEU 310 


on the part of the vassal, by some service or payment. 
By the natwralia feudi, is understood whatever arises 
eer reatiaeh ter venice ided, These, 
of it, al not v 

et phe dere. be ton re Freu the will of the 
parties, without destroying the feudal contract. The 
accidentalia feudi depend entirely on the convention of 

ies, and are never presumed, but must be the sub- 
Jee or stipulation. See the Consuetudines Feu- 
dete; te of Regiam Magistatem; Craig, De 
Feudis ; Exskine’s Inst. of the Law of Scotland, b. ii. 


em. te 

FEUDAL, ise term used to denote thi —s 
ity, in regard to tenures and, which was 

ew ee gedend, ot ca early period, among the 

states of modern 


The origin of the feudal system is involved in con- 
sidentbile ohecurity. Some writers pretend to have dis- 
covered traces of it among the Romans; while others 
have attempted to deduce its origin from the usages of 
the ancient Germans and Gauls. But in referring to 
the early history of Europe, we shall be to 
trace it, in a more natural and satisfactory manner, to 
the us, es those meee German nations, who 
overrun the provinces of the empire, and esta- 
blished themselves in the conquered territory. Among 
these, the or Lombards, are generally be- 
lieved to have laid the foundation, or, at lenot, hats 
made the earliest im ty Nett thes cetgiaal 
system. That tribe, having earl ir origi 
seats in the northern parts of y, after many 
migrations, seized upon upper Italy, and established 
the kingdom of Lombardy, about the year 568. In 
order to enable them to secure their conquests, they 
found it expedient to divide the conquered country 

their chief captains, reserving the iority to 
their king; and these captains, ing what 
they deemed sufficient for themselves, out the 
remainder among a lower rank of officers, under the con- 
dition of fidelity and military service. The policy of 
this system was so nye ee approved of in that mi- 
prot by 4 that even after the overthrow of the mo- 
narchy of the Lombards in Italy, it was adopted by 
Charlemagne, and eventually by mest of the princes 
of Europe. It was introdueed into England by Wil- 
liam the Conqueror, who, with the view of keeping his 
English subjects under complete subjection, divided 
all the lands of England, with very few exceptions, 
into baronies, which he distributed, according to the 
feudal fom among the most considerable of his Nor- 
man adventurers. ~ 


The period of its introduction into Scotland is un- 
certain. It must be observed, however, that the word 
Feudum is not to be found, either in the laws of the 
Lombards, or even in the constitutions of Char) e, 
in all of which beneficium is the term uniformly pene 
ed to a feudal grant. 

F were originally precarious, being re- 

sa of ter ; but Pen dis 
for life. During this 


rest, in an ion which he undertook to Italy, in 
the year 1036, extended feudal succession to grand- 
sons, and even, in the collateral line, to brothers, in 


FEZ 


the case of a feudum anti 
stitution paved the way 
feudal tenures. 

The feudal law had early received considerable im- 
provements from the numerous constitutions, both of 
the Lombard kings, and of and his sue. 
cessors ; yet its principles were but known, as. 
these constitutions were not for some time collected 
into one body. In order to obviate this inconvenience, - 
the Em Frederick, surnamed Barbarossa, directed 
an institute of the feudal system and usages to becom- 
piled, about the year 1170, which was entitled Con~ 

i} maka papel ange ing sae sis obit, 
vels, in almost itions juris civilis. 

This collection, in 00 for a it ia the wenkint peivate 
hands, does not appear : 


ceptions in fuvour of in certain cities 

has not been acknow by any other state ; every 
ingdom having received the institution with 

ifications, and formed for itself such a of. 


feudal Jaws as best accorded with its own particular 
constitution... (=) Ye 
FEVER. See Mepicrine. ' <i a 
FEZ, or Fas, the capital of the ancient ki of 
that name in Western , was founded about the 
185th year of the Hegira (A. D. 786,) by Idris a de« 
scendent of Mahomet, who had fled from Medina to 


of the town lies very low, and in the winter season 
wet and dirty, and at all times rather unhealthy.» 


2 

2 

F 

= 

: 

; 
lle 

Ee 
SS ss 


g 
8 
2 
if 
i 
E 


2 
i 
| 
; 
i 
: 
i 


ly deli 1, abounding in all sorts of 
fruits and odoriferous flowers. Old Fe 

ighly celebrated for its ancient splendour ; i 
to have contained 62 market places, 86 public foun- 
tains, 200 streets} 600 mosques,"and 200 bridges over 


br 
zg 


canals and branches of the river. | now greatly 
reduced, it is still the most cel city in West 
ee cee ae 

of Morocco, it is mete me weer eg a 


cious and lofty 


; of the family. The portals are: supported: by pillars of 


Perr covered with plaster ; pre ks > uaa ma 
use, is an open square surrounded by a gallery, 
mil communes with the asad in Thos 

e ie di nt’ nts 
doors are wide and lofty, made of carved: 
’ ‘ ‘ar Ce 


; ue se 


This: celebrated con- Fever, | 
‘the hereditary descent of Pee” 
—_—_—— 


or 


ee my Oe 


———— 


ene sw ee 


ae ag 


dts 


Fez. wood, painted. 


wee 


: 


in the city, w the 


F E Z. 


with various colours; and the beams. of 
the roofs are also whimsically and gaily painted in the 
pent mae Every house is supplied with water 
from. the river, which enters the town by covered 
channels ; and the principal dwellings have private 
baths and cisterns. A bath is attached to every mosque, 
for religious ablutions, and there are public baths in 
-various parts of the town to which the people resort, 


-the men at one hour, and the women at another. 


very sumptuous 


marble neni the Atlas mountains, and unknown 


in the countries of E A few professors and stu- 
dents are maintained in the mosques, and the rith Moors 
send their children thither for their education; but 
their studies are chiefly confined to the explanation of 
a AAR 8 purity of 
the Arabic spoken in the city. The mosque, called 
i most ancient and magnificent 


i 
i 


Africa ; but has not been found to correspond with the 
glowing description by Leo Africanus. There are a 
very few of those hospitals mentioned by early wri- 
ters, where there is i no icians in attendance, 
-but- where the are su} with food, and the 
dkeheaddipndediog simian. wre 6 these is a mad- 
house, where the lunatics are chained down in apart- 
ments, which are disgustingly filthy, and treated in a 
very harsh manner. ; The caravanseras or inns, are 
“very Mumerons, amounting nearly to 200. They are 
ae oman ERT HNP PHM to 100 apart- 
ments, each of which is provided with a mat anda 
swater.cock,. The traveller pays so much a day for his 
room, but bri his auth baiting, amd s and 
_ dresses his own isi Each trade and article of 


t ; and there is 


a square divided into twelve wards, which 
are hiefly with silk cloth and linen shops, pro- 
vided with sixty criers:or itinerant auctioneers, who 


with the different pieces in their hands, cry- 
og, «t who bideamore?*-and sell the lot to the highest 


i '» The inhabitants. of Fez rear a great deal of 
poultry, which they: keep in cages to prevent them 


runing. the house, » No animals are permitted to 


_be slaughtered:in the city; but are killed at a distance 
Spriedithacintry andsafie: tna. tin teen bin Sed 


the officer, who superintends the price of provisions, 1s 
inthetown. There aremany corn mills 
sort buy the flour in small 
ies, and where the richer inhabitants send their 


able for their-bigotted spirit. «If a Christian,” says 
Jackson; “ were thereto exclaim, Allah k’beer, < God is 

” he would be invited immediately to add to it, ‘and 
Michammed ie. his ’ which, if he were inadver- 


cireumcised according- 
ly.”. - They. were in former times still more infamous, 
on account of their licentious manners; and debauch- 
_erywas even encouraged by the government as a source 
ue > but at the state of morals is not 

-worse than in the ' cities of the empire. — 
When the Mahometans of Andalusia, Granada, and 
Cordova, during the revolutions in Spai over to 
Fez,they in the Spanish ‘dressing and 
and goat skins, red and yellow, then cal- 

1 


3l11 


Jed Cordovan, now Motocco leather. At Fez, also,was 
first established the manufacture of milled woollen caps 
worn by the Moors, and brought to.so great ection 
at Tunis, They are named Fez by the Turks, which 
confirms the account of their having originated in that 
city. Besides gauzes, silks, and other stuffs fabricated 
at this-city; it is celebrated for an elegant manufacture, 
namely, sashes of silk and gold... In addition to its own 
manufactures, Fez is the common magazine of Bar- 
bary, to which are brought all kinds of commodities 
from the sea-ports of Morocco and the Mediterranean, 


. from the eastern countries by the caravans of pilgrims, 


and from the centre of Africa by the caravans of mer- 

chants. Its chief exports are almonds, gums, raisins, 
dates, carraway, anise and worm seeds, citrons, * 
oil of olives, tallow, hides, tanned leather, particularly 
Morocco leather, ostrich feathers, lead ore, elephant’s 
teeth. _To Timbuctoo, the merchants of Fez send va- 
rious articles of European, Indian, and Barbary pro- 
duce, especially linens; muslins, fine cloths, raw silk, 
beads, brass’ nails, coffee, tea, and sugar, shawls, and 
sashes of silk and gold, haiks (pieces of cloth used by 
the Africans as outer garments) of silk, cotton, and 
wool ; turbans, spices, tobacco, and salt... In return, 
they receive gums, gold rings, elephant’s teeth, amber- 
gris, ostrich feathers, and slaves. The caravans, which 
carry on this trade from Fez to Timbuctoo across the 
desert, generally travel seven hours a-day at the rate of 
33 miles an hour, and complete the journey between 
the two cities in 129 days, 54 only of which are em- 
ployed in actual travelling. 

On account of the number of Mahometan saints said to 
have been buried in Fez, it is considered by the Moors as 
a sacred asylum, and an object of devotion. Hence all 
Jewsand Christiansare prohibited from entering its gates ; 
and an order from the emperor is necessary before they 
can gain admission. This, however, seems to apply only 
to Old Fez, for the new town is principally occupied by 
Jews, who, notwithstanding the contempt with whi 
they are treated, carryon a regular trade with the inhabi- 
tants of the city. In the various revolutions to which 
the country of West has been subject, the citi- 
zens of Fez were always ready to change their master, 
and generally yielded at the first approach of a victo- 
rious leader. They pretend even to plead, that this is 
-a privilege which they enjoy from the founder of their 
city; but it is consid as proceeding rather from 
their own cowardice, or from situation of the place, 
which “is incapable of defence. » Old Fez ‘is several 
leagues in cireumference, but a great part of the in- 
closed space is occupied by gardens, | It is about 120 
miles from the sea-coast, and 36 from the city of Me- 
-quinez, to which there is an excellent road along a 


communication between these two cities is 


-pleasant ew | watered by numerous rivulets and ca- 
nals. .The i 
and 


very expeditious, by means of mules, which 
may be ready saddled at all hours: of the day, and 
which lish the: journey at an easy pace in six 
hours; so as ently to return the same day. 


In theyear 1799, a dreadful plague, which spread 
over all the empire of Morocco, crigioated in this city, 
which some ascribed to infected merchandise from. 
-Eastyanhd others to the pestilential smell of the dead lo- 
custs which infested West Barbary during the seven 
ing years. In the cities of Old and New Fez, 
it carried off 1200 or 1500 persons daily ; and durin 
its continuance, 65,000 of the inhabitants perish 
This deadly calamity produced. a wonderful alteration 
in the circumstances of the survivors, and reduced all 


Fez, 


312 


Fes. _— classes to a strange system of equality. Flocks and 
—"Y—" herds were left in the Belds without ry ee 3 for- 


Mountains. 


Rivers. 


tunes were inherited, or rather taken wu fe omer 
labourers ; visions became ly and 
abandant ; t of enormous- 
ly ; and so few of the poor were spared, or those who 
had survived were now become so rich, that there were 
none almost to work or serve ; and the most wealthy 
individuals were obliged to labour for themselves, and 
to perform with their own bands the menial offices of 
their ive families. See Modern Univ. Hist. vol. 
xvii. p; 74; Chenier’s Present State of Morocco, vol. i. 
p- 71; and Jackson’s Account of Morocco, p. 129. (q 
FEZ, a province of the empire of Morocco, is bound- 
ed on the north by the.province of Errif, on the east 
by Tedla, on the south by the mountains of Atlas, on 
the south-west by Shawiya, and on the west by Garb 
and Its dependencies are very extensive, 
and include several mountainous tracts, well cultivated, 
and full of inhabitants. Its principal mountains are 
Zaragh, one side of which is covered with vines, while 
the other is completely barren, and which lies between 
the river Seboo and the plain where the capital stands ; 
and Zarkon or Zaraharum, wliich is shaded with olive 
trees, and on the summit of which are the ruins of Ti- 
tulies or Tuilit, once a considerable town, but demo- 
lished by a prince of the family of the Almoravides. 
The Seboo, one of the largest rivers, of West Barbary, 
rises in the eastern part of the province near the foot 
of the Atlas mountains, and passes within six miles of 
the city of Fez. It is impassable, except in boats and 
rafts; and at Mamora, where it enters the ocean, is a 
deep and navigable river, capable of affording a cheap 
conveyance for corn to the city of Fez, which is at pre- 
sent supplied with that essential article by means of 
loaded camels, whose hire often exceeds the original 
cost of the grain. The river Bu Regreg, also, which 
i itself into the ocean between the towns of 
Salee and Rabat, rises on one of the mountains of At- 
las, and proceeds through the woods and vallies of the 


territory of Fez. The only other townin the province, - 


of any note, besides the capital, is Mequinez, which 
will be described in a separate article. The whole of 
this province is a rich champaign country, remarkably 
productive in grain. The soil is arich black, sometimes 
reddish mould, without stones or clay. No other ma- 
nure is employed, than the long stubble burned on the 
field; and no other culture is necessary than to throw 
the grain upon the ground, and cover it with the 
pa yn ta crops are wheat and barley ; 
ut in lands adjacent to the rivers, beans, pease, ca- 
ravanies, rice, and Indian corn, are occasionally cul- 
tivated. There are few trees, except the olive plan- 
tations and gardens around the cities of Fez and Me- 
quinez. Fruits of various kinds are very 
sp oranges, (which are frequently sold at a dol- 
a thousand, ) , melons, and -figs of different 
sorts. Cherries are produced in this province, 
though they are said not to ripen in any other part of 
the empire. In the country around the city of Mequi- 
nez, a8 well as in the province of Benihassan, is produ- 
ced the tobacco called Mequinasi, which is so much es- 
teemed for making snuff. A mineral salt of a red co- 
lour, exceedingly strong, is. dug from quarries in the vi- 
cinity of Fez ; and considerable quantities of saltpetre 
are also produced in the adjoining country. Near to 
\ 


these innovators; who professed to. 
abundant, tiff of the M 


FE Z. 


the city is a mineral spring, which is ‘said to be an ins 


fallible remedy for the venereal disease, if used for for- ; 


days successively ; and many persons in all stages of 
ee dewdde, resort to its waters with much 

On the western side of the plain of Fez, is a village 
containing the sanctuary of Idris, the founder and 
first sovereign of Fez; and this asylum, to which ma- 
lefactors frequently betake themselves, is never viola- 
ted by the emperor, or any other authority in/his domi- 
nions. The country part of this province. is: inhabited 
altogether by Arabs, except a small tribe of Berebbers. 
See Jackson’s Account ef Morocco, p. 13 ;Chenier's 
Present State of Morocco, vol..i.; Modern Univ. Hist.. 
vol. xviii; vol. vi. (g) 
blished Mab ereignty in West Besbery, 

is ometan sov it ‘est , con= 
tained seven provinces, viz. F Ke El Gateinet non. 


under the article Morocco, with which they are now 
united as one empire. Of that empire, in short, the 
kingdom of Fez forms the northern division, and is se« 
parated from it by the river Morbeya on the south, | It 
is bounded on the east by Algiers, and on the north and 
west by the sea. It is inhabited chiefly by Arabs, who 
dwell in tents, and are divided into various tribes ; 
the mountainous districts of Atlas are occupied 


usurpers arose in the west of Bz . The tribe of 
Zenetes, called Mequinesi, seized upon several provi 

ces, and founded the city of Mequinez, within ten 
leagues of the capital. A marabout of that tribe, hav~ 
ing by fanatical predictions seduced the minds of the 


people from the family of. Idris, formed a considerable - 


vince of Temsena, arid marched 
‘ez, who was thus forced to 1 
Another of 
a descendant of 
himself El-Mohadi, or 
s, and accused the house of fdvis 
ater tee 
. princes t - *-. =. Gi ‘ 
a having declared hi Caliph, he marched to« 


party in the 
the king of 
the authority of the Zenetes at. Mequi 


Ali and Fatima, 


-wards Mount Atlas to extend his dominions. While 
-he was thus engaged in the South, Al-Habed Almon- 


sor, one of the generals of the king of Cordova, arrived 


with an army to aid the house | ery aimee 


conquered a of the kingdom of Fez, 


the city of Arzilla, which remained for some time un- s 


der the government of the Moors in Spain. El-Mohade, 
by this diminution of his power, and by the hatred 


* One of these princes named Shariff F1 Idrissi, was the author of the work entitled Geogrophia Nubiensis, which he dedicated to Roger’ 
i Cee tant ote aed hb take 4 4 yp 2D 


hing of Sicily, to whom court he had fled for protection, 


— 


by Bex 


a 


Fes. 


om Pp 


9). eet 4 


Debtetietnentees 404 2o0c came eee ee 


e : 


= PBZ 
oy his” ean was unable to retain’ 

‘in Fez, was obliged to pass 
into the eastern part of Africa. The whole of northern 


‘of a numerous army, and took pos- 
Here he fixed his resi- 


Morocco, which his father had begun ; 
blished the seat of his empire. A multitude of Zenetes, 
having begun to ‘new errors and innovations 
in-tt A 


y Temsena, he sent several Morabites 
parr bce to their former tenets ; but, instead 


havi repéopled by colonies from the 
kingdom of Fez, he embraced the first ity of 
attacking theking of that seuniay Having entered 
pe ee ee Vora. any 


Modern: Univ. Hist. vol. xviii. ; 
State of Morocco, vol. ii-; Playfair’s 
and Jackson's Account of Morocco. 


in the interior 
miles south of 


+ The name is supposed to be derived from the word Marabout, 
lowers of Tessifin, because most of his officers were persons of that 


813 


FE Z 


communicates withthe flat ‘sandy desert, ot Sahara: 
The test length of the cultivated part of the king- 
dom: is about 300 English miles from north to sou 
and the greatest breadth 200 miles from east to west. 
But the mountainous ions of Harutch, on the eas- 
tern frontier, and other desert districts of considerable 


' extent towards the south and west, are within its ter. 


ritory. On'the north, it is bordered by Arab tribes, 
nominally dependent on Tripoli; on the east, by the 
hilly deserts already mentioned; on the south and: 
south-east, by the country of the Tibboes;on the 
south-west, by that of the Nomadic Tuarics; and ow 
the west by Arabs. Almost the only historical notices 
of this country by the ancients, are to be found in 
Pliny, who mentions it as one of the most important 
conquests of the Roman general Balbus. : 
e climate is at no season temperate or agreeable. 

The heat is intense during summer ; and when the 
wind blows from the south, is scarcely supportable, 
even by the natives. A bleak north wind prevails dur: 
ing winter, which produces a severe and chilling de- 
gree of cold: Rain very seldom falls through the whole 
year, and when it does come, is little in quantity ; but 
water, notwithstanding, is found every where in wells 
of eight or ten feet in depth; a circumstance, supposed 
to be owing to me otner act heen A is 
ontbnansed. Thunder and lightning are rare; biit 
storms of wind, whirling upthe sand and dust, are 
very a There is not a river or stream of any 
note in the whole country, as far as was observed by 
Horneman ; but Edrisi mentions a river of some size, 
which takes its course by Zuela, and which is lost in 
the sand before it reaches the sea. The soil is a deep 
sand, covering calcareous rock or earth, and sometimes 
a stratum of argillaceous substance; but, as the springs 
are so abundant, few regions in the north of Affricaex- 
hibit a richer v 
well 
from the indolence of the people, their ignorance ‘of 
tillage, or the op ions of their government, a suf- 
pos hey eh es their subsistence is not raised in 
e country, ; upon im ions from 
the Arab countries to fron aro Pot herb and garden 
ve in general are plentiful, and some senna is 
raised in the western districts; but the natural and 
staple produce of Fezzan is dates. There are few horses 
in the country, and camels are kept only by the wealthy 
inhabitants ; but asses are generally used for all the 
i 0 of burden, draught, or carriage. A few 
orned cattle are found in the fertile districts, which 
are employed in drawing water from the wells, and 
are never slaughtered for food unless in cases’ of ex- 
treme necessity. The ordinary domestic animal ‘is 
the goat, —s few — en in the eens 
parts ingdom. antelope, » and os- 
trich, are the principal wild animals, from which the 
natives derive any benefit; but the more noxious and 
loathsome -creatures are sufficiently abundant; and 


Fezzai. 


Extent and 
7 boundaries, 


Climate. 


egetation. Both the soil and climate are Produc- 
for the growth of wheat and barley ; but, tions. 


snakes, adders, ions, toads, and similar vermin, . 
reer constant i itants of the fields, gardens, and 
uses, 


Fezzan is the most advantageously situated, of all ee 


the inland countries in Africa, for the purposes of 
ecommerce, as it lies in the shortest and most conveni.~ 
ent line of communication between the Mediterranean 
and the centre of Africa, as well as between Western 


a name given'to Mahomedan Saints or Monks, ‘and applied to the fol- 
description. ‘ 


AR 


Peezas. Africa, Egypt, and Arabia. 


814 
Its trade is, of conse- 


—\— quence, considerable ; and its inhabitants are the most 


Manufac- 


ment 


—— merchants in that quarter of the globe ; 
but thei traffic consists chiefly in foreign merchandize, 
and they are enriched by the carrying trade across the 
deserts. The capital, Mourzouk, is the great resort 
ef numerous caravans from Cairo, Bengasi, Gadames, 
Troat, and Soudan; and the rendezvous of all the 
Mahomedan pilgrims from the west and south of Africa 
on their way to Mecca. The caravans from the south 
and west bring, as articles of commerce, slaves of both 
sexes, ostrich feathers, tiger skins, zibette, and gold, 
partly in dust, and partly in native grains, to be ma- 
nufactured into ornaments for the mhabitants of the 
interior. From Bornou, copper is imported in great 
uantities ; from Cairo, silks, calicoes, cloths, and East 
ndia goods; tobacco, snuff, and Turkey ware from 
Bengasi; paper, fire-arms, sabres, red worsted caps, 
and woollen cloths, from Tripoli and Gadamer ; and 
butter, oil, corn, senna, and camels, from the Tuarics 
and southern Arabs. ; 
There are no articles of manufacture produced in 
the country, and the natives discover no ingenuity as 
artificers. The only tradesmen are shoemakers and 
smiths ; and the latter work every metal without dis- 
tinction, so that the same » who forges shoes for 
the sultan’s horse, forms rings for the princesses. The 
women, indeed, make a coarse woollen cloth called 
abbe ; but, so imperfect is their manufacturing skill, 
that the whole work is performed solely by the hand, 
and the woof is inserted into the warp thread by 
thread. 
The country of Fezzan is governed by a Sultan, who 
igns with unlimited authority over his subjects, but 
tole his dominione ss tributary to the Bashaw of Tri- 
poli, The crown is hereditary, but/does not always de- 
seend from father to son. The law of succession re- 
quires, that, when a v: occurs, the oldest prince 
of the blood royal shall ascend the throne, a ion 
which ly occasions an to the sword. 
The Sultan, by the rales of the state, must always be 
of the family of the Shereefs of Waden or Zuila. The 
palace is situated within the fortress of the capital, and 
the Sultan lives there retired, without any other in- 
mates, except the eunuchs, who act as his attendants. 
The Harem is contiguous to the royal residence, and 


’ the females are brought to the apartment of the sove- 


reign, who never enters their habitation. He never 
appears. without the castle walls, except on Fridays, 
when he goes to the great , or on other public 
festivals, when he is attended by his whole court.. On 
these days of solemnity, he rides on horseback, in a 
plain on the outside of the town, where his courtiers 
exhibit their skill in ao exercises, or practise the 
art of shooting. On days of state and ceremony, 
the Sultan's consists of a large white stuff frock 
or shirt, in the Sondan fashion, and brocaded 
with gold and silver. Under this covering, he wears 
the ordinary dress of the Tripolitans, without any thin 
temarkable in his. except his turban, whi 
extends a full yard from the front to the hinder part, 
and is not less than two thirds of a yard in breadth. 
His official attendants. are the first and second minis- 
ters of state, both of whem must: be freeborn ‘men, 
but whose influence, notwithstanding their nominal 
rank, is very inconsiderable; the general of his forces, 
who may be appointed from any class at the sovereign’s 
re; a number of black slaves, who are purcha- 
sed when boys, and educated for the court according 


FEZZAN. 


‘ is most qualified by his lear 
es pale eg ar pon who can best 
or write. mee sees sultan’s family also 


oe 
ext to the cadi, as head of the clergy, 


1s the great iman, 


es, , 

foreign le, from assessments on all gardens and 

cultivated lands, and from arbitrary fines 
i consists in the main- 


princes of the royal family are 
of corn delivered w: = 


to those wha.hold the respective offices. 1 Nae 
, a AY am nm Nc I 
among which there are few places note, and 
4 a 1 The incipal 


. Its 
environs are well watered, remarkable for fertility, full 
of groves of date-trees, and better cultivated than most 
other places, It contains many vestiges of ancient 
splendour, cisterns, vaulted caves, &c. which some 
writers consider as the remains of Roman architecture ; 
but the ruins, which Mr Horneman observed, were en- - 
tirely of Mahommedan ns Jerma, or Yerma, un- 
questionably the Garama of the Romans, and the capi 

tal of the country at the time of its bekngaabGemet 
their arms, is situated as far to the west as Zuila is to 
the east of Mourzouk, and is full of majestic ruins, and 
ancient inscriptions. Temissa, about. 120 miles east- 
ward of the capital, is rather a garrison than a town, 
built on a hill, and surrounded by a high wall ; the in- 
habitants of which derive their chief subsistence'from 
the date trees, and employ themselves in keeping sheep 
and The ruins 
dated houses, built of lime-stone, and cem 
reddish mortar. ‘Katron, or Gatron, about 60 miles. 
south of Mourzouk, is remarkable only for the multi- 
tude of common fowls reared .by its inhabitants, and the 
abundant crops of Indian corn in its neighbourhood. 

1 


remarkably abstemious in diet, they are great] 


FEZ 
fm treet heme more an 
pare , but the province, which bears its 
name, is for the quantity of trona, a species 


of fossil alkali, which floats on the surface of its nume~ 
rous lakes. Teghery, about 70 miles south-west of the 
capital 'is'a'cmnall town, nearest to the western frontier. 
ane north are Sockna, Sibha, Hun, and Waden. 


anaes dincnaigsareace t. Itisacommon 
i is to desi arich man, by saying that he is 
read and meat every day, But though 
i i y addict- 
is the juice of 
fresh, is sweet 


which is extremely intoxicating. Their amuse- 
ment in their eveni i is with the 
reer ts one teen Merah 
strument is a rude kind of guitar, and whose motions 
are sufficiently rete Aen ym 4 of the females, 
in general, are unusually tious, are vehe- 
mently fond of amusement, i ot dane’ in the 


occasional blood-letting, which is always done 
cupping, and never by venesection ; ‘aibeliivigattics 


315 


FIE 


of medicine is confined almost entirely to amulets, con« 
sisting of sentences from the Koran, written on a sli 
of paper, which the patient wears about his neck, an 
is sometimes compelled to swallow. “ae 
Geography, vol. vi.; Rennel’s ‘Geography of Herodo- 
poy 566, 618; and Horneman’s Travels in Africa; 
p- 62. (q) 

FIARS, is the name given in Scotland to the average 
prices of different kinds of grain sold within'the coun- 
ty for ready money. Their average prices are gene 
rally determined ‘by the Sheriff in the end of February 


or the beginning of March, from the evidence of a 
number ble tenants or dealers in corn. The 
method of striking’ the average varies in different coun- 
ties. (1) 


FIBRE. See Anatomy and Puysro.ocy. 

FICHTELBERG. See Franconia. 

FIELDING, Henry, the celebrated English novel. 
list and dramatie writer, was born at Sharpham Park; 
near Glastonbury, in Somersetshire, on the 22d of 
April 1707. His father, Edmund Fielding, Esq. who 
was nearly related to many noble and a meee fa+ 
milies, served in the wars under the Duke of Marl- 
borough, and eventually rose to the rank of lieutenant- 

eral. His mother was daughter to seigeGens 
ee to Sir Henry Gould, one of the of 

x 


home, under the care of the Rev. Mr Oliver, a person 
edn = seems _ have entertained Me very, ~~ 
, as he is generally thought to have design e 
character of Parson Tr somyie Pooogh Andrews, a8 a 
it of this we Sm He was. afterwards re- 
moved to Eton school, where he had an opportunity of 
forming a very early intimacy with the first Lord Lyt- 
tleton, Mr Fox, (afterwards Lord Holland), Mr Pitt, 
afterwards Earl of Chatham), Sir Charles: Hanbury 
illiams, and sevéral other distinguished characters, 
who ever afterwards cherished a warm r for him. 
By an assiduous application to study, the cultiva- 
tion of strong natural talents, he is said to have also 
acquired an uncommon knowledge of the Greek and 
Latin classics, during his residence at that seminary of 
education ; and when about eighteen years of age, he 
repaired to the University of Leyden, where he studied 
under the most celebrated civilians for about two years, 
at the expiration of which period, he was 
in consequence of the failure of remittances, to return’ 
to London, 
His father, General Fielding, having greatly in- 
creased his family by a second marriage, found it im- 


possible ‘to afford his son an ae: Peet to” 
the expence attending those fashi leasures in: 


which he had too great a to indu The 
vivacity of his temper, the brilliancy of his wit, and 
his relish of all kinds of social ent, made him 


a most desirable companion in the circles of literature 
and fashion ; but having no disposition for economy, 


' and his finances being inadequate to the draughts made 


upon him in this career of dissipation, he soon found 
himself involved in difficulties, from which, however, 
he hoped to extricate himself by the exertion of his 
genius. Accordingly, he commenced a writer for the 
stage, in‘1727, when he had just completed his 20th 
ear. 

* His first dramatic attempt was a comedy, called Love 
in several Masques, which met with a very favourable 
reception, although it laboured under the disadvan 

of succeeding the long and crowded run of the Pro 


uer. ‘ 
Fieldin received the rudiments of his education at 


Fiars 
Fielding. 


816 


FieMling- voted Husband. His second play, The Temple Beau, 
~~’ which came out in the follow: 


year, was also well 
received ; and from this period, down to the year 1737, 
he continued to bring forward a number of plays 
and farces for the stage. But although these produc- 
tions considerable merit, it anes allowed 
that Fielding’s genius did not qualify him to excel in 
tlramatic writing. In his plays is a good deal of 
humour and vivacity ; considerable knowledge of life 
and manners, and abundant proof of an attentive ob- 
servation of the humours, foibles, and affectations of 
mankind ; but they were evidently written with care- 
lessness and haste: he disregarded the rules of drama- 
tic decorum, despised the criticism of the stage, and 
obstinately refused to make any sacrifice to the feelings 
er taste of his audience. 

The emoluments which he derived from his drama- 
tic labours were by no means great ; and his imprudent 
extravagance still continuing, he found himself obliged 
te resort to some extraordinary expedient to supply his 
necessities. With this view, about the year 1735, he 
determined to bring forward a new, but certainly ra- 
ther hazardous species of public entertainment ; which 
is particularly worthy of notice, as it eventually pro- 
duced an extraordinary change in the constitution of 
the dramatic system, He brought together a great 
number of actors, and made preparations for exhibiting 
aap are ary f of a ped tendency, at the 

ittle theatre in the Haymarket, under the whimsical 
title of The Great Mogul's Company of Comedians. It 
is probable, that, in this singular undertaking, Fielding 
was actuated, in some degree, by resentment against 
the minister, Sir Robert Walpole, whom he had _for- 
merly flattered, but who hitherto neglected him. 
The project had the charm of novelty, and succeeded, 
at first, so well, as to answer his most sanguine expec- 
tations. But this novelty wore off with the first sea- 
son; and the design afterwards received so little en- 
coaragement, that he was forced to abandon it. The 
severity of the satire, however, which was contained in 
the pieces represented at the Haymarket theatre, galled 
the minister extremely ; and he determined, not only 
to put down this modern Aristo , but, like the 
At enian government upon a similar occasion, to re- 
strain the public theatres from becoming the scour, 
of statesmen at any future period. Accordingly, he 
laid hold of a piece, written by somebody or other, called 
the Golden Rump, which was full of abuse, not only 
against the parliament, the council, and the ministry, 
hut even against majesty itself ; and made such use of 
it, as occasioned the bringing into parliament a bill for 
the regulation of the theatre, and to explain an act 
made in the 12th year of the reign of Queen Anne, for 
reducing the laws concerning rogues, v. mds, com- 
mon players of interlude, &c. y this bill, which pas- 
sed into a law, after some opposition, in the year 1737, 
the representation of dramatic ‘ormances was con-. 
fined to Westminster and its liberties, or where the 
royal family should at any time reside ; and the theatres 
were prohi ited from bringing forward any play, or even 
prologue, ue, OF Eons .wishons its being first in- 
spected, and obtaining the licence of the Lord Chamber- 
lain. This act also took from the crown the power of li- 
censing any more theatres ; and inflicted heavy penal- 
ties on those who should afterwards bring forward 
pd perfgmenee, in defiance of the regulations of the 

Among the earlier publications.of Fielding, may be 
noticed an Essay on Conversation; an a on thie 


FIELDING. 
cn the 3 a Jo 
owledge of the Characters of Men ; a Journey a Rime 


this World to the next, and the history of Jonathan 

the Great ; in which he displayed his natural humour 

and knowledge of mankind, but of which the moral 

tendency is, at least, questionable. ° to? ef 
Some years after he to write for the stage, he 


married Miss Craddock, a young lady from 4 
who possessed a great share of beauty, and a fortune of 
L. 1500 nds ; and about the same time, he suc- 
ceeded, ugh his mother, to an estate at Stower, in 


Dorsetshire, of somewhat better than L. 200 an- 
num. With this fortune, he wisely determi to bid 
adieu to all the follies and dissipation, to which he had 


. been hitherto addicted, and to retire, with his wife, to 


his seat in the country. But his natural disposition, 
and passion for society and show, unfortunately pre-~ 
vailed over all his prudent resolutions ; and in less than 
three years from the period of his retirement from tow1i; 
his extravagance, and total neglect of economy, redu- 
ced him to his former state of poverty, dependence and 
distress. His ardent temperament, however, did not 
suffer him to be easily vp es Having determi- 
ned once more to exert his abilities, in a in; 
to procure a competent subsistence, he applied himselt’ 
to the study of the law; and, after the usual period of 
probation at the baron being called to the bar, he 
made no inconsiderable figure in Westminster Hall. 
But the intemperance of his early life now began to af: 
fect his health so seriously, as to prevent him from be« 
stewing the requisite attention on the duties of his la- 
borious profession, and consequently from reaching that 
degree of eminence, which his talents and learni 
might otherwise have enabled him to attain. ai 

all the severities of pain and poverty, however, he stilt 
found resources in his genius. For some years he de- 
voted his talents, in a great measure, to politics ; he 
was concerned in a political periodical paper, called 
the Champion, which owed its principal support to his 
prolific pen ; aid he was Hirscclf ‘the conductor of two 
publications,—the True Patriot, and the Jacobite Jour« 
nal, in which he supported the principles of the Hano- 
verian succession. About this period, he had the mis 
fortune to lose his wife, whom he had ever tenderly: lo- 
ved ; and the fortitude which he had oe 
the former distressing’ situations of his life, is said:to 


have entirely deserted him upon this trying occasion: 


His grief, indeed, was.so violent, that great apprehen- 
den were, for a considerable period, entertained of /his 
being ever again possessed of the ordinary powers of 
reason, ; : Baer 
Hitherto the genius of Fielding had been chiefly em- 
pores upon dramatic effusions, written, no doubt, 
with the view of supplying the exigencies of the mo< 
ment; or upon miscellaneous subjects of mere tempo 
rary interest. But the powers of his mind were now, 
fortunately, directed to a species of composition, in 
which he was liarly qualified to excel, and to which: 


he is principally indebted for his reputation with-pos- 
terity His celebrated noyels of Joseph Andrews, Ton 


Jones, and Amelia, penta in the maturity of his ge- 
nius, may be considered as forming a sort of era in the 
history of his own life, as well as in the literary history 
of his country ; and have elevated Fielding to the first 
rank among the writers of fictitious PPA.) 
But the employment, of his pen.could evidently afford 
him only a precarious subsistence ; and although he oc- 
casionally received large contributions from his friends, 
he is al 
and the pressure of want, to the extremity of distress. 


— 


to have been frequently reduced, by disease 


FIF - ww 


In the year 1749, however, he at length received a 
~ from government ; and, peep 


ind his necessities obliged him to accept of the office of an 


in the commission of the peace for 
been and the county of Middlesex ; an office 
aan me Che ious to the populace,and which, 
abe pee failed to incur tbe imputation of 
aie , from which Fielding was not 
exempted. jn cinerea tas ttich of his office, he 
aga uncommon. vigilance and activity of mind. 
ng many beneficial plans and regula- 
tione-of oe ublished several Tisefal tracts u 
connate with the functions which he 
Among these are, An Address ta the Grand 
po of Middlesex, which he delivered at Westminster 
in June 1749; A P Lfor making an effectual pro- 
7 An Inquiry into the Causes of 
Robbers, &c. 

life of Fielding was now draw- 
In 1753, his constitution had 


Hite 


a pla ved i ual ; ala by thea 
of his physicians, he at length determined the re- 
storative effects of a warmer climate. nie ollowing 


accordingly set out for Lisbon; but in two 
months after his arrival at that place, 


Henry-Fielding was tall in stature, and of a 
seh seen famneit hots, until the vigour of ne 


stitution had been en by. disease. He had an ar- 


dent temperament, and lively passions, - His affections 
See ray nce and constant and his conduct and 


a vi- 
Staaey, a oe oe 
a oe ly wit; and to considerable learn- 


estate, he suffered it to be devoured 
pects ae and » bod weap is life exhibits a 
be" silgwed to hold 

be allowed to hold a 


prs ns The county of Fife is situated 
on the east coast.of Scotland, between 56° 2° and 56° 


317 


27’ of North Latitude, and between 2° and 2° 56? of Fifeshive. 
West Longitude from Greenwich. On the south it is ="y— 


an extrav. t size, 


FIF 


bounded by the Frith of Forth, on the east by the Ger- 
man Ocean, and on the north by the Frith of Tay. Its 
western  bompeary.t is irregular, being indented by the 
Kinross, and united by an uneven line with 
ogi Med of Perth and Clackmanan. Its praee 
belong from Elie to.Balmerino, is about 19 miles from 
south to north ; and its greatest length, from Fifeness 
to the extremity of the parish of Saline, is about 48 miles 
from east to west. It contains about 52.144 square 
. miles, or 263,593 Scottish acres. 


The climate of Fifeshire may be considered as mild Climate. 


and tem .. On the south side of the county, along 
the shores of the Forth, igh air is Ppicrs and friendly to 
vegetation. On the grounds which traverse the 
middle of the county, the soil is damp, and the air cold. 
The northern parts, which are rather exposed, and des« 
titute of shelter, have a very bleak aspect, and in these 
the air is and penetrating. 
There are no remarkable springs 

Those which issue from the rocks of the coal-field be- 
tween the Eden and the Forth, are frequently of the 
chalybeate kind ; and in a few places, as at Kinghorn, 
of considerable strength gth. In the middle district of the 
county, including the valley of the Eden, the pangs, 
are frequently — and issue either from beds 
sandstone or gravel. In the northern of the 
shire, where trap-rocks abound, the springs yield wa- 
i the previes purity. In the Inch Craig of Car- 

Fina to the dam-dyke, there is a hae, Seg 

ucing a liqui resembling ink 

almost constantly from the rock. 

t.a former 
and lakes in many parts of Fife, which the hand of in- 
dustry has changed into fertile fields by means of drain- 
ing. ip few my still remain to enliven the scene, and 


ve pe Mey to rospect. The Loch of Lindores, 
g ance, is surrounded with uneven 
Simao iocihel aes ne scene- 


ualled. It is about a mile in length, 
PE ke pike, perch, and eel, and is much fre- 


quented by ducks, coots, and other water-fowl.  Kil- 
conquhar Loch lies on the boundary that divides the 
pers of Kilconquhar from Elie, is Y neasly of a circu 
form, and may be about two miles in circumference. 

It abounds with pike and excellent eels. In the parish 
of Auchterderran there are two lakes of considerable 
and Comilla; the former about three 


miles, the about two miles i in circumference ; and. 
farther west, in the parish of Beith, we meet with Loch. 
fittie, of an oblong , and of equal extent with ci- 


ther of the two last mentioned. To these may be add- 
ed, Kinghorn Loch, in the neighbourhood of "ae een 
Kinghorn, and the small at Otterston in the 
parish of Dalgety. 


The rivers of this county (provincially termed wa- Rivers. 


, and inconsiderable in 
ulated situation. _ The 


the eastern side of the celebrated 
and empties itself’ into the Figs of Forth 
at Largo Bay. In its course through Fife, which ex. 
fae oe qe arte ae AL ie piped 
considerable called the hier ing e below. 
the village of Leslie, and the united rivulets of the 
Lochty and the Orr, about a mile to the westward 
of Cameron-bridge. Thisriver, the water of which is 
he supply ia constant, and. the stream weighty, 


ters or burns) are few in number 


in the county. Springs. 


, there were numerous marshes Lakes. 


Fifeshire. drives the machinery 
—Y" at various 


Vallies. 


H 


Hills. 


$18 


of a great number of mills, which 
periods have been erected on its banks, At 
its opening into Largo Bay, there is a considerable sal- 
mon fi . and the river also abounds with fine trout, 
ike, and eels. The eels annually descend from Loch 
en to the sea. in the night-time, during the month 
of September, and are taken in quantities by nets 
ced in the river, which the draw every two 
rs. The lands of Sthrathendy, before the Refor- 
mation, were subject to an annual tax’ of some thou- 
sands of eels to the Abbey of Inchcolm.' The river 
Eden, which is formed by the confluence of several 
small streams, in the parish of ery eg 2 
ly throagh a level valley, the town upar, an 
unites with the German Ocean a little below the Gair 
Bridge to the north-east of the city of Saint Andrews. 
In its course eastwards, which may extend to 20 miles, 
it is increased by a few tributary streams, and at its con- 
fluence with the sea, is joined by the Motray,a rivulet 
collected the hills on the left bank of the Tay. 
At the mouth of the Eden, a few salmon are yearly 
taken, and it abounds with fine trout, pike, and eels. 
Along the south side of the Grampians there is an 
extensive plain, stretching south-west and north-east, 
and constituting the t valley of Strathmore ; and 
along the south-side of the Ochils, which may be view- 
ed as the outworks of the Grampians, there is a similar 
valley stretching i Hap Kinross, Strathmiglo, Ket- 
tle, and Cupar. eastern portion of this valley, 
which is situated in Fifeshire, is known by the name 


of the How of Ife. It divides Fife into two natural 
divisions, a ern and a southern. The Wottom of 


this valley is but little elevated above the level: of the 
sea, so that a canal might very easily be formed which 
would unite the mouth of the Eden, or the harbour of 
St Andrews, with Loch Leven, and even with Stirling. 
Such a canal would be of incalculable advantage to the 
counties of Clackmannan, Kinross, Perth, and Fifé ; we 
may even include Angus, as a lateral branch by Lin- 
dores to Newburgh tould easily be formed. The con- 
veyance of those indispensible minerals, coal ‘and lime, 
to districts at present but scantily supplied with either, 
would be ly facilitated, as vessels could pass with 
certainty 


rough this canal in so many hours, which 
liave to wait at present several weeks before they are able 
to weather the exposed promontory of Fifeness. ‘From 
the How of Fife, at Collessie, there is ‘a lateral ‘valley 
which runs into the Tay by Woodmill, Lindores, and 
Clatchart Craig, and another by Luthrie, Kilmany, and 
Forgan, terminating in the extensive plain called Tents 
Moor. These vallies observe the general easterly di- 
¥ection of the ran of the hills, and contain small 
eminences of regularly stratified gravel in different 
parts of their course, as at Collessie, Cupar, and For- 
gan. We could offer some curious observations 'con- 
cerning the origin of these hills of gravel, were this a 


Seueeiae 

The lls on the north side of this great longitudinal 
valley constitute the eastern base of the Ochil hills, with 
whic! they agree in direction ‘and constitution. The 
aia s are red and white sandstone, amygda- 
, compact felspar, stone, clinkstone, gre one, 
basalt, trap tuff, and . Limestone occurs only at 
one place on the farm of Parkhill, near Newburgh. 
These rocks belong to the old red sandstone formation 
of Professor Werner. The more compact rocks of 
clinkstone, basalt, and felspar, form hills of considerable 
height, with precipitous acclivities, as Glendackie hill, 
Normani’s Law, and Lucklaw ; while the other rocks of 


gold. iiweke 
The native plants of Fife are very numerous. They Botany. 


FIFESHIRE. 


a less durable See waaghdall ind et) form 
rounded hills, usually covered soil, as at Balmea- 
dow side, Moonzie, and’Forret. The soil of this nor- 
thern district, chiefly derived from the decay of the trap 
rocks, is remarkably fertile, and produces of the 
finest quality. Shell marl is here found 
in great abundance, as at Rossie and Lord's Chirnie 
This district affords » carnelian, and A 
and considerable quantities of gravel cemented % man- 
ganese have likewise been observed. : rm 
To the south of the How of Fife, the rocks are ofa 
= different kind, and constitute a part of the great 
coal field of the river district of the Forth. The most 
important mineral of this district is coal, of which the 
following subspecies occur: pitch coal, slate coal, and 
cannel coal, Frequently all are found in the strata 
cut through by the same pit ; and a mixture of the two 
former in the same bed is very common. It was ini 
this county where coal was first employed as fuel i 
Scotland, at least the earliest evidence of its use is 
to be a chafter of William de Obervill, in which he 
— liberty to the Abbot and Convent of Dunferm: 
ne to open a coalpit upon his lands of 4 
This charter rt dated the Amd before the feast of St Am- 
brose in March 1291. ed ime cab eb ermal pin 


tuated in the of ine, Dysart, W 
and Markinch ; at the same! thane ft may’ be anientivdbad; 


that beds of coal occur in almost every parish in the 
district. Glance coal, provincially d blind coal, 


cone’ 
in some places is of great purity. 
limestone of mineralogists, mid contains numerous pe- 
trifactions of shells corals, and in one or two pl 


. = 


the impression of plants. At Lime-kilns on the Forth, 
lime , tebe 


stone is another very ¢ 
time was smelted in a furnace’ at Sand. 


fe quent 
occurrence. In'‘many places, it is of 8 et ome and 


preg shames in the coalfield are slate clay, bitué 
minous shale, | basalt, amygdaloid, wacke; 
and flint+ in't district are situated several ils among 

: ’ —- 


eral the ground is moderately 
level. The soil is very various in quality, owing to the 
great variety of rocks from which it has origi . Tn 
the higher parts, a cold stiff clay prevails, while in the 
lower grounds the soil is less retentive, and more friend: 
ly tov ion: The precious stone, known by thé 
name of the Elie Ruby, is here found imi d ina 
rock of trap-tuff. Lead and ores have been 
observed in different places, and sulphurated ores of 
zine ; ye appears from the charters of the monastery 
of Dunfermline, that the hills of Fife formerly’ yielded 


’ 


were, in part, described by the industrious Sibbald, and 
subsequent botanists have made considerable additions 
to his li In the marshes of the county the botanist 
will find the mare’s-tail, Hippuris vulgaris ; the small 
water plantain, Alisma-ranunculoides; the 

marsh hitchwort, Stellaria glauca ; the water 
Scrophularia aquatica ; the water hemlock, (provincially 
known from its deleterious qualities by the ‘name 


a 


Fifeshire. deathin,) Cicuta virosa; and the basket osier, Salix £. s. d. Scots. —_Fifeshire- 
Forbyana. The woods will furnish him with the yel- Cupar... 2. ‘ 98,535 13 4 
low star of Bethlehem, pores deen croak: oe Seen ae 126,013 - ty) . 
winter-green, Pyrola rotundifolia ;. kealdy ....... 87,664 16 -8 
— Chrysosplenium alters . ~ Dunfermline... 05... 56,250 13 4 
nifolium ; and thé bird’s-nest f Nidus- 
avis. Macduff’s cave at Elie ield him the Ger- co ch pep rrarerier necten. * ro Ue wr Aegan 
man Madwort, Asperuge ; and the French amountsto215. General Wemyss of WemyssCastle is at holders. 


sorrel of horticulturists. hills will afford him the present the knight of theshire. Jn Fife, there are two 
alpine bugle, Ajuga alpina ; the alpine bistort, Poly- complete districts of burghs, each of which sends a mem- 
viviparum; the common, moonwort, Osmunda ber to parliament, viz. one comprehending the burghs 
p yawns and the rock brakes, Pieris crispa. Among _of Dysart, Kirkcaldy, Kinghorn, and Burntisland ; and 
the fields of wheat, the smooth rye brome , Eom icimmereinine bine eeoen: 
mus secalinus, appears, a common but unwelcome visi- 5 ilrenny. of C and St An- 
tant. arsine tabaci Dundee, = Forfar ; and 
The zoology of Fife is no less i ing than its Dunfermline and Inverkeithing to Stirling, Queensfer- 
botany, in consequence of the great extent of sea coast. ry, and Culross. Fife, therefore, has in effect four re- 
On the land the zoologist will meet with the rare Sorec _presentatives in parliament, and consequently nearly 
fodiens in meadow ground, the Tringa alpina breeding Ps, gg of the whole representation of Scot- 


in the Tents Moor, and the atropos, @ rare visi- This, however, is no more than her just share, 
tant of Cupar, The Tay the Forth.will fwnish being nearly in ion to the valuation and the 
him er ee ge tee he rearerainel edie pueches SA ea eR 
and the Cyclopterus . 7 shores he tion e county in 1811, amounted to Population. 
pick up the following > Caecum (Dentalium) in 52,061 males, 55,304 females, making a total number 
perforatum yr» nee acre Turbo cingillus, and if he of 107,865 souls, At a former period, the landward 
is in search of the Crustacea and Radiata, the Pandalus districts: must have contained a greater number of inha- 
Montagui, and the Ophiura aculiata will reward his bitants than at present; as in travelling through the 
exertions county, you frequently meet with rows of ash trees in 
2. Civil History —The county of Fife at a former the midst of cultivated fields, where formerly. stood the 
as erse ser og have been of great extent, andto hamlets of the peasantry. Even in the burghs on the 


the county of Kinross, and part of Clack- . shores of the Forth, ruinous buildings every where pre« 
™anan. : } name Parag pp pi ber rd Bg em 
of Ross, or the peni and hence Culross signified to which, alas! they are now strangers. The active 
the lower part of the peninsula, Kinross the head of the _ part of the population of Fife, is engaged either in the 
i ,; and Muckross, now Fifeness, the.snout. of pursuits of agriculture, manufactures, or fishing. 
peninsula. The last division may have obtained Four-fifths of the county are considered arable, and 4 jie 
infested are at present under the management of judicious and ture. 
that ; ent the | is divided active agriculturists. The furm-houses, which formerly 
into sixty-one parishes, distributed into four pres- were mean in their appearance, and afforded little ac- 
ee en erent eae -commodation to the tenants, are now built of substan- 
we re infe i ry pour saa pau dein Se eo aha The 
constitute ‘synod i size of farms is very various, on an average ma 
which meets at Cupar and Ki en ee gO be considered as not exceeding 120 acres, The ordi- 
f athe eee i The a ee See reat The rents 
vided four districts for lating -are usually paid in money, in some cases in the 
busi which ae pera rato The enclosures are chiefly form- 
ed with stone walls, Thorn hedges, which beautify a 
country, and yield-shelter and warmth to the fields, are 
disliked by the farmer, on the supposition that they har- 
bour vermin, by which he means small birds. But the 
same farmer who offers this objection, will not fail to per- 
i- mit forty or fifty pairs of sparrows to hatch their young 
held by different under his roof in safety in spring, while he will e 


Senta basbcnauattiadnod aban erooiees ee 


| 
| 


Hl 
i 
it 
i 


a 
i 
h 
i 


F 
i 

Hl 
: : 

i 
aa 


ut 

l 
A 
[ 
4 
E 


‘the crown, sometimes of a subject superior, and in 
many instances of individual proprietors, these last oc- ly known in the country ; and .the een eve,entens 
eupiers being termed feuars. Another class of lands, ridges which f prevailed, have exchanged 
pe re der ie re wie peecnensd by bur- for a more rational and productive mode of tillage, Sum- 
ome sw no a polar uboriateined Te weuhibe Eeetinian chines sontnn teminiee 
- corporations to private indivi tw without descending to particu~ 
a, The valued rent athe county 50 13s,4d. lars, to mention the rotations of crops which are obser- 
Scots, ‘among: i in ‘the ved on the various soils which here occur, rotations dic- 


manners 9 yy ep dies tated by experience, sometimes by example, and rarely 


; °® We are happy in having it in our’ power to enirol tuts plant as an undoubted native of Scotland. Sir Robert Sibbald” mentions 
‘it in his list of Scotish plants without adding a habitat, Prod. part iy. page 41; and Lightfoot, upon his authority, retains it with 
‘It was found in Forret Den, near Kilmany, by avery keen and indefatigable botanist, Mr Alexander Chalmers, surgeon, 


4 re 


FIF 


Pifehire bytheery. ‘The crops commonly cultivated are oals, 


“—Y~" of which there are many varieties ; barley, and in the condition; but the private parish roads, in which he 
colder big ; tohaet, both, red anes Nenn AEG the proprietors and farmers are materially interested, yi 
wheat seldom ; rye on-thin sandy soils; beans, pease, and are in bad, and in winter nearly impassible. -—s 
tares ; clover and rye grass ; potatoes, and turnips both This fault may be fairly charged ietors, 


Live stock. 


Manufac- 


Fisheries. 


Roads. 


‘of the Hi 


“may expect a number of 


common and Swedish ; flaz is raised in small quantities, 
hemp is never at present even attempted. Although 
there are a great many trees around the mansion-houses 
of proprietors, there is still much ground in the county 
fit only for planting, which is at t, comparatively 
speaking, useless. On many farms, there is not as 
much wood as ‘would make a gate. Farm-yard dun 
is the principal manure, and a straw yard is ceadidenddl 
as one of the most valuable appendages of farm offices. 
Lime is-universally used, marl is employed in a few 
places. Even the refuse of the ironstone mines at Dy- 
sart, has been found a le manure to the sandy soils 
of that neighbou . It consists of several varieties 
of bituminous shale and slate clay, and was first applied 
to this useful by Mr Jameson of Dysart. 

- The Fife — othe dai Th ears ay 

‘or feeding, or iry. ey wei fi 

to fifty stones, are usually of a black or brown tee, 
horns turned up, limbs short, and the body round. The 
cows give from ten to fourteen Scots pints of milk each 
day in summer. The breed of horses was formerly very 
small, and resembled the Highland garrons. But by 
the introduction of stallions from other parts, the Fife 
horses are now fit for the saddle and the draught. . The 
native breed of sheep was the common white- kind, 
or mountain sheep, of a small size, with fine wool, 


which have been banished by the introduction of the i 


black-faced, or Linton breed, with coarse wool, and of 
a wandering disposition ; or by some of the improved 
cross breeds from England. The swine are principally 

and kind, with arched backs, pk cae at 
tles. Rabbits are protected in many places, and the 
annual value of their skins probably exceeds six thou- 
sand pounds, _The number of pigeons in Fife is very 
—- pigeon cotes amounting to nearly three hun- 


As connected with the agriculture of the county, we 
may mention that there are four distilleries, three of 
which prepare whisky for the home market, and the 
other for the London trade. There are breweries inal- 
most every village, which supply the inhabitants with 
beer ; and strong ale is also compounded by some of the 
incipal brewers. The manufacture of linen, compre- 

ing damasks, diapers,checks, ticks, Osnaburghs, and 


‘ Silesias, gives employment to a great number of weavers 
in the diff 


erent towns and villages. Saltis made in the 


~neighbourhood of the great coal-works on the Forth. 


The tanning -of leather is.performed in several places. 
Soap and po a rn wate rn considerable quan- 


tity, Brick and tyle are made at Cupar, Gair Bridge, 


-Burntisland, Kirkcaldy, Scotscraig, and Anstruther. 


In consequence of the extent -of sea-coast, we 
ing villages, and. 
that the-county is well supplied with fish. The case 
is so in reality. -Anumber of fishermen in the towns 
on the coast, direct their attention to the haddock and 
cod fishing, and, in their season, catch herring. In the 
Tay there are extensive salmon fishings, and in the 
spring, sperlings, Salmo eperlanus, are obtained. 

The county of Fife is intersected by numerous roads, 
and the materials for keeping them in repair are easily 
obtained. The more public roads, on which are erect~ 


repaixs'to; 
only about gain, all the while seemingly not averse to 
the jolting which they often experience. There are 
few bridges deserving of particular notice. The Gair 
Bridge over the Eden, consisting of six arches, holds 
the rank. - It was built. in the beginning of the 
fifteenth century, by Henry Wardlaw, Bishop of St — 
Andrews. On the south coast.there are several excel~ 
lent harbours, of which Burntisland is the safest and 
eres be me El hich, the d pth of 
ight be constru at Elie, whi e 

water, could be taken at all times of the Gide and 
would prove a safe retreat to the vessels navigating the 
Forth. In the Tay there are several ports to which 
ships resort. The principal of these are rewpcinw 
Woodhaven, and Newbur; The imports are chiefly 
wood, oak, bark, hides, flax, iron, tar; and groceries. 

coasting 


heneenene an aneennaes phony raring yes ton 
in consequence permanent features of nature, 
the hills and yalleys, springs, and rivulets, not having 
been attended to. Mr Givan at Cupar is at present 
executing a new map of Fife, which we expect will be 
free from those defects, which are but too apparent in 
a great number of county plans. For further partieu- 
lars, the reader is referred to Sibbald’s History of Fife 
and Kinross, Svo, Cupar, 1803 ; and Thomson's Agri- 
culture of Fife, 8vo, Edin. 1800. ? Nr 

FIFTEENTH Maysor, in Music (xv), is an interval, 
the double of the major eight, or diapason, and thence 
often called the bisdiapason, the disdiapason, the re- 
plicate of the octave, and the quinzieme ; its ratio-is 
4, = 12245 4 24f 4+ 106m, its common log, = 
-3979400.0868.. ; 

Firrsentu Minor (15th), is the octave of the minor 
eighth, or the doubled minor eighth, as musicians 
improperly term it, instead of its replicate ; and it has 
the ratio of 334, =1177 54-23 f+4.102m, and its com- 
hs log. Siar is iy soy ry igaa 

IFTEENTH on rgan, is a range of pipes 
in large organs, which are each tuned a major fifteenth, 
or double octave above the corresponding pipes in 
the diapason stops. In accompanying choral in 
-churches and concert-rooms, this stop is ge used 
in conjunction with the open and stop diay the 

incipal and the twelfth stops. (¢) 

FIFTH, in Music, is the numeral designation. of an 
‘interval, consisting of 5 diatonic , including the 
lowest and highest of these; but besides the intervals 

‘come under this denomination, a 


i OP 


F IF 821 
toisinda iting teorereast Bits ural ssh 


TE. $2 m, and its common 
ti Major Firma (V), has the ratio i, 


— 52 = 3475 +74 30m, its log. = =.8293037,7283, 


=. 567042 x VIII, = $1.639526 x c; =V—c, = 5— 3, 

£4t, =VI—II, =7—3, =T+2t+S, =2 T+t+L, 
af Hi6e4193;, =2-4ths—Srd ; by which last 

may &e. This Sheetal has 


. Comma-deficient Minor Fiera (5), has the ratio 5 


= Fp =3002 4614.26, its log. =.852,4275,7167, 


= .490228 x VIII, = 27.35340 xe; =5—c, =V—P, 
=VILI—3T, =2t+28, —=2T+ 2L, =2$rds—2c, = 
T4t+s ty sotpely Oc, eebc4 lar 46f = 
Ofte 102; equal also to 4 4ths—2 Vths, by 
w it may be ‘correctly tuned. This interval has 
Trihemitone of some, 23°, 2 (2 re +S+5); 
the Grave Minor FiAK of Liston, fe ¥f 


Comma-redundant Major Firtu (V"), has the ratio= 
= 22 = 9692 47 £-+32 m, its log. =.8185137,0905, 


cease Xx VILL, =33.639526 xc; =V+c, =5+P, 

Teeaties; met jonas wit’ may be 
w 

ned. * ab g fifth of Maceall tad Lis Lis- 

ton, oa Poti fifth « of » &e. 


Comma-redundant Minor Furrn (5°), has the ratio =>, 
=o> 322 54 6f+28m, its log. =.8416375,9790, 
= 526068 x VIII, =29.35340 xc; are, =Vv—4d, 


=10th—VI, ene an 8, Try 12z; it is 
the double minor third third, by whi means it 


. gresterdimininbed fith of Chladni, the imper , &e. 
Comma-redundant 


~<a (or superfluous) Firta 
Gs Rented a = 5 Ree Seem 
ae ant eran akin Gh a ol = 36.92566 x 


VIEL =I+ ,=U+IV, 1x5, 
=21ll +c, =3T+4=5+t+>5, 

=8. 19€+4152; 
ae =i M2 hs, 


ual also to 


idieese tries See: Commadeficient Major 


é 


Defeient Firen of wher writers, has the ratio TOE 
VOL. IX, PART L. 


FIF 


= 3005 4 6f-+426 m. See Comma deficient Minor Fifth. 


Firts. 


» Diaschi. ective Major Firru (V,); its ratio is 
177,447 3" 


262,144 = pre =3462+7f+30m, its common log. 
is .8297938,7996, =.565417 x VIII, =31.548683 xc; 
=V—4, —545—J,—5— —€, 542c—S,=442L, 
=5L42P, =4t—2, =T42t435, =5 T+f+r, 
BIL FIST + U3 =, =380c417 =+-7 f.. This interval 


bearing, or wolf fifth, when 11 
_ in succession, in 7 octaves, or =7 VIIL 
—11V; and 7 4ths—4 V: by either of which it may 
be tuned. 


soniaicied Fare, the greater of Chladni. . Its ra« 
tio is 36° = 322 +6f+4 28. See Comma-redundant 
Minor. Firru. 

Diminished Fivru, the least. Its ratiois “72, =276s, 


+5424 m. See Extreme Flat Minor Firru. 
PP nay 5 gt the lesser of Chladni. Its ratio is 


i =3115+46f4+27m. See Minor Firru. 
67” Khel Major Firrn (), has the 


2187 _ an 
PP ny tT = .549121 x VIII, = 30.63952 xe; = 
+2t+L, =%9e 4 


V—2e,=>54 iti =3t+S, =T 
Ep ean. te slpoageal tn. dein? 
hich means this interval may be tu« 


gti eee Sharp Firre, (XV") ; its 
ratio is $090 ==, =H16248f 436m; its log. is 
-7953899,1021, = .679696 x VIII, = 37.92561x ¢; 
=V4P, =54S+P, =54T+2, =4T, =2 114 
2c, =4P+4L, 36c4205+8F, athe oy chat 
also equal to 8V—4 VIII, vo either of 
which it may be tuned. This interval is also called the 
Double Ditone, the Quadruple Major Tone, and the 


Fifth of Bemetzrieder ; eis also the Schie. 
ma-excessive Minor Sixth, or 6-4-5, (6*). 


Tepe aeons Minty Perks, has a ratio of 5, 
=> =383 3+4+8f+ 33m; its log. is .8115750,0587, 


of =-625935x VII, =34.92566 xc; =5429, =—V+f, 


=V+5—c, =T+St, =33c418E48f, —8 f+ 
17€ 4 132; equal also to III 4 2 —2 rds, by 
which it may ‘be taned. 
Equal-beating Firtus, are ne. as, when tuned in 
succession, beat a eons ; of which there are a 
oe variety. See the article 
Bevar Be now Bn ape where the values of several of them 
given, anda theorem, by which such fifths 
aay bee in any given case. 
Extreme Diminished Firrn has the ratio }1i, = 
275 re Ft Gs See Extreme Flat (minor) Firrn, 
major) Firru of Liston, (pV), has 
ine rato ft = ane 27m. See Minor Firtu. 
Extreme Flat (minor) Firra. of Liston, () 5); has 
the ratio 27%, = 5, =975245f4-24m; its log. 
is pRSn TORI O6TS: = .4492528 x VIII, = 25.06728 
xe; =5—JS, =—V. , =V—25—0, =T+3S, 
Suth+é, eras =5 f+ 14 €+ 105; it 


Finh. 


FIF 


is also equal to 644—2IIT, or 1I—S HI, by either of 
which it may be tuned. This interval has also been 
called by some the Diminished, and the Extreme Di- 
sninished Fifth, and it is the Minimum Fifth of Hen- 
fi 


ing. 

Extrewe sharp (major) Firtu of Liston (% V): 
the ratio is es =9915 48 4-34'm; its log. is 
.8061799,7398, = .6438566 x VIII, = 35.92564 x ¢; 
=V 45, =54844d, =5425S +6, =6—E, =VI—2, 
=ViIl—3, =X—6, = VIII» 4th, =2T +2t, =2T+ 
t+S4J, =4S42842d9, —34e4+20548f, —8 f+ 
18S€+4142; it is also equal 2VIII—26th =2VI— 
2 4th, = 2V—2 Srds, and =2 III, from any of which, 
but the last in particular, it may be readily tuned. 
This interval has also been called, the Tretratonon by 
Dr Calleot, the Superfluous (major) Fifth, by Tartini, 
Marsh, Chladni, &c. the Sharp Fifth, the Redundant 
(ma ) Fifth of Liston; also, the Double major Third, 

Sixth of Holder, the Diesis Defective minor 
Sixth of Euler, and of the Trumpet scale (.,).. Mr F. 
Webb has lately said, that the ratio of this interval, nearly 
corresponds with that of the diameter of a semicircle to 
its are, taken as = 399348463 = 48 f4-34m: where- 
as the true diesis and are, give 389.55534 54-8 f 
$4 m. 

False Fiera of Chambers and Bemetzrieder ; its ra~ 
tio is 45, =31154-6f427m, See the Minor Firra. 

False Minor Firru, of the common trumpet scale 
(i); its ratio is 15, =320.460258: 46 f +28m, =5th 
+-9.0460258 = 4m: and its com. log. =.8428921,4664. 

Fiat Fiera, of Overend, &c. (pV), has a ratio £3, 
oy f 427m. See Minor Firru. 

Flat Firru of Hussey and Webb, has the ratio 5%, 
=314,947096 = 46f+27m, and its common log. is 
.84509080,4001 : it is also their lesser fifth, and the pois 
fourth of Holder. : 

Greater Firtu of Holder, has the ratio 1$°, =369 
2+7f£+4+32m, See Comma-redundant Major Firrn. 

Imperfect Fivru of Marsh, has the ratio thy oe 
=46f 428m. See Comma-redundant Minor Firtu. 

Isotonic Fiera, or Equal-Temperament Fifth, has the 
ratio 1 *4/2, =357.0072072 = 4-7 f 430m, =357 = 
+7f+4303im, its log. is .8248991,6920, =,,VIII, 
=V—>— 3m, =5 + *,m; and the length of ering 
answering thereto, is .6674199, See Isoronic,. an 
Farey’s Equa, TEMPERAMENT. 

Less, a Lome parse a Hone 5 its Ba ie > = 
47 = +-7f +350m. mma-deficient Major Firrn. 
. Lesser Firru of Hussey and Webb. See their Flat 

IFTH. 

Major Firrn, (V) is a concord, that is very commois 
ly denominated the Perfect Fifth, or simply the Fifth ; 
it has the ratio of ¢, =358 = 4-7 f +-31m; its common 
log. is .8239087,4094, =.5849626 x VIII, =32.639526 
Xc, 359.2913613K =; =54 3,=—1+5, =24 IV, 
=H+44; =6—2, = VII—III, = 9—5, = IX—V 
=11—7, =XI—VII, =12—8: —44-T, =4L+ 3P, 
=oT tl, =2T +t4+S, =4849545, =4$4254 9 
+ 2€,= T +2t4+ L420, =8ic+172 47f, =7/ 
+ 17€+413: it is also =34 I], =VII—4, =10 
—6=X—VI, by which its tune may be checked, and 
adjusted to the greatest nicety. 

interval was anciently called the Pentachord ; 
the D te of Holder, &c. ; the Hypate prima of Hen- 
fling ; the quint of Earl Stanhope ; and on account of 
its great importance in the scale, the upper of its notes, 


322 


FIF ? 
above the key-note, is very talled the Domi- 
se This interval is heard in a very marked manner 
on the trumpet, ora freely sc string, owing to 
its numerous repli $s $ x» xt &c, that are usual- 
ly heard in the octaves : it can be tuned, by the 


more accuracy than the octave or unison, and being, 

(except its compliment the minor fourth, ) the con- 

cordant or t le interval, that being 12 times 

ed, (and returning by octaves as often as is 1 ry,) 
uces as many different notes, that are not gr 


Frc iad each deatans Mad each other, and the last © 


of such notes nearly coinciding with, the octave of 
the first ; on which account, it is the interval almost 
exclusively used in the tuning of instruments. See 
Succession of Fierus, and TEMPERAMENT. ~ 
Major Firtuof Hussey, has the ratio 7 =399.348463 
=+8f+434m, and its common log. =.8037053,5486. 
Mean-tone Firtu, has the ratio 1 + 4/5, = 355. 
2558968E 4-7 f4+ 30m, =35542 +7 f 4302 f; its log. 
is tee ere = V— ie, =} pe 3 this tem- 
pered , four times repeated, peculiar } 
ey of producing an exact replicate of the Major 
ird, and gives the only system that seems adapted 
to the tuning of the common coger M. Loeschman 
likewise uses it, with excellent , in tuning his pa- 
tent enharmonic piano-fortes and organs, with 24 sounds 
in each octave. } 
Minimum Firrs of Henfling; its ratio is $2, = 
2753+45f+4+24m. See Extreme Flat (minor) Firts. 
2 sy 
Minor Firtu (5) has the ratio 44, = = = 311 
6£+427 m; its log is .8470325,3979, =.5081467 x 
VIII, =28.35340x¢; =V—S, =4th4S, =23—c, 
pat My: =V—I, =6—I1, =7—ILI, =8—4,. = VI 
—IV, =9—V, =11—VII, =III4+2S, =T ry + 
28, =484534¥9, =2843584942€, =2704 
6f, eat Be eters A it is =2 4th—III, 
ch it may be tuned. This interval was ancient- 
ly called the Hemidiapente, or Semidiapente ; it is the 
ritonius of Euler, the False Fifth of Chambers and 
Bemetzrieder, the Lesser Diminished Fifth of Chladni, 
the Flat (major) Fifth, and the Extreme Flat (major) 
Fifth of Liston, (pV). ji-L= Se Sp peels 
Minor-Comma excessive Major Firru (V,'); its ra- 
; 3 5 : , on r = 
tio is $234, = ae = 368 © 4 7f+4- 32m, its log. is 
.8190038,1619, =.6012559 x VIII, =33.54839 xe, = 
V+e€, =5+4S, =2+5, =6—I, =8—I1], =9—IV, 
=12—VII, =T +t 438, =32c-46247f, =7/4418 
€4.135 ; it is also =3 4th—2 III, by which it may 
tuned. It is the diminished (minor) sixth of Liston. 


14E4 
by 


Redundant flat Firru (pV’) of some writers, has the: 
fia (oV’) . 


ratio 34, =322z6f428m. See Commu t Mis 
oO Leads (Major) F f Liston (V) ; its rati 
’ nt (Major) Firru of Liston '; its ratio 
is 3 =394z nf al See Extreme sharp (Major) 
IFTH. > 
Redundant Firrn of Holder, has the ratio 33, = 
371.947096> + 7f+ 32m. See Bearing Firtu, 
Schisma defective Major Firru (V.) has the ‘ratio 
ney Bi A 
$993 5) —= a, =3575-47f-4-Slm 5 its Jog, is 8249988, 
4807, =.583334 x VIII, =32.54869 xc; =V—Z, = 
541, =VI--29, =I] +3—2, =2%-4 38, =3le4 165 
+78, =7/ +17€ 4-125, =5 4ths—2V—III, by which 
means this eq r ent Fifth of Farey’s | 
may be tuned. Its length of string is .6674194, and 


a eh ee en 


FIG 


81 
Shard (Major) Firtn (XV), has the ratio $¢, = 
42+8f434m. See Extreme sharp ( Major) Friern. 

cod thegparly aye aged ratio 2,, =390.529042 

48f+434m, and its log. =.8081144,7576. The re- 
spectable author above named, has not only been be- 

: d into the admission of this unmusical ratio, but 

tothe naming it also his Deficient less sixth, and his 

Redundant great third, in different parts of his Essay. 
Successive Firtus, or the succession of fifths, im- 

lies the order in which they arise, in modulation ; these, 

Beginning twas the lowest arc, according to Mr 

Liston, b» Fp, Cp, Gp, Dp, Abs Ep, By, F, C, G, D, A, 

E, B, Fx, CK, Gk; Dk, AX, EX, BR, FRX, CK; 

who, at page 24 of his Essay on Perfect Intonation, 

remarks, that the six first and six last of the above, 
ing a chromatic douzeave scale in the middle), are 
extreme flat or extreme sharp notes ; and 
so also are any other double flat or double notes 
called, that may be ced by further extending this 
series either way. If the fifths, in the above series, are 
, they answer to the Tutrie progression of the 

i See that article. 


Superfluous (major) Fiera of Tartini, Chladni, 
Marsh, Se. has the ratio *® = so 2-+ 8f4 94 m, 
See Extreme em (major) Firra (KV. 

1eTH. of * fer hit its ratio is 
= 4162 +8f-+ 36m; see Double.comma re- 


ax roar WE 
Temperaments 9 spi ular tempered 
douzeaves, eleven Y tie malin Afthe ate ahah toomeoned 


and, at the same time, eleven of its fifths are each tem- 
Gita Pet the eng a t's cer ty 

; e or , is b 
9 mn « gh eas of the V Ith — 28.3542997 :: 


‘arey’s musical theorems and corollaries, in the 
PaTeiequal Firms, oF quints, of Earl Stanb 
i IFTHS, or quints, ; there 
on Seay cnteneins. mm ‘fits, ut ar iter 
in magnitude, or ick. See 
ae Beatie, and Tarequar Gomes, fr) 


FIGUERAS fe tose Spain ic the 
is a town in, in ince of 
t pain, prov 


, in the reign of Ferdinand VI. at great 
It is called the castle of St FeeGinind, cud is 


$23 


FIL 
tagon, like the flaps of pointed pockets, and it stands 
nearly in the middle of a great plain, which it can de- 
fend on every ‘side, serving as an entrenched camp for 
about 17,000 men. This place was, however, taken by 
the French in 1796; and in the council room of the 
fortress are still to be seen spots of ink, occasioned by 
the of an officer who threw his against the 
wall when he heard of the event. The walls have 
been whitened, but the ink is still visible. The plain 
on which Figueras is situated, is covered with fruit, 
wheat, rice, vegetables, flax and hemp. Population 
4000. See Laborde’s View of Spain. (j) 

FIGURE or tue Eartu. See Astronomy. 

FILE, a well-known steel instrument, having teeth 
on the surface for cutting metal, ivory, wood, &c. 

When the teeth <= Leap instruments are eee by 
a flat sharp-edged chissel, extending across the surface, 
they are properly called files; but when the tooth is 
formed by a sharp-pointed tool, in the form of a trian- 
gular —— they are termed rasps. The former are 
used for all the metals harder than lead or tin; and the 
latter for the softer metals, ivory, bone, horn, and 
wood. 


Files are divided into two varieties, from the form of Different 


their teeth. When the teeth are argent 7 hea 
raised by the flat chissel, ing like parallel furrows, 
cither sh right shgles tothe ler of the file, or in an 
oblique direction, the files are termed single cut. But 
when these teeth are crossed by a second series of similar 
teeth, they are said to be double cut. The first are 
fitted for brass and copper, and are found to answer 
better when the teeth run in ‘an oblique direction. The - 
woeeghe arsed sell Sich “eb: gcsadand aherp 
iron an ac resents a 
nae to the substance, which eons the substance, 
while the single cut file would slip over the surface of 
metals, The,double cut file is less fit for filing 
, since the teeth would be very: liable 
with the filings. , 
different names, according to their 
pacpmax “rete ler Those of extreme h- 
ness are rong the next to this is the dastard 


i hea 
pas files serch ped ee E are sinastiiecs 
a little coarser 3 are distinguished 
des Soe ntiored On ? [ 
Files are also distingu 


other 


equal sides, mostly tapering; those which are not ta- 
‘our-square 
_ are. These files are generally thickest in the mid- 
round file, the section is a circle, and the file generally 


The heavy and coarser kind) of files; are: made from On the steel 
the inferior marks of blistered'stee}.. That made from used tor 
‘the Russian iron; known by the name of old sable, and ‘ies. 
also called from its mark CCND, is an excellent steel 
for files. Some of the Swedish irons would doubtless 


zine, cellars, caverns, and i ’defend- 
ed by a casement. It bas the form an ircegular pets. 


5 


Vile, 


324 
make the best file steel, but their high price would be 


—v—" objectionable for heavy articles. 


he steel intended for files is more highly converted 


than for other pu on ive the files proper hard- 
ness. It should, however, recollected, that if he 
hardness is not accompanied with a certain d of 


tenacity, the teeth of the file break, and do but little 
service, 

Small files are mostly made of cast steel, which would 

be the best for all others, if it were not for its higher 
price. It is much harder than the blistered steel, and 
from having been in the fluid state, is entirely free 
from those seams and loose so common to blister- 
ed steel, which is not sounder than as it came from the 
iron forge before conversion, 

The smith’s rubbers are generally forged in the com- 
mon smith’s forge, from the converted bars, which are, 
for convenience, made square in the iron before they 
come into this country. The files of lesser. size ‘are 
made from bars or rods, drawn down from the blistered 
bars and the cast ingots, and known by the name of 
tilted steel. = 

The file maker's forge consists of large bellows, with 
coak as fuel. The anvil block, particularly at Sheftield, 
is oo re stone of millstone girt.. This anvil is of 
consi le size, set into and wedged fast in the stone. 
The anvil has a projection.at one end, with a hole to 
contain a edged tool for cutting the files from 
the rods, It contains a deep groove for contain- 
ing dies or bosses for giving particular forms to the files, 
‘Phe flat and square files are formed entirely by the 
hammer. One man holds the hot bar, and strikes with 
a small hammer. Another stands before the anvil with 
a two-handed hammer, The latter is generally ve 
heavy, with a broad face for the large files. They both 


‘strike with such truth as to make the surface smooth 


and flat, without what is called hand-hammering. This 
arises from their great experience in the same kind of 


‘work, The expedition arising from the same cause is 


Process of 
wunealing. 


not less remarkable. 

The halfround files are made in a boss fastened into 
the groove above-mentioned. The steel being drawn 
out, is laid upon the rounded recess, and hammered 
till it fills the die. 

The three-sided files are formed similarly in a boss, 
the recess of which consists of two sides, with the 

le downwards. The steel is first drawn out square, 

then placed in the boss with an angle downwards, 

so that the hammer forms one side, and the boss two. 

The round files are formed by a swage similar to those 
used by common smiths, but a little conical. 

- |The whole of the working part of the file is formed 

-and finished, with the hammer before it is cut off from 


the tang of a 
er. This 


upwards in the anvil; a 
side where the com- 
mences. It is then to the front of the 
anvil, and, by an acquired dexterity, the is drawn 
by without touching a Poa with ar er. 

n order to cutting, uire 
to have the siaiecotan ectly mata me as 
even as possible. he state, however, in which the 
files leave the hammer, is too hard for the dressing and 
cutting. The first thing to be done, therefore, after 


‘ration for 


FIL E. 


ness peels off. This scale, however, is very hardy and 
is removed but with difficulty. This last is not the 
greatest evil attending this process ; the surface of the 


ous, that, by the oxidation e hich takes place, the part 
which has to form the teeth of the file will be much 
impaired by the abstraction of its carbon. Hence it 
will forcibly strike any one, that steel, particularly in 
this instance, should be annealed in close vessels, to 
exclude the oxygen. This has been accomplished to a 
partial extent by some manufacturers, but still requires 
more minute attention. The annealing should be per- 
formed in troughs of fire-stone or fire-brick, similar to 
the cavities in which steel is converted, having the 
flame of a furnace playing on every side, and over the. 
top. The trough should be filled with alternate strata 
of the files to be annealed, and coal-ashes, or the dust 
of the coaks, formed in the forge-hearth. The upper 
stratum of files should be covered with a thick stratum 
of the dust, and lastly with a mixture of clay and sand. 
The heat should be kept up no longer than till the mass 
will become red hot, quite through. The whole must 
now be suffered to cool. When the files are with- 


‘drawn, instead. of being scaled ‘as in the old method, 


7 will exhibit a m 
will be much softer than by the common : 
It should be here observed, that the mass to be 
ed should not be more than one foot in thickness, as it 
‘would be so long in heating and cooling, that the me- 
tal would put on the ejeatiion form, under which it is 
too brittle to form a cutting edge. nif 
We have before observed, that the steel. 
conversion for files. ‘This will evidently become unne- 
cessary with this mode of annealing. The surface of 
the files, which is the principal part, will become con- 
verted in an extra degree, by using more carbon in the 
annealing, and thus make steel, of common conyer« 
sion, ciently hard for files. > 
The next is the 


lic surface, and the substance - 


? “ave aT 
s r 


spe) pe HiAcpamen ; 
ex 


orm 


time or other accomplished. ~ ’ bi 
In the present state of the file manufacture, the larger 
files must be prepared on the present plan, and must 


tT 


— 


PFs 


FILE. 


iit 
if 
LF 
: Hi 


ay 
in 
‘a 
g 
a 
E 
F 
Bs 


ay 
ALE 
ea 
a 
: 


i 


as possible. 
six pounds. His chissels are a little 
broader than the file, sharpened to an angle of about 
20 degrees. The length is sufficient to be held fast be- 


a 
2 
z 
s, 


Seng upon prop on the other of the strap. When 
of is single fine file 
Sanne the seit to pag hina. '90§ 


325 
bastard cut fineness, a quick workman will make about 
800 strokes, and as many teeth in one minute. 
The smaller files are generally cut by women and 
children, who very soon acquire great dexterity. 
' The file-cutter, whatever ma the degree of fine- 
ness of the file, depends phe 


File. 


more upon his feel- 


“ing than his eyes. Indeed, their ors are frequently 


directed to other objects while the and the ham- 
mer are going at the full rate. 

When one tvoth is formed, the edge of the chissel and 
the surface of the file being both very smooth, the for- 
mer is pushed up against the back of the first tooth, 
which can be much felt than seen. By this suc- 
cession of stroke and motion of the chissel, to feel the 
last tooth, the work is performed, although the eye is 
at a considerable distance from the work. 

When the files are cut, the next process is to harden Process of 
them, This is effected by heating them to redness, hardening 
and quenching them in cold water. Some previous 
steps are taken to prevent the action of the oxygen of the 
atmosphere upon the file when red hot, anda peculiar 
manner of immersing the file in the water, which we 
shall more particularly dwell upon. 

The preparing process has beenimproved within these 
ten years, so far as economy. The files were, 
before that time, first smeared with the residuum of ale 
barrels, commonly called ale grounds, and then covered 
over with common salt in powder, which was retained 
merely by the adhesive nature of the ale grounds. They 
were now dried before the fire. The files were now 
taken once or twice and heated in a smith’s fire, made 
of small coaks, frequently moving the file backward 
and forward, in order to heat it uniformly red hot. At 
this period the file gives off a white vapour from the 
surface, which is the salt in the act of subliming. The 
surface a at the same time covered with the salt 
ina liquid state, which, like a varnish, preserves the 
surface from the oxygen of the atmosphere, during the 
time it is red hot. ‘The file is now held in a perpendi- 
cular position, and the immersion in the water com- 


mences at the point, slowly di ing it up to the 
tang, which shoald not be hardened: An files are dip- 
ped in a perpendicular direction. Those, however, which 

ve a round side and a flat one, are nioved also in a 
horizontal direction, with the round side foremost. With. 
out this precaution, files of this shape would warp to- 
wards the round side. This arises from the flat side 
having been more hammered than the round side, which 
is formed by the concave die, and does not acquire the 
same density which the hammer gives. 

It is common after hardening to temper most cut- 
ting instruments. Files, however, are never tem 
at all by the maker. Nor are any but rough and the 
bastard-cut files tempered by those who use them. If 
these were not in. some cases tempered, the points of 
the teeth would break, and the file would do but little 
service, 

When files are hardened, they are brushed with wa. 
ter and coak-dust. The surface becomes of a whitish- 
grey colour, as perfectly free from oxidation as before 
it was heated. 


In ing the salt as above directed, a very great 
of it is rubbed off into the fire and is lost. 
consumption of salt used in this manufacture at 
Sheffield alone, amounted to about £1000 annually. 
The economy with which it is now used, has reduced 
this quantity to less than £300. This saving is ‘effect- 
ed by mixing ale grounds and the salt together, the 


The only means which can be employed to increase 
the hardness of files, is by more ly i 


simple manner, No more is ener ats. grant rere 


FILICES, | 


Ors of the P yecr natural series of plants included with 
the Musci, Heépatice, Lichenes, Conferve, &c. in the 
Cryprocamia of Linneus, and AcoTyLepones of 
vo AM vite on these plants have ae 
widely in ir opinions as to the etymology 

word. flices, Aiea derives flix, the name used | 
by Pliny, from lum quasi filatem incise ; but Ains- 
worth was no naturalist: even the roots of these ‘plants 
have no more resemblance to jilum, “a thread,” than 
those of other plants. It seems far more probable that 
the latter name is derived ame ray Quddrwy (foliis) ; 
the leaves or fronds of the European ferns neve alone 
visible, as the stems and roots are either hid under 
ground, or decayed leaves, mosses, &c. 


I. On the Germination of the Seeds, and Physical 
Witeney of Pera date Visa tas 


* Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. ii: 


FILICES., 


i 
: 
z 


be ined, by sing the engravings to 
some oe dig 4 per hina in the West 
iginal drawings, now. in the 
of Dr Wri Edinburgh, were sent? 
ions were made on two 
of Aspidium and one Athyrium only, coincides 
Lindsay in a t one in the 
* But the figure of embryo, as observed 
1, is described with much more accuracy 
either of these writers, although he had an op- 
seeing only a single species, the Athyrium 
in a state of spontaneous germination.t 
, however, had the good fortune to observe, 
from i i 


commencement, the germinating process, in 
several species eee ee so clearly distinct, 
that they must be consi as belonging to different 
tribes, namely, the Polypodiacee, Aspleniaceew, and 
Pteridea ; and having traced the embryo from becoming 
visible as a dark green point, to its gradual expansion 
and final evolution as a perfect plant, we have succeeded 


fh 


7 


ef 


4 


 ” First Period. | 
; Fig. 1. Represents the seed-lobes somewhat magni- 
Getty. tied. dete sitar Usnetulig Vicible’to the nakerl eye, 
Exhibiting Fig. 2. The same highly magnified and reversed, to 
the author's shew its under side, with the mould adhering to the 
Feroieating central fibrils. 
sea Satoiatineeh endlsday dopaak 
embryoof —— Fig. 3. Represents evolving from the 
ierns. decals odaaling 1d the ersten af ths lothaiel the use. 
ral size. The circular 


frond. 
~ Fig. 4. Theseed-lobes reversed, to shew the true root, 
. Fig. 5. The lobes cut off, to shew the tuberous swel- 
ling of the young stem, with the young frond and root 
from ite. 
Fig. 6. the young plant with a second frond 
‘ same 


Hi 


i 
: 
z 
f 
i 


clade within their substance of the 
embryo, which they nourish, and, under necessary 


* Beytriige zur Naturkunde, iii. 75. 
} De Fructibus et Semin. Plantat.—-Pref. 47, 


327 
circumstances, finally develope; 3d, As in the dico- — Filices. 
tyledonous seeds, these aim organs,germinate from a 
Y sthetandligg she abner “ hd 
et notwi ing this general congruity with di- athouck 
cotyledonous plants, ferns, both in the structure of their they differ 
embryo and manner of inating, possess. characters in — 
* oe -a5 LY and manner 
ceniy Stinerehing them from aber phonts hither- *° goes 
ist, In other dicotyledonous plants, the seed-lobes, 
at least such as rise to the surface, are afterwards far- 
ther elevated by the growth of the young stem; but this 
cannot happen in ferns, whose seed-lobes, less perfectly 
divided, and, expanding horizontally only, attain their 
Ree before the developement of the other parts 
of their embryo. 
2d, In other dicotyledonous plants, on the contrary, 
the root immediately germinating, contributes towards 
the evolution of the other organs of the embryo, and re- 
ci ly, even to the expansion of the cotyledons them- 
selves ; whereas in ferns, previous to the shooting of the 
true root, the seed-lobes are nourished by minute fibrils, Tensporary 
invisible to the naked eye, shooting from around the radicles, 
centre of the seed-lobes, and adhering to the soft mould 
in the crevices of moist rocks, where they frequently 
germinate. In this state, these plants, like the larva: 
of many insects, have no similarity whatever to their 
future form, and must have been generally mistaken 
for young Hepatice, which, both in a) and man- 
yar ae they somewhat resemble. 
3d, In the seed-lobes of dicotyledonous plants, the sced-lobes 
vessels conveying the green juice towards the other or- cellular, 
gans of the embryo appear. elegantly ramified, distinct without the* 
from, the deeper green of the cellular substance ; where. vascular 
as in ferns, on the contrary, the lobes of the cotyledon, (77). oun. 
when examined by the microscope, seem to consist en- mon to the 
tirely of a network of deep green cellular substance, other dico- 
without the least vestige of ramified vessels, tyledones. 
By these peculiarities, then, the true ferns are charac- 
terised with much more precision, than by the circinate 
involution of their fronds ; a forrh of vernation which is 
common to them; with certain kindred tribes, such as 
the Botrychiacee, Cycadacee, Lycopodiacea, and Mar- 
siliacea, as we shall afterwards find. 


IL. Of the developement and peculiar Structure of the 
Stem of Ferns, 


Although, therefore, the filices, in the organs of their Gencral 
embryo, possess a certain degree of analogy with dico- view of the 
tyledonous plants, this analogy diminishes as the pro- ‘¢lope- 
cess of ination advances, On cutting across the evade 
stem of dicotyledonous trees at the end of the first sum- of the stem 
mer, three distinct parts are manifest ; the bark enve- in dicotyle- 
loping the nbalds nities circle of wood immediately un- — 

it, in centre a great proportion of spongy 
cellular matter, The stem thus formed resem~ 
bles a cone, whose summit is terminated by a bud, Du- 
ring the gfe a pn tt the stem preserves its ori- 
ginal shape, only the summit of the cone is extended, 
and its diameter en 2 oo REUSE ST, 
proportion of wood greatly increased, and 
matter diminished, while it 

the wood towards the 


+ Anleit. (Transl. 1807, Lond.) Pl. 1. Fig. 17. 


Pilices. 
—\v— 


328 


A lateral bud is evolved from the bark, whose centre is 

uced from the radiated cellular matter of the trunk, 
surrounded with spiral sap-vessels ; and a cone of wood 
is in like manner formed around it, whose base, during 
the first season, is gradually encircled by a layer of the 
contemporaneous maternal wood. 

During the second year, therefore, the base of the 
young shoot can receive no addition to its dia- 
meter, except where it is unencumbered by the wood of 
the trunk: so that at its origin, a branch resembles the 
summit of an inverted cone, enveloped by the circles of 
maternal wood. 


Opinions of As to the order of the developement of the various 


Malpighi 


amd Grew. 


Experi- 
ment of 
Duhamel. 


Palisot de 
Beauvois* 
experiment 
inconclu- 
sive. 


parts of the stem, Malpighi supposed, that the internal 
cireles of bark were subsequently condensed into wood ; 
while Grew concluded, that the young wood was elabo- 
rated by the bark. 

But the well-devised experiment of Duhamel demon- 
strated, that the bark itself, as well as the young wood, 
derive their origin from the gelatinous part of the sap, 
(the eambium,) exuding from the central and radiated 


cellular substance. in which new sap-vessels are devel 


annually during the season. Theexperiment of Duhamel 
alluded to, consisted in removing completely the bark 
of a cherry-tree, from the trunk of which he afterwards 
observed the sap oozing, and forming a new bark, un- 
der which new circles of wood were afterwards formed. 
- We are aware, that the accuracy of this riment 
has been lately called in question by Palisot de Beau- 
vois, in a memoir read before the Institute of France, 
who observes, that when a portion of the bark of 
a tree is removed, and the from which it is ta- 
ken is well rubbed, so as to leave no remains either of 
bark or cambium, neither the young nor old wood pro- 
duce any thing, but that the edges of the divided bark 
extending over the bare wood then produce new wood, 
which unguestionably is derived from the former bark. | 

But it does not seem that this experiment of M. de 
Beauvois mvalidates the truth of M. Duhamel’s conclu- 
sion ; on the contrary, it is perfectly reconcilable with 
it. The efforts of nature are by no means limited to 
one mode of effecting her purpose. _ In fact, in both ex- 
periments the bark was formed from the cambium, from 
which the bark first, and subsequently the new wood, 
derive their origin ; but in De Beauvois’s experiment, 
the cambium oozed from the trunk covered with the re- 
maining bark ; whereas in Duhamel’s, it necessarily ex- 
uded from the bare trunk. 

It ought. to be mentioned to the credit of Malpighi, 
that Duhamel’s experiment partly confirmed the sagacit 
of his opinion, “ Conquituritaque in horizontalibus utri- 
culis et medulla ipsa succus, ut futuris et proxime erup- 
turis gemmis, et tenellis foliis Presto sit.”* For it is evi- 
dent that the increased diameter and elongation of these 
plants depend on the same cause, viz. the annual expan- 
sive motion of the sap in the lymphatic vessels and cel- 
lular substance of the stem, and the subsequent formation 
and condensation of both into bark and wood, assimila- 


= probably b Ay _ —— of the r ive 
plants, p e leaves, and distributed ‘h 
the doaenting vessels, , rt 


From this general view of the manner of growth and 
organization of the stems of dicotyledonous trees, we 


shall perceive how remarkably they differ in both from 


The second period of the growth of these plants ma 
be said to commence, when the conieal lobes, having 


* Anatom. Plant. passim, et de Caudicis Augmento, p. 20. 


FILICES. 


this early 
on a of a triangular 
with the sti a tri 
sesbuttitg ‘tht letter r, and, with the mi ves- 
sels may be seen elegantly ramified, diverging trom the 
central stipes in every direct ion ; whereas, in the se- prarr 
minal lobes, which are cellular and of a darker~ CCLIV. 
hue, no ramified vessels can be distinguished, The Figs. 1, 2, 
tem fibrous radicles of the seminal lobes, as well 3 4 5s 6 
as themselves, now no longer of use, begin to fade, and 
their dark green sap being evidently for the 
nutrition of the young plant, from the tuberous stem of 
which the true root now descends exactly as in dicotyle- 
donous plants. A second frond is soon perceived shoot- 
ing from the axil of the first, and opposite to it, but with 
an additional lobe. In the same manner the fronds. 
are thus evolved one after another, with a gradual addi- 
tion to the number of lobes ; the stem, during tat on 
riod, acquiring only a slight addition of diameter, 
out any perceptible increase of length. Another cirs 
cumstance to be remarked in the of these - 
plants, is, = even — the second year, an stems, 
at least of the native European species, frequ ger- 
minating in the crevices of our sandstone cli a 
Gothic ruins, are very far from attaining their utmost 
diameter. It is no doubt probable, that the slow growth 
of these plants must be greatly influenced by their situa- 
tion and soil, as well as by the temperature of our 
northern climate, but ill to foster the om 
reve. 


i thelr 

of plants, which only attain their fall perfection in- 
luxuriant forests of the tropics. Were it, however, : 
missible, under ‘circumstances where observations are 


 vonkt cman tint thane gual irene ng 
it would seem that these plants possess a sit ana- 
logy with palms, in this and other i 
Both Kempfer and Daubenton have remarked, that 
the Phcenix or date-palm, and others of this series, require 
several years before they acquire their utmost diameter ; 
and that previous to this their stems do not b 

to elongate, nor do their fronds acquire their p -form 
and size. Now, inall these circumstances, th ratly 


the gro ‘ 
of ferns 
with that of 
palms. 


Mie arth: i ember beers cigs oaks he 
but having closely examined this supposed root, in the 
Diudtiie Conarionsia is, gee jum aureum, and other 
species asserted to be stemless, we found that they pos- 
are bm mivowin gr eel sem 
bent stems, detaching at in sp roots, 
and diverging branches, and like es attionehddine ec 
lucing fronds from the numerous buds at the 
mity. hether certain ies, however, are altos 
destitute of stems, it is impossible to determine with 
certainty ; but such a circumstan mln Se : 
and it is far more likely that such as arethus figured by = _ 
Plumier and others, are plants in the second period of 
their growth, whose eee had not yet commenced. 
It is certain, however, th p smi 
species possess real, though very short stems, 


. 


, FILICES. 


sobsteataeanetrhythegemnng ig eideb have arrived at 
. The third period of their growth commences. 

he now gradually elongates, but except where it 
ramifies, invariably in a direction el with the axis 

not Of the great vascular fasciculi; and Sprengel is incor- 
circinate, as rect in supposing the buds of the tuberous stem to be 
supposed by involute or circinate, like those of the fronds which ger- 
Sprengel. ninate from it. ‘These, in fact, Gopsist of ‘round ta- 


mez or Tar ago shewn Linneeus to have originated 
miner t = of the tuber wes enni os Cpe 
dium , Willd. Sp. Plant. 110) covered with 


att ag scales,common tomany of these plants. It 

is certain, , that the numerous rere we te of 
ent growth 

ne do not actually 
of the Tartars. 

From the extreme slowness with which both ferns and 

-arrive at an adult state, we not me that 

ch it is well known 


= __begpa f cimmahuinar amueiaeoeermies Stan da 


Lined werd wenneryt With respect to ferns, indeed, 
few of which are necessary to the wants of mankind, 
no observations, as to this circumstance, are recorded. 


In tracing the of the stem of these plants, 
theacctiracy of Malpighi is again manifested ; for, to 
this excellent observer, we owe the first notice of their 


‘structure, Ina 


ven by fat the 
Si a te m4 

iy ied, of the cen- 
But however valuable an 
i of these parts be-when thas exhibited, we have 
an iJlustration of the general stracture of the 
easel pe Weppesee whsets sertivdly chamnirted by 

the naked eye, as & more correct outline, not 
only of: tha geneeal etrnctave; Tut of the relation the 
4 several parts of the stem bear to each other. Some- 


es 8 ea etn is» te 
by too amagnifying er; the su 
i tole: aepeciesited tr-viihsae ae 
clearly delineated, a which seems well il- 
lustrated by the: ‘view given by Des- 
te ac ns section of the ser ofa fern 
aon 0 
ts.* Baledaemetae-mat tire ce nic 
as possible posbible,’ itis mecestaty to'cut the 


seen ag en from the lateral buds. 
@ transverse section of the ‘creep. 
di a i ee spidium filix mas; and Fig. 6 a 


me! 


tsa canal set of that of Davallid canariensi: 
tae the origin. of the buds of these’ plants, it is’ 


. 


VOL. IX, PART 


of these plants, - 


329. 


clear that they originate from the cellular substance of _ Filices. 
the centre swelling, and in a manner forcing the vas- 
= fasciculi to accompany them in a lateral direction. 

. 7. @ The exterior cellular substance, part of 
a , In the stems’ of ob: rk he Se is 
externally converted into a substance of the density of 


PLATE 
CCLIV. 


* horn, which is sometimes furnished with spines, but is, 


for the most part, in young plants, covered with woolly 
scales,each o which i is furnished with a central fasciculus 
probably vascular, issuing from a pore in the surface of 
the stem. These scales serve- partly the purpose of Ssecharine © 
bark, in protecting the e young shoots, and evidently pre- neo 
vent the evaporation of the fluid part of the sweet juice 4); stems of 
which every- where envelopes the germs of the future ferns, 
fronds and stems, which, in our northern climate, remain 
dormant during winter. The central cellular matter 
in ferns (Fig. 7. 6) is not converted into wood, as in de- 
cotyledonous trees, but remains soft and spongy, in the 
at least, till finally absorbed during the ripening 

of the fruit. This substance abounds with a similar sac- 
charine juice, often accompanied with an unpleasant 
astrin . ‘The stem and branches of these plants are Cyjindrical, , 
entirely cylindrical, unless accidentally checked in their and not 
growth by renioval into an unsuitable soil, whereas the conical like 
stem and branches of dicotyledonous trees are invariably ‘¢ west of 
conical, tapering towards the extremity. a 

Fig. 7. and 8. c, The roots in the procumbent species, a 
issuing from the cellular substance, and descending into 
the soil, from the under side of the stem, opposite the 
buds. Each of these shoots, therefore, 
when d form so many distinct panes posted 
the full diameter of the adult stem, and, like t 
tioned by Kempfer, occasionally ‘shooting i in the same 


manner, from stem of s, attain their 
form. It was, I believe, Micheli who de- 
scribed the or covers on the extremity of © a gh 


the roots in certain aquatic plants. Sprengel has § 
observed these covers on the extremities of the fi- fous 
brous roots of ferns; and supposes Sehapiotbe argue 
of absorption analogous with the am- 


rption, in some degre en 
’ pull in the villous coat of the intestinal: canal of ani- 


mals. To us, it would seem ble, however, that 
these covers, like the chaffy scales of the stems and 
fronds, are intended rather to the delicate ex- 
tremities of the absorbent roots, than to perform this 
office themselves. 


Ill. Of the Fronds and parts of Fructification of 


, Ferns. 


Tue buds from which the fronds of these plants are 
evolved, form of the great central tuber from 
which the ster itself is produced. This tuber, in our 
northern climate, is found during winter, surrounded 


with the decayed ati of the fronds of the 
ing season, and cl invested with the woolly scales 
already mentioned. In examining these buds te~ 


ly, we find that it is the superior or frond only 
which is involute, or circimate, sts tt termed : the 


stipes itself extended sey a # straight line 
from its origin within the stem. Aapidiam file 
mas, we have traced the Siretging fasciculi 


within the stem, before the external evelopementof dhe 
fronds ; and this appears evident in some species on cut- - 
ting it neross, when the large central fasciculi of the stem 
appear surrounded with the smaller ones of the stipites of 
former years, (Fig. 7. The reason these are not per- 


apne es thc ecient ohio plte veppttboatet te Fig: 8: 


* Memoires de Institut National, tom. i. p. 478, by Desfontaines. ‘ 


27 


330 

Pilices. ut supra, is, becanse it is difficult to recognize them in the 
young succulent stem, as distinct from the cellular sub- 

The fuci- stance. The term lignum fasciculatum, used by Dauben- 
cali of the ton and Desfontaines to designate the stems of monoty- 


supies — ledonous plants, is in fact peculiarly pe ermce to the ma- 
- ‘ue the tare stem of ferns. For these fasciculi may be seen even 


ineature 


by the naked eye, and traced from their first divergence 
within the stem, to their final termination in the veins, 


eter. 
as they are termed, of the frond, in many instances in 
contact with the ps of capsules. ~ : 
Sprengel’s Sprengel had the merit of first pointing out this cir- 


hypothesis cymstance; and he su « the pinadee Deine 

concerning contain the concentrated sap, analogous with the pro’ 

peat juice of other plants, which is elaborated in the thick 

the seeds. Solid tubers of ferns, from the humidity of the earth ab- 
sorbed by the roots. The oxygen of the carbonated 
water entering the loose cellular texture, while the car- 
bon, uniting with the hydrogen, is conveyed into the 
ascending spiral vessels, where it contributes to the forma- 
tion of the fruit, while the brown membrane surround. 
ing the fasciculi, prevents the admixture of the elaborat~ 
ed sap with the crude juice of the cellular texture.—This 
construction,” he adds, « throws light on the peculiar 
origin of the seed-vessels in these plants, which takes 
place immediately from the ribs of the frond, or the 
continuation of the spiral vessels.” 


Fronds, It is very probable, that the vascular fasciculi per- 
their ana- form an important office in the formation of the of 
logy with — fructification in ferns; but it is equally so, that the 


= ote fronds, like the leaves of other plants, contribute their 
oe part in the assimilation of the saccharine muci con- 
tained in the cellular substance of the stem, which 
would seem destined, not only to the nutrition and evolu- 
tion of the infant germs invariably imbedded im it, but 
to the developement of the fruit itself. What renders 
this opinion more Y seas is the circumstance, that 
the abundance of the saccharine matter increases or di- 
minishes with the health or weakness of the ive 
plants, and in the autumn after the ripening of the 
seeds, it is aagyee and the seer matter itself 
disappears, and the central of the stipites is 
Rand ee, However, an stot supply i de- 
posited in the stem for the use of the buds the follow- 
ing season. In short, this saccharine muci seems to 
a remarkable analogy with the cambium of Du- 
el, from which, in other plants, rye buds and 
seeds are apparently developed, and subsequentl 
nourished and perfected. a ee 

Although in by far the greater number of species 
the buds are ri Be from the stem, there are many 
others, as Polypodium reptans, in which buds are evolv- 
ed from the top of the frond. Indeed in their general 
structure, the stipites of the fronds possess a consider- 
able analogy with the branches of other plants; but 
pe | also combine with this the properties of. leaf 
and fruit-stalks. There are, however, some species, as 
Schizwa dichotoma of Smith, and S. bifida of Willdenow, 
whose stipites are destitute of frondose expansions. 

The fronds in the whole series are generally green, 
except in the under surface, which is white in one 
Acrostichum and in Cyathea dealbata, and other ies, 
whilst it is of a beautiful yellow in Acrostichum sulphua 
reum. 

The young buds, both of the stem and fronds, are 
often beset with scales or hairs, and sometimes this is 
the case with the under part of the ex fronds. 
It is singular, that Hedwig should have mistaken 
these hairs in the infant fronds for anthere; so very apt 


* Schrad, Journal fiir die Botanick, . 3 


" observed to spring up in wild and uncultivated 
visi 


FILICES. ‘ 


are men of the first talents to hunt after analogies where — Filices. — 

none can pel exist, ole ye 
If we except ——— 3, No are 

really more ornamental than ferns. To them, indeed, And peeu- — 

we are not attracted by the fine colour or perfume of culiar ele~ _ 

the ewe, Be 
uliar freshness and beauty in the bright green hue 

Fr the arched frond. andi sh y divided pinnulz of the 

Brake and Polypody. No plants are better adapted 

than these to adorn the sloping bank of the clear and 

pebbly stream ; and their beauty in such situations has 

not been overlooked by the fine taste of one of the first 

poets of our time : , 


Where the is the 

Where the Fa steep glistens pine g 
Where the lady fern er strongest, 
Where the morning lies longest. 


The number of ramifications of the wancaler fasciculi 


a wee 


differs greatly in the numerous species. In the P. 
aureum, a single branch turns at a right angle into the 
pinnule ; whereas in the more complicated frond of Da« 


vallia canariensis, and others of a like form, several 


ramifications accompany the ive subdivisions of 
the frond; and towards the end of autumn, in our native 
species, a skeleton of the ligneous fasciculi can be dissect« 


ed from the surrounding cellular matter, through the mi- 
nute et rg of the op almost - hennoontet 
termination in sev i 

these vessels well vt theis oe into fered 
pienso fs girth mi is of Bernhardi, Various hy. — 
who supposed them to be the organs;* but, unfor- potheses re- 

tunately for this hypothesis, it has since been observed by ‘Pecting 


Sprengel, that the su organs are wanting in many ~omgs bo 
species ; but where 


do exist, he admits that the m1- 
nute vermicular bodies contained within them are pro- 


ak nctedmanee Soe comionetodoaenan 
which, canes ihieniees . 
chief part in the of fecundation. 
Other parts in the frond have, however, by various 
writers, been su to perform this important func. 
tion. Micheli, whose accuracy in other is well 
known, attributed the office of antherz to ; 
uctions, which he discovered on the unevolved. ... 
mds; and, as already observed, Hed: ‘ ° 


ig adopted 
and illustrated this opinion, ( Theoria Gen. Pl. Crypt. 
tab. v. vii.) Gleichen considered these organs to 
situated in those minute fissures, on the lower surface 
of the cuticle of the frond, which are well. illustrated 


by Spre' Tui. 1 Rb eas rents Sey ER ene 

ns wens A i this office to — Equally 
nella of the cuticle of the which, in most of the tenable, 
tribes of ferns, forms the involucrum of the of 7 
capsules. But leaving these various h to their 
natural fate, it is full time to proceed to the considera 
tion of the capsules themselves, 


The singular aspect of these plants, which every one 


seeds, seems to have arene i 
an age of general ignorance, to those superstitious fan- 
py ee prevalent in several parts of Europe. It 
was a practice among the people to collect the capsules, 
which they considered as the seeds of ferns, on mid~ 
summer eve, and make use of them in various charms. 
« We have the receipt of fern seed,” says Gadshill, in 
Shakespeare's Henry IV. “ we walk invisible.” In fact, 
the botanists of the sixteenth century partook in the 
faith of the times, Valerius Cordus, in his commenta- 


without any 


- 


os ¢é~+,. 


A a ES: —-— 


FILICES. 331 


_. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. 


from a state of coniparative confusion, nearly to their pre= , Filices. 


sent form. Since the work of Smith, others have follow 
ed on the same principle ; and Bernhardi, Swartz, and 
Sprengel, have respectively contributed to our stock of 
knowledge of these plants. 

The general principles on which the genera are at 
present distinguished, consist in the form, attachment, 
and manner of opening of the involucrum ; and when 
this envelope is wanting, in the manner in which the 
sori (groups) are ' on the receptacle of the 
frond. To receptacle, the capsules are generally 


. ‘attached by a fruit-stalk, in some so short, as to cause 


them appear sessile ; in others of a considerable! a 
and sometimes branched with a capsule on each divi= 
sion. The whether situated on the plane of 


of al , as will soon appear, there are in- 
stances of le multilocular poe aa apparently 
sessile in the frond itself. The capsules in most of the 


tribes are girt with a ring, which, on the maturity of 
the seeds, ee eae ee 
with considerable force to some distance from the plant. 
This ceperenanee may be oherer ss occasionally, b 
placing the ripened under the microscope, wi 
a sheet of writi sper under them to receive the ex 
ploded seeds. a great part e series, many 0 
genera want the rings ; but, instead of them, their cap- 
sules are more or less marked with striz, in the direction 
of which they burst. : 

An attempt is hens, mnade.to..arnenge ‘he, genera, of 
the principle of the natural method, as far as our limited 
knowledge of the structure of their most essential or- 
gans would admit. It is no doubt very likely, that se- 
veral of those we have ventured to i , will 
be found deficient in affinity by uent observers ; 
but as an adherence to truth and nature is the great ob- 
ject, this will only add to our satisfaction ; conscious, 
as the illustrious Jussieu observes, that such errors ori- 
* Non legum naturalium, sed prave eorum in< 
terpretationis, vitio.” 

I. DANEHACEX, (Ptare CCLIV. Fig. 12.4.) - 


(Poropterides, Willd. Sp. Plant.) 
We have commenced with this singular tribe, because 
it differs most the rest of the 


E 


series, it is still more nearly related to them than the 


a aR = a A and Gonoph cee, of which 


The single multilocular seed-vessels, in this tri 
sessile in the substance of the frond, and which, in the 
genus Maratiia, are endowed with a divisible septum, 
renders it necessary to them in a natural method, 


their -vessels possess neither an involucrum 
nor ring, yet their fronds are entirely those of ferns. 
They possess a similar structure. They are inyolute, or 
circinate as it is termed, in their vernation, and affect a 
imi in their fruit they are singu- 
larly distinct ; for instead of the groups of minute cap- 
sules, as in the greater part of the series, this tribe is 


GENERA, 
( 1) Marattia. (Sm. Act. Taur. 5. p.419. Myriotheca, 
uss. Gen. Pl. p..15. Willden. Sp. Pi. 5. 1942.) 
Seed-vessels oval, distant, with a divisible or double 


332 FILS 


(2.) Danewa. (Sm. Act. Taur.) 
Seed-vessels narrow, linear, transverse, parallel to 
each other, imbedded in the substance of the frond. 


the oblong sing 
the of capsules in that 

sae sheaves There is a re of the 
ae. pre apes in the Annals of Botany, ii, Pi. 

Three species are described by iidenov all natives of 
Ra ot ie the D. See ga ioe (Rudge, BS mir 
tab. 36.) D. nosa, (Plum, Pl. American, 6.) ‘and 
D. alata, (Plum. Fil. tab. 109.) 


II, GLEICHENIACE2, re 


The era of this tribe proach much nearer to the 
aia the lant, _ The seeds are con- 


or obli , and the es burst lo tudinally in 
ign of the ae grou’ se aaa, ua a es 
pe de Mertensia, have a very number of’ cap- 


GenERA. 
(1.) Angiopteris, (Willd, 1944.) 
Capsules elli ical, disposed in groups of five or seyen, 
in double rms lng ti secondary veins of the frond, 
per cern, ste 
Fi of nag igured. b pci, the G a 
own, 2 * Ms» els 
29. tab. 5.) Tits stagics eee taquattion the islanls 
of the South Sea by Forster ; and Swartz has represent- ~ 
ed the generic character in the Annals of Botany, PI. 
10. fig. 4. This species is five feet in height, ond gs 
the aspect of a small palm, 
(2.) Gleichenia, (Sm. Act. Taur. 5. p. 419. T.9. 10. 
) Willd, Sp. Pl. 5. 1945.) . rate 
les disposed in point-like Broups of three Orforr Goan 


ne us, the lobes of the frond are rolled ‘back- 
tp Gi. apornaes was ranked by Linneus 
gard to the want ve a ring. 
Guys Mpodilder ir’ wait of ths of Good He 
and two others, viz. Gl. circinata, and Gi. glauea, 
described by Willdenow and Swartz. To these Brox 
has added ag ll p= hone of which are ; t 


is the Mertensia dichotoma ot Swarts, and Dicran we 
- In Gleichenia the fronds ‘are dichoto 


(8.) Platizoma. (Brown, Prodr. Nov: Holl. 
point-like 


Capsules sessile, mixed with powder, and in’ “Gistnet la 


groups. 


CES. 
_Mr tat ng Glee yt etry 
ih the Pree ston, bat 
(4.) Mertensia. (am, 1906 p65) 
ot anaes semi- 


This genus was ft Feit 
founded with Polypodium, The 
reper peel 


fn sue te pms 


in Osmundz, eh ay 
mint gt 


i pr gt A 


Genera. comin: 


(ay Todea. (Willd. 1947.) L Seat 
Capsules wire a semi-bivalve, on st 
veins of the rans oe 


There is Asin speci only, the 


scribed and figured (ae CA 
‘tab. 3.) and i Pubcnee sate 
is the Osmu barbara, 


ing to Brown, Todea iste res ‘ ae Sta? 
genus distinct from Osmunda, as it possesses pedicill 


cant) Mohiria. owina. 1918.) ape 
somewhat: 


aoe 
poe a ed ren 
pein ops 


tee | is but 0 one pec 4) fs a : 
pe au Eee Sea 1 
? lasesay 
(3. iaiotel (Opltoglaiuny . 
aaa 
Spee 


. 


or frond, covered vith sc scalp, "end g long’ 
“i 
a fine figure of this 
pricrrd We me ied Wh Opa, i 
gaara eae 
has no affi w 
To the 


accuracy of Brown we are indebted for 
first notice of the car erg eo of ‘the ¢ 
-to the receptacl most correct character | 
Brown and Swartz, Seueh i ere 
bee to ri of vapors (Sp. Pl. 577; ) wherein 


> 


FILICES. 
sules ; so that there are eight species known, of which | Filices. 


port 
- Brown (Prodr. N. abit? observed 


») and 

Po somiblpieoatam, in New ttolland 
4.) ‘Schizeea, (Sm. Act. Taur. 5, tab. 9. fig. 9. Willd. 
a " ws Sp. Pl. 1950.) Pe 
Capsules oval, in two: ranks, on the back of narrow 

“7 of the summit of the frond, opening late- 

aa 

By ; oblong 


pete m that 


tinct from the ger of the series. Plukenet (Aimag. 
p. 200, tab. 95.) accounted this a yuncus, and he terms it 
Juncus capitulis pectinatis. In this he was 


Ray and Morison. The other ies, 
however, may be considered as only eieendlngiee 


ae 


are ¢ i 
ch all of them were formerly 
ey are 


fugit phie stron: anc aise @ieated och tpt doath of thi 
ha frond, or around it, when contracted into the 


form of a panicle. : : , 


833 


one, the O. regalis, only is a native of the moist woods 
of Europe. e ination of the young plants of 
the last ies was observed by Morison, and, from his 
very concise and imperfect description, it would seem 
gechebila, thet inishis process it tgatenbles Gene occ 


he O. spectabilis of North America, though at first 


considered asa variety of the O. regalis, is supposed b 
Willdenow to be a distinct apiecias, having ‘pinafules 
finely serrated. Bee he Leeeyarirmngs yd 
tion, are very ornamental, growing to the hei ve 
feet.' The O, i of Wi ow is the O. basi- 
laris of Sprengel ; and, like the O. claytoniana, bears its 
fruit towards the middle of the frond. The O, cinna~ 


momea, O, ja ica, and O. lancea, have their fruit- 
hearibig feando ditipeat! shaped from the barren ones, 
and may eventually be a distinct genus. 

The genus Osmunda, then, evidently does not bear 
its capsules on a separate spike, like the Anemia, but on 
the back of the fronds, which are changed in such a 
manner, in several of the genera, as to put on the ap-~ 
pearance only of spikes. They ap 


, therefore, 
in their general structure, to those of the rest of the se- 
ries, whose are annulated ; and to the ardour 


and diligence of Humboldt and Bonpland we owe the 
discovery of an intermediate link between the genera 
without rings, and those that have them, in 


Polybotrya, (Willd. 1953. Humboldt and Bonpland.) 
(Intermediate genus.) 


Pe pee with rings, sessile, round, aggregated in 
loose spikes. 

There is but one ies known of this truly interest- 
PR ay Be ag ce Soe Sa i dl 
many instances, of the fact, that the several links of the 
get Goin & Hc natural bodies, are now, or w 
ormerly, enacted , all we are generally 
only able to ive in that or disuni- 


ted form u which we endeavour to characterize 
them in The ferns, therefore, whose capsules 
are and those which are without rings, are 


not naturally distinct ; and therefore we ought not to 
divide them into artificial classes, but endeavour rather, 


ing the ization of indivi to. collect 
Fen ct Keren 6 beat eh 
and thus restore them, as nearly as possible, to the 
of natural affi- 


place they really occupy in the series 
nity. 


IV. POLYPODIACE®, (Puate CCLIV. Fig,14.) 
In this tribe the genera have the capsules Sen bea 
i as in all 


rounded with an elastic , which, 
the others endowed with them, bend backwards on the 
burstin 


see CCLIV. Fig. 11.) of the ripened ca 
sule, (ee sacs of the pil lg ot roe bi ca be 
ked, or at least apparently provided with no other co- 
vering than numerous hairs everywhere around them, 
Brown, however, whom it is impossible to mention 


without has in one us, hitherto 

sed to to Polypodium, demonstrated that th 
hairs are in reality the divided margin of a singular in- 
volucrum, whose capi are incurved so as 


entirely to conceal the young, and even the mature 
capsules, of the Weodsia igpatiorea and W. ilvensis, so 
that this genus must be removed to the tribe Cyathea- 
cea, (see p. $42), Whether similar involucra may not, 
some time or , be detected in: others of this very 


334 


GENERA, 
(1.) Acrostichum, (Willd. 1954.) 
covering the whole or the part of 


a fertile fronds, ‘which frequently 


the lower disc of 


differ in shape from the barren ones. 
Willdenow reckons sixty-two species, to which Brown 
(Prodr. Pl. New Hol. two hitherto unde- 


scribed, the A. fraxinifolia and A. pteroides ; the former 
species nearly |, he observes, to A. aureum, but 
different in having the pinne shortly accuminated. The 
A. aleicorne, previously described by Swartz, was obser- 
ved by Brown near Port Jackson. 

The species of this extensive genus are too nume- 
rous, and differ too evidently in appearance, to be ac- 
curately known ; and it is easy to see that they require 
# more natural subdivision than, from our present im- 
perfect acquaintance with their structure, can as yet be 
attempted with success. Some of the species would 
seem to approach to Onoclea in affinity. Genera, how- 
ever, ly distinct, have been confounded with A- 
erostichum, from being examined in an advanced period 
of their fructification. Hence, as Sprengel 
A, hastatum and Liljebad’s A. alpinum, are real Polypo- 


dia, their capsules becoming crowded when about to - 


burst. In many of the en i the fertile fronds, con- 
tracting, put on the appearance of spikes, seeming to- 
tally distinct from the sterile ones; and thus have been, 
even by modern botanists, confounded with Osmunda. 
In the Acrostichum alcicorne, now in the public collec- 
tion at Edinburgh, the sterile fronds are kidney-shaped, 
— and sessile ; ir the — fronds are erect, 
ichotomous, w - at the base, bearing their 
capsules mae Biber io. ors on the lanceolate laci« 
nie. iene aiden is figured by Schkuhr, 
(Crypt. 1. tab. 2.) By far the greater part of the Acros- 
ticha are natives of tropical regions. 
The Acrostichum maranta is the only European spe« 
eies hitherto described. This mpetie Yoke opposite bi- 
pinnate fronds, The pinnules entire, , blunt, 


united towards the point of the frond, the whole of - 


which is in the back covered with scales, as in 
Ceterach, from which, however, it is easily distinguish- 
ed, by comparing them when the Ceterach is m the 
first period of fructification, and the transverse lines 
of its capsules are clearly seen. The A. maranta is 
found on the rocks of Styria, in the Tyrole, Switzer- 
land, Italy, Spain, and Portugal. The A. canariense 
possesses great affinity with A. maranta ; but it differs 
in in every respect, of double the size, the lower 
pinne having nine or ten pinnules on each side, and 
- former being all alternate instead of opposite, as in 
+ maranta. 


(2.) Hemionitis, (Willd. 1955.) 
5—:Lapsules inserted into the reticulated vessels of the 


In this — genus, the fruit accompanies the ra- 
” describes fifteen species, in eight 
of which the frond is entire, and in the vemiconiley 9s 
riously pinnated. In the H, acroslichoides, the cap- 
sules are confluent on the broad, lanceolate, undulated, 
and crenate pinne. This ies is a native of Sierra 


Leone. The H. reticulata, figured by S is evi- 
dently allied to Vittaria lanceolata, with ‘oups 
of capsules in branched lines, with which wn 


FILICES. 
Filices. eS Ny eT ae 


s. The H. rufa 
2. Lin.) This spe- 
Lamarck (E 2. 208:), freee Dees The species 
are all natives of -warth elisnaiany ete" 

(3.) Meniscium, (Willd. 1956.) 
in lunulated groups, situated nearly Le 
iol te each othr, oxi the tesbeaeteiabala tether 


the frond. Pte od 
Only six species are at present (1815) paadeigg a 


to S we are indebted for a correct 
a dt in an engraving of the 1M. triphyl- 
first characterized 


M. t 
China. 


triphyllum, which we native of the East Indies, are 
Sound in the West: Indies aud South Aiaeckie. 


(4.) Tenitis. (Willd. 1957.) 
_ Capsules generally in linear, longitudi 


supposed to belie Pteris (Phy tb 9.) but it 
genus by Swartz, 


reckoned Pierides, as in neither do the s furnish 
wel has a good figure (PL 10 dalets) of the generic che. 
1 has re (P1.10 An : 
Seas co ee ae 


(5.) Grammitis. (Willd..1959.) 
: of longitudinal i : 
beset with eens, = ai cS ss a 
This genus can ly inguished from the 
ee ee ee being strag- 
The greater part of the species known, have simple 


FILICES. 


ted and blunt. These lobes produce the brown round _ Filices._ 
in mbagonin, on each side of the ““\—" 


ote by S , (Tab. $. Anleit:) exhibits the 


= character of this genus. 


ed by Cavanilles (Ann. Sc. Nat. t. 41. mala.) as an As- 
plenium. 


(6.) Ceterach. (Willd, 1958.) 
les in transverse linear 
_ The Ceterach has been so ently described under 


: 
: 


pumila. Besides the above, he observes, « huc perti- 
Acrostichum marante, Pteris trichomanoides, et 


r 
E 


Es 
i 


close inquiry into the structure of the fruit 
hich are i 


EE 
| a 
I 


u 
ga 
ES 
Bye 
& 

& 

> 


RE 
ES 


E 
H 
i 


Sronde lineari lanceolata, acuta, pinnata, 


disposed 
unwearied investigation of individuals,—that boldt 


535 


of capsules 
middle fasciculus of the fronds, which alternating on each 
side of the stem, extend from a span to a foot in length. 
The most remarkable variety is that noted by Bolton, 
in which the pinne are formed into branches resembling 
the maternal frond. This variety is distinctly, but 
coursely, figured by Bolton, (tab. 2.) It is also 
by Morison, (sect. 14. tab. 2.) under the name of P. Cam- 
bro-Britannicum, pinnulis laciniatis. This is like some 
other ferns, well adapted to adorn rocks surrounded with 
shrubs. (2.) Polypodium ? (an Athyrium?) fontanum, 
a 7 sa i 3 neue erase 
obtusiusculis pinnatifidis crenatis supra glabris, (Sm. Flor. 
Brit. 3.) Smith inks this species Siatbes Bes the 
Fn oo gy fontanum of Swartz. (3.) deh jy Sei 
(Willd. Sp. Pl. 131.) The frond is pinnated, the pinnaz 
lanceolate, pinnatifid and united at the base, the un- 
der pinne bent back. This ies is found in La; 
land, and in the woods of most parts of Europe. (4.) P. 
dryopteris, (Fl. Brit. 5.) This species is the tender 
three-branched P. (Eng. Bot.616.) (5.) P. cal- 
careum, Boer Sp. Pl. 156. and Fl. Brit.) In this 
species ternate bipinnate frond is erect, and more 
rigid ; in other respects it resembles the last. It is the 
rigid three-branched polypody, and is figured by Bol- 
ton, as P. dryopteris, (53 tab.) Our British species 
then of this genus are very limited ; but, indeed, we 
nearly the whole of the European species yet 
own. 
In order, however, to give some idea of the very dis- 
similar habit of some foreign ies of this extensive 


assemblage, it may be remarked, that the P. lycopo- 
doides, (Willd. Sp. Pl. 12.) possesses entire eh a ed 
fronds, and an = ste ing stem, covered with 


scales, from which it has its name ; although it 

vr ut Areye resemblance to a ay moana Plumier, 
mer, tab, 42.) gives an expressive figure of it, under 
the ple It ar i cervina scandens. Itabounds 
in the woods of all the West Indian Islands. The P. 
linear lan- 


on the under side with white woolly down. The P. 
leniosum, ype 9 _m discovered by Hum- 

and in South America, near Caripe. 
is fern are also linear, little more than 
half an inch broad, and extending to the length of two 
P. 


Shee Mateos spetion R Perhaps, os their 
5 | i as congeners of a genus distinct from 
the ee 


. aureum,; and others 
the P. dulce, P. decumanum, and other kindred spe« 
cies. As to the P, h , (128,) and P, ilvense, 
(129,) it is evident must be excluded from this 
genus, if we attend to the valuable memoir of Brown, 
published in the eleventh volume of the Linnean Trans« 
actions: (p. 170.) in which he has demonstrated the true 
nature of these singular ferns, To the ies de- 
scribed in the present edition of the Sp, Plant. (1810,) 
six others hi unknown are by Brown, 
(Prod, Flor. Nov, Holl. 145, 146.) (1.) P. confluens, 


FILI 


(5) The P. rupesire, apparently possessing affinity with 
P.itellatum of Swartz. 


“Vv. ASPIDIACER. (Ptate CCLIV. Fig. 15.) 


This tribe was originally included in the genus Poly- 
podium of Linnwus, but since the more accurate ex- 
amination of the genera n by Sir James Edward 
Smith, and continued by Swartz and Bernhardi, the 


poly jum has been aes into Bs foaled ape hurt § 
istinct genera, whose grou capsules, tig 
separate, aud in round Son wacomeed with an invo- 


lucrum, which in some of them is umbilicated and 
reniform, fixed at the centre, opening all around ; and, 
in others, attached by one, and opening on the opposite 
side of the involucrum. Without, therefore, implicit- 
ly following Roth, there seems to be a certain seins 
of propriety in adopting his principle of separati ese 

ough he erred in confounding them with the 
Cyathea of Smith, which belongs to a very distinct tribe. 
But since the publication of ana J work, a genus 
totally .distinct has been discovered by Humboldt and 
Bonpland in Mexico, : 


GENERA. 
(1.) Pleopeliis. (Willd. 1961. Humboldt.and Bonpland.) 


Capsules in round scattered , With numerous 
peltate involucra to each of hes, Pn 

P. angusta. The stipes of this small fern is smooth, 
and about an inch in length: the frond, which is deep- 
ly pinnatifid, wedge-shaped at the base, and decurrent, 
is two or three inches long, covered thinly with brown 
scales. The are about the size of mustard seed, 
and to each of there are about twenty of the 
brown peltate involucra. These distinct involucra se- 
parate this genus from the two following, but their form 
rank it with this tribe in affinity. 

2.) Aspidium. (Sprengel, Anleit. Gen, Aspidii, Willd. 
So Sp. PL 1962). oi 

Capsules in scattered round groups, invested with a 
round or reniform involucrum Ged in the centre, and 
opening all around. 

Swartz and Willdenow (Sp. Pi. 5,) have united this 
genus with Athyrium, (Polystichum, Roth and Lamarck) ; 
but to us, the reasoning of for keeping them 
separ Lp ny a caging cnr or, if the form and 
of the involucra be, as it is at present, the 
characteristic principle of the generic ee 
ought, in consistency, 
founded be discovered. The Aspidium, then, includes 
such genera as have their involucrum fixed in the mid« 
die, and emit their capsules all around. — - 

A the British species, are, 1. The A. filix mas, 
which a a decided of this genus, so as, 
even without the help of glasses, the kidney-shaped 
shields may be easily perceived opening around the 

and discharging the brown capsules. This spe- 
cies, (whose elegant b fronds, from upwards of 
twenty inches to two feet long when in.a proper soil, 


, to adhere to it, until a better ° 


336 CES. 
Fiiees with linear entire lanceolate ash-coloured be~ ought to become more frequ an ornament of the 
—— neath, with the groups sometimes confluent, anda scaly _shrubbery,) possesses es rounded at the extremi- 
creeping stem. (2.) P. attenuatum, likewise with linear wy finely serrated, bearing in the end of summer’ 
lanceolate fronds, attenuated at the base, and a ah po gh tg taal age ge 
ingstem. (S.) P. membrdnifoliwm, with a pinnatifid and near the middle rib; the sti beset with Prare 
reticulated frond, and minute scattered mh chaffy scales, and the stem, | short and neat CCLI 
sules. (4.) P. diversifolium, the sterile sessile, the surface, is hid by the remains of ses newer Fig. 7. 
ovate, and siniated ; the fertile ones pinnated with lan- and generally confounded, even by botanists, with . 
ceolate, ensiform, crenate, and subpetiolated fronds. the roots, from which, however, it distinct ; 


for the roots are fibrous, sHooting at hee fro 


stem. It is sin that this species should be so ge- 
nerally diffused. It is a native not only of biped iM 
of E , but of the woods of Asia and the North of 


a specimen of a variety from the island of 
St Phomasin the West luis. ‘Tis variety iin length 
the same as the common European species, but th 


ev respect 
Germnatit, There is arsdher euall varity fousd 1 
mountainous situations, 9 ©” * sath ar erie ES 


= 
des 


4. A. dilatatum, (Willd, 
Brit, ; Schkubr, C 


fronds are more rigid and shining. — 
and the pinnules more e : 
figured in Eng, Bot. 1460. . p07 MiB ul 

5. A. lonchitis. Fronds pinnate, wi 


fronds are about a span Jong, erect, te, and nar» 
row. Pinne nearly sessile, alternate, declining, acute, 
and spinulous: at the margin groups of fre«. 
quently confluent. 6 ide te al yee ae 

6. A. oreopteris. The frond is with the» 


"has added four new ferns, under the designation of 
Nephrodium, (Mich. Flor. bor. Amer.) 1. N. oblitera) 
ium. 2. N. unitum. 3. N. decompositum. 4. N. tenue. 
The Nephrodium seems to possess entirely the character * 
of Aspidium. (Prodr. Nov, Holl.) Bane ee” | 

kul Bae eee 
eh nn Farolan an: aa 


ti wel veges 


Capsules in small round groitps dispersed on the whole 
of the lower eartans of the frond; covered with an invo- » 
lucram attached by one, ‘commonly the inner side, and — 


echih y utabew tent 


1. The Athyrium ( Aspiditm Wilk o 
whore rt figured fr Pate COLLV. Big 1, tons 


dium, A. thel has fronds nea 4 
innee somewhat crenate and distinct at the » 
es, ial Beanieedl The are confluent. The + 
frond is erect, a foot and of a bright ~ 


- 
AP og IN 


FILICES, 


clays st the 
ad. pinnat enerally smooth; the 
92. A, filiz femina, with a bipinnate frond; 
Pe 5 Rian innatifid, wi asi fe 
niform involucrum. aon 
- The fronds of this species are eighteen inches long, 


broadly lanceolate, of a deep green colour, smooth as 
well as the stipites ; the pine are lanceolate and pinnu- 
lated, and these pinnules again pinnatifid. The groups 
of cap are di as in Aspidium filiz mas, but 
oblong and much less. It thrives best in moist and 
‘shi dium incisum of Hoffman, is 

ium ovatum is ano- 


ec gn? ay = 
ther ‘et and Muller's figure ( lor. Frid. t. 2. f. 3.) 
is an excellent resemblance of it, to which Roth refers 


chaffy ariety. This species 
is Morison, (sect.14. t, 3. £8; and Pluk. 
Phyl. t. 180. f. 4.) ; 

. Ath. montanum, ac pcan Willd. 147.) With 
more than twice com: ternate and tripinnate fronds; 
lobes remote, and last ones very narrow ; blunt 


at the tip, and seusaly serrated. Plukenet found it in 
Wales. (Phyt.t. 89, f.4.; Allione, Fi. Pedmon. 2410.) 


~" Allantodia, (intermediate.) (Brown, Prodr. Nov. 
Holl. 149.) 


- Groups of es oblong, oblique, with respect to 
tha yi; tavtluerard , origi Se 
a vein to which it is attached margins, and 
opening on the inner side. 

~ This genus seems to be intermediate between A//; 
rium and Asplenium, and certainly distinct from both, 
although more allied to 7 


tenuated towards the point, »b 


bearing numerous the ob in- 
among rub uanenaebiee re only the 
bear their lincar groups of capsules at the base only. 


VI. ASPLENIACEZ. (Piate CCLIV. Fig. 16.) 
f ium trichomanes, a figure of part of the 


The 
ond of w slope eapel Bn ie Fete, aie be as- 
sin as | _ type of this tribe. It Iattulles 


on the margin, and ing outwardl 
with respect $0) the lobe; let inwardly wi “A 
the rib, which the fructiferous vein originates. 


a 


B 
: 
5 
id 
: 
E 
ve 


Z 
He. 
ir 
iy 
eEE 


¢ 

; 

fF 
i 
a 


| 
Fe 


VOL, IX. PART 1, 


, with a smooth stipes nd -re-. 


337 
1s in certain species, whose fronds are undivided, the 
involucrum opens in a contrary direction. 
Fer ' * GeEwnera, 
(1) Darea, (Jussieu, Gen. 15. Sprengel, Anleit. P. 3. 
fig. 24. Willden. 1966. 


~ Capsules in linear submarginal groups. Involucrum 
originating from lateral veins, and opening towards the 
rib 


' There are none of the species of Darea hitherto found 
in Europe; most of them being native either of the 
Cape of Good Hope, Bourbon Island, or New Holland. 
This genus was first established by Bergius under the 
name of Ceenopleris. The lines of capsules are generally 
situated in the marginal sinuses of the narrow lobes of 
the frond. The generic character is represented b 
Sprengel, in his third Plate, exhibiting part of the frond 
ot D. odontites. Sometimes, however, the groups are at a 

ter distance from the margin. | The D. fumaroides, 
ately discovered in Caraccas by Humboldt and Bon- 
pland, to whom all the physical sciences owe so much, 
is a most beautiful species. The stipes is smooth, chan- 
nelled, and half a foot long ; the frond from three to 
five inches; bipinnate, the pinne and pinnule alter- 
nate ; the pnoule are linear, obtuse, and bipartite, 
with bipartite lacini. 

The D. rhizophylla is figured by Sir J. Edward Smith, 

eris rhe ila (icon. in edit. tab. 50.) is a 
native of the West Indies. The D. vivipara, which is 
figured by ius, (Act. Petrop.6. tab. 713.) affords an 
instance of buds being produced from the pinnule of 
the frond. This fern is found in the woods of Mauri- 
tius and Bourbon Islands, 

(2.) Asplenium (Willd. Sp. Pl. 1967.) 

Capsules in linear separate groups, originating late- 
3 from a vein, and opening towards the rib. 

Yilldenow describes about one hundred of this ge- 
nus, of which only eight are natives of Britain. 

1. A. trichomanes. The stem of this Sairan species 
is very short, enveloped with the decayed stipites of 
former and having in the centre of these the 
buds of the future season. The pinne of the frond are 
oval, finely crenate, with a stipes of a shining purple 
hue, carinated in the under side. It is y found 
on the northern walls of our ancient buildings, where, 
although it requires but little moisture, it is in some 
measure protected from the total want of it. It is cor- 
rectly _— by Sowerby in Eng. Bot. 576, and by 
Woodville, Med. Bot. tab. 204. A syrup was formerly 

from a decoction of it, the whole plant pos- 
sessing a slight astringency ; but other ferns far exceed 
it in the ion of sweet mucilagi matter, 
abounding not in the frond, as Woodville observes, 
(Medical Botany, ut supra), but in their stems. Mr 
Teasdale found a variety of this fern with the frond 


a A. viride osm the a but differs, 
ing a green quadrangular stipes ; the pinne of 
finned sented, cadet t paler ; the middle fasci- 
culus of the frond is occasionally bifid. 

3. A, marinum. .This species has also alternate 
pinne, ovate, blunt as in A. trichomanes, and of a deep 
green colour, wedge-shaped at the base, and above 
sometimes united. On several parts of our coast, and 
in the sandstone caves at Wemyss in Fifeshire, observed 
by Sir Robert Sibbald. These three beautiful species 

sess an evident affinity with each other. 

4. A.alternifolium, with a pinnated frond, and al- 
ternate, erect, veer pinne, eroded at the point. 

u 


Filiees. 


the lines of fruit are less numerous, 
peler then in the Gres dasagtid. Siaetes 
pete Mise. t. 5. f. 2.) 
lanceolatum. In is species the frond is bi- 
pinnate and pointed ; the pinnules obovate, dentate, and 
acuminated, It is a native of the south of Britain, and 
found by Mr Forster on the rocks at Tunbri 4 


about a span in length, the lines of capsules 

phe pmo ah 
adiantum nigrum. With” deltoid fronds, al- 
teonataly tigi innate, and with lanceolate, cut, and ser- 
by Bolton, 30.t. 17. There is 
in ion to their size. 


of trees. The smaller was found in a dark cave 
in the mountains of Mourne in Ireland; and in this 
variety the fronds are barren. and membranous, ele- 
gently laciniated. 

. A. septentrionale, with a trifido-pinnate frond, 
ait linear pinnee, as it were torn at the point. 
It is found in the fissures of the me, and other 
rocks in the be Ste a oe of Edinburgh, where Wil- 
lisel found it y’stime. - 

8. A. ruta muraria, with the frond alternately de- 
com nz rhomboidal open eroded at the point, 
tly in Eng. Bot. t t. 150. We have suc- 
in obtaining germinating seeds of this, and other 
ferns, and found the ent answer best in decayed 
mortar mixed "with vegetable mould, taken from under 
the J str plant in ancient ruins. 
numerous 
wild. 594. Hort. Kew. 15.) merits attention, This 
species has bipinnate fronds, and oblong acute pinnules, 
serrated at the point ; but it ‘js chiefl y remarkable on ac- 
count of its agreeable odour. that of Anthor- 
anthum bp Ae 


ery long linear filiform points. is species, though 
poribesly hardy, is in few collections. It was intro- 
Britain above a century ago by Mr John 


The A. monanthemum, a native of the Cape of Good 
Hope, is another singular 
group of capsules on each pin 
im 1790, specie ready dese by Lab of London. To 


iere, as native 
Sf Now Lfolland frows (Pr atte has added the 
following new species own to Wi Ww, viz, 


Genera (insulated) of uncertain affinity, 
"Canis ncn PD Fase, t 9 £2. 1968, 


5 peal 


fissure. 
of Sir J. Edward 
that we owe the separation of this and other 


species, the A. fragrans gin 


FILICES: 


genera of ferns from those originally established 

neus, Although before the i tran ees 
» this was wi Tip me 

t the via, with which, however, 

i seemed ta Soe little affinity. . 

1. Scolopendrium officinale, is a native of I 
the stem is black, as in several other ferns, and scaly and 
poe & Ths Gras, $e ber re he 

to ces, entire, 
cae at the base, and narrowed at the | 


ai 


smooth, and of 4 bright green colour. 
of a dark brown colour, and very often’ 
riations on the waved margin of the frond, or iC~ 
casional lobes produced at the point, are the effect of 
situation, Although, like the rest of the senate it will 
grow on the most elevated ruins, in the cre 
stones, it attains a large size on a richer isher dap 
i Sc. hemionitis, 
Pgy base of the frond, 


(2.) Diplazium, (Swartz, Syn. Filic. p. at wd Sy 
Pipl mone B. de St Vincent) ~* 
Capsules in distant double. lines, simple, or : 
The fivolucha double, each opening townie the Wiese 
of the frond. 
Willdenow describes ten species of this genus, which, 


althoug h in habit somewhat 


will 

jescrbine 1 it as 
Swartz having only a pinna, which he mistook for 
entire frond. This species derives its name from the 


stem abounding more with that sweet gummy. sap, 
which is common, as already observed, to op ae 
part of the even in Europe. : 
ROR NG Te 
eg Ay eR agen ag most, magnificent of 
t OF nelinty of Rootes ‘an Ses oe. ‘ 
in length ; an: ae te pinne are 
i upnocy rfal eet long ; jc paula See a 
r 

_ Tinear, atte caters Rom e 

ving an eect kemitot a Roane the ft en 


howit dtengh tn cota seed 
(3.) Viltaria. (Sm. Act. Taur. Willd. 1971.) 


Copeul tinuous marginal or dorsal 
involu pas eats bly ite eats res 
he inwards. 


esto 7 


form fra 


it 
The V. ensiformis and V. plantaginea ha 
att teantoleah bide hood alseosly teorteth 


(3.) Blechnum. (Lin. Smith, Swartz, and Willd. Sp. 
1972.) 


oz 


ing inwards. 


nig 
nuows capsules, 
the'rib ow each side. Of the twenty species 


by Willdenow, 


pics, 


The Blthews conde 


linear, longitudinal, continuous, parallel to 
on both sidés of the mitlile rib of the frond. 


with, and close to 
described 


part are natives of the tro- 
ntale is common in every 


PILICES. | 339 


collection, as it thrives better in the stove than many _ Filices 
other foreign genera. It has been for several years kept ““—"" 


te Acree d the botanic garden at Edinburgh. 
The boreale is the only species hitherto known 
to be.a native of Europe, and, what is singular, it is al- 
so found in the Canary islands, but of course only in al~ 
pine situations. The linear narrow fertile pinne, no 
doubt contracted and exhausted by nourishing the fruit, 
caused it formerly to be confounded with Osmunda, un- 
der the ridiculous term Spicant. 
(4) Stegania, (Br. Prodr. Nov. Holl. p. 152.) 


G linear, continuous, the capsules at length co- 
verin back of the contracted frond, or of the pinne. 


The involucrum scarious, opening inwards. 


: SE Oa cat eee negecingl my ree 
Prodr. Nov. Holl. without being reminded of the learn- 


pe Poor ud it of the author, These notes, like those 
‘Nistiba, (Gen, PL) generally in a few words convey 


t, a degree of information that could only be obtained by 
1 a patient and diligent enquiry into nature. The. Ste- 
both gania; he ¢ 


nearly the habit of Blech- 
num, to which it is next in affinity; although in 
it approaches to certain Pterides, at least 


des, (Pteris crispa, Willd. Sp. 895.) must be added as 


VII. ONOCLEACEZ. (Puate CCLIV. Fig. 182 
Willdenow having, in the last edition of the Species 


GENERA 
(1.) Onoclea. , 
We per densely covering the under part of the 
Involucrum consisting of the reflex margin of 
the frond; and opening inw: ; 

The definition of this genus 4 Swartz is to be pre- 
sie edged ing at Pa tne SR 

 indusia non dehiscentia” be réally analogous 
with the involucra heretofore supposed to be character- 
istic of Onoclea, as figured in our Plate, and expressed 
in the generic definition. 

1, O, sensibilis. This oe Eee cies is a native’ of 
America, and was introduced into this country in the 
year 1699, by Bobart. It endures the climate of Bri- 
tain in the south. The’ sterild fronds are pinnate, 


- 


rison, vol. iii, sect. 14. tab. ii: fig. 10. 
2. 0. »( is Germanica, Willd. 
Sp.) This is one of the rarer European ferns, 


3. O. pensylvanica, (Siruthiop, Pensyle. Willd, Sp. 
5. is another species tke the last, but diffe. 
yay aaelel onl Menlo ae 


according to Brown, (Prodr. ut supra,) a Woodwardia, 
(Woodw. onoclevides, Witla. Sp. 1073.) 


(2.) Lomaria, (intermediate, (Willd. Sp. Pl. 1963. 
, Sp. Bory. and Swartz.) 

densely covering the inferior part of the 

webs wat continuous, marginal on each side 

of the frond, ne aR ’ 

Of this genus, Willdenow describes eleven species, 
all of which are taken from the Onoclea of Swartz, (Sy- 
nops. Fil.) and Labill. (Nov. Holl.) and. Bory. (Jtin. ) 
In affinity, they approach so near to Onoclea, that it is 
difficult to give them a determinate and distinct charac- 
ter, as must be the case in all natural genera, when the 
intermediate links of the series are discovered, The in- 
volucrum is continuous on each side of the frond, and 


named as a just ot eye poe 
is . (tin, p. 194. -) hi 4 e 
ipo MEA po 
of Bourbon, and he gave it the name of Pieris osmun- 
doides. The sterile fronds are pinnate; the pinnz ses- 
sile, oblong, bluntly lanceolate, and very entire. The 
fruitful fronds are also pinnate, and sy sting 8 are li- 
near, and entire. ‘The stem is erect, and four feet high. 
The sterile fronds are two. or three feet long ; 

fruitful ones shorter, and their pinne very narrow, This 
fine species, like most of the other arborescent ferns, is 
unknown in our collections, Willdenow is in doubt 
whether the L. scandens be not an Acrostichum,to which, 
in some measure, the Lomaria approaches in appear- 
ance, etd teen aoe rhe ff Os- 
munda . (0. trifrons,) as well as . fraxinea, 
Willd) frou h his not sede do the ring of the capsules, 


IX. PTERIDE#? ((Puate CCLIV. Fig. 19.) 


Dryander had previously, from a more accurate examina- 
tion of the structure of the involucra of certain species 


, has already observed, “ Pteris thalictroides 
Siotheediebin imum genus constiluit,” i is, i 


(1) Lindsea.(Dryander, Act, 

=e Taur. tab.. ) 06 yf rte 

Capsules in continuous lines, and frequently very near. 

the margin of the frond. Involucrum se. hs rigit 

ting from the under membrane of the frond, and open< 

pp de cpto ve aa te wy 13 
t is to thelate venerable 


der, that we owe : 
tinction of this genus from Preris; epi Attar ee 


Swartz had associated the respective species with Adian- 
tum; although they ought, he observes, in consistency” 
with the Linnean character, to have been referred to 
Peeris, with which indeed iro Rae an evident affinity. 
Lindsea received its name in honour of Lindsay, an in- 
gens botanist of Jamaica. ( Trans. Lin. 
joc.) describes nine species of great beauty, and diver- 
sity of form. 7 ete 13 
e L. reniformis, a singular species, ( Lin. Tr.fig. 1. ut 
signe yikes reniform frond, ax) Or: Eis Ard 
indentation, the stipes being attached to the sinus; form- 


ed by the two lobes of the frond. Itis to be > 
thatin, the’ eight species, described. by. Dexentes wk 


have no account of the stem, as the examination of the 
frond alone is insufficient to in completely their 
habit. The L. ¢enera, likewise figured by Dryander, 
t beauty. The frond is Ge soares tb 

tiie eatotie cut into obovate or rhomboidal forms. * 
In no genus are the ramifications of the vascular fas« 


in this. ai : 
To the eight described by Dryander, Willdenow has. 
added twelve more from Bory. ‘Swartz, 
Humboldt and ea hg ; and to these Brown. Prodr. Z 
. 156.) has added L. media with deltoid: bipinnate 
ponds, and coriaceous, obovate, rhomboidal p we 
lobed in the under part, and elsewhere entire. The ste- 
rile fronds are serrated at the point, and have a qua 
drangular stipes. This sate ne most of the others, 
inhabits the tropics. —— Sed iE bg 
(2.) Pleris. ‘ , 
Capsules in continuous marginal lines ;_ and marginal 
scarious aeiroy os am p from the inflexed upper 
membrane of the , and opening inwards. = 
The species, Pt. lanceolata, and Pt. piloselloides, ace 
cording to Brown, belong to Tenitis, and, with Blech- 
num seminudum, Onoclea spicata (Sw.), ought to be 


ts 


ray Ae 


transferred to that genus. Rips 4 
The following species are natives of Europe.” 
1. Ph. ensifolin, This species has pinnate fronds, 

with very long sessile, lanceolate, tapering pinne, and 

a creeping stem, It is found in Spain and. s, and 

figured under the name of Polypodium majus, (Barr, 


te 

2. Pt. cretica, with pinnate fronds, and the pinnae 
with short foutstalks, Yandedbinl and ars 
row and serrated at the base; the undermost bipartite’ 


or ternate ; by Schkubr, Crypt. 85, tab. 50. 
8. Pl. Bests. ih inna nds ; 
oblong, lanipnthuse, and eee) pare} 


FILICES. 341 


_— subcrenate at the t. Native of Portu« tab. 29. This elegant species is, like some others, dis«  Filices.. 
Sel gel, td Sigurd by Tourelor, (het tab. 3138.) ” persed not only over Europe, but is found on Tene. “y= 


Stegania onocleoides nobis), Osm. 
Iton, me be stat ones 


Fhe 2 3 pi sein zane we un- 

by Bolton, 16, tab: 105, omen 
tab. 96, C1 It is singular, ou 
Sa It is found in the woods 


cular fasciculi have been imagined, by the us, 
to.resemble a cross ; others have vs 
separate wa: wel De ane Oe ved 
from. this circumstance, according to some. But proba- 
bly the remarkable of the pinne of the frond, 
Medecimdantie eraity fiye feet in length, has 
given rise to the name. 


of Pteris with erect 
fr eciadkr gained 7 Sait og 
fon and oblong acuminate pinata pinnuls, with 
n wi 
lanceolate poi and serrated Pathe 
figuredby Plumien, (Plonies de? 4 eek ot 


CE) Pela uni pte pollen tga ese 
vaiglae, the undermost |. This 
cies is found in the woods of the Society Islands and of. 


, Pp? 
propriate, as. many of these plants abound with similar 
sweet mucilaginous matter in the cellular substance of 
the stem. See also Br. Prodr..Nov. Holl. p, 154. 
Brown has also described three new Pterides, 
ing in habit to Adiantum, viz. Pteris falcata, Pt. niti« 
da, and Pt, nudiuscula. Vid. Prod. ut supra. 


(3.) Adiantum. 


in punctiform or linear ps, and inserted 
into the involucra formed by the inflexed eye of the 
frond, and opening inwards. 


Solium of Willdenow. The first is 


, riffe, Jamaica, Isle de Bourbon, ime South America, It- 


varies much i in. size. 
__Of the foreign there * ; axes with simple 
bay a ag the 4. reniforme and A, imple 
figured by Plukenet 
Alm, tab. 287. fig, 5.) and the second by Lamarck,' 
Illust. Gen. tab. 30), and Schkuhr, (tab. 115). Both 
‘resemble other * very much ; the frond of 
the first is, however, crenate ; eae s the. s aan very 
ae and broader than Jo ‘he: third, A. ships 
Pol ty ed also to. ee a siraple fron but. 
a is ‘figu 


Of the Adianta with pinnated fronds, the Rhizophos 
rum affords another instance of the naked clonpeint 
point of the frond . buds, producing .new: 
plants. Humboldt and Bonp land found several new 

of which, al in south America, particularly the 
|, varium, W althoug! > al with se< 
veral other species, continued groups of capsules, Will«. 
denow_refers to this genus : Probably these may, after. 
all, be Plerides. The A. teiraphyllum, A. politum, A. 
serratodentatum, and A. concinnum, were all found in, 
South America by the indefatigable Humboldt and 
Bonpland. Besides those described by Willde+ 
now, the following have been. since aah ‘by 
Brown.. 

1. A. paradoxzum, with pinnate fronds; the pinna: 
cordate, oblong, or lanceolate ; the veins ‘below obso= 
lete, and the groups of capsules. linear and continuous, 

2. A. formosum, with fronds decompound, deltoid. 
and leaflets tripinnate,_ with rhomboi , smooth, and 
blunt pinnule, the lower ones cut ; the ‘involucra kids, 
Dee De, and the stipes itself ‘rough, but its ramifi-, 
cations smooth 


aie Cheilanthes, 1976, Willd! Swarts, Fil. p. 5.” 


uunctiform or crescent-shaped groups, . 


santa te eas e sinus of the scarious involucrum,. 


formed by Were folded back, and « 


g inwards, - 

The whole of the have been. separated fron: 
Adiantum, with whi ra have the closest affinity ; 
but the interrupted punctiform. or .crescent-shaped 
groups of the fruit, distinguish them ; and, on a clo. 
ser view, the capsules are seen inserted into the. sinus 
of the involucrum. Of the thirteen species described by 


Willdenow, there are three remarkable for an sennte ; 


able odour: 
1. Ch. sauveolens, Polypodium. sauveolens of Desfona 
taines, with bipinnate smooth fronds, and very entire ob« 


pa 9 i ovate pinnule, the inferior pinne pinnatifid, filiform, . 


stipes. This species. is. by Schkuhr, 
(€r. Tr tabr19, 19.) It is anative of Barbary and Natolia, 


2. Che odora has also bipinnate fronds, but the - 


pinnule, instead of being perfectly entire, like those 


’ of the last, .are pinnatifid, with rounded entire borders, 


The stipites resemble the last. This species is a native 


of Switzerland and Italy, and ought to be introduced . 
into this country, the climate of which. it would en- - 


dure.: » 
3. Ch. fragrans has also: bipinnate fronds, with obs 
, lanceolate, obtuse, pinnatifid pinnule, and some~ 
what bifid lacinie ; the stipites chaffy. The fragrance 
of these three species renders their culture an object of 
particular interest, yet the last isthe only apres spe 
cies as yet introduced into the collection at Kew by 
F, Masson. The Ch. fragrans is figured by Swartz, (Syn. 


Petiver laciniated, ( azoph, tabi 4. . 


Filices. 


342 

Fil. tab. 3. fig. 6.) The Ch. ides is also in the Kew 
ton ts gured by Hluttayn, (p. 120, ta. 96 

fs. &) lentigera, with tri somewhat villous 

fronds, with minute folioli, is a ry CF 

cies, (Comment. Petrop. x. p. 302, tab, 22, fig. 3.) 

Ch. arborescens is the species an erect stem 


This is the Lonchitis tenuifolia of Forster. 
(5.) Lonchitis, (Willd. 1977 ; Schreber, Gen. Plant.1629.) 


in separate crescent-shaped ps, inserted 

into the sinuses of the frond. The involucrum formedby 
the margin of the frond bent back, and ing inwards, 
This genus of Schreber seems to be more conve- 
niently united with the last by a slight alteration of the 


bo rr Iie four species of Lonchitis, ad- 
ded to Chei , will include, in all, twenty-four 


kindred species, to which Brown has added, from New 
Holland. 


. figu 
hirsula (Willd. Sp. 5.), gi BS) 1 ( Anleit. tab. 
4. fig. 27.), affords «pool iden of chi conn 
Davailia (insulated), (1978, Willd. Sp. Pl. 5 ; Smith, 
Act. Taur. 5, p. 414, tab. 9, fig. 6.) 


Capsules in punctiform marginal distinct groups; ins 
volucrum superficial, somewhat hooded, Geese out- 


Linneusformerly united the various es of this ge- 

nus with others, $9 Which @ietr ethentil appietaribe tnd 

habit seemed eee It is a distinct genus, how- 

ever, as Dr Smith has shewn. The groups are situa- 

ted on the veins or ramifications of the vascular fasei- 

culi, at the margin of the frond. Sprengel has 

an excellent figure of the generi 

fig. 38. ) in D. adiantoides, ( Willd.) an arborescent he 
i (Fils. 


it is observed, that Sprengel, whose accuracy is not 
i ight grounds, gives, as an il- 
Tustration of the us Adiantum, a fi taken from 
axterted by Swarts and Willdenow to be a 

5 - The Davallia hirsuta (Willd.) 
is Trichomanes hirsutum of Mogan # and Davallia 


It is figured 

+f renee (Alm. 156, peed fig. 2) an is the on- 

uropean species as yet known, ahd found in Pors 
and the Toland, 

Da. arborescens of Willdenow, the Filir arboe 
rescens adiantoides of Plumier, (Fil. t. 6.) is found in His: 
paniola. It is certainly difficult to devise appropriate 
ae names for so many plants, which, like the 

is, resemble each other so strongly ; but one would 
have thought the designation arborescens rather un- 


sppropriate, unless, which is impossible, we were cer- 
no other arborescent species of the genus exist- 


FILICES. 


ed. rash and plain phase qobes eat thas Ba 


acuminate, rape eee pinnule ; 
epg ber 
jualher te name Bid is bemereret” weet aid ha 


them bipinnate,) lanceolate, and ser. 
rated pinnule, w at the base. This sp 
might, from the present connection of Java this 


X. CYATHEACER. (Piatt CCLIV. Fig. soy 


Womans stan, bier chempanines cere 
so fréquently to’ refer, ‘frorh the 
ip the us Which we hive selected aé the ty 
tis snguler ee of fers. In all the tribes. 
the series hitherto noticed, the involucrum ‘is 
cial in this it is formed under the groups of 


capsules, tote ok Kew’ i che dupe ofa op) de 


, ed in xa 
cluding it genera, although in the 


Cyathea of Smith ws perenprly rghit inn 


gridit dp rs armnben ho the natur- 
al arrangement is essen t from’ that of ari 
artificial system, in which all the are riecessarily 
prewee oslrog a antes 
na series, the Ups ¢ other shades, 
Bhvedled, uttl ard alstapt only wived links 
of the series are either broken or or 


i 
i 


in’ distinet’ pointlike, of round niarginal 
grotips: Involuerum eup-shaped, double, of as it were 
ivalvé, had eel png ot ma py to 
vein, outwards ; the other spuriotis, 
be, ar Pos rte 07 fein om 
dk 2-3 ien, the cup ‘the 
is formed by the more or less perfect union of the in- 
yolucra, and thar Woah ae me cab there is, in 
sorié species, a sma serving rpose of the 
colurtinart y cle of the other 
Sprengel il, t. iv. 
this pe me a figtire of 
character of Polypodium, b 
ing this and several others. In 
fal situation of the groups of capsules, this genus exe 
ternally resembles Davallia; but # careful examination 
soon out the difference between their. A figar 
of Dicksonia flaccida (Willdenow and Swartz) is given 
also by Sechkuhr, (T. 129). This ferris the 7¥ichos 
manes flaccidum of Forster, (Prodr. 472). AN the » 
genera are foreign, and for the greatet , Ses 
veral of them have arborescentt, or erect stems ; although, 
in otder to shew the absurdity of such aspecifie rg, on 
tion, one- species only is terinel Di arboresiens. : 


species is native of St Helena. It has bipi fronds} 

with ovate, somewhat sharp, cnt wth tly 

united lobes, (Sin. Act. Tawr.iii/p.496)) The. , 

(Swartz, Syn. 136.) eit age kubr, is anothet 
rescent ue omiunes sq? 


erect, or a’ ‘osu 
Forst. Prodr. 476), The D. adianwoides (Huriiboldt 


Oe ee 


FELICES. 


P. dentatum of the Sp. Pl. (1553.) as Cyathe@ (see Flor. — Filices. 
illdenow, A, $7380 SN 


antartica, is 
p- 100, tab. 249. 


Of this genus, which wasdiscovered by Brown in New 

pean only one species as yet known, viz, 
ie af taney we fey epee 
iG guaolan. along: mortise Honk, sud oor 


aoe 


lerum estimatio, unde certior eruetur 
5 gt tum partialis. (Jussieu, Gen. Plant. 
me years. since Brown. observed the cup-like ins 
volucrum in Woodsia ( Pol , Willd. Pl&. 
and Sm, Flor. Britannic.) and he has since 
ly ascertained it in Woodsia ilvensis, In fact, 

isti; . #5. specian, 
Smith describes the P. ilvense (With.) and hyperboreum 
wartz as one name of P.arvonicum. 


tote or five inches 


a Cyathea, (Sm. Act, Taur. v. 5. 416. P. 

> podium, Gen. Pl. 560. pecned 15.) = 

es in round distinct attached to a he- 
groups, atta ah 


Smith at first considered three of the 
‘olypodia, viz. the P. fragile, P. regium, and 


843 


Brit. p. 435.) ; but Swartz and 


—81) have arr. these species with Aspidium ; and 
in fact, none of the Cyathew have as yet been found in 
Europe. ies de- 


: Nearly the whole of the sixteen 

scribed by Willdenow have erect stems. The C.5 

ciosa, found by Humboldt and Bonpland, near Cari 

> onyed pees, has, like ew ad Eich, 
a , being twenty-four feet in height ; 

povige tina gaciy spreading, and extending five feet 

broad, a foot long, 


and the pinne peti linear, an 
c Y pointed, and wedge- 
at their origin ; sinuate, and dentate along their 
. The groups of fruit in this, as in several of 
the species, are placed sparsely along the margin of the 
The C. arborea is by no means the most remarkable 
for the length of its stem, which is very hard, and co- 
vered with the scales, so frequently abounding in the 
whole series. This fern is the P. arboreum of Sp. Pl. 
wears Rumphius (Amd. p. 62. t.27.) describes other 
much akin to this West Indian ies. The C.ex- 
celsa, (Arborea, Bory.) is found in the Mauritius, with a 
stem twenty-five feet hi : The C. gence, is another 
magnificent fern, Bory. (/éin. 206.) in the 
mountains of the Isle de Bourse.” The fron have 
not hitherto been brought to Europe; but we may, in 
some degree, i 
(ex pede Herculem) from that of their b aearr. which 
cereeien rite eighteen inches long. In 
i i les are situated, 
on nai of the mhidle bof the pinnule. The ye 
cific term glaucus, is derived from the colour of the 
under part of the pinnul, whicli, when viewed by the 
microscope, seems to be owing to the minute scales with 
which are covered. Several species, as the C, 
‘a C. horrida, have their stem and stipites eco+ 
vered with hard prickles. The C. villosa, lately found 
ne and ee | is remarkable for having 
of capsules inv with a woolly covering. 
The Cyathea et AL ke yy of Forster ; 
S is, Bernh.) is for the abundance 
that saccharine gummy juice which isso common, in 
ee ee in the stems of the whole se- 
i as an article of diet by the inhabitants 


Brown has already demonstrated the necessity of se~ 
aes. ae C. multiflora, Sra. -Horrida, Sm. Capensis, 
.and others as yet undescribed, from Cyathea, under 
the designati of’ Hemitelia, on.account of their arched 
involucrum, with a semicircular base, inserted under the 
receptacle. 
(5.) Trichomanes, (Willd. 1981.) — 


brevisetum, (Br. Prodr.) Hymenophyllu 
alatum, (Eng. Bot. 1417, p. 159.) is the onl species 
watine of Betas an te i anf 7 onan 
alatum native of the southern mountains. of Jamaica, 
a specific name has been given to our native 
ern 

lum. 


S44 FILICES. 


Cy 
t ‘be considered as belonging 
3. their elegantly delicate one or 
nearly iaempornt tents ving them altogether a dif- 
ferent character. Baie = of them have erect 
events ; but, on the contrary, like the Musci, their stems 
are a creeping along the moist and shelving 
rocks, seldom msing above a few inches from the sur- 
face. Indeed, some species having their involucra on 
slender footstalks projected from the margin, and in the 
Fr prfrum kde a such as the 7. radicans, 
Fysidiferum, trichoideum, and muscoides, possess more 
of mosses than of ferns. 
a the aspect of these beautiful ferns have simple or undi- 
rile ond, The. 7. renjforme hes very entire = 
shaped fronds. It is figured. by Schk 

Capt. pt Habe 134.) The 7. cuspidatum has. fronds 
eh ae ovate, bluntly peinted.and truncate 
at atthe b base; undulated, and crenate.on the margin, 
aeely veined, and bearing the cups towards the point, 
on » mannin et, Alea: frond. The ZT. membranaceum 
-has the fronds sessile, obovate, blunt, and as if torn on 
-the margin. Plumier (Americ. 34, tab. 50, and Fil. 
tab, 101,) has this singular species, ‘under the 
descriptive definition of adianlum muscosum lichenis pe- 
irei facie. It is also figured by Plukenet, tab. 285. T. 
muscoides is figured Sloan, (Jem: p- 73. tab. 29, fig. 
1.) under the definition of “ is scandens minima, 
musci facie.’ The frond of 7. scandens. attains the 
height of nearly a foot, and is the tallest of the 
genus, and, like many others, it has the fronds three or 
= times pinnate. The frond of 7. giganteum is 
also about a foot in length ; the stem of these two, like 

all the rest, creeping along the surface ot oe 40 

“al describes thirty-four species. 


~ £6.) Hymenophyllum. (Willd. 1982. “Smith, Act. 
Taur. 5. p. 418, tab. 9. fig. 8.) 


in marginal groups, inserted into a cylin- 
anil tasepeicle, inélu within a bivalve Saar 
crum. 


The only British species is the H. Tunbrid; ants 
Smith Flor. Brit, and Eng. Bot. tab. 162,) with d 


cra and bipinnatifid, and the ‘border of the fied u- The 


the frond itself, serrate ; the cups solitary, 

end attached to’the margin of the axils of ‘the plows 

it is sin that this ies should be also found in 
New Hi It is by Labillardiere, (Nov. Hol. 
tab. 250). ‘The remaining thet -five species are natives 
of the West Indies and South Sea islands, and of Java, 
Mauritius, and Bourbon islands. ‘Labillardiere mentions 
one, viz. via Australis, from New Holland. ‘To these, 
however, Brown has added two new species from the 
same country, viz, H.rarum and H. nitens, (vide Prodr. 
Nov. Hol. p. 159.) The H. nitens, has tripinnatifid, 
lanceolate, smooth fronds, linear obtuse obtuse submarginate, 
entire lacinie ; terminal involucra, with ovate orbicu- 


_lar valves, 


The Hymenophyllum rarum again has bipinnatifid, lan- 


ceolate, smooth, and open fronds, the borders on the mar- 
» gin very entive pee amsencones Bide ;\he inves 


terminal, with round. valves: = 


The Hymenophylla, coset eer olserved, have all the 
habit or external appearance of 
XI. BOTRYCHIACEE (Plate. peer Figs. 21, 22.) 


The Botrychium, which we select as the of this 
tribe, forms a link widel deustes teardecmeran 


eto It is incl in the last edition of the 
Plantarum by Willdenow, with the ; 
Dorakardiag and » under. ritles 
with neither-of which sa tuen te lan tint affinity 
whatever, if structure ‘ded, as it ily x 
be the only solid basis of a natural ent, In 
external , indeed, Ophioglossum slightly re- 
sembles this genus. The | es in both are close. 


» The moststrikin g-peculiarity i 
och can a te eae 
ded within a membranous spathe, which bursts as 
shoot from the subterraneous stem ; whereas in tl 


invariably covered with woolly scales. Wome iets 
that Swartz has denied that the buds Rey 


is clear, that, in this respect, | nearly approach 
the rest ofthe ferns. Thee is as yet but one genus 
wn, . yr 


Botrychium. (Swartz, Synops. Fil. 8.) on 

ules in a compound distic sspike ening i 

a Sintetion parallel with MxF insé r 
1. B. lunaria. This is the 


x - 1) 


if snl of afin, Gone 
ria of the Sp. Plant. Lin. p. 1519, ot Hofinan or 
II. Tf and Roth, Germ, 1.and 444. The stipes extend. 
ing to the 1 of about five inches, with the frond 
bluntly pointed, attached towards 

lobes of the pine: are crescent-shaped, nearly sessile, 
ing “oo 


and imbricated, succulent, : and of a 


north of uw 
(wie. Sp. Epes 5. p. 
the two rat Lif 
both being naked. — : - ~~ 
The remaining six bieeiase’ by ao 
denow, from their evider Avr habits, require a 
closer examination, Whoever consults the accurate 


El 


7 
Pas 


—o— posed. Botrychium : 


Natural 
filters or 


Fig. 8, must t 

with the rest of the series of ferns; for, 

the fronds.* | 

_ FILIGRANE Wonk, or Finacree work, from j- 

lum and granum, is the name given to a kind of orna- 

mental work, in which flowers, &c, are formed of fine 
and silver wire, curled or twisted ina 


Be 
Z 
E 
i 
3 


uk 
i 


if 


ad 
aE 
i 


employ: 
Such of our readers as take any interest in 
j referred to the following works, quot-. 
: ann in his History of Inventions, vol. ii. 
245—247. 


, 's Werkstate. der kiinste, i. p. 101; 
i Worterbuch, i. p. 721; Grignon Bul- 
letin des fouilles d'une ville Romaine, i. p. 22.; Menage 


reliquiarum Electoralis Brunsuico-Lunebur- 

i Hanov. 1783, 4to. p.19, 29, 56. Marsden’s 
i of Sumatra, Lond. 1783, 145. Der Mi- 

i Briefe van der Insel Teneriffa und Os~ 
tindien, Leips. 1777.. Thomans Reiseund Lebensbes- 
, Augsb. 1788; and Von Stetten Kunstges- 


bg: 'P 


are in the toward the water 
Seligl vided taki end werehdloteme fee damentie 
purposes: such is the state of the waters of most rivers 
which are not supplied by springs alone, but by brooks 
running on the surface. portion of the water 
which soaks into the earth having passed through a 
sufficient thickness of strata, either by ascent or 
descent, will have op mang rpciec pumping 
and become clear spring water, It be observ- 
ed, that filtration can only produce transparency, by 
NG OE Ree ett 28. 50 ic vise of 

mixture with the fluid, for any matter 
pass with it, ‘the pores most minute. fil- 
ter, unless the substance of the filter itself should have 
a greater af for such matter than the fluid which 

it. this case, a new combination will be 


: 
E 


will be taken up by the filter, not simply because the 
are too small to permit its particles to pass, 
on account of the superior elective attraction be- 


345 
tween the substance of the filter and the dissolved mat- Filter. 
™ : 4 ———’ 


_ poses the filter a 


FIL 


ter. 


duce a natural spring for any great 
cause, by the constant addition of matter, the filter will 
at last saturated with it, or choked up. In ~ 
applying this reasoning to springs, we shall find a rea~ 
son why so few springs uce water, although 
it is always transparent. In ty, the natural 
filters-which produce springs, are almost always on an 
opposite principle, viz. that the substance which com- 
t affinity for the water, and 
a are taken up slowly in solution, 
carried off at the same time that the extrane- 
ous matters, which are only in mixture with the water, 
are detained in the pores of the filtering strata: thus 
we find few springs which have not some mineral held 


in solution by the water, although invisible to the eye ; Frequently 
and in cases where yn ere in making the new ""P4"* 


combination we have en of, hot springs will be 
produced. The most common mineral taint which wa- 
ter receives in its natural filtration, is sulphate of lime 
or plaster of Paris: this renders the water hard, as it 
is called, so that it will not produce a lather with soap, 
but curdles it. — tip and vitriol is also fre- 

in springs. Add to this, in great towns, the 
dnnnage wate which soaks into the earth is contami- 
nated by animal matters as well as vegetable, and in 
such an offensive state, that the filtration through the 
soil can scarcely restore its purity. From all these 
causes, it is found that the turbid and foul waters of 
rivers, where altered by art to separate from their extra- 
neous mixtures, will be more pure and wholesome as . 
RS te than the generality of spring water. 

Gravel, 


the water in passing it. Beds of sandstone filter 
only well, and also some porous limestone. 


apparatus is made from a po- Filtering 
rous stone, of which there are two kinds ; staniietene tne, 


procured in Northamptonshire, and a limestone found 
in Derbyshire. A thick bow] or basin is formed of the 
stone, and mounted in a frame. The foul water, be- 


aieage mpi basin, 


HE 
af 
: 


He 
es 


: 
7 
i 
t's 


ie 
F 
i 


C 
ie 
: 


"© The Editor has been indebted for the preceding article, to Joux Your, M.D. F.R. S. E. 


VOL. IX, PART L 


2x 


- Filtration, on this principle, cannot continue to pro- Their ac- 
of time;, be- tion. 


in thick beds, is the most ect natural Gravel 
ings from ‘Prings- 


¥idter, 


—_—— 


S46 


The Society of Arts have published a 


description of 
a filter by Mr Moult, which consists of a vessel in whi 


Mc Mowlt’s the foul water is contained, and a bason of 


ats 
ering 


Mr Hem- 
pel’s. 


Harman 
& Dearn’s 
gravel 


filters, 


stone bei in it, the water will percolate 

the stone into its cavity, from whence it can be taken 
up clear and fit for use ; or the filtered water may be 
drawn off, by means of a curved leaden pipe, to reach 
over the edge of the bason and act as a , with a 
cock at the lower end. By this plan of filtering the water 
into the bason, the d it is not left on the stoné, and 
will therefore be less liable to clog ‘up a . The 
same principle was proposed by Mr Collier; his ma- 
chine Laer nd ofa pes or rh A vessel to contain the 
foul water. Within this vessel cylindrical tubes of earth- 
en ware are fixed ; these tubes are closed with a hemi- 
spherical end, but the other end, which is open, is ap- 
plied to the sides of the vessel, and closely Imted there- 
to, so thet no water can gain entrance into the vessel, 
without first penetrating through the substance of the 
tube. A was provided in the side of the vessel, 
opening within the tube to draw off the pure water. Mr 
Collier proposed also to fill up the vessel with pieces of 
broken ery, which, by presenting a great surface, 
would allow every facility to the deposition of the gross 
impurities of the water, and thus avoid the clogging up 
of the filter, and also render the process more expedi- 
trous. a 

A patent was granted in 1790, to Mr Hempel for a 
method of making filtering vessels or basons, from a spe- 
cies of pottery; the composition of which was four parts 
of tobacco pipe clay, mixed up with five of coarse sea, ri- 
ver, or drift sand. For large vessels, this composition 
is found liable to crack in the burning, equal parts of 
the clay and sand were therefore recommended ; and if 
this was found insufficient to prevent the tendency to 
cracking, one-ninth part of Stourbridge clay, or of old 
crucibles broken down and pounded, was to be added: 
the basons were turned in a potter's lathe, in the usual 
manner. 

The filtering stones most commonly used are not the’ 
best kind, as they are too expensive, hable to be broken; 
and will not produce so great a quantity of filtered wa- 
ter as others, which, in imitation of the great natural 
filters, have beds of gravel and sand for the water to 
pass through. A very ane apparatus for domestic 
use, consists of a cylindrical vessel of pottery, provided 
with a cock to draw off the clear water ; upon this is 
fitted another cylindrical vessel, having a globular bot- 
tom, which is pierced with small wales a stratum of 
coarse gravel is first spread in the vessel, over this a 
stratum of fine gravel, and above this fine sand. If the 
bottom of the vessel is covered with a coarse cloth, to keep 
the sand from running through the holes in the bottom, 
the gradations of gravel and sand will be rendered less 
necessary, A plate of earthenware, or a board, is laid 
upon the sand, and being perforated with holes, allows the 
water to pass, but prevents the disturbance of the sand 
when the foul water is poured in upon it, and in per- 
colating through the sand it is filtered. The fineness of 
the sand and the thickness of the bed will be regulated 
yy experment ; and it is one of the greatest advan 

this construction for a filter, that it can be so 
adapted to the of filtration which the water re- 

ires, the bed being made thick if the water is very 

i, and diminished in proportion to its purity, by 
which means tek ee can be pas- 
sed “ym i my ter. cane ae changed 
every 1 or three w to keep apparatus 
perfectly sweet and clean, 


FILTER. 


The late ingenious Mr Bramah, had a patent for va 
rious modes of conveying and ing off beer and 
other liquors, in he describes a filtering appara~ 

ed to ‘in the pipes to conduct 
was a cyl vessel, made of cop~ 


troduced to the vessel near the lower part to i 
the liquor, and from near the u end a si 
proceeded to convey it away. Between these 
fixed the filtering floor, consisting of flannel, 
bags, sponges, or porecagisar man se ich 
sp u a horizontal plate pierced full of 
holes, end ited .in-the oplinnleh dade abe ering : 
stance ; another similar plate was fixed and 


i 
He 


é 


t 
ey 


5 
i 


ES 
L 


i 


; 
g 
: 
# 
5 
E 
é 
q 
i 
z 


lower pipe by means of a pump or otherwise, and as~ 
cending through the inecing Same passed off in a clari« 
fied state: the impurities which ¢ collect in 
the conical bottom of the. cylindri ssel, whence 


; 


a 


vessel, 
they can be drawn off by a cock. This contrivance 
adapted to give a slight filtration to a great quantity of 


patent for a method 


liquor, such as beer. 
n 1791, Mr Peacock took out a 


the filtering bed. Mr Peacock tor 
sandy gravel, sand, broken and pulverised glass or 
tery, &c. These were to be C +o 
ings, and then sorted by sieves into a number of differ- 
ent sizes ; these are to be spread in different layers, be- 
ginning with the largest and spreading the smaller par- 
ticles over these, in a regular gradation, until the finest 
is at the top. This arrangement is better than that 
have before spoken of, when the water 
through the finest, being less liable to choke 
Professor Parrot of Paris, invented a filter v 
acting both by the ascent and descent. It is 
in the Philosophical Journal to consist of a 


4 


: ces 
_ =o 
. 1 6 


af 
1 


~? 


' 
: 
ef 
f 
i 
tal 
TAT 
SPELETE 


filters through the sand, and passes off. At the top 
the lowest leg, it is recommended to have three inches 
of difference een the level of the two surfaces of 
the water, and eighteen inches of pure sand for the 
water to h. When the section of the tube was 
four inches by two, that is eight square inches, it would 
pass six Paris pints of pure water every hour, 
Mr John Isaac Hawkins has contrived a filtering 
apparatus, which we consider as better adapted for do- 
mestic } 


; ' 4 is to be 
compel of Shrconl, pounded tesa Cnre sad 


as 

and above this, other ‘increasing in size, 
which are as ease; the wh 

vered with a board wtb haked to: edenit 


~~ 


Mr Pea- 


BF 
g 


i 


FIN SAT FIN 


charcoal bein disturbed when the water is poured ed in. a few years ago, invented a new instrument, consistin Fingeve 
_‘Raohee for ofthe apart wry, wel apie) of a rotative bow of horse NT eradaso Kore 
the use of a ship’s company, It consists of a cask di- act at pleasure u catgut strings, which he denomi- Instrt- 
vi a vertical partition, which does not quite nated ‘a Fingerteyed wal. or claviole. M. Chladni 2 
bottom, but leaves a space for the passage of likewise invented a new instrument, called 2 Keyed 
water. ‘The bottom of the cask is filled with pow- Cylinder.. See the Monthly Magazine, vol. xxviii. p. 
space whe bottom of the partition. Ste fool tad oth ord ere f Finger-k 
at ; ition. The water e ordinary arrangement of F% eys 
ing pera ene of the divisions of this.cask, is fil ~The ordinary torn tre the distonie sale, or that in 
in passing to the other, by being obliged to de- ‘which. five notes and two half notes are comprised in 
scend through the charcoal on one side, ‘and ascend the octave, two whole notes or long keys being asso« 
the other. This machine affords a great quill: ciated together, and three such, with a half tone be- 
tity water; and the known antiseptic quality the tween each of these groups, which are separately called 
charcoal is of great ‘consequence in Temovin, any taint a ditone, and a tritone by Dr Callcott. In the former 
with which water is often affected; and is not of these groups, two, shorter keys ot este.) colour 
easily removed by any other filter, unless indeed it is (now usually , the long keys being white, ) are in- 
made very fine, such a thick filtering-stone, and this serted between the long ones; and, in the tritone, two 


as 
will it the water to pass but very slowly. such short keys are in , by which the whole ~ 
most simple filter for experimental inquiries is douzeave, or range of 12 notes in the octave, is com- 
made by a piece of blotting aper, rolled up to forma pleted, and every other octave, above and below, is but 
isted tight at the point, so that asepennn i See 
pe oat sees Dees ave | the pores of most conspicuous and. best marked finger key 


4 
Ll 
E 
z 
E 
FS 
F 
i 


is to be p' in. the neck, of in the arrangement above described, is the long one 
i in the middle of the ditone, which belongs to the letter 
ee eee crc D, which is the second of the aa op the fa 
cone ina state. at C, ing to e fin< 
int ther method, which is still more delicate, is ger keys are as follows: viz. 
et ob fy Dar aly a ae ea CK Ey) Fa GH Bp 
this purposes, ® Bunch of coarse cotton threads, as i cael lp nasal 
are used for the wicks. of lamps end candles, is bang =e a va 
over the edge, so that one end of the bunch is Ditone. Tritone. 


a 
i 
z 
¢ 
z 


this it will be drawn up on one side, and conveyed ments are obli to be so tuned, ‘that every shor wote 
the cotton, from the ends of which it will ip y indiscri tely serve either for the rp of that 
very but in a most state of purity from on its left hand, or for the of that on its right, and 
all extraneous mixtures. It is scarcely necessary to even so that E and F, and B and c, may also serve as 
mention, that the cotton must be wetted with the li- the flats or sharps of each other respective 


7- 
begin when it is first put in This very confined nature of the key-board, or Se 
action. Ae eee thick flannel, if itis doubled three tnt a ge eye ln, presented a eis ba oi 

four times, will answer the same purpose particu- provement in the tune of th 


or 
= well. tones, until at length Mr Hawkes roduced his patent 
‘Wood. i 


very i | apparatus has recent! instruments, on which all the five s notes might be 
been invented by Mr James of Edinburgh. A tuned to sharps, and, b: means of a pedal, dhe danltiec- 
' gen Rodan eae yea apr onamenger ip tion of the keys with t strings or pipes might be 
‘the water, which i the pores of the instantly loosed, and the same short keys be made to 
‘wood the pressure of; forcing-pumpy Mr Innes net on another set of those tuned to flats, thereby intro- 
has en this simple machine ‘or purifying oil and = duci 17 sounds in the octave, but with the disadvan- 
_ other tage of being unable to use a flat of any-one note and 
: : a of another at the same time. But these and 
Acad. Par. 1185, Hi 82; 1148, Hi cL dtperory and MeL the eben in py nea of oven Po 

_ chines ut , tom. vii. ); Her of Mr Liston now remedy, by means ot sev 
, of dri vol. ii, p. 230; Caller, Tilloch’s Phil. Maga- dals, adapted to take away two at a time at ba 
zine, vol. vi. p.'240 ; Peacock, Repertory of Aris, yol, end of the scale, (See our article Succession fF ietus), 
Parmer send, ) Nicholson’s Journal, _ and to ly to the same finger-keys two ats in the 


m! Nicholson place 
p. 40; Sir H, Engl Nicholson’s Journal, vol. ix. stance, out of the original scale that we have represent. 
pa. See also. , vol. xiii, p. 140; and Gil- ed above, the first flat pedal will remove GX and CX, 
's Journal der vol. xiii, p..108. (3.F-) and supply in thet places replace rst sharp 
FINDER. See Texescors. — pedal will remove Ey and Bp, and replace their connec- 
yt tion 1e short finger-k s, by Dx and AX, and so 
See Vexrenino. . on, leaving the performer the present uses of the 
-FINGER-Kevep Instruments, in Music, are in key* except during the instants when the pedals 


finger- 

al such as are performed 1 ing with in 
; ea mo Fey rs on However perfect and easy the use of the present 
r . aaa gem 2 key-board snap eta to ee a raved om 
Layering barillons -or carillons, are well known pedals above ates . existed for 


‘of instruments, Mr Johnilsaac Hawkins, ‘simplifying it for the use of children beginners. 


— ares 


4 
4 
E 
7 
: 
e 
$ 
a] 
E 
i 
= 
an 


: 
| 

i 
a 

: 

: 

: 

= 

; 
ride. 


} 
i 
2 
i 


- be - 
of this latter invention in the Repertory, vol. xxii. p. witht hy see eee eee ae 
TNGER:- Kev Intervals, in Music, or degrees of the vals as are linked 


| 
| 


; 
i 
i 
: 


among themselves! as the Isotonic system was five different sounds, except i ‘ ; 
alone in use, notwi ding the high probability, produces only four sounds, making in all 59 sounds: 


(¢) 
rament has never yet been heard on the rarely so FINLAND, a division of Sweden, but} 4 
(or sary oar Ik) 3a he piano-forte ; and it is certain nexed to Ruscia, is ditusted teteses G0? aa CO 39 
that 


use on that instrument, while the key-board remains li- Proper, East Bothnia, Tawartland, Nyland, Sawolax 
mited as at present. Fortunately, the new notation and Keymenegard, The Aland or Oeland Islands, 
which we use, enables us to ma e this classification about 80 in number, and generally small, are situated at 


without any trouble, because every interval, 1 pat laggy ere Meammies es 
expressed in Farey’s Notation, (See that article), has Finland , and in 1792 contained 11,260 inhabi- 
the f’s therein equal to its number of finger-key mter- tants. The named Aland, is about Hil. ey 


Cas See cee Eee emer aera 


T12 2 1571. The inhabitants of these islands, who appeat'te 


1,2 3 
have been originally Laplanders and Fins, live toa 
pix $28 pv gret age; an about 208 of them are registered a si 
13 9 } 5 » WI y from the government amounts to about 
xVIL 6 lyIV 5000 rixdollar yearly, In most of these islands, 
637 K4 senor sd ms webb omge A 
; 9 278 language people 5 a Finnish 
12 wir bIV —— to be heard only in Helsing. 
%S 5\2 4 » the south-west province, extends Finland 


! 
590 hi 
and 83 from west to east. It is diversified 
‘* ree 231 b4 with lakes, rivers, woods, arable pe a 
| vu 4\2 U1 grounds ; and, though inadequately cultivated, is tole- 
| 533 x11 | tably fertile. Its towns, which are all situated on the 
p VU 174 coast, are, Abo, the capital of the provin a bislionte 
10 pa } pill see, and the seat of a university, about 41 Swedish 
: “VI 3\)-s } N. E. of Stockholm, and containing about 8750 inha- 
486 XII bitants ; Nystadt, a a ee pcm, amt 
bb VH 197 port, north of Abo, and surrounded by a pleasant 
9 b7 ppII17 | of country; Biorneborg, an ancient but insignificant 
VI . es oops and Nadenhal, a little town to the north of 
XK V u A “a ka r..54 hie c 
) East or Cajania, extends the gulf of 
- pvr at pa $01.1 uietiens b temicladee eciauy or Feenh Gnas 
8 6 } pil ards of 100 leagues in and between 30.and 
av Ag lee tose: bee 
> ari runs and 
“- bb.vVI a1 east boundaries of the province. The towns, ds 
Vv 93 |, proceed northwards, are, Christinastadt, a small 
trance ; Wasa, a sea- town, rapidly increasing 
328 ann ? {2 trade, provided with «tibunal of tice for the north 
0 of Finland, and containing, in 1790, about: ‘inhae 
zif Fonch bitants ; Gamla Carleby, a. stall’ but 
Numerals 
= | f |Numerals| about 34 leagues 8, W, of in 


Finland. borg, 
—y—" mouth of the rapid 


fyland. 


awolax. 


i 


contains six. 


FINLAND. 


the capital of the 


province, a trading town at the 
‘river Ulea, with a : 


very bad har- 
bour, containing about 4000 inhabitants, and celebrated 
for its exports of salmon and tar ; Tafwartland, or Ta- 
vastia, situated to the eastward of Finland Proper, is 
about 80 leagues in length from south-west to north- 
east, and between 20 and 30 in breadth. It is the most 
fertile and beautiful district in Finland, but is very thin- 
ly inhabited, and poorly cultivated. It is mountainous 
towards the north; and towards the south full of lakes, 
one of which, named: Pajana, is 80 miles long, and 15 
broad, _ Its principal and almost only town is Tamast- 
thus, or Kroneborg, a small place, situated in a fertile 
on the banks of a lake, about 28 miles N. E. of 

bo. _— - 4 4 . 


Nyland stretches along the north coast of the Gulf 
of Finland about 40 leagues, and is between 15 and 18 


in breadth from north to south. It is level, fertile, and 


and designed as a bulwark against the encroachments 
of the Russians; Borgo, a but ancient town, about 
10 leagues eastward of the last mentioned, pleasantly 
situated on a hill, and containing a university, or rather 


academy, tt by seven professors ; Lovisa, or De- 
gery, formeny the frontier town between Russia and 

inland, in the midst of a remarkably stony or 
rather rocky country, but provided with a very conve- 
nient harbour. 


Sawolax, an inland province to the north of Nyland, 
extends about 70 leagues from north to south along the 
confines of Russia, and about 30 from west to east. It 
is covered with forests, rivers and lakes. The lake of 
Saima, which is nearly 160 miles in length, and 25 at 
its breadth, lies partly in this province, and 

within the Russian territories, and has a com- 
oe lake La by ee plage: acd 
river Voxen. . Its cipal town, ot, is situa 
ie: wom ot : 
which lies on the south-east extremi- 
ty of Finland, is naturally fertile, but thinly inhabit- 
ed, and almost destitute of cultivation. Its chief town 
is i aarp of oe Kexholme, 
once belonging to this provinee, have |} been inclu- 
ded. im Russian Finland. ™ 4 

Russian Finland, forming the province of Wybourg, 
was ceded by Sweden, partly in 1791, ae thivjaned of 
Nystadt, and ly in 1741, by the treaty of Abo; and 
icts,—W ybourg, Fredericksham, Wil- 
manstrand, Nyslot, K e, and Sardobol. The 
whole of Finland, indeed, is now to be included by the 
geographer, within the wide extent of the Russian em- 
pire. . pa mts the scene of many bloody 
struggles between the 


349 
} ing vessels, though its stream is so rapid, that 
b Py riegat down 0 Fa at the rate of 18 English 
miles in the hour ; the Cano, which s Biorneborg; 
the Aurajoki at Abo, about 100 yards broad, and re- 
markable for its muddy waters; the Kymen, which 
flows into the middle ofthe Gulf of Finland, and forms 
the boundary between Swedish and Russian Finland. 
‘The mountains of Finland often contain a brown mix- 
ture of felspar and mica. Lead ore is found in various 
parts, and a ferruginous earth from which iron is ex- 
tracted. There are, in many places, very extensive fo- 
rests, and one particularly to the north of Abo, about 
80 miles in length. Great devastations are occasioned 
in these forests by the tempests of winter, which seem 
to find access to the very centre of the wood, by de- 
scending in the manner of a tornado, and which tear up 
by the roots, or break in the middle of the trunk, or 
bend to the earth, the most enormous pines. Fre- 
quently also similar ravages are committed by confla- 
ions, occasioned by the carelessness of the peasants 
in smoking their pipes and making fires in the woods ; 
and sometimes, it is su , intentionally kindled, 
from an interested motive, as the inhabitants are allow= 
ed to cut down, for their own use, any trees in the 
= forests, which have been injured by the burning. 
he climate and seasons of Finland vary consider- 
ably in different parts of the country, according to their 
latitude and situation. At Uleaborg, which is the most 
northerly town, the winter commences in October and 
continues to the end of April. The spring is limited to 
the month of May ; the summer begins in June, and 
lasts three months; the autumn, like the spring, is con~ 


Finland. 
—_—~_ 


Mountains, 


Forests, 


Climaie. 


fined to one month, and both commences and termi« . 


nates in ber. ca oer — vex t ae 
are pretty 4 icu about the middle of Au-. 
gust ; and in se eaedaen of July, the pot herbs in the 
no have been known to ~e Lon the frost. 
rom the beginning of summer, however, the progress 
of v ion, as in most other northern latitudes, is re- 

markably rapid ; and there have been instances of grai 
being sown and reaped in the neighbourhood of Ulea- 
, in the space of six weeks. In the southern parts 
of country, near the Gulf of Finland, the heat in 
summer is equal to what is generally experienced in 
Portugal; and the long continuance of the sun above 
the horizon increases the temperature above that of 
more southern countries. At Uleaborg, the middle 
temperature of the four seasons, according to a mean 
rtion of 12 years, was found to be in winter 10 
below zero, in spring and. autumn six degrees 

above the ing point, and in. summer 15°. 

The surface of the country, besides what is occupied 
by large lakes and forests, is frequently covered with 
marshes and masses of stone; but not more so than other 

ek Seed, ag i Eat percep is a 
ess fertile an 8. soil is generally of a san 
nature, pee nay ph the cn papee. 4 
of riyulets, that,the proper earthy mould is tobe seen. 
Finland, however, ts to the view many rich pas- 
tures, and fields of grain, icularly of rye, oats, bar. 
ley; and even wheat. The principal exports of the 
country are salt, iron, copper, pitch, tar, deals, rye, 
butter, oil of seals, skins, tallow,. salt-beef, dried fish, 
and vessels built of fir ; but the mode of agriculture and 
kinds of produce are so similar to those of Sweden in 
general, that we refer to the account of that country for 
-@ more particular statement, on the subject... It may 
here, however, be remarked, as a curious circumstance, 
that the Finnish plough is of a very ancient model, and 


Soil. 


350 “FINLAND. 


Fioland. resembles the primeval instrament of agriculture in The Finnish abounds in proverbs, bearing Finland, 
——’ Egypt and other eastern countries: Its form is that of wach comatlenstie tkiencattessl tee, =e 
an alpha placed horizontally, and having one side shorter and generally expressive of sound sense and acute re- 
than the other < , which, being ti with metal, en- mark. They are in Runic or alliterative verse, 
ters the ground, while the cattle are attached to the and divided into two ‘the latter of which 
longer limb: (See Clarke's Travels, vol. iii. p. 216.) contains an illustration of the former. “ A good man 
Inhabitants, The Fins appear to have been the —- inhabitants spareth from his peck, b 
of Sweden, and to have proceeded their settle- from 
ments around the White Sea, a country formerly styled shall do, 
Permia, or Biarmia, and still exhibiting remains of their ed which is ; is 
ancient prosperity. They are short in stature, with shall 1 do ?"—‘ The tool of 
flat faces, dark grey eyes, a thin beard, tawny hair, and sharp, but the plough-share of the fool 
a sallow complexion ; but those who inhabit the more a 
southern and western districts of Finland, while they inhabitants of Finland are not t 
retain the national features, havea superior appearance, the influence of music; but, owing probably to the 
and are scarcely to be distinguished in their manners imperféction of their national instrument, they have ‘ 
from the Swedes. In Russian Finland, however, they not made much progress in the art. Their native in- 
have a slowness of motion, a depression of spirits, a strument, the harpu, consists of five strings or chords ‘ 
"simplicity, and almost stapidity of look, which forma of metal, each of which sounds a distinct note, G60, 
striking contrast with the livelyaspect, alert movements, d, ¢, and within the compass of these five poo = 
the 
? 


1 


e 


and cheerfuf humour of the Russians ; but these cir. whole of their music is confined. But 
cumstances miy be chiefly owing to their condition as been introduced in later times; and the music of 
a conquered , imitating and dreading their mas- Finlanders is beginning to acquire a more varied cha- 
ters. More ly than the Muscovites, they are notso racter. ~ 

warmly clothed, and seldom wear the sheep skin ; but 
have a coat of coarse woollen stuff, made without re- without any variety of step or motion, except alter- 
gard to shape, and tied round the body with a band, a nately laying the arms over each other ; and the whole 
pair of coarse linen drawers, or loose pantaloons, straw ‘exercise is performed with sufficient vigour, but with 
shoes, and pieces of woollen cloth, or ropes of straw entire gravity, and most unexpressive countenances. . 


ve 2 
‘wrapped round their legs. ‘ The houses in Finland, and frequently even the Houses. 
Language. _ It is chiefly in the northern parts of Finland, or ra- churches and_other public edifices, are constructed of 
ther in Lapland, that the ancient Finnish language is wood, generally painted red ; but they are nevertheless 
heard. Along the gulfs of Finland and Bothnia, the _ sufficiently warm, and sometimes too much so for the 
Swedish language prevails in the towns; and the ings of those; who are not accustomed tova close at- 
eantry speak a mixed dialect —— — —_ ere. The habitations of the its are well 
‘Fins were subj d by Eric I ing weden, built, and afford complete protection the severity 
and couteratontieCicaoten faith in 1156; and from of the winter cold; and, notwithstanding the du- 
that period, literature, especially eI paar ration of that season, and the seeming sterility of the + 
Poetry. more generally cultivated a them. The verse soil, | i 4 d 
"which they employ is ealled Runic, in which the lines than the same class in more southern regions, They 
“consists of eight syllables, a long and a short in suc- nae! Sym set before the traveller at least fresh and 
‘cession ; but, instead of aR ee rhymes, they - milk, salt herrings, or a little salt meat ; and 
begin with alliteration, having at two or more they are rich in all that they consider as stituti 
words which agree in the same letter or sound, as in the enjoyments of life. If at any time they have 
the following specimen : ‘money than i th 
ther lay it up for future emergencies, or convert it into 
Nuco nuco pico Tinto 0 
Drese. 


some 
Wessi wessi wester eki. small wooden dwelling, to see the water presented in a 


These Runic verses are rarely committed to the press, women are warmly clothed, and above their other gar- 
or even to writing, but are chiefly transmitted by oral ments wear a large linen shift, which gives them the 
communication ; and none are found of an earlier date appearance of bemg'in an house, th 
than the era of the Reformation. ‘men generally throw off their coat, and even in that 


In the more inland districts, the peasantry are much bat whch they go ot tages date inthe in { 
in 


| 
- 


addicted to this species of composition; and many of but when they go out to a distance 
them, unaided by education, are capable of producing ter’season, wear a kind of short coat made 
these verses on ordinary subjects, sometimes in a great skin, or a woollen surtout, fastened round the middle 
measure extempore. The recitation or composition of ‘with a girdle; and pull over their boots coarse woollen 
such songs, sometimes accompanied with the harp, stockings, both for warmth and for on 
forms one of the most frequent amusements of the the ice. Most of the peasants have a small house for 
Se Sa . Onthese ‘the of taking the warm bath, which is done in 
occasions, the reciter or peet stands in the midst of a the following marmer. A number of stones in the. 
circle of auditors, and having sung or delivered one nermost part of the chamber are heated by fire till tl 
line, a coadjutor, bey the ‘last word, or the last become red; and water being thrown upon them in th 
‘but one, finishes the line along with him, and then re- state, the bathers are involved in a cloud of thick - 
it alone ; which gives the er time to recol- » in an atm of 70 or 75 degrees of Celsius. 
or compose the succeeding line, which he then [n this heated oppressive air, they remain nal 
‘sings, and his assistant repeats in like manner, until for the space of half an hour or evena whole hour, : 
“the poem is ended. wit bing their bodies, or lashing them with bunches | 


eBie 
3 


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af 


aa 


FINLAND. $51 


twigs; and uently go out without any covering to face. Four or five persons set sail in an open boat with Finland. 

R orsed the ope eee 5 ganagelicnin tha taaes m one small mast; and»expose themselves during the’ ““\—-—" 

= the degree of cold is 20° or 30° below zero; thus making space of a month or more, and inthe most unfavourable _ —_ 
an ir taneous transition of 100 d whichis als circumstances; to‘all: the ofthe ocean. In this 


Hunting. 


Ht 
i 


ing effect their frames, and recruits their strength 
ps. cpa ese inn contT Lexar 
» The Finnish are at all seasons busily em- 

oyed in active labour; and even in the depth of winter 
Fin abundance of employment both in the house and. 
abroad. Within, ee 2 heme e ne 
constructing cart w! forming faggots for ; or 
oa flekic sem, pk nko doves, hoy: louk cera 


incredible velocity, by means of a pole which they hold 
in their hands; and when they have reached the place 
where they intend to fish, errunlee wn come 
to shelter them from the wind, perforate the ice with a 
chissel, plunge their line into the sea to the depth of 
about 30 feet, and are sometimes obliged to continue stir- 
the surface of the water to prevent it from freezing. 
shing with nets, they make two ings in the 
and by means of ropes and long poles pass the nets 
from the one to the other, which they afterwards draw 
out with great labour. In autumn, when the frost be- 
gins to set in, and the ice is most the fish- 
erman courses along the rivers with a wooden club or 
mallet in his hand ; and when he observes a fish under 
the ice in shallow water, he strikes a violent blow per- 
pendicularly above it, which at once breaks the ice and 
Sine seeder Ghapadpenss' bc toontinp ei ven thoy 
ment made e n e 
take post in the of their haunts, behind 


» should it still 
be passable. _ In these extremities the animal makes a 
ing to reach the assailant ; but the slowness 


pursuit their little bark is continually placed between, 
masses of ice, which threaten to;crush it to pieces; and 
in order to reach the seals, they must creep along the 
Paka ear killing them as they repose upon the 
ice. During the same season they hunt the squir-. 
rel, which they kill with a blunt wooden arrow, shot 
from a cross-bow, that they may not injure the skin. 
The bow used in this sport, is of a very ancient con« 
struction, extremely heavy, and requiring great strength 
to bend it, even with the assistance of a thong. The 
peasantry are remarkably dexterous both in the use of. 
this bow and of the fowling-piece, loading the latter al- 
ways with ball, and rarely missing the smallest bird. 
They employ for this purpose a kind of rifle gun with 
a narrow bore, which requires butia very small charge;: 


and yet carries to a considerable distance. ‘The winter Winter tra- 
season of traffic ; and all the great velling. 


also is the principal 
fairs are held in Finland and Sweden in that time of 
the year, in consequence of the facility of carrying goods 
over the ice, and travelling in sledges on the snow. » The 
peasants on these occasions frequently undertake jour- 
nies of three or four hundred English miles, carrying 
along with them whatever articles they have for sale.. 
In Finland, the sledges are very narrow, containing on- 
ly one person, and drawn by a single horse; and the 
roads are deep ruts formed by the successive passage of 
these vehicles, thus admitting none of a larger size than 
what are generally used in the country. The circum- 
stance of being overturned is rarely productive of any 
serious consequences ; and the dangers attending the 
traveller arise chiefly from those parts of the rivers or 
lakes where the ice is insufficient to support the weight. 
Excepting the bear, which rarely comes, from his den - 
to attack the inhabitants, until he is first provoked, the 
only other savage creatures ‘in the country are wolves ; 
those, even when starving, will not venture singly 
to assail the Lee a When assembled, however, in 
herds, and impelled by famine, they sometimes rush 
upon the horses in the sledges; and should the travel« 
ler be overturned and left upon the road, he must fall 
a prey to their ferocity, 
Many 8! 
vailamong the inhabitants,some of which will come more 
properly to be noticed under Swepen, as being com- 


of his 1 renders his efforts unavailing, and he is mon to both countries, and others of them under Laps 
soon di without much risk. The Finlanders’ tanp, where these ancient peculiarities have suffered 
mode of hunting the bear requires a of least change. A Finlander, when about to‘form a mas 
intrepidity and presence of mind. Instead of a musket, 


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trimonial connection, commissions some old women to 

make|known his proposals to the object of his affections, 

at the same time sending a present of a handkerchief, 
- . al 


usal, which may nevertheless yield to a second pro- 
posal, unless the’ young woman, instead of returnin 
the gift~with her hands, suffers it todrop'to the ground, 


which is counted a positive token of decided rejection. 


marriage, one of the friends or neighbours, with 
or speaker, does the rea of the feast, 
y also recites verses, or makes them ex« 
suitable to the occasion ; and, on the day fol~ 
after addressing some advices to the married - 


and sometimes indelicate customs pre- Customs, : 


Fire-escapes 


doped rarely 


Fixed. 


couple, he strikes the woman repeatedly round the 
eee ichthe husband's breeches, r to 
be fruitful, and to furnish him with heirs of his own 
body. In some places, a practice rese the bun- 
i of the Americans, is ssid. to aot in the 
to and among the peasantry inland, a 
cupudences the utmost kindness and hospitality. fie 
is always treated as the first person in the company, 
and every endeavour Is made to consult his taste and 
gratify his feelings. Even Bp oe be yr inhabi- 
tants of the towns, a strange rather startling mode 
of testifying satisfaction with a visitor, is practised by 
the ladies, who, as soon as the entertainment is conclu- 
ded, give him a slap upon the back when he is least 
ing it; and the more forcible the application of 
the ihe tangee ie he Slee good will. 
The peasants display great disinterestedness in their 
services to strangers, and can seldom be induced, with- 
out considerable importunity, to accept a pecumary 
remuneration for any occasional assistance, which they 
may have rendered. See Coxe's 7: ravels in Russia, §c. ; 
Acerbi’s Travels in Sweden, &c. ; Wraxal’s Tour round 
the Baltic; Swinton’s Travels into Norway, Sc. 3 Clarke’s 
Travels, vol. i. (9) 
FIRE-Eecarss are machines for enabling persons to 
descend from the windows of a house when it is on 
fire, and when the stair-case and are so filled 
with the flame or smoke, as pt geen a retreat by 
the ordinary avenues: Some of these machines are 
contrived to convey down valuable goods as well as 
le. 


ey ee who is awakened from a profi os 
by the flames of a fire, which has already made su 

progress as to cut off all retreat, has no other alterna- 
tive than leaping from a window, of great 


taaight, co peneieen hy, So Sane his is a situation 
so |, as to d every exertion of ingenuity, 
and every regulation of the which can contri~ 
bute to the relief of the Frequently as this 
y is repeated in London, every new instance 
a lively impression on the public mind, and 
fails to give rise to the invention of some new 
Jfrre-escape; yet still we do ergy apa adopted 
po mapege , as toremedy the evil. This may be owing, 
ei to the inefficiency of the a patie or to the 
lect of the istracy to provide a proper number. 
oT fachines for th P are of two different kinds, 
first, those which are mtended to operate from the 
street below, and can be quickly erected to communi- 
cate with any window : OF this kind are ladders, and 
poles with pullies and ropes to draw up_a_ basket, also 
a variety of curious and complicated machines or ele« 
yators ; of course all such machines must be kept at the 
public expence, for the service of a whole parish, in 
the same manner as fire-engines, and must be made 
to remove very readily. The other kinds of fire- 
escapes are those which can be fixed to a window, and 
allow the unfortunate sufferer to descend safely into 
the street. Machines of this kind are intended to be 
in the bed-rooms of the house; and each house 
must be provided with one at least, to render the con- 
trivance generally effective. Both kinds have their in- 
conveniences ; first, from the difficulty of con- 
veying them with dispatch from the places where they 
are deposited, to the situation where they are to act: 
This objection they have in common with fire-en- 
gives but it is here more sensibly felt, because the 
fire-escapes which have been made, are but very few 
in number; nor can it indeed be expected that they 


lice, 
ferer. 


FIRE-ESCAPES. 


will be unless parishes were 


obliged by law to keep fire-escapes as well as fire- < ~, 


sondh ton’ ; 7 
Oat to both. case the same regulations might be 


At nents fe eee towns, Fire-lad 
fire-ladders are kept in every church-yard, for the ser- ders. 
vice of any fire which may happen within a reasonable 


distance. This regulation is in a great measure render- 

ed useless from inattention in the keeping 

2a ee ee 
removed. is 

clerk of the parish ; but the nearest watchman, or every 


procure the key until too late. 

We have seen, some years ago, a long ladder, 
vided with a 5 adv hoeakaj witch arene takedial 
axletree a’ to the lower end of the ladder, with- 
in about three feet of the extremity. A weight was 
Re RE. RT ER NR 
muc its weight, t one man, by treading 
the lower end, could elevate it upon the axle of the 
wheels ; but when raised to about an 
grees, the end of the ladder touched the ground, 


and 
> therefore if it was elevated more than that, the wheels: 


were born off the 
port itself i 
This simple addition of wheels to a fire-ladder is 
great advantage, not less in conveying it to the 
in rearing it, which is always a work of mu 
bour, and those who are unused to it, of 


rea 


E 


difficulty. With the wheels, ing is more easy, the 
weight scshelennt json heosioleenioarade ane 
Le ee tor otaid aia cae 
at utmost, can walk qui Ww 
ing’ longer onthe shoulders fom the difiaiy 

ing exactly equal paces. The length of the 
ladder should be from 25 to 30 feet, according to the 
kinds of houses in the neighbourhood ee 

This simple contrivance to us of more 
utility than any other which we have seen: 


z 
i 


roposed, Amidst the number of ingenious, 
plicated machines, which have been rewarded and : 
t 

that a sufficient number of fire-ladders, thus mounted, 


and as the ladders now are in the church-yards, 
would be the most effective provision that could be 
made against accidents of this nature. As we are not’ 
al without hopes of seeing this arrangement 


adopted, we shall add a few words on the best and most. 
economical method of constructing such ine ; be- 
cause when great numbers are requi ee 
is an object of attention. The two spars of the r 
may be formed out of a clean piece of fir, such as i 
used for masts and oars. Each should be about 
inches by three at the lower end, and 
ing up to three by two at the other; now; 

are much weakened by the holes bared through 
for the rounds or steps, we propose to use 
pean and at yer ii the 
render them more strong, For this purpose, 
be divided fom the middle $9 within thres ox 4 
of each of its ends, by a saw-kerf, made in the 

cawok hi: 7 


i 


Hin 


; 
it 


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tion. 


Pro- Ladder wi 
an wheels, 


ape ih = a te 


_ Construce 


4 
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Poe 


FIRE-ESCAPES. 


n of the of the piece; a ‘ is then to 
to ten tt i: 


be fitted into th ing, which will be eight 
mile, and grad y diminishing to no- 
; emcabaasiene ion ey at the 
proper place for every round or step which is intended 
o be made i the ladder ; wht Aen of the rounds 


i 
3 
S 
z 


the rounds, where they touch the insides of the open- 
ing; should be let into the wood the ‘of an inch 
to prevent them from moving. The whole is to be bound 
fast by slight iron hoops, d on from the ends, and 


‘at the ‘solid ends, to the 
Tpliting farther than was in By this method a 
ladder is formed of Very , Without in- 


i 


end of the rope, the remainder being 
» and the lower end of the 
ladder, so'as to be in no danger of t. In 
~ this way, the ion of the ladder will not be at all 
impeded, and the rope will always be ready for action, 
ne bps Ne end of the rope, and thus releasing the 

is rope be extremely useful to haul up 
wari aen, 


: 
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Fire-escape A machine is described in the Annual Register, some 
with a pole, years ago, with a rope and basket; but a pole from 36 to 


46 feet in length was used in place of the ladder. This 


the pole, two Calle echin or 


VOL. IX, PART I. 


e direction. ‘Several ‘petsons could apply their 
forts: very advantageously at the ends of then jpoles to 
elevate the great one ; and when it was raised, the poles 
formed legelikes tripod, to strengthen the great pole, and 
prevent it from hating inthe middle. Itis stated that 
a pole of this’ sort was elevated, and two or three per- 
sons lowered from the upper windows of a house, into 
the street, in the space of 35 seconds, or rather more 
than half a minute. Still, as the pole was five inches 
diameter at the base, and three at the upper end, it 
could not, with the addition of the side poles and bas- 
ket, be rendered very portable, and, from its length, it 
would be troublesome to turn the angles of narrow 
streets, and therefore we prefer the ladder with wheels, 
which is extremely of transportation, and which, 
from the facility of raising it by the balance weight, can 
be elevated to'turn a narrow'corner. [ff it is trussed, as 
we have described, it will have as much strength’ as the 
pole, when propped in the middle by the two short ones. 

We think it is scarcely’ necessary to describe any 
other machines, except very briefly. ~The principle of 
‘several of them is to have two, =k or four ladders, 
fitted one upon the other, or rather one within the other, 


_and provided with a tackle by which they can be ele- 


tothe height ofthe window. The most complete 

of this kind is ibed by the Society of Arts, in their 
Transactions, vol. xxviii. The base of the machine is 
a four-wheeled carriage, with apair of shafts for a horse 
to draw it. The lowest of the three ladders is ‘fitted in 
the carriage by a bolt, on which it can be inclined side- 
wise at pleasure, to reach the window, and retained at 
any elevation by a frame with screws. The three lad- 
ders are made to fit one within another, and provided 
with iron clamps to confine them er. In the 
back of the frame, beneath the ladder, is a windlass, 
which receives the ropes for sliding up the ladders. 
These consist of two parallel ropes, hem from. 
the windlass, and passing-over two pullies, fixed at the 
u end of the principal or lowest ladder, and the 
are made fast to the bottom of the second ladder. 
Therefore, by turning the windlass, the are drawn, 
and the second ladder is elevated upon the first. The 
third ladder is likewise provided with two parallel ropes, 
passing over pullies, at the top of the second ladder, and 
attached to the bottom of the third; but the opposite 
ends of these ropes, instead of being carried down to the 
windlass, are made fast to any part of the lower ladder : 
in this way they have the same effect to raise up the 
third upon the second, when that is elevated upon the 


855 


Fire. - 
Escapes. 


<n 


Fire-escape 


by Mr 


Davis. 


first by means of the windlass. The remainder of the Its tackle 


apparatus is a windlass, in front of the machine, with 
two passing over pullies at the top of the high- 
est ladder, and ome box or chest, in which the 
s are to be lowered down, The upper end of the 
der is provided with a bent iron bar, to lean against 
the window, and thus retain the top of the ladder at 
such a distance from the wall, as to admit the box to 
ascend and descend clear of it. : 
We have seen another machine on a rips eae 
le : its carriage supported an upright post, which was 
Ftted to turn round in the redid A an-axis. The 
top of it formed the fulcrum of'a very long'lever, which, 
at one end supported the basket, and at the other a 
considerable ekinecewilight: The height of the verti- 
cal pillar was such as to raise up the’centre of the lever 
to about lialf the height from’ which the descent was 
intended to be made. The lever then required to be 
sufficiently long to reach to the window, when elevated 
at an angle, and also to the -ground when its end was 
2y¥ 


Machine 
with a lever, 


354 FIRE-ESCAPES. 


—Y~" by a pinion with wheel-work, by which two men, hand; and by letting it slip more 
tarulen a bendle end tending wyon the could regulate his descent, The 
command the elevation of the lever, the basket at- Forster. ee re Pa eran 
tached to it. By raising the end to the height of the Another machine, invented by Mr Maseres, had the Mr Mase- 
window, and turning the vertical axis round, they could same arrangement, except that rope, instead of p ress. 
make the end of the lever enter the window, and the sing through the iron ring or eye above m 
pereons htving put themselves into the basket, the end three or four times round a small , made 
was to be a little raised, then by turning the vertical wi apepe ares 

“Bs 


axis the basket was brought over the street, and lower- like the strap 
ed safely down by the men at the handle. The basket not turn round. i 
could again be elevated, and another person brought cylinder can be suspended from the hook which is fix» 
down with equal ease. The only objection to this ma- ed over the window. The groove in this cylinder 
chine is, that nck anil noquioe 39 bo of tare nigeiet causes so much friction in the passage of the rope, 

, and having no support at its ends, would re- person’ i as an . . | 
quire a cumbersome framing, to render it sufficiently in the other method; but, without passing the rope ; 
strong. A simple and effective mode of trussing would through the notches in the piece of wood, he can com- 4] 
be Mr Smart’s plan of dividing the rod ] wise by mand it when he holds the other end of,the rope in his 
a saw kerf, and introducing blocks to swell the bean in hand. and hate 3 Sip SOD. SF AR aS ‘ 
the middle, and give it stiffness, as we have before descri- Another machine, which was 
bed of the ladder. A boom and stays, to act like the was contained beneatha stool, to stand the bed-side, to 8, : 


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B 


shrouds of a ship, would give it great strength without On an alarm, this stool could be i tly fixed to the 
any increase of weight. window, by hooking two of naptey ayo the sill of the 
Mr Roberts Society of Arts have published, in their thirty. window, in the same manner as the boards used by a ' 


first volume of Transactions, descriptions of two fire painter to support himself whilst he paints the outside 
escapes or elevators. They consist of a number of bars of a window. Beneath the. stool was an axle, upon 
jointed together in pairs, by a pin in the middle of each which the rope was wrapped two or 
ike a pair of shears. To the upper ends of each of small wheel was fixed on the end of 

“BE Sega - 


i the wheel 
assemblage will therefore consist of similar parallelo- axle. The spring was regulated by a screw, to bear 
eeered em soe the other, Now, by forci onthe hed with i , i proportion 
Lape wees bias re prc. agp et I the weight of the person who was to descend. A. a 
other, the parallelograms are to elongate in the eas gined irevees of the rope, so that when ot ¥ 
vertical direction, and raise up a platform to the requi- had ded, the girdle-straps at the opposite 
red height. The machine, when elev:ted, forms a lofty the repe would be ready for another person to 
tower, within which a regular range of ladders are pla~ down. “1 . we 2 
Oe ond eee int, eevenenie te Selenge hoe, anne ua Pani: ION 
ingenious, but by no means applicable to urpose, appears superior to an these: It is a 
from its complexity. One o Cheed aneedbiiean ie, aol a in an iron steap, by which it can @ pendu. 
posed of 24 levers, and 8 ladders, besides the smaller up over the window. It is made with a deep lum. 
Lose he other machine has 40 levets and. 8 lnddets ve, so that the rope which passes over it 
in it. hes 


its 


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Of the other kind of fire-escapes, which are to be several sharp pins fixed in it: the rope has.a girdle~ 
ladder, fixed from the window, the most ample is a rope-ladder, strap at one end, and a'sufficent counterwei ht at the 
with wooden rails for the steps ; but, unless a post with other, to make the apply so firmly to 
a hook is fixed below in the street, to attach the lower pany Apsmarys ge Beh 
end of the ladder'to it, and strain the ropes tight, it is moment the person who has descended has ungirded ; 
extremely difficult to descend. it. The pulley has a toothed wheel fixed against it, , 
Sting Gre- Another species is called the sling fire-escape. This which acts in the pallets of an anchor-escapement, fix- 
oeape. Senet p ates, 00 Whe Con nm fastens himself ed on an axis, pape Sone ae See Sa 
by a girdle, throwing himself out of a window, is Sbove the axis oF the p 
lowered slowly down, the rope having some contrivance 
to cause a friction or resistance, which will prevent any chor or pallets. By this contrivance the pulley is re- 
acceleration in the motion. The simplest of these has gulated, as the escapement will not suffer it to move _ 
ters ois. acted tipo with two straps or belts, one to with any more than the intended velocity ; and if the — 
buckle round the waist of the person whois to descend, pallets of the anchor are formed of a proper shape, as 
and the other to pass under him, so that he sits as in a will be described in the article Honosocs., 36 Fil gatas 
swing when suspended by the rope, which is rather very little difference if the weight which descends is a i 
more than twice as long as the height of the window small or a great one. The escapement-wheel is attach 
from the ground. The rope is to pass through ed to the pulley by a ratchet-wheel and click, which 
a double eye or iron ring, suspended from a hook fixed’ admits the counterweight to draw up the strap- . : 
over the window ; then the other end of the is without acting on the escapement, as as the per- $ 
brought down to a piece of wood called the re, , son who has descended quits it; and the machine is } 


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a p~ey ee. 


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2 


Mr For- 


which is attached to the girdle strap, that the person then ready to let down another person. — : ; 
wears. This piece of wood has thiee Rela in te cet ‘Another fire-escape, to affix to a window, is coms (AN exape I 

notches, into which the rope is woven, and will of a strong sail-cloth, sewed up, to form a long £ infirm 
thereby have eo much friction in passing, as to make it eee which is open at one end, and of such a P™°"* 


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only became an ¢ of serious attention to individu- 
-> og pt arlene. ngs ich they might 


Among the many kinds of food which are given 
Masintindiceances of sheti fish is one of the most whole- 
some and abundant; and such is its powerful influence 
on , that it is y allowed that the empire 
of owes the immense number of its inhabitants 


355 
’ other, the two innermost bei 


part of the bi 


FIS 


elevated upon the onter- 
most by a rope and pulley, if necessary by the aid of 
a windlass. The Sender consists of two square tubes 
and a square beam, the first square tube containing the 
second, and the second containing the square beam. 
All these aye supported in a vertical position by four 
legs, the lower extremity of the first or outer square 
tube resting on the ground. By means of a pulley 
moved by a windlass, the second square tube can be 
elevated upon the first, and the square beam upon the 
second square .tube, to the height required. About 
four or five feet scores dar ces square beam is 
fixed a form, upon which the fireman stands while 
he is raised to the height for the purpose 
of directing the pipe of the engine, the end of which is 
fixed upon an universal joint on the top of the beam, 
so that the fireman has no weight to support, but is 
in directing the pipe to the proper 
- i one rgrabcagrnnegy the 
magistrates ve ordered ese i 
nious machines to be constructed for the use of the 
town, and we trust every other town in Scotland will 
follow their example. of the ladder when 
about 42 feet long will not exceed £5; that of the 
elevator £13 or £14, The elevator may be applied to 
many other ; and Mr Lamb pi also to 

i y pecan may raise himself, 
» An account of a fire which supports itself, 
will be found in the Acta Petropolitana, vol.i, p. 1. 
See also ’3 Theatrum Machi: m, tab. 54, 57 ; 
Emerson’s Mechanics, 228; Varcourt, Mem. Acad. Par. 
1761, Hist. 158; Collins, American Transactions, tom. 
iv, or of Arts, vol. xv. p. 25; Audibert, 
Mem. de Institut. tom. iv. or Repertory, vol, i. p. 439, 


I. FP. 
( FIREWORKS. See Pyrorecuny. 

FIRST, in Music, sometimes implies the first, and 
sometimes the second chromatic of the scale: 
rota 6 Me jf ag ih naage 

i is the Semirone 


Radix, and marked with an 
its last stroke. 


astonishing quantities of fish with which they Fisheries. 
— i however, we rehend, may ——~ 

boast of a greater and choier ‘arety than even Chi — 

na; for, out of about four h species, a3 de« 3 

scribed by Linneus, we can enumerate nearly one 

and fifty to be inhabitants of our own waters, 

and almost all these are esculent. 


in 
herring, with their numerous con- 
salmon... These, when pickled,or 
ied, find at all times a neacly: YORE in the European 
continent, or West India islan For the other kinds 
which we have not here specified, there is always a de« 
mand, either as fresh, green, or cured fish, for home 


356 FISHERIES. 


seb F 5823 
Fee . Ps 
3 1 
i : 
fein 
PEE 
Es 
Hani 


TEE] 
i 
i 


F 
; 
E 
E 
E 
Hl 
= 
> 
f 


t of flavour was we believe generally, and we think 
justly, ascribed. The inhab rer paws oR 
ee ant capitals, but are too for in- 
of nation 


: 


r 
for a spirit of enterprize far above those 


ions. 


ed body, the Highland Society of Scotland, 
ertion and careful investigation, discovered and pointed 
par ney fleece neem re Ro 


and. by means of their reports, a bill was brought into 


June 1808, and. the provisions of it took place from 
the Ist of June 1809, and were to continue in force until 
the Ist of June 1813, and from thence to the end of the 
then next session of Parliament, (1814). | Some amend- 
ments were at that time and with these we 

the same act either has or will berenewed. It 
is a spirited and fair i and. we hope will-af- 
ford a proof of the utility and many advantages that 
must accrue to the state from a persevering prosecu- 
tion of all the branches of the deep-sea.fishing. Yet, at 


the same time, we must. remark, that this act is not 
without its imperfections; and it is to be that 
it did not embrace ions for some of our other 
fisheries, which so 


terference, such as conservancies for our rivers. 
Had the commissioners in that act been appointed as 
a court of conservancy, with a power, ing to lo« 
cal situation, to. constitute district courts under them, 
it might have saved that fishery from an uni 

to which it is fast. verging. The use of stake nets, -h 
and the wanton and prodigious destruction of the fry 
in various of the country, have been very injuri« 
ous to this . It would have been well, :too,, 
had it held out great and particular encouragement 


: ; : oa 
pably require parliamentary in- 


a 
fi 
é 


i 
ii 
F 
iH 
i: 
H. 
2 
5 


i 


unction of the cod with the deep sea 
; ane h 


FFE 
i 
fis 
ul 
i 
i 


HI 
H 
HF 
FE 
oi 


i 
(ie 
ce 
f : 
et 
be 
4 


zt 
id 
a 
B 
t 


for 
ution of our fisheries ; we applaud 
can 


not approve of any we have 
; on a grand scale, has recommended ; and 
the fi ing are the outlines, ee ae 


corporations, 
Lee ar to the advantages of locality, and amount 
of ade aukiemage peesineein aaa 


po ticatld to 9tuae a: 


* We ronst, however, in these general observations, except the whale fishery, which has of late been carried on most stecessful~ 


Lords, In 
$ Plan of National I , Fe, 1803. 


MES 85 
3,686,760 in one of a middling size, which weighed Fisheries." 
12,540 grains. The flesh is a Al firm, comes off in = 


FISHE 
shreds, &c. constructed in 
Cod fish-- 
the inhabitantsof “7° 


Cod fishery. 


| the mildleof Aprils 


flakes, sores good, and held eo higher estimation. 
in ev of the world, except by 

i rhc that of its congener the haddock, 
(Gadus @glefinus). Various are the names given to it, 
both when fresh or pickled,—cod, keeling, cabillow or 
cabillaud, green fish, Iceland or mud-fish, Aberdeen 


. fish, North Sea.cod, stockfish, barrelled cod, poor John,.. 
- and; throughout Scotland, when dried, hard jish. Their 


young, and those under 20 inches, are called codlings. 

wn with us from February until 
and sooner recover than any, other. 
fish from their shotten state ; for, in a few weeks, after 
having shed their roes and-milts, they appear plump;: 
well coloured, and full about the tail. This species is:. 
infested with a variety of vermes, as the Gordius. 


_ marinus of Linneeus, the Echinorhynchus, the Cucul~ 


lanus marinus, the Fasciola piscium, the Tania ru- 
gosa, all of which are to be found at times in their: 
intestines, and. the Lernea asellina in their gills and 
fins. There is no fish of more general use, and: 
more suitable to all than the cod ; and it is in, 
plenty, and fit for eating, in some or other of the wa- 
ters which encompass our islands, at almost every time, 
of the year. It is to be found on both sides of the 
ther reo aces sosuhich it prefers aewdhe 
er its choice, as the region which it 's in Euro) 
is from 50'to 65 latitude; that-is, from near the Scilly. 
islands to Iceland; and in America, from about 41 to® 
58 latitude ; that is, from about Rhode island to the: 
shores of the Eskimaux. gril ey 
shery, in which we include, of the same ge- 
nus, the ling (Gadus mola ), and tusk or torsk (Gadzs: 
brosme), forms the most extensive fishery of which Bri- 
tain can boast ; for we have not only the range of our) 
own islands in Europe, but the vast banks of New- 
foundland:and the fishing grounds along the shores of 


. Nova Scotia, St John’s, Cape Breton, and in the Gulf: 


of St Lawrence: all of them seas noted for the quan- 
ity of this valuable fish which they afford. 

t was found expedient, by the late act of parlia~ 
ment, to give what was th a liberal encourage- 
ment: to ae Scaeens a burden; in the: 
prosecution sea ing. > but it cer— 
tainly must be allowed to be fully 2s sekendocdyremdindie: 
able to that of the cod. » Herrings lie commonly nearer’ 
the shore; and as they are not so ofter found in the- 
strong rapid currents as the cod, the use of small open: 
boats is i and injudicious for that fishery, un= 
less it be with the view of affording a temporary: 


. supply of fresh fish for the inhabitants of the coast. 


fisheries, indeed, are carried on by the natives of" 
Scotland (with a few exceptions) ini a: awkward 
and slovenly manner. . The common m of taking’ 
cod, ling, haddock, &c. is to\go out only a few miles 
from the shores of their fishing-towns, with a crew con-' 
sisting of four or five’ hands, sometimes one or two of 
them boys, im an i undecked boat, carry- 
ing with a tires of long lines, which they of- 
with. These they drop on the: 
grounds, where they think the fish lie; and, when the’ 
weather is im the smallest boisterous, they leave 
them-attached to neat’s b! all night, and indeed 
frequently for many successive days and nights ; that 
is, until it becomes so-moderate'as'to suit their choice’ 


' and conveniency to return. » They then draw up theixe 


Berkenhout’s Synopsis of the Natural History of Great Britain and Tretand.- 


a 


358 


Fuberies. lines, find the baited hooks stuck in the stomachs of the 


—_—\— 


Cad toh. 


ery. 


fish, or the fish exhausted struggling, or dead, or 
por barack mere venom fe in thio condihieitere 
what they call fresh cod, fresh turbot, and other kinds of 
fish caught by the line and hook, offered to sale in our 
markets, Let us now observe the modes that the Eng- 
lish and nen are tbs ent of their 


Mg 

alwa bobbing, that is 
pa gn, sae Pm 
arm, by which means, as in angling, the line and hook 
are in continual motion ; and, ling the fish the mo~- 
ment he bites, they instantly haul him ap. They are 
therefore all caught by the lip or mouth, which saves a 
great deal of time, as the Ghia t4ncesiiettyan- 
abled to renew the bait, not having to extricate the 
poe Se Rw or stomach ; besides, they 
are al en alive, without being torn or mangled, a 
consideration of no small im e 

In this manner, on the and uncomfortable banks 
of Newfoundland, each expert fisherman, although he 
can take butone at a time, will catch from two to three 
handred of their heavy fish ina.day. This is the most 
valuable cod-fishery in the world, and may be now said 
to belong entirely to Great Britain. The island is si- 
tuated between Lat. 46° 45’ and 51° 40’ North, and be- 
tween Long. 52°31’ and 59° 40’ West. The 
bank is about 70 miles from it, and is 400 miles i 


as the 
sandy ground; on the contrary, 


i 
fl 
£ 
i 


don, es from 12 to 20 tons bur- 
rigged in England 

the fisheries along the shores of Newfoundland, Nova 
Scotia, and the i ‘Breton, a great part of 


heer, signifying an army, 
i the “greccebinh ie 
coasts. 


FISHERIES. 


_ 


ward, and Cape St Mary on the east. When a vessel ries. 
has taken her station on this or any other bay, she is = rig 
immediately unrigged, leaving only the shrouds to sus- Hering” 
tain the masts. eet — 
The livers of the whole genus Gadus, yield a well- 

flavoured oil. The zounds and tongues of the cod are 


suspect the account is some i 
Britain, and the United States, at the lowest computa- 
tion, annually em 8000 sail of small craft in this’ 
; on board of which, and on shore to cure and: 
pack the fish, are upwards of 100,000 hands.” In our 
article Encranp, Vol. IX. p. 14. we have lied: 
an account of the quantity of fish caught, and ofthe 
number of vessels, &c. employed in the Newfoundland 
fis in different years. ‘ whe 

- Of late years, the English have sent a number of welled 
choy tivia chy deep weet; asbeatong eonvathor ae 
in water, currents, r 
oer pee 
adj n tion is ; 

have been extremely successful; and although at °F 


in small boats up to London. -©) |» Pi wlinragy Boros 
The name herring is derived from the German word ‘ 
as expressive of the numbers ding Sceospel 

annually appear upon the “- 

northern i Ce hol 


Our common herring is from 7 to 12 inches $ 


lines are small, and not easily perceived ; the under 
jaw is a little longer than the upper’ on 


; the 

2 

sists of seventeen, the ventral of nine, oral 

seventeen, the anal fourteen, and chns-auth ack wie 

ios He dies instantly when taken out of 
water. ghee ais 6» 18 a oh 
This is the Clupea harengus of Linneus, Rondele- 

tius, Gesner, Willoughby, and Ray. The Halec of the 


eres: 


’ 
é 
: 
i 
: 
t 


of herri Clupea alosa,) is the only one of the'genus 
Scene eaten ron ton in B Britain is only 


_ to be found in the Thames and Severn; where it is 


“the mont of November, December Jeary she 
Fucus, pbwotu al, (aled tS 


og 


FISHERIES. 
which ‘they have for lightning, and for that luminous Fisheries. 


of a middle size, found the weight of the spawn to 
number of eggs 36,960. 
the heaviest salmon. are found in our large ri 


is LES 
geste 
ii 
g 

it 
cu 


# 
a 
3 
& 
i 
Z 


superior 
flavour to all others: from 650 to $00 fill a barrel. 
Friths of Forth and Tay require about 1000 
Murray Frith, it takes about 


af 

eet 
BE 
J 


been a matter of curious inquiry, how far to 


Ca resmeme sanennmnnnys erate shenienvin our 
shores.. We imagine that Liseupehasel.toueeniibes 
naturalists have mistaken the winter residence of the 
herrings, who say, “they return to their parental 


appearance in the sea, called by fishermen, waterburn. 
Abont the wadsetie or vely fi poonng Seay et the 
great shoal of i seemingly e 5 a 
pears towards the extremity of .the Shetland pigide 
Gulls and gannets, screaming andin flight ; whales and 
porpoises, rising and tumbling in the water, are the 
never failing harbingers of the-approach of this im- 
mense body of fish, forming a surface or extent of se~ 
veral hundred miles. A great rippling in the sea is al- 
so observed ; and sailors and fishermen aver, that they. 
can nose them from afar by their strong oily smell. 
Soon after they come near to Shetland, they separate 
into various large divisions, some taking to the western 
and others to the eastern shores of Great Britain and 
Ireland. A few of these columns likewise cross the 
North Sea, or German Ocean ; and the Swedes, ahout 
1730, discovered a valuable herring fishery near to 


359 


Herring 


fishery. 


Gottenburgh, and which, from its contiguity to the - 


Baltic, them to undersell both the Scotch and 
Dutch, who formerly the whole of that trade. 
From. their first arrival in July, they keep along both 
the east and west coasts.of Scotland, and in October, 

many erratic movements, they fix their residence 
where mean to spawn. In these places they con- 
tinue until the end of February, (sometimes, but rarely, 
longer, pond constitute what we call our winter fishery, 
In rith of Forth, for these several years past, this 
has been a very productive fishery; and during .the 
present winter, 1814-15, the numbers of herrings there 
taken, and ht to the .Edinburgh markets, have 
yielded a most t supply: of nutritious food for 


bourhood. 


nejghbourioed of the inhabitants. of the city and its . 


the states of- Holland became independent, 


(1579, ) the herring fishery was carried on to an amaz- 
ing extent ; indeed the accounts given of it by various 
writers appear at this day almost incredible, although 
they, upon the whole, seem to be well, authenticated. 
Sir Walter Raleigh was of opinion, that the Dutch made 


ten millions per annum of this fishery in his time. The - 


great statesman De Wit, assures us, that in the year 
1667, the Dutch employed no Jess than 2000 busses, 
and that upwards of 800,000 is were subsisted 


in the two provinces of Holland and West Friesland ~ 
alone by the herring fishery. The rise of. the united © 


provinces to their importance 

their being at one time rivals to the English in their 
marine, was entirely attributed to their perseverance 
and success in the herring fishery. The splendour and 
commercial consequence of their towns, sprung also 
from the same source, and it is acknowledged by them- 
selves ‘ that Amsterdam had its foundation on ing 


bones. : 
The wealth, which the herring fishery, at an 
early ht to the Dutch, induced the Scotch 
y into the same concern, and ac- 


great 
iod, 
Kk sori 


to em 


as a nation, and to . 


cordingly it was enacted, “ That certain lords spiritual 4 


and tem 
boats, with nets and other 
cap. 49. ¢ 
ships and. bushes, with all their 
be made in each burgh, in num 
substatice of the burgh, and the least of them to be of 
twenty tunn.” Par. 4. cap. 49. 5 

mapep instant avere genie 2d. Seem ne ae 
blish the Company of the Royal Fishery of E — 
it to be dissolved. , 


This erection was, however, rescinded by an act 
The first bounty for the exportation of herrings, was 


inents,” Jam. III. Par. 6. 


rtinents for fishing. 


liam and Mary, declari 


~ 


r according’ to the 


, and burrows, make ships, bushes, and = - 
This act was confirmed by James IV. “that . 


Fuherter. granted b Scotch Parliament in 1705. A bounty 


the 
Scotch was then paid on every last of her- 
rings in whatever way they were and 
upon a last taken by busses and exported £18 Scotch 
allowed. The same act remitted the duties pay- 
on all-materials used in the 
wo years after this enactment, the 
herring fishery seems to ‘have 
eclining state, in spite of all lhe 
, and the li pre- 
miums given for its revi In 1720, a general co- 
ry was formed for the purpose of raising this 
from its — It ee of ew a 
of the ipal people in Scotland ; their capital was di- 
pth! vier eae of £100 each ; but, like the South 
Sea bubble, which burst about the same time, the whole 
éoneern soon vanished ‘into air. . 

In 1727, the Board of Trustees was established, to 
whom the t of £2000 per annum was given 
from the revenue of Scotland, for the encouragement 
of the manufactures and fisheries of that country. We 
¢anhot say what part of this sum was, or is now appro- 
priated for the herring fishery. 

In 1750, the Free British White Herring Com- 
pany act passed in Parliament, whereby it was enacted, 
that a capital might be subscribed of £500,000, the 
proprietors to receive 3 per cent. per ann. upon the 


sums paid in during fourteen years. A bounty was 
also allowed of 30s. cons fe alt Wente thom b0'% 
80 tons employed in the service of the company. His 


Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, (who was enthu- 
pot ane! Rarer ache ams Prieta pee os 
nor. This national association, although patronized by 
the first people in the kingdom, and ising fair in 
tant sage was soon after its establishment given up. 
By this act it was likewise mere toe every fishin, 
company, at any port in Britain having a capital 
£10,000, should also be entitled to the ati fein 
Bae a Rey Pas sete Free British 
White Herring pany. Nei id this 
to the act succeed better. ss 
In (753, 1755, and 1756, three other acts of ~ 
ment were , regulating more icular e 
mode of fishing with busses. 3 eae / 
Another act took place in 1757, by which the boun- 
ties to busses were increased from 30s. to 50s. per ton. 


course of the year 1767, so large a sum as £31,396 was 
id in Scotland to persons engaged in this fishery. 
y an act passed in 1771, this bounty was again re- 
stricted to 30s. ton, by which means the ties 
paid in became trifling, and in England, for 
yoo we ages no bounties for herring busses were 


and improvement. The whi ne- 
Sasadey Wo take Se Cis op mb yrs 

premiums for approved essays on the Natural History 
of Herrings, containing observations on the causes that 
induce them to leave their usual haunts, the modes of 
RE any» aadenty hover eee 


ve, &c. 
Having received several communications on the 


FISHERIES. 


manufactures, 
in Scotland, to be increased from 21 to 28, whereof hi 
Majesty may appoint seven to be commissioners for 


nai 
Huts 
quae 
rll: 
TT 
Hire 
te 

tel 


measurement, to; 

po te Ramee the 
pc th the be tamemedl i 
eg Maa here pol that is 


25 

s E78 ¢ 

rie 
nt 


an a «hl gg PT ig a: ee eee eon wad 


ee OS) og OME ee & 


ome 


—_— 


tan *\ 


— 


a 


Pr. 


FISHERIES. 


ting, than one of 100 tons. The full number of men, 
as above stated, are not deemed until the ar- 
rival of the buss at the rendezvous of Sound. 
— ' . 


the 


iH 
are 


EF 
Ee 
ze, 
3 
i 
4 


pRiare 

inte 
eae 
ad 
AL 

a 

qs, 

ul 
ibe 


Bg 
i 
tl 
Ap 
H 
a 
‘ 


that is to say, the crew 
directly from and into the said buss or vessel; 


i 


it 
5 
if 
ie 
i 

E 
i 
i 


SEEEETE 
lu 
i 
i 
E 
a 


tonnage : 
Herrings taken the crews of the busses 
to tis ditngutabtsdiiog a Whack can tho Peraaba ta hich 


‘out of a buss at the - 


361 


ed such to the commissioners of Excise in England or Fisheries. 
Scotland, who are to. give an order to their cashier or “~V~ 


collector nearest the port where the buss discharged her 
cargo, who is to pay the sum mentioned in the deben- 
ture on mane. mi , , y 

Mariners employed in the deep sea fishery are pro- 
tected from being impressed during the voyage, id 
until after the buss has returned to the.port of her-dise 


Owners of busses entitled to the tonnage bounty, to 
i¢ pay the crew 2s. perbarreb on the herrings taken and* 
» cured by them. 
An additional bounty of £1 per ton is allowed for~ 


Herring 
fishery, 


the first 30 busses» fitted out for and employed in the — 


herring fishery, and entitled to the bounty of £3 per 
ton.. 


Then follow regulations for cleaning out vessels, - 


(other than busses on “the ra apenas with salt, 
&c. for the British herring fishery, what herrings shall” 
be entitled to the 
are prohibited from being 


be: cured and ed in half barrels, 


may 
' containing 16 gallons English wine measure, and two - 


of these being accounted equal to one, 2s. bounty shall 
be paid on them. Y. 

or encouraging 
Scotland, to provide larger boats than are now used in 


' the herring fishery, and to take herrings at tml 


distance from shore than can be done in’ small boats, 
it is enacted, that after the 1st of June 1809, the com- 


bounty of 2s. and certain herrings - 


ing the inhabitants on the sea-coasts of © 


missioners are authorised. to allow premiums or boun= — 


ties, not exceeding the sum of three thousand pounds - 


yearly; to persons who shall employ boats of a burthen 


* not less than fifteen tons by admeasurement, in the tak- 

ing herrings on the coast of Scotland, and who shall : 
cure. and pack them according:to the rules and regula- - 
This, bounty also to be ~ 


tions of the commissioners. 
paid by the commissioners of Excise in Scotland.” 

When the foregoing act expired, which was at the 
close of the last session of parliament, (1814,). an in- 
terim one took place. This was a temporary expedient, 
until a bill should be brought in this season, after the 
Easter recess, to obtain an act for permanently regu- 


lating this fishery: This act,.as we are informed, is to - 
be in substance, nearly the same as that of which we-- 


have given an abstract, and both modelled (with the 
ion of the bounties) after a placart or ordinance 


ed at the Hague and Delft, by the states of © 
olland and West Friesland, in the prime and most. 


successful state of their fisheries, concerning the catch+ 


ing, ee curing, packing, heightening and laying of | 
e. 
, with the peculiar pleasant flavour of © 


The fine si 


the Dutch herrings, owing to their excellent mode of \: 


curing, caused them to be more esteemed throughout 
Europe, than.either those of the English or Scotch. 
However, it is to be hoped since the value of this 
fishery seems now to be oh ew appreciated and at- 
tended to, that our pickled herrings will be equal, if 


not superior,-to the best of the Dutch; or those of Gota - 


tenbu 

The first idea of preserving herrings by pickling, is 
said. to have been saggulted about ae year 1890, and 
it was the cause of that fishery becoming afterwards so 
valuable an article of commerce. « 

William Bruckfield, or Beukelings, a native of Biero~ 
liet, a tewn of Dutch Flanders, who lived about that 
time, has got the merit of being the first discoverer of 

22 


Faberics, 
—— 
Fakes’ in the county of Norfolk, 


Red her- 
rings. 


i 


>. . 

362 
is picklin * We suspect, however, that the 
thie AES Te Labitants of the. town of; Yarmouth, 
knew the art of preserving 
red and white herrings before 


and barrelling both 
het period. Ye to have been a great and lu- 
erative branch of their trade from the 1306 to 1360, 


and we see a statute of Edward the Third, in the 31st 


of his reign lating the herring fair and fishery 
Zr that . Bruckfeld improved on the art, 
but to the merit of the discovery, we do not think him 


entitled. ; 
According to the time of taking, and mode of curing 
herrings, they receive various lations, as, sea- 
sticks, summers, crux, corved, and shotten herrings. _ 
When they are intended to be cured with what is 
called the white pickle, they are cut open, and the guts 


carefully from the milts and roes. Then cast- 
ing away the guts, and leaving the milts and-roes en- 
tire, the ings are first washed well with water, and 


then put into a brine strong et 
where they are allowed to lie from twelve to six« 
teen hours; then they are taken out, and after bein 
well drained, the salters begin packing. 
all strew a quantity of salt, as even as ble, over the 
bottom of the barrel, and lay a row of herrings over it, 
sprinkling also some salt over them, and so on, till the 
be completed. The firmer the herrings are 
packed, they keep the better ; and the salters therefore 
press them down with their hands in the packing, as 
closely as possible, and before heading the cask,’ they 
strew about a platterful of salt over the u row. 
When the barrel is thus filled, a: stop it up very 
close, lest the air should get in, or the brine flow out; 
either of which circumstances would be destructive of 
On the coasts of Norfolk and Suffolk, a considerable 
i i mber to the end 


mediately makes for ‘the shore, and delivers its cargo 

of herrings to persons who are employed in the gut- 

i ingofthem. After this is done, they are 
ut into a tub with salt, where they remain for twenty- 
our hours ; they are then taken out, and put into wi 

er baskets, washed, and spitted on small sharp wooden 

spits, and hung up in chimnies in their herring hangs, 

where fi are kindled on the floors, for the p 

of drying them. These places will hold ten or twelve 


thousand at atime. This process of drying is generall 
ended in about twenty-four hours, and then they aie 
taken down, and put into barrels for ing. Her- 


rings, when thus cured, have a bright yellow, golden 
‘appeararice, and from their firie flavour, are in much re- 
quest, both at home and abroad. 5 


Secr. III. On the Lobster Fishery. 


Tue eastern and rocky shores of Scotland abound 
with this fish, which is Cancer Gammarus of Lin- 
newus ; and the great ities of it sent to the Lon. 
don market, form a very lucrative article of trade, Lob- 
sters aré generally found in deep, clear water. They 
breed in the summer months, and it is said» 

more humano. They are very prolific, and de- 
it their ova in the On the 11th of August, 

x Harmer found in a lobster of thirty-six ounces, the 
weight of spawn to be 1671 grains, and the number of 


to bear an egg, | 


FISHERIES. 


| 
i 


E 

Z 
iit 
ist 
HEE 


fe 


g 

p 
ali 
: 

; 

f 

: 


E 
i 
ff 


i 
Lf 
g 


# 


ue 
aE 
- 
é 
& 
| 
| 
|! 


E 
eH 


ce 
A 
7 
ze 
| 
if 


E 


taken up in boats to Billinsgate. 
By io and 11 William Il, csp 
be'taken under eight inches i 


: 
He 
z 
hy 


September. See our article CrusrackoLoey, Vol, VII, 
p. 398—400. : {add Wi re 
Seer. IV. On the Mackerel Fishery. = 


SS hy 


- Tue mackerel fishery, althougha «tie One FOF yfockere) 


the metropolis, by su g it 
is not carried ay ee in any 


except in the Channel, and on the coasts Suffolk, 


weighs nearly two pounds. The 
chic, 


and fleshy, but en small er towards 
the tail, which is so much forked, that it seems to be 
almost parted into two distinct fins. Its adity is 
very great ; for, according to Hanmer’s table, he found 
Sin cigs cane 

ts a orice light newly t 9 
its shape, so finely aelet dived for swimming, it has be: 
proposed as a model.for the building . Macke- 


rel are found on the coasts of 


and from the Lands Ent in Engg the po 
in Scotland, gradually in, nambers, | 


* The Emperor Charles"V. coming to the Low Countries, paid a visit to the town of Bieroliet with the Queen of Hungary, to 
honour the memory and to view tlie tomb of this supposed first pickler of herrings. a ee 


with this fish) gshery. 
y “hae 


_ Fisheries. Yarmouth northward. It has been often mentioned, 


ayy 


ERIES. - 363. 


are carried to different places, and laid in beds, or pits. Fisheries: 


of salt water, in order to feed and fatten. A green co- ‘ 
, lour is often artificially given to themin the salt marshes;. 
but we do not consider it as any improvement, as we 
think white oysters both look, and taste, better than 
those that are green. The sea star (Asterias glacialis) 
is a most destructive wine pt pps Ruan because 
it its around the till it. 
pr sonal out. The fishing he comteke per- 
mitted from the first of September to the last day of 
April inclusive ; or oysters are in season, according to. 

observation, in all those months which have the 
letter r in their name. See our article Concnoxocy, 
Vol. VII. p. 98, genus Osrrea; and our article Enc« 
LAND, Vol. IX, p. 14. 


Sect. VI. On the Pilchard Fishery. 


who insist that it is only a variety of the herring; how- 
ever, we have various reasons for thinking fe seedy 
It is less and thicker than the herring, the nose turns up, 
the under jaw is shorter than the upper, the dorsal fin is 

exactly in the centre of gravity, for if you take a 
pilchard by the back it will hang even, which a herri 
‘will not do ; the scales are firm, and adhere very closely, ~ 
whereas those of the herring come off with the smallest. 
touch. 

The pilchard isa fish of passage, swims in shoals, and 
its arrival on the coasts of Bretagne, Cornwall, and De« 
vonshire, is indicated by similar signs with the ap- 
proach of the herring towards Shetland. _The season of 
this fishery is from June to September, although they 
are sometimes caught about Christmas. 

On the jutting cliffs, upon the coasts of Devonshire: 
and Cornwall, men are set, whom they call iuers, to 
watch the coming of the pilchards ; the. purple colour 
of the water in the day, and its shining appearance in 
the night, give certain indication of their approach. 
Then the a: according to settled and 
signs, direct the boats and vessels how to man 
their seins, and when their commands are Saoperty 

iven and obeyed, they have been known to take, in 
their nets, 100,000 pilchards at a draught. It is a com- 
mon saying of the ish fishermen, when talking of 
the plenard that it is the least fish in size, most in 
a , and greatest in gain, of any they take out of 

e sea. 

In Scotland there are no established fisheries for pil- 
chards; they sometimes appear among the herring 
shoals, ially in the Frith of Forth, where they are 
accounted a very insipid fish. See our article ENGLAND, 
Vol. TX. p. 138. 


Sect. VII. On the Salmon Fishery. 


Tue pilchard forms a distinct species in the genus 
(G pllelaedne) There art severs] natutiste: Cos™ 


\ Iv order to-understand our account of this fishery, it’ ¢,) 
will be requisite to have w slight knowledge of the na~ fisheye 


bees gras of the salmon, (Salmo salar,) but as we 
have already given this in our article ANGLING, we 


shall not resume this subject eR rise 

- It is scarcely in the power of human skill to reduce 

the numbers, or extinguish the race of such fish as make 

the sea their only element. But this is not the case 

with fresh water, or rather fluviatile fishes, which being 

» con in narrow limits, are consequently within the 
easy reach of the avaricious contrivances of men, and 


too without their encountering either the toils or 
attendant upon the fisheries of the seas. In- 
Seed hed it not been for the restraining statutes re- 
specting the manner and times of catching them, the 
breed of salmon would, in all probability, have been 
ere now extirpated. 
of the genus Salmo are anadromous fishes, or 
such as alternately inhabit fresh and salt waters ; all of 
them, however, spawning in the heads of rivers, or in 
brooks rename I with them. After orming this 
fanction, they become lank and sickly. In this situation 
they make forthe sea, no doubt to recover from their 
shotten state. After remaining there for a few weeks, 
an irresistible impulse of nature hurries them agein 
to their native streams. To accomplish this object, they 
set all kinds of obstacles at defiance, and would rather 
~ in the attempt than deviate from their course. 
hey never spawn until they reach these shoals, and 
if obstructed or retarded in their ascent, they are often 
forced to drop their roes in the lower parts of rivers, 
but which, in that case, are never known to be either 
po er or covered by the milter. It has been re- 
that their periodical migrations are in part 
prompted by another circumstance. During their re- 
sidence in rivers, they are infested by parasitical 
insects, which are killed by the salt water; but in the 
sea are soon attacked es the lernea, which perishes 
in fresh.water. 

The importance of the salmon fishery to Scotland, in- 
duced the legislature, at an early period of our history, 
to enact various statutes, for the preservation and mul- 
tiplication of the breed, and for srolabeng all kinds of 
apparatus in their capture, which might tend to a di- 
minution of foo neepers, Such is 4 pit ofa 
laws respecting this v efishery. But within these 
thirty or fort Pak the existing laws have not been 
duly enf , and, of course, a great and sensible de- 
crease has taken place in all the waters of Scotland ; 
and, indeed, in many rivers in which they used former- 
ly to abound, ly one is now to be seen, as for ex- 
ample, in the Almond and Ericht in Perthshire, both 
branches of the Tay. In the upper parts of the Tweed, 
from Kelso to Drumelzier, there were formerly several 
established salmon fisheries, but these are.now entirel 
relinquished, from the small number of fish whi 
ascend to that part of the river. The cause of this 
scarcity is imputed to the modes of fishing with stage, 
toot nets, &c. at or near to the mouth of that river. 

Although we only mention these circumstances as 
coming within our immediate knowledge, we believe. 
pcg prangagce ped a Aug say al per’ 

» aS in the tributary streams of all inci- 
ities in Scotland. ice hie 

It has been contended by many of the lower proprie- 
tors upon our rivers and estuaries, that stake nets, and 
other such sweeping devices, do not lessen the breed of 
salmon ; that the Scotch acts of parliament are now in 
desuetude ; and even if they were still in force, that 
pre Lorninentes of eens nih arg tus, nor to 
the passage upwards, but to the 
waticn of the bavedens! i Goes-ot fends Cane, and te-the 
smoults, fry, or salmon seuse. 

The most material object, undoubtedly, in the propa~ 
and preservation of the salmon species, is to af- 
them a safe passage to their parent stream, that 


FISHERIES: 


bed which nature has ‘out to them as the safest Fisheries: 
8 ene 
spring. We have, t noticed, that, if S*!0" 
ae sabdhing tivepet, the own ] 
1s dered unprolific, their dropping it without 
porary ome sho eect el we y 4 
That our statutes have the of this passage 
egy rts ! cin Hx 
i. itory i use of 
cake! Rodham Oeste auenatente’ 4 


inmagaie,* a 
propagation should be neglected ; that is, a complete 
protection in their ascent to the spawning. ‘a 

As the law at stands, we con all modes 
in the this fish to be illegal, unless by an 
gling, by the net and cobble, or by the common seine, 
ef moderate and fixed dimensions. But to prevent all 
pooper tometer tah of the times with re« 

to the preservation on, we e 

ine thncetoomeneretahbehattearcaletah aa tepsilione 
effect, not only in settling such means as may render 
this fishery permanent and productive, but would pat 


laws for the conservancy of the Thames, yet'trespassés 
increased so much, anil the offences in g became 
so ,intricate ‘and destructive, that the city of London 
found it necessary and ient, in the 30th year of 
pate ape ch in another act of parlia~ 
ment, for the better regulating the fisheries in ri- 
ver, and in the waters of way. In pursuance of 
this statute, the lerd (Clark) in 1785 i 
a Set of rules, orders, and ordinances, penal- 
ties for a breach ofthe same ; and annexed to this pub- 
lication, are notes by the Lords Mansfield and Lough- 
Pree thee ordinances, now acted upon in the court 


following articles, being, as we think, not well 
to; hibt aheieGtvhnat Se cheatbnant 
the Scottish and i Snive de wiogandl saree 
pare et » Thar all wilawtl ul daeinads 
3 i is, ' nets » i and 
other abuses, offered to the p i ment ns he 
; * That no 
wuall thee flood. acted 
2. Item, That no shall lie or bend over 
net whatsoever 


kind of fish Sneed 
ming upwards, for the benefit 
Safealtisiter, coder pulley bf fedslag wootbapine 
d river, r 
Riaiileate Se cours toch in ba ho aah WA, 
$. Item, That no person shalt shoot, or place draw 
net, cod net, or other net or engine’in the said river 
Thames, to catch salmon with, or shall useany net or 
of Thames, 


* The Irish complain much of the decrease of salmon in their rivers; and Wakefield, in his Statistical Account of 1 2 oning 


the modes of 
ascent.” Vol. ii. p. 83. 


in some of their Gisherics, observes, that « flood are more injurious ebb’ weirs, as they catch the fish ix 
3 


Be wm bp ee Se ee 


li ae dent wit, 


ne pty Nth ding ee te 


Pm 


ie eke 


iL 


no person, betoreen the 10th day of 
September and the 25th day of January in every year, 
shall.fish in the said river of Thames, or watersof Med- 
way, for salmon, with any net or nets, engine or device; 


‘ or within that time take, kill, or d in the said ri- 


walasgerenaies atthe, casiaa te Si odinde 
ve ‘or every su ence. 
5. Item, That no person shall fish with any net, or 
lay or haul any mesh, ine, or device whatsoever in 
the said river or waters, from sun-setting on Saturday 

ight, until sun-rising on Monday ing, at any time 
of the year, under a penalty of forty shillings for every 

ce. 

18. Item, That no person shall bend any net by an- 
chors, or otherwise thwart the channel, or draw any 
other net, éngine, or device, into, upon, or near it; or 
use any net with any false or double bottom, cod, or 
, under the penalty of five pounds for every such 


- 20. Item, That no person shall fish, or attempt to 

take fish, with any sort of net in the night-time, or be- 

fore sun-rising, or after sun-setting. at any time in the 

in the said river Thames, between Richmond 

idge and the city of London’s mark stone above 

Stainesbridge, under a penalty of five pounds for every 
such offence. 


24, Item, That no salmon ht in the Thames or 
Medway, shall be exposed to 
‘six pounds, 


AT. Item, That no person shall put down at the mouth 


bee 


ing into the said river or waters, or at any mill or 
dtuige Githin the andl jorteion icti ; 


nalty of five pounds for every such offence. 
55. Deie, Sheeaib phoun anil have: ac , or 
fix up, drive down, or place, or cause to be fixed up, 
drove down, or placed in any part of the said river 
or waters of Medway, any wear, stank, 4 
eo silt ieatads che Bhd 7 en 
‘on aforesaid, u a penalty of five 

for every offence, in breach of any part of this order.” 

Such are the ordinances the salmon fish- 


the water bailiff, or his assistants, to ive notice of tres- 


passes, and the committing never escai 

unpunished. The above articles are not chtelly ser_24 

in order, as the intervening ones apply to other fish than 
e salmon 


It is much to be wished, that similar regulations 
saucted for the conservation of our rivers in Scotland 
That salmonhave c years greatly i f 
Sedigecd bs ey ae oa ee ich ve wil not 
tat this fishery wll fourah an Ndevie pe 1 modes 


their spaw unds be. y 
this purpose af ake, tok, and other eaten aoe 


FISHERIES.. 


365 
by particular grants now inherit or possessthem. Rights 
oF , held to be inconsistent with the common 
weal, have, in the cases of tithes and thirlage in Scot. 


of land, already been the subject of rh provisions, 


object of which was to remove the incumbrance on 
general prosperity, without injury to the owner. 
Per the pena cal expediency Uf this interposition 
are still more obvious with regard to rights of fishing, 
by modes injurious to the fishery at large ; for each pro« 
prietor of such rights has a direct interest in the benefit 
that might result from a judicial sale of these, because, 
after obtaining the value of his peculiar privilege, he 
would share in the increase of the general fishery. ° 

If any alteration should take place in the laws re« 
garding the capture of salmon, fence time, in Scotland 
termed close time, should be prolonged, and extended 
indiscriminately to all the riversin Britain ; thatis, be« 
ginning upon the first of August, and to continue until 
the end of January, or from Lammas till Candlemas day. 
This would prevent any interruption to salmon in 
month of August, when ‘heavy with milts and roes in 
making up to the head waters for'the p: of spawn- 
ing. It would also save many shotten from being 

en in December and January, when on their passage 
to the sea. 

There seems to be no general law respecting the fence 
months in the rivers of Scotland, all the fisheries com- 
monly commencing and ending at different times, ac- 
cording to various acts of parliament. In the Forth and 


Fisheries 
i 
Fiume. - 


pat 


Tay, the fisheries begin on the 11th of December, and . 


terminate on the 26th of A In the Tweed, they 
fish from the 11th of January to the 10th of October. In 
the north Esk in Kincardineshire, from Candlemas to 
Michaelmas. In the Dee and Don, from the 11th of 
December to the 19th of September. In the Spey, from 
the 30th of November to the 26th of August. 

We cannot accurately ascertain the periods of fishing 
in our other principal salmon rivers, which, beside the 
many tributary streams, are, the Clyde, Luce, South 
Esk in Forfarshire, Doveran, Ness, Beauly, Thurso, and 
the Annan, with others running into the Solway Frith. 

The chief rivers in England frequented by this fish, 
are, the Thames, Medway, Severn, Mersey, Trent, Dee, 
Ex, Usk, Wye, Lon, Weever, and Tyne. 

London is principally supplied with salmon from 
Scotland. When fresh, they are sent packed up with 
ice in boxes ; and those that are pickled in ‘kits, 
such as were first used in Newcastle for that 
Although the sums drawn in this country from the me. 
tropolis come to a very considerable annual amount, yet 
were proper regulations for this fishery established by 
law, and duly enforced, not only a increase in the 
trade would take place, but Scotland would be more 
abundantly provided in salmon for home consump- 
tion. 

For an account of the Wate Fisnery, see Wiatr 
Fisnery ; an account of the Pearr Fisaery, will be 
found in our article Ceyton, Vol. V. p. 700 ; and of the 
Ancnovy Fisuery under our article Ancuovy,  -See 
also IneLaAND. (A. D.) 

FISHES, Exvecrricar. See Execrricitry Index, 

FISHING. See Aneuina. 

EISTULA. See Surcery. 

FIUME, or St Vert, is a sea port town of Istria. It 
is situated on the Bay of Fiume, in the Gulf of Ve- 
nice, at the mouth of the Fiumara ‘or Reka, at the ¢om- 


mencement of a narrow valley, abounding in wines and 
excellent fruits. The town ts j ly built, and con- 
tains several good public buildings. The churches are 


. 1x. 
and L. F. Cassa’s Travels in Istria and 
) 


IXED Sovunn of M. Sauveur. About the begin- 
ning of the oe century, the author above named took 


denominated the fii 
just 100 complete vibrations in one second of 
time. Now the tenor cliff C being a minor tenth (,f,) 
above this A, we have 1200+5=240 for the vibra- 
-tions of this C, which being also the result of several 
modern si eg on this subject, (see our article 
Concert Pircn,) we have always used this pitch in 
calculating vibrations and beats in our work. 

M. Sauveur also proposed another fixed sound or 
pitch, which has since been adopted by Dr Thomas 
Young, and some other writers, in which an imaginary 
C, eight octaves below the tenor cliff C, should make 

ly one vibration per second ; and consequently the 
latter would make 256 vibrations, which is to 240 as 
-16: 15, shewing that the former pitch is just a major 
itone higher than the latter one in present use ; and 
that for the mere purpose of simplicity of description, 
_an erroneous idea of the actual pitch has thus been con- 
veyed to the student, but which future writers may 
.avoid, by representing the fixed sound 1 per sound, as 
belonging to Dp, eight octaves below that, which is the 
next above the tenor-cliff C. 

FLAME. See Cuemistry. 

FLAMSTEAD, Jonny, a celebrated astronomer, was 
county of Derby, on the'T9th of August 1646, though 
county on 1 A t 1646, althou, 
others maintain that he was born in the town of Derby. 
The registers of both of these parishes were examined 
in order to ascertain this point, but his birth does not 
seem to have been registered, probably on account of 
the commotions which at that time agitated England. 
His father resided at Derby, and he received his classi- 
cal education at the free school of that place. At the 
age of 14, a severe illness obliged his friends to take him 
home, where the accidental perusal of Sacrobosco’s tres 
tise De Sphera inspired him with a passion for astrono- 
my. Bymeansof the Caroline tables, published by Street, 
he was instructed in the method of antag - eclipses, 
and the of the planets, One of hi bo Bc iid 
of an eclipse, procured him the friendship of Mr Ema- 
nuel Halton, residing at Wingfield manor, who was 
well acquainted with the mathematics, and who sup- 

astronomical 


plied young Flamstead with the best, 

works then extant, among which were Riccioli’s Alma- 
gestum Novum, and Kepler's. ine Tables. With 
these aids he made rapid advances in the knowledge of 


Brou r, : 
titled, “An Account of such of the 
lestial Phenomena I oat al 167 
cuous in the ish Horizon.” 


. 


purchased . 
lescopes, a micrometer, and several other instruments 
with which he had not been provided. After leaving 
London, he entered himself a student of Jems 
Cambridge, where he became acquainted with Dr Barrow 
and Sir Isaac Newton. Ass soon as he returned to Derby, 
he resumed his astronomical studies, In 1671, sane 
to the Royal Society calculations of the appulses of 
moon to several fixed stars, for the year 1672; and about 
the end of the same year, he transmitted another com- 
munication, containing his observations on the ans@ of 


the planet Saturn, wae Sieh Selene the largest of 
nm th 


which was fourteen feet long, same year, 
observed, bah gl rem gin 2 ed to th 
recedin, » tive position of prin- 
, stamp inn the iade eel taornned ae : 
cultation by the moon in the subse tient. year, In 
1673, he composed a treatise on true and appa. 
rent diameters of the ts, which Sir Isaac Newton 
employed in the 4th book of the WM bal When he 
was in London in 1674, Sir Jonas More having inform- 
ed him, that a true account of the tides would be acce 
table to the king ; he composed a small emeéria fon Bis 
snajeety’s Be Me likewise recomn enced Dimanite 
e royal favour, by presenting to his Majesty a pair of 
becacoeteas with the method of ing them. i 


resolved to enter the church, Mr Flamstead was 
ed by Bishop Gunning in 1675, but several years | 
sed before he ined any preferment. Th 


was prevailed upon, in 1676, to found the royal « 7 
was p) ipon a led 


tered 
stead directed almost the whale of his attention to prac- 
tical astronomy. By means of the best instruments of 
the lunar motions with grea 

fe Co o the wishes of editi 

ore, . Contrary to wishes amste ait 
of his Nai de was published in 1712, by eee 
in one volume folio; but as. he would never acknow- 
ledge this work as his own, he a edition 


of it, but before its « piecing ey the 73d year of 


on the 31st of De 
age. ; 2 dA tip : 4 
Mr. Flamstend wan scimilted smsemaber of the: Pia 


BVM yt a ee 


FLA 


Society on the 13th of February 1678, and he contri- 
to the transactions of that learned body a great 


iety of valuable papé His celebrity, however, is 
iefly founded on Historia Celestis Britannica, a 
work in three volumes folio, which was published by 


his widow in 1725. See Astronomy, vol. ii. p. 599. 


Flamstead is represented by his biographers as of a 
morose and unsociable dis 6 pea having been 
on bad terms with most of his contemporaries. ‘ From 
some of his letters,” says Dr Thomson, (History of the 
Royal Society, p. 335,) “ it eyen appears that he com- 
plained of Sir Isaac Newton as unreasonable in his de- 
mands of observations. Dr Halley, in the preface of 
the Historia Celestis Britannica, draws rather an unfa- 
vourable picture of the disposition of Flamstead ; and I 
find, from one of Sir Hans Sloane’s MSS. in the Bri- 
tish Museum, that, in the year 1710, he was expelled 
the Royal Society, because he refused to pay his an- 
nual contribution.” (0) 

FLANDERS, the name of a maritime province in 
the Netherlands. It was formerly divided into Aus- 
trian, French, and Dutch Flanders. It now belongs to 
Ho.vanp and France, which see. 

. FLAT, in Music, ()), or flattened intervals, are such 
as are depressed or lessened a degree of the scale, a 
chromatic semitone, or Fincer-Key Interval (see that 
article.) As it ha , with the Numerals, 1, I, 2, II, 
3, ITL, &c. of the ic scale, that the major and minor 
of the same Numerat (see that article, ) are not at the 
same invariable distance from each other; so the 
of the literals, Dp, Ep, Fp, &c. are not at one inya- 
riable distance from their naturals D, E, F, &c. al- 
in tempered scales this is obliged to be the case. 
Mr has correctly explained these matters, in his 
«« Essay on perfect Intonation ;’ but it may be proper 
pri) iad ical coker b ee 
ta incongruities yy enumera~ 
é. Be Ds Bases of his MS. in the 
LAT, , in some parts i . in 
is pigh Sacg Royal Institution, is =S, or 57 2+4f+4 


m. 
r ok nat double, of Liston, is invariably $+ /, or 83 4 
: Tm, - 
; LAT, double, ()p), of Chambers and Overend ; some- 
, times 2 P, or 116242 f+410m, ; at others, P+S, or 
105 242 ay. a 
Frat, of Liston, to the notes D, G, B, or C, is = S, 
or 47 &+4+f+44m; and to the notes E, F, or A, is=J, 
? or 36 &4f4-3 m, the second flat of any note being al- 
‘ ways the reverse of its first one. 
’ tat, of Marsh, = 3, or 36 >4+f43 m. 
’ . Frat, of Maxwell, = 5, or 47 5 +f 43 m. 
Frat, of Overend, (and Dr Calleot, Mus. Gram. 
: ist ed. p. 112), = P, or 58 = 4+ f + 5m; this corre- 
7 sponds with perfect fifths, See the theorems below. 
Fat, of some writers, = L, or 46 2 4-f44 m. 
¥ , Brats or Scales, is the 7 lim- 
4 ma ith, which, according to Mr Farey’s 
. theorems, Phil. ay. ap aa Xxxix. p. 44, is =58>-+-f+. 
5m—seven times temperament of the Vth: Or, 
=38.75196562 + f+ 3m + seven-fourths of the tempe- 
rament of the I1Id: Or, =32.3228500 = 4f42m4 


se irds of the tem of the VIth. 

hence we see, by way of that in the 
iy a? where the tem: of the I1Ird 
=0, the flat is =38.7519656z +f4 3m, 
for obtaining the of the Isotonic 


: 
| 


=P—ljc:— 
either use the | 


, we may 
temperament of the Vth, 1.0006552=, of 
the Ilfrd, 7,0052416z, or of the VIth, 8.0058968z, 


867 


FLE 


and either of the above theorems will give 51.0032762 _ Flax, 
+f-+4m, being ,,VIII :—and, in. the system where Flechier. 
the major sixths are perfect, the flat is =P—2}c.. (¢) 

FLAX. See Acricutture, Vol. I. p. 317. 

FLECHIER, Esprit, bishop of Nismes, an eminent 
French ecclesiastic, was born at Pernes,.a small town 
near Carpentras, on the 10th of June 1632, of obscure but 
respectable parents. He was educated at Tarascon, in 
a college possessed by the congregation formerly known 
in France under the name of the Doctrinaires, or fa- 
thers of the Christian doctrine, of which his maternal 
uncle was, at that time, general. At the of fifteen, 
having finished his studies, he caployas imself, for 
some years, in ing the Jdel/es lettres, in the same 
college. Some time after he pepe to Paris, and 
having determined to fix his residence in that city, he 
accepted employment in a parish, and afterwards un- 
dertook ‘the sea of the “mn. of M. Lefebvre ee 
Caumartin. From this period, his reputation rapidly 
increased, in consequence of the discourses which he 
delivered on different festivals of the church ; and his 
celebrity procured him admission into the Academy, in 
the year 1673. He had the honour of preaching before 
Louis XIV. on Advent, 1682. 

For his preferment, and the many favours he received 


from the king, Flechier was principally indebted to the 
active patr and friendship of the Duke of Mon-~ 
taussier, who already for him two. bene-~ 


fices, and the abbacy of St Severin, besides the office 
of almoner to the dauphiness ; when, in the year 1685, 
he was selected as one of a mission, which was destined 
to bring back into the bosom of the church, the Pro- 
testants of Poitou and Brittany, of which mission Fe-~ 
nelon was the chief. On his return, he was appointed 
to the bishopric of Lavaur, which he held for two years, 
and was then translated to the more lucrative see of 
Nismes. The duties of this charge, however, were 
much more troublesome than those of the former, on 
account of the great number of Calvinists who were then 
in open revolt, or ready to break out, against whom the 
impolitic and disastrous edict, revoking that of Nantes, 
was Bgrously executed. In this difficult situation, the 
high of Flechier became eminently conspicu- 
ous. By his mildness, moderation, and persuasive ad« 
dress, he contributed to assuage the sangui zeal of 
the Catholics ; his humane virtues concili the good 
will of all parties, and he received unequivocal testimo~ 
nies of regard even from the Calvinists, amidst the hora 
AWwhe oe aa 8 ee rat i ngth appeased, hi 
en les were at le; ap) , he was 
enabled to devote himself, without obstruction, to the 
exercise of a zealous and active benevolence. There 
was not a single charitable institution at Nismes, which 
was not either founded by him, or indebted to his libe- 
rality for support. His favours were indiscriminately 
conferred upon unfortunate persons of all descriptions, 
without regard to religious opinions ; and in the disas- 
trous winter of 1709, his charity was only limited by 
the total expenditure of his funds. When some one, 
upon that occasion, represented to him the le 
consequences which might ensue to himself from such 
profuse liberality, he. answered, “ What you say is, 
haps, very true ; but are we bi for nothing ?” 
e€ was as much the enemy of su tion and fanati-« 
cism, as he was zealous for the maintenance of pure re- 
ligion ; and he laboured with ardour and efficacy to re- 
form and instruct his clergy, and to enlighten and re- 
lieve the people from that blind ignorance and creduli- 
ty, which are often abused for the purpose of mislead~ 


Plechier, i 


Plensbourg. 
—— 


story of the Nun of Nis- 
, which furnished the subject of a drama to an 
esteemed French author of later times, bearg strong tes- 
cower saee enlightened humanity, and to the sensi- 
Amidst the manifold and important duties of his 
charge, Flechier did not entirely the cultivation 
of letters, to which eee owed his celebrity and 
his elevation, The y, of Nismes, which had 
been founded before his time, was indebted to him for 
a new existence, and, among other advantages, for that 
of being affiliated with the French academy. To the 
latest period of his life, he enjoyed a vigorous state 
of health, a blessing which resulted in a great mea- 
sure from his simple and moderate habits, and the equa- 
lity of his temper. He died on the 16th of February 
710, at the age of 78. : 

The moral character of Flechier is sufficient] — 
dated by the preceding narrative. As an author, his 
i rests prindeally - his Oraisons pipet a 
which, although inferior, aps, in point of genius 
and true to thote of Bossuet, are be pre mri 
an elegance and brilliancy of expression, in an af- 
fecting strain of Christian piety, which have procured 
them a considerable of admiration, and given 
them a place among the classical actions of the 
French divines, His style is remarkably polished ; even 
in his familiar letters, and notes written upon ordinary 
occasions, his language had a finished correctness, which, 
in any other person might be taken for the effect of la- 
bour and affectation ; but which, in him, resulted from 
a profound study of the delicacies of the French tongue, 
and a habit which he had acquired of constantly Mens | 

with the utmost attention to propriety and elegance 

ion. The complete works of ier were 

at Nismes, in ten volumes 8vo, in 1782. Ae 
FLENSBOURG is the name of a at town of 
Denmark, situated on the eastern coast of the duchy of 
Sleswick, and though not the capital, is the most opu- 
lent and important place in the duchy. The streets are 
rather narrow, and the houses, though not so neat and 
clean as those of Sleswick, are constructed in a more 
substantial and durable manner. Like that town, it 
consists a of one very long street. The back 
of this street looks towards the harbour, and on that 
side each house has a garden, an from the water 
by an ble promenade. On the right is the har- 
bour, filled with vessels, and on the left are the gardens, 
each of which has a door opening into the promenade. 
Kuttner informs us, that the harbour is safe and conve- 
nient, and was full of ships when he'saw it, It is nar- 
row close to the town, but the whole bay, called Flens- 
bourg Wisk, is 18 miles long, and may be led as 
aha , as it has a sufficient sm large vessels, 
= is sheltered from every wind by the surrounding 
The trade of this town has been important since 
the midtdle of the last century. Te fs carried on princi- 
pally with Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, and con- 
sists of brandy, grain, skins, provisions, wines, and 
stuffs. The wines and stuffs are brought from France, 
England, Spain, and America. The inhabitants trade 
elso with Iceland, Greenland, and Finland. “The num- 
ber of commercial houses is from 120 to130. The fol- 

lowing is a list of the vessels belonging to the town. 


Number of vessels. 
1780, . . 184 
1783, . 200° 
1788, 218 
1797, 257 


868 


FLE 


In 1797, the number of sailors waé 1597. ‘There are Fletchen 


no fewer than 200 establishments for manufacturing and 
distilling brandy, and these have served, at the same 
time, to fatten 4000 head of cattle, and as many swine. 
The town also contains five refineries of sugar, 40 ma- 
nufactories of tobacco, and several tanneries. The po- 
sition of the town, to trigonometrical obser- 
vations, is,-East . 9° 27' 40", and North Lat. 54° 
47’ 18". See Kuttner’s Travels through hk, Swes 
den, &e. Lett. 1.; and Catteau Calleville, de 
la Mer Baltique, tom. ii. p. 325, _(w) 
FLETCHER, Anprew, of Salton, in East Lothian, 
was a statesman and a patriot of the highest order ; and 
though Scotland, his native land, was the chief object 
of his exertions, yet, wherever the love of country and 
of liberty prevails, he deserves to be remem with 
res and gratitude. His powers, too, were called 
forth at a period of the greatest importance in the Bri- 
tish annals. His paternal grandfather, whose Christian 
name he bore, was one of the fifteen Ju of the Court 
of Session, by the style of Lord Innerpeffer. His fa- 
ther was Sir Robert Fletcher of Salton and I 3 
and his mother, whose name was Catharine, daughter 
of Sir Robert Bruce of Clackmannan, derived her de-« 
scent from the royal and truly illustrious race of Brace. 
Andrew Fletcher. was the son of this i 
and.was born in the year 1653, in some sketet 
of his life the date of his birth is stated to be 1650. 
The celebrated and excellent Gilbert Burnet was but 
10 years older than young Fletcher ; and, as Sir Robert 
Fleteher - ted him to the rectorship of eH 
which he filled with most exem fidelity from 1 
to 1669, Andrew enjoyed the rare advantage of having 
his principles f _and his mind cultivated, by Dr 
Burnet, to whom his father, at his death, wisely con- 
signed the eare of his son. WT Ving Sore 
Gifted by nature with uncommon powers, it is not 
surprising that, under such a preceptor, he made rapid 


? 


progress in classical 4 . 
and literature. His hereditary love of liberty, 
connected with his indignation at the nical pro+ 
ceedings which marked the conduct of the administra~ 


tion of Charles the Second after the restoration of that 
unprincipled king, gave an unfavourable bias to his 
temper, and-seems eyen to have made hit x 
union of the oars ps soosen and En which 
was-so essentially conducive to peace and prosperi« i 
ty of oe Ceara ee ae ee 
Having: ified himself, e deep and sos 
lid foundton hich had don: told bysBoeneeatenas 
other instructors, for receiving i nit, « < 
acon dheredhapiot-tioh total ieomaiiia tal ean ol for 
some time on the Continent, and was, soon after his 
return, elected to t East Lothian in the Scot« 
tish parliament, which consisted only of a house: 
While James, Duke of York, acted as lord high ecom- 
missioner in Scotland, Fletcher distinguished. himself 
ition to the mea« 


guished preacher, and occasionally 


of King Charles, of whose. personal and political \p 
fli afterwards became the steady Sppkaelt: Tet. 
cher by his advice went to Holland, and was soon after 


declared an outlaw in Scotland, and his estate confis« 


_——~ 


aly tere 


- 


; 


——————— a 


FLETCHER. 369 


Fletchers cated. In the United Provinces he and: many,.of the 
—— : 


friends. of religion and liberty found an asylum. 
Me returned to, England in 1683, with bis friend and 
. countryman Robert Baillie of Jerviswood, who, in the 
following year, died on a scaffold at. Edinburgh, for ha- 
or connived at the expedition under the 


Duke of Monmouth, and the unfortunate-Earl of Ar-- 


gyle. It is recorded to.the honour of this virtuous 
man, that though he was offered his. life. on condition. 
of revealing what he knew of Fletcher’s connection 
with this fatal enterprise, he nobly rejected: the propo- 
sal, and died, as he had lived, the friend of religious 
and civil liberty. 

As to Fletcher, it appears that he acted a still more 
important part on that occasion than his friend; not 
are being a statesman, but having great knowledge in 
military affairs, he actually bore arms in that part of 
the expedition which landed in England, and served 
under Monmouth ; but finding that, contrary to,hisen- 

, that rash leader caused himself to be. pro- 

ned king without the choice and consent of the 
dple, and without any of those wise limitations which 
letcher considered necessary, he quitted his standard, 
and concealed himself till he f an opportunity of 
returning to the Continent. It is stated, that while he 
had the command of a party in this expedition, he kill- 
ed the ri hed of Lynn, in a dispute which arose about 
a horse belonging to that gentleman, which had been 
pressed into the service by histroops. It has even been 
said, that this event rendered him so unpopular in the 
little army, that it was deemed advisable for him to re- 
tire. Fletcher himself, however, complained of the 
injustice which had been done him in the account 

of that transaction; and, in his own account of his 
conduct on this occasion, which he afterwards gave to 
the Earl Mareschal of Scotland, he utterly denied that 
it had any thing to do with his leaving Monmouth; in 
_of which he stated, that he i at et with 

him till the proclamation above alluded to was made at 
Taunton, which Fletcher regarding as a violation of 
pride ta, Ooms and of his duty to the nation, 
brag all farther engagement to serve un- 


‘The vessel in which Fletcher made his escape, was 
bound for Spain. ,Information having, by some un- 
means, reached the ish minister at Madrid, 

of his arrival, he applied to the Spanish government, 
who caused him to be apprehended and put in prison, 
in order to his being transmitted rity Foon ut he 
escaped in a manner so extraordinary, that if it had not 


+ 


sed many curious books, which the 


journey, he met with several singular and pr 
deliverances, which he used to recount to his friends 
VOL. 1X. PART 1. ; 


ial, ~ her body, in case 4 


with pleasing and: pious emotion, regarding .them. ag . Fletchex. 
Pp s + pl : 3» reg s 


proofs of the special protection of heaven, _ eT 

We next find him serving as a volunteer in the Hun- 
garian war under the Duke of Lorrain. Meanwhile he 
had not been an inattentive observer of the signs of the 
times in his native land; but, having availed himself 
of such opportunities as occurred, of learning what was 
going on at home and in Holland, he gave up his _pro- 
spects of military fame and promotion,, and joined the 
band of exiles and patriots from Britain, who were pre- 
paring at the Hague for the execution of the grand en- 
terprize on which t the liberties of his country.were sus- 
pended. Having declined to accept James the Seyenth’s 
act of indemnity, under which several persons of dis- 
tinction had recovered. their estates and honours, he 
came over with the Prince of Orange in 1633, along 
with Bishop Burnet,,Sir Patrick Hume, &c. The suc- 
cess of this grand. effort is detailed in its proper place. 
At present, we haye todo with Fletcher, who, whilst 
in Holland, asserted the rights and liberties of Scotland 
previous to the Revolution, against William, Prince of 
Orange, with a firmness and unbending zeal’ which 
made him appear as desirous of giving the crown with- 
out the sceptre, and prevented him from being a fa- 
vourite of the prince. 

In the Convention Parliament which met in Scotland 
after the Revolution, he was.a strenuous advocate for 
popular freedom and limitations ; and it isa cir« 

‘cumstance highly honourable to him, that, except re- 
gaining possession of his family-estate, which happen- 
ed as a matter of course, he never seems to have enjoy- 
ed or desired any office, emolument, or pension, what- 
ever. “ Non sibi sed yparrie’s was the noble principle 
on which he acted.. King William re and fear- 
ed him; but finding him “ too fond of the right,. to 
pursue the expedient,” did not.confide in him... - 

In Fletcher's Political Works, which were. published 
in one 8vo. volume in 1737, we find seventeen speeches 
that had been delivered by him in the Scottish parlia- 
ment, most of them.about the year 1703; and all ex- 
cept three on the great questions which then agitated 
the nation, relative to the settlement of the Scottish 
crown, in the event of the death of Queen Anne with- 
out issue. In, these. speeches, which are certainly a 
great historical and literary curiosity, he advocates with 
great boldness the cause of popular right against royal 
privilege ; laments the degen of the nobility and 
people from. the high spirit of their ancestors, and re- 

them for their servility to England, He 

ught in and supported a bill entitled “ Act for the 
security of the Kingdom,” which, had it passed, would 
have lodged.the whole executive power in, the hands of 
the parliament, and rendered the king a mere puppet 
to. be shewn at a procession. Against this alarmmg 


. project, the Queen’s commissioner exerted all his influ. 


ence, and even si, that as, without the touch of 

the royal wh yee officially given to the act, as the Scot- 
tish mode. of, ing the royal assent, it would not 
have the force of a law; so that assent must be with. 
held, even if the scheme should obtain. the sanction of 
liament... Finding this could not be carried into a 
w, he formally moved, that “ the rmcpneed limitations 
should, be declared by a resolution of the House of Par« 
liament, to be the conditions upon which the nation 
will receive a successor to the crown.of this realm, after 
the decease Sogn) YN ie ate and failing heirs of 
e said successor shall be also king or 
queen. of England.” (Fletcher's Political Works, 

Sa 


FLETCHER. 


we can 


370 
hn sears II. and IV.) Even in the present age 


a 
of the power of judice over the wisest and 


were in truth liberal and tolerant in their domestic 
foreign policy, we could with less difficulty have 


is 
tion concerning a right regulation of governme 

good of mankind, &c. 1703,” In the re- 
port of the characters and di , he shews consider- 
able dramatic skill ; and in his own part of the scene, 
he di $a of politeness and address superior 
to any thing of this ki . ou a his parliamen- 
tary speeches. Thoug’ etcher did not succeed to 
the extent that he desired, he laid his country under 
great obligations, by the modified « Act of Security,” 
which was eventually , and by the many wise and 
salutary provisions which he caused to be connected with 
the measure. One hundred and eight years have now 
elapsed since this most important act of union was 
adopted ; and the ive improvement and happi- 
papecngl bit yh trom bu mregenie st ore 


ven, in which, 
ri Se Rooted pees oe sven 8: snow i 
picture of its e ith i d 

evil consequences. Sse gergro 


an instance of tory 


he had a seat in the parliament of Great Britain ; 
that the advanced period of his life, and his dissatisfac- 


tion wi aa ae a lead- 
ing part in the del ions of that . “He 
died in London in the 


talents, great courage, integrity, generosity, and tempe- 
rance. On the of his tetentiolia as a bate. 
the exertions ings of his life form best 
commentary. He was a most elegant scholar, and an 

His speeches are remarkable for 


i orator. 
Son ilamee and energy, and form, by their brevity, © 
a 


iking contrast to the wordy eloquence of the pre- 
sent day. His Phe = geiseenen phe med of 
»” origi ublished in i ; 

et which epics in an English dress in the 12mo 
and ound acquaintance with the interest, : 
oud tovatelions of the continental states, as at 
Great Britain, and shews him to have been deeply ac- 
quainted with the doctrine of the balance of power, 
which has since been the theme of so much discussion, 


and the cause of so much strife the philosophers, 
politicians, and warriors of E His “ Discourse 
on the establishment of a nati militia,” is learned 
and ingenious, but too Utopian to admit of a practical 
application. _ His « Two Di on the affairs of 
Scotland,” contain many curious views of the state of 


society at the time when they were written. On one’ 
topic only, we must offer a few remarks. These Dis- 
courses were written in 1693, when, in consequence of 


some years of barrenness, a scarcity, or rather a famine, 
existed through the land, and occasioned the most 


se- 
vere sufferings to the lower classes. The author A 


clares, that besides those who were scantily i : 
: 
sin Scot. — 


for out of the church boxes, there were at 
when he wrote, not less than 200,000 person 
land begging from door to door. And though,” he 
observes, “ the number of them be ps double 
to what it was formerly, by reason of this present dis- 
tress, yet in all time there have been about 100,000 of 
those vagabonds, who have lived without any regarc 
either to the laws of the land, or even to those of God 
and nature.” He tells us also, that when he considers 
the many excellent laws enacted by marae 
for setting the poor to work, particularly made in 
the reign of James VI. contrasted with their utter in- 


utility ; when he considered farther, that all the other 
' nations in Europe, Holland alone H is 
under a similar pressure, he was led to i 


neither the cause nor the remedy of the evil 


diseovered. As no such evil had been complained of’ — 
ot ee ee - 


bition of princes, that he icing all’ those” “ 
persons and their posterity Socauvery, by a solemn act: ~~ 


inted at Glasgow in 1749, displays an ample 


FLINTSHIRE. 371 


_ Flintshire. of the legi , that on the one hand they might be cay Maaco Oe Teper ony Sat a Flintshire. 
—\— 


ui 


to work, and on the other might be insured Vale of Clywd; from the banks of the Dee, the land ““Y"" 
of the necessaries of life. A more extraordinary reme- ee a ridge of hills, which run for a con- 
dy for a public evil, all circumstances considered, was siderable way parallel to that river. The Vale of Mold, 
surely devised ; and though he guards the pro- in the southern part of the county, is uncommonly 
plan ops Sree Sek aye leer yer Caeaeette Finest reer alone Ata 8 amg 
oppression, ui! umane tions, we to Flintshire; the city of St ing situ-° 
4 } ated on the river Clywd, in se centre of it. Ke this 

remedy could hardly have occurred toa thinking mind. place, the vale is between four and five miles broad.. 


The evil has since disappeared, in consequence, The low part of Flintshire consists, for the most Soil. 
chiefly, ee he provision for public instruction part, of a — or loamy soil: whereas, the soil of 
in the of 1 i seal taaneliey, made by an _ the hills is lighter, and much more barren. The rivers Rivers. 


cher’s discourse was written, viz. in 1696. We regret Oe ere as pocesed, per auscribed erie na 
that the accounts of this excellent man are so head of this county. e Wheeler rises near Caerwys, 
and scanty ; and we consider a good account of his life amarket-town near the middle of the county; its course 
and writings as an important desideratum in the litera- 
ture of our native country. (/) bigh. The Sevion rises to the north of 
FLINTSHIRE, is a maritime , and the most Caerwys; its course is also west, and it falls into the 
northern in North Wales, It consists of a narrow slip of Clywd a few miles to the north-west of St Asaph. The 
land, that runs from north-wést to south-east ; is Allen rises a few miles to the south of Ruthin, in Den- 
soe ee Seen US Wor be ERY bighshire : at first, its course is to the north ; it next 
. north-east winds to the east ; and falls into the Dee to the north 
and east ; and by Denbighshire on the south and west. of Wrexham in Denbighshire. Near the town of Mold, 
At the distance of some miles from the main body of this river sinks ‘under ground, and is lost for a short 
the Soe adh sarade! igpemarta the space. The climate of Flintshire partakes, though not Climate. 
ly s 


of Den ire, and n urrounded Pec ge A beet gut Swe donee Bead climate of 
by Shropshire and shi This ae oiggey | arin con- North Wales; being rather mild near the sea, but wet: 
sists of the hundred of Maelor . Maelawr,in the hilly parts are exposed to cold and sharp winds. 
the Welsh language, signifies a place of traffic, mart, or ‘Flintshire pees een eenee oe en are eee Agric. 
market. There were ly many districts so deno- an agricultural point of view. On the flat tract, in its ture. 
minated, near the marches or boundaries of the princi- n extremity, a considerable quantity of corn is 
pality, which were considered neutral ground, where grown, especially wheat, of which a deal is ex- 


trade was carried on, are aeeerta Renticns of Fine panes po narra pam bey 8 Pesan 

shire, therefore, was most probably neutral ground, county, is applied to uction of 
Phi ish, or as the Welsh even both corn and Flintshire it oie’ of the bewedi 

yet stile them, met the latter for na? goapieabrioaay counties of Wales. The cattle are of the common 
; ion of the iske of f - 


place.above 10 in much less. Its greatly discontinued. The low part of the county is 
circumference is 115 miles. Its area contains 309 square well-stocked with wood. 
miles, or 197,760 statute acres. It is divided into five The importance of Flintshire is derived almost en« Mines. 
hundreds, viz, Coleshill, which contains 4 parishes, 3 tirely from its mineral productions ; of these, the lead 
townships, and 1 3 Maelor, the disjoined hun- mines in the vicinity of Holywell are the most valu- 
dred i which contains 5 pari 1 able and curious. The entrance to one of the largest 
i i chapel pee: hhwetestr ter Rate Segbinnr: tal 
1 
3 


Hie 
hu 
re ; 
F 
g f 
z 
Hil 
[ 
i 


the canal are cut through shale 
: remainder, (700 yards), hard 

i . The veins of this mine are un ly rich, 
ph ; one the inci peenrtles himaennit ye besi ny By 
miners are usually employed in it. e t 
of ore is found abou race 
the same circuit with the latter dipping down gradually almost as low as the level. The 


. 


at 
ue 
) 
Z 
H 

s 

i 

: 

: 

; 


Z 


1 
ee : 
: 
] 
: 


aE 
en 
is 
uu 
HE 
lu 
ef 
if 
i 
i 
F 


the boroughs of Flint, Rhyddlan, O ects ronal 5 Bae tiny 
int, , Over- ing it ; and sev 
and Caergurley, including the inhabi- ounces of silver have been annually extracted in this 
tants of and Overton foreign, paying scot county, and sent to the manufactures of Sheffield and 
and lot, who amount to about 1000 voters, Flintshire Birmingham. The calamine is exported, and 
one half of the land-tax. partly used in the brass works near Holywell. In the 
is county is not nearly so uneven in its surface as south-eastern parts of the county, there are considerable 
ee iat et _The northern extremity, coal mines, from which the city of Chester is in a great 
the detached part, is mostly a level tract ; and measure supplied. Millstones are also found in Flint- 
seater portion is agreeably diversified with hill shire ; and some years. as they were sinking coal 
the Denbighshire side, the county is pits in, the parish of Mold, 5 WEE.O€ Week slate was 


GEIL PESETISFIELS 
deg it ecg kgs 
reat 
Bete: a ALE 
aH : fe 
TAAL) 
uF iz = ee 
- > : 
gut : 
sft 

af 


spun here is much , on account of the uni- 
texture and quality produced by the constant and 
force which this body of water exerts, dischar- 
about 21 tons in a minute from the spring head, 
never: ing, even in the severest winters. Near 
are considerable potteries, at which are nade 
large quantities of coarse earthen ware, much of which 
is to Ireland. 


Fs 


Political From the returns to the House of Commons in 1803, 


state. 


respecting the state of the , it appears that the 
money raised for their support in Flintshire that year 
amounted to £16,130: 7 : 83, whereas in 1783, 1784, 
and 1785, it averaged only £8085 : 9: 5, and in 1776 
it was only £4176: 10:8; the average rate in 1803 
was 5s. in the . No money appears to have 
been earned by the poor towards their own support. 
The number of persons relieved out of workhouses was 
1572, in workhouses'25. There were 18 friendly so- 


cieties, containing 3307 members. The number of 
children in the ls of industry was 62. 
From the returns under the property act, it appears, 


that in 1810, the annual value of property in this coun- 


ty, from houses, tithes, quarries, miines, &c. 
amounted to £148,732; and it is remarkable that there 
is no tithe free land in it. The amount of the incomes 
from trades was £44,371. 

In 1700, the ion of Flintshire was 19,500: 
in 1750, 29,700; im 1801, 41,000; and in 1811 there 
were, 7 

Inhabited 3) ene) 8,816 
\ Families in them, . . . . .-+. . 9,740 
“ Housesbuilding, 2 2 2. bi 

F uninhabited, . . . 155 


BSC he FLO 
Families em in agriculture, . 4,086” 
rag = oe naga eee fi 
All other families, . : cia 3 22,645 
Males, vo) «© eelhe ss Dee bad : 22,712 
Females, . Wee oe wie te er we 28, 
Total, . . ‘ a. 46,518 


The baptisms brought to account in the parish regi 
ter abstract, are four to each marriage: to every 31 of 
the lation, there appeared to be one baptism, and 
one burial to every 53, and one marriage to every 15% 
of the lation. 


At invasion of the Romans, Flintshire ‘was in- History. 


Venedotia, ly from the Veneti, in 
who, according to Cesar, uently visited. Britain, 
The Ordovices were the last of the British tribes con." 


quered ye Romans, On a marsh in the neighbour- 
hood of Rhyddlan, was fought, in 795, a battle 

hich the Liter were de- 
feated ; their prince, Carador, was slain, and the event 
was deemed so disastrous, that a plaintive tune, still 
se a in Wales, was composed on the occasion. 


much moment, ] ) 
east of St Asaph, is supposed to be the Varis of An- 
toninus: near this city, also, are the remains 
cular fortification; and near Hope; 
the county, a Roman hypocaust, ‘or hot-bath, was dis- 
covered some years ago. On Mostyn mountain, there 
isa stone pillar, with characters on it, hitherto not de- 
cabeesd . 

Print Town is a small town on the Dee, 


+ 


See Davies’ View of the Agriculture of North Wales; 
A. Aikin’s somes a Tour through North Wales; 
Bingley’s North Wales ; Evans’ Cambrian Itinerary ; 
Pennant’s Tour in Wales. (Ww. 8.) ha. 

FLOE:TZ Rocks. | See MineRALoGy. .. 
_ FLINTS. See Mineraroey. R 
“FLOATING Bopies. See Hypropywamics, and 
Surp-Bui.pinG, : Al ale : 

FLOOD. See Detuce. S ps 

FLORENCE, a celebrated city of eerie situated 


b A 


Aro, is the Arcadia of the Italian poets; and even 


Milton himself frequently alludes to the exquisite 
ties of its scenery. a 


“4 Ree 


eT eS Se a ee 


eyes! >. 


EE — 


—_ Ss —— 


—— —_ i» 
‘ 


i el 


FLORENCE. 


7s StPeter's a 


and 363 in 


‘Ite most remarkable feature, however, is the dome, 
which was raised under the directions of Philip Brunel- 
lesco, the mdst celebrated architect of the 15th 3 
The dimensions are within a few feet of the dome of. 


Peter’s ; and as it is prior to it in date by a cen- 
‘tury, and was always the of An- 
‘$s admiration, we may ‘con , that the of 

h Roman edifice was at least im part suggested the 
Florentine. But, ariaatedl tiamein oe ie of 
yon "ta Wore eats “S00 eneiade tae: 
, has consequently circular, 
Herm ne closed at there is a want of 

1 


at ee esi 1 Th . 
of Andrea Ugalin, of Pisa and Lorenzo Ghi- 


the great 


873 | 


berti, and were so highly admired by Michael Angelo, Florence: 
that he ealled them the’ Gates of oh mip Hee the “—"\—" 
rinci te of the baptistery are two columns of por-  ~ 

pe vo bik are. i dperitied the immense lanine 
with which the Pisans, in 1406, attempted to close up 
their harbour against the Florentines and Genoese, and 
which were afterwards brought to Florence as a trophy 
of victory. See Civiz Arenirecture, vol. vi. :p. 548, 
and Plate CLXXIII where we have given’a plan and 
vertical section of this church. 

The next, and indeed the only other church which 
deserves a particular description, is that of San Loren- 
zo inthe northern part of the aie This also was plan- 
ned by Brunellesco, ‘but is, in design and magni- 
ficence, inferior to the Duomo. It has, however, at- 
tained to high celebrity, from two buildings attached ‘to 
it; the none and the Medicean Chapel. * rhe first was 
one of the earliest works of Michael Angelo, and is de« 
corated with 7 statues by the same artist ; and although 
most of them are unfinished, yet the eye of the con- 
noisseur will easily discern in them, the genius and 
boldness of design, which so eminently characterize the 

ions of that great ‘sculptor. 
The chapel which adjoins the back of the church was. 
begun in 1604 by F and I. Grand Duke of Tusca- 
ny, who intended not only to have removed thither the: 
mausolea of his ancestors, but was in treaty to 
the holy sepulchre at Jerusalem. The plan of the 
building was every way worthy of the p e for which 
it was intended. “Its form is octagonal, its diameter 
94, and its elevation to the vault 200 feet. It is liter- 
oie with lapis aa jasper, onyx, &c. furnished 
with sarcophagi of , and supported by granite 
pilasters with aoitate of xthde; The HM peat 
these pi are of touchstone ; beneath is a subter- 
ranegs chapel, where the bodies, whose names om 
on i above, are to 5 ie 
Srdctfition of our staf, a group in white marble 
by John of Bologna, with a bless Miko by Michael 
Angelo, and St John by one of his” pupils, “ grace this 
dormitory of the dead, and preside over it with appros 
priate majesty. But, 
Nescia mens hominum fati sortisque future, 

before the magnificent monument intended for their 


‘reception was finished, the Medicean line has failed ; 


the work is now suspended ; and, if we may judge from 
the impoverished state of the country, and the agitation 
of the times, it isnot likely to be resumed for many 
years, if ever.” The Laurentian library, which is in 
the convent annexed to the church, is a collection of 
valuable manuscripts, first formed by Cosmo and Loren- 
zo di Medicis, and considerably increased by Leo X. 
and Clement VII. ‘Of these,  Aacatig several of the 
most valuable have been removed to Paris. * 

In the other churches of Florence, though not defi- 
cient in internal decoration, there is but little to in- 
terest the traveller, except the recollections which the 
tombs of the illustrious men, whose ashes they con-~ 
tain, are calculated toexcite. It is indeed impossible 
to pass by unnoticed the edifices where repose the re- 
mains of a Guicciardini or Machiavelli; of a Michael 
Angelo or Galileo. : 

The palaces of Florence are remarkable for a style of Palaces. 
architecture peculiar to themselves, to which the long 
civil wars in the 15th century between the Guelph an 
Ghibelline families first gave rise. The Palazzo Strozzi 
and the Palazzo Ricardi, the latter of which was built by 
¢ Cosmo de Medici, are curious specimens of 
this style. They are square, heavy, solid masses, whose 


Medicean 


Population. 


stories are 


Senne fee nae! Gh ne eae Des uired so 

a reputation as . 

wy ay teiredgram yh Pago PI gas wa 
rts 


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fF 
be 
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: 


fis 

eel 

SEog F. 
rs 


of icean princes and other contribu- 
gallery adorn the vestibule, and, like the tu- 

the place, seem to claim from the passing 
ler the homage due to their munificence. The 


A 


former, however, pee of the most celebrated now 

the galleries of the Louvre, and the hall of the 
enus de Medici is now a temple bereft of its 
divinity. Of those that remain, the most remarkable 
is the group of Niobe and her children ; it consists of 
16 figures, which are ly considered as models 
of the hi ion ; although it is a subject of de- 
bate among critics, whether this group be a copy, or 

iginal, which is ascribed by Pliny the to 
the chissel of Scopas or Praxiteles. 

A minute description, however, of this celebrated 
collection would exceed our limits ; and we must refer 
our readers for this and the account of the natural his- 
tory museum, to the Museum Florentinum, the Pano- 
rama of Florence, and similar publications, 

In 1782, Florence was calculated to contain about 
97,000 inhabitants ; if, however, in this, as well as other 
e it has followed the fate of the other Italian 
cities ; the long period of misery war which has 
er ensued, must have greatly diminished its popu- 

ion. 

As early as the 14th century, while the Venetians 
and Genoese were contending superiority in the 
Levant, Florence had ‘become powerful, and its citi- 
zens wealthy, by théir attention to commerce. As 
they were not at that time, however, possessed of a sea- 
port, their care and attention was principally directed 
to the improvement of their manufactures, and objects 
of industry. It from a contemporary 
historian, that the silks and cloths of Florence were the 
chief manufactures in the 14th century. ‘From their con- 


FLORENCE. 
their individual wealth, the Florentines were naturally = ~ 5 


of Europe, and 


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Europe fell into their hands ; 
collection and administration 
were even confided to their care. 
tunes which were acquired in these ways, 


: 

J 

i 
Free 
i 


we find Cosmo de Medici-endeavo ing to i 
his countrymen a share in the Indian trade, 
ried on b the Genoese and Venetians. In thi 


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ness of Florence fled with her liberty, and wi 
forsook the fertile plains and es of the Amo, 
the less highly favoured v of Britain, and 
frozen shores of the Baltic. 

The present trade of Florence consists entirely in 
sale of the productions of her own territory, and 
manufactures, &c. Of the former, the chief are 
raw silks, oil; and wines. Of the latter; the most ce- 
lebrated is the manufacture of silks, which still con- 


ze 


stuffs, commonly 
variety of other man 


rcelain has been introduced with great success into 


ritain by the late Mr W: iP 

It is di to ascertain with certainty the 
era of the foundation of Florence. It to have 
been a place used for markets and fairs by the Etrus- 
can inhabitants of the town of Fasule, (now Fiesolé, ) 
ee Velde eate cell cleoted for asap = 
mand the was 8 3 
and the first houses in Florence were the booths erect~ 


ed for the accommodation of traders. Under the go- 


vernment of Sylla, it became the seat of a Roman co- © 


lony. The walls of the new city were first traced ou 


oc 


name from the officer who had the charge of 
ment of the infant colony. 


by that dictator, and it is suresedl toneveensatea “ns 


t 


y. hee 
We find but little mention of it in hi ing the — 
Syl, till the later 


period that elapsed from the time of 
fers tee Raper i gif re inca teres neg 


from the beauty of its situation, and its conveni« 


ence for inland commerce, it must have greatly increa+ 
cod in papain and riches, At the time that it was 
during his war wi 
iniane FI Ri in 


ducts, a sure indication of the wealth and luxury of its 


inhabitants, ig Me 
Desegtne, rom sway of the Lombards in Italy it 


sighth, gentary. ra it was xy Charlemagne, 


ly ated the Lom~ 
a rat SE a 
ee a e 
during the anarchy oF thereigns off the dukes of Friuli” ‘ 
and the other soverei 


who successively assu- 
med the title king of Italy, and the subsequent disputes a 


Manufac- 
tures. 


History. 


entirely destroyed by Totila, king of the Goths, 


SE RR ee ne Pt tT eI ay - 


— + eS CP ta es 


Per te oF 


ghee we 


. ater 44, 


Florence. between the German 
—— 


‘ors and the bishops of Rome, 
like the other cities of Tuscany and Lombar- 


dence. 


History. dy, was gradually acquiring strength along with the 
se fl 


Exposed to sudden assaults of hordes of Saracens, 
Bulgarians, and other barbarous nations, against whom 
their lords were unable to assist them, the 
first step towards freedom was the right granted them 
of surrounding their city with walls and fortifications. 
It was not,, however, until the reign of Otho I. about 

the people were 
epee and esta- 
mun vernment. constitu- 

tion adopted by tha cteatioes, was a deliberative 


class of citizens. OF these there 
iginally four, elected by the four of the 
city. When it was increased to six divisions, two new 
consuls were also added, who were elected in the same 
manner, 


the Florentine s to have 
i y taken part rapt nmr ween the 
and especially in that of Otho 


ss a 
IV. and Innocent III. yet the internal 


suet tae wanet haniy 
standing these long continued dissensions, the republic 
seems not to have suffered either in point of popula- 
tion or wealth. The annalists of that peri of the 
of the city, of the erection of 


FLORENCE.. 


375 


d having forced the chiefs of both parties to si Florence. 
ani ving e Ss parti sign a 


‘treaty of : they added to the captain of the peo- 
ple a Podesta of a Guelph family in Milan. 
No sooner was the popular government established 
in Florence, than the citizens, animated by the strength 
had acquired, endeavoured to bring over the whole 
of Tuscany to their party. For an account, however, 
of the wars that ensued, and the subsequent history of 
Florence, ‘as connected with foreign transactions, we 
refer our readers to the article ITaty, confining our- 
selves at present to a brief sketch of the internal revo- 
lutions of the republic. 
In the year 1258, the Ghibellines attempting to re 
gain their ancient ascendancy, were, in their turn, ex- 
from Florence, and obliged to take refuge in 
jenna. By that republic they were not only received 
but protected, notwithstanding the threats and decla- 
ration of war by the Florentine Signory. The Ghi- 
bellines soon acquired a still more powerful protector, 
Manfred, king of Sicily, who, at the solicitation of Fa- 
rinata des Uberti, sent to their aid a small body of Ger 
pone a~ On the total defeat of these by the Flo- 
tines, Manfred, irritated at the disgrace, resolved to 
take a more active in the war, and immediately 
par garde ides infantry, into the state of 
Sienna, under command of Giordano d’Anglone. 
Alarmed at this new addition of strength to their ene« 
pee ered 
in ienese territory. But ¥ influ- 
enced by their rtinust of the nobles, a 


tle was fought on the 4th tember, 1 
Aperto, on the banks of the Arbia, where the Guel 
were completely defeated, with the loss of 10,000 kil+ 
led, "békididctunthahecds ‘daxiber of platens. The 
consequence of this defeat was a second expulsion 
of the principal Guelphs, who, with their families, 
were, by the orders of the people, exiled from Florence, 
nine days after the battle. 

At a diet of the Ghibelline states of TAseyy it was 
seriously proposed to destroy completely city of 
Florence, whose growi wer and inclination to the 

ite faction rendered it 


opposi so dangerous to its neigh« 
bours ; and this meeting with ap) 
from the Tuscan deputies, was nearly on, lad 


not the firniness and eloquence of Farinata des Uberti; 
whose abilities so much contributed to the victory, been 
successful in altering the opinions of the diet, and pre- 
serving the independence of his country. For six years 
the Ghibellines retained the sovereignty, by the assist- 
tance of a garrison of the king of Sicily’s soldiers com~ 
manded by Count Guido Novella. spirit of the 
people, however, was hostile, and the tyrannical ads 
ministration of Guido did not diminish their attach- 


thent to the pontifical faction. 
The defeat of Manfred at Grandella by Charles of 
Anjou, and his subsequent death, raised the spirits 


of the exiles ; and Count Guido, alarmed by an insur- 
rection of the le, having deserted ‘his. post, the 
Ger witcha aided by 800 French’ onder the etmaabie d of 
Guy de eo celebrated Earl of Lei-« 
cester), re-entered Florence on Easter day 1267, and 
again expelled their ancient antagonists. Their whole 
property was immediately conficated, and, after the loss 
‘sustained by the Guelphs was repaired, thrown into 2 
fund, under the administration of particular. magis- 


, at Monte: 


History. 


Florence, trates, destined. to 
y=" nance and increase of the Guelph party. 


FLO 87 


provide for the constant mainte-. 
portant add ee ‘ 
riod, also, an im ition was to the 
rentine constitution of four new councils, without the 
ion of which, the signory, could. not. deter- 
mine on any point of im ce. The tirst in order 
was. the “ Council of People,” isting. of an 
hundred citizens. Next, but on the same day, the 
council “ De Credenza” was consulted ; this consisted 
of 80 members, and in it the heads of. the seven prin- 
cipal trades had a right to a seat. From. both these 
councils, the watchful jealousy of the le excluded 
all nobles and Ghibellines. On the following day, the 
business was considered by the council of the Podesta 
and the general council, the former composed of 90 
members, indiscriminately chosen from the nobles and 
plebeians, besides the heads of the trades, and the lat- 
ter of 300 citizens of all. denominations. . The esta- 
blishment of these tended greatly to increase the influ- 
ence of the people. The number of citizens compo- 
sing them, and their continuing in office only one year; 
prevented them from having any peculiar interests.in- 
d ent of their constituents ; while the check they 
- on the magistracy was immediate and power- 


_ In the year 1279, by the zealous and _actiye inter- 
position of the Cardinal. Latino, legate and nephew 
to Pope Nicolas III. a was concluded between 
the Guelphs and Ghibellines ; to the latter were resto- 
red their fortunes and. estates, andthe right of partici- 
pation in the public offices. At the same, time, the 
pious endeavours of the Cardinal were successful in 
putting an end to a family feud between the Adimari 
and Donati, in which a considerable portion of the 
In 1282, the Florentines anew system of go- 
yernment, which continued until the downfal of the re- 
wablic.. This was a new signory, isting of six mem- 
who were styled priors of the arts and. of liberty, 

one being chosen from each of the incorporated pro- 
fessions, except that of the judges and notaries, These 
continued in office only two months; and, during that 
time, resided in the ic palace, which they were not 
allowed to quit. council of election consisted of 
Se senor going out of office, with the heads and 
s of the principal. professions, and certain others 
chosen by them from the different quarters of the city. 
No person could be re-elected in less than two years, 


men, although nominally members of the tion, 
from being ever elected priors. This, and the other 
laws, tending to the power of the nobles, were 


duced by Giano della Bella, who, though a noble, had 
more regard for the general liberties of his country; 


with various success, until the Neri, assisted by Charles 
of Valois, succeeded in expelling the Bianchi whe were 
ap forced to join with the Ghibellines, their:brethren 


ion of the emperor H i 
a taly in 1310, revived the: drooping pitt of 


6 FLO 

the imperial faction, while, from the distinguished 
Florence held among his opponents, it 
public a much hi place in the of the Italian 
states than it had hitherto held... In fact; after this 
riod, the history of Florence is so much involved in 
that of the revolutions of Italy, ‘that it’ becomes i 

sible even to narrate the. york in Sa Ad 
without entering largely into the general history of 
times ; and we must therefore close this article by again 
referring our readers to the articles Irary, Tuscany, 
Mepici, &e.  (.3-) 

FLORIDA,.a province in North:America; is bound- 
ed on the north by Georgia; on the east, by the At- 
lantie ; on the south, by the gulf of Mexico; and on 
the west, by the Mississippi, It extends between 500 
and 600 miles, from east to west; and. little more than 
100 from north to south, except at its easternypeninsula, 
where the breadth is nearly 400 miles. It 1s situated 
between 25° and 31° of North Latitude; and between 
80° and 92° of West Longitude. This country was first 
visited in 1497, by Sebastian Cabot, a Venetian ma- 
riner in 
was more ag 7 A ay vered. time? Ponce de 
Leon, a native in, in 1512. is navigator gi 
ing credit to an old tradition, that a fountain Sideloh 
the American continent, which had she eens of 
bestowing perpetual youth, fitted out a x pes Cte 
and bent his course tow the quarter where these 


ua de Flores; or, according to Herrera, from the ap- 
ce of the country, which was covered with 
owers, and the most beautiful blossoms., He landed on 
the coast ; and, taki ession of the soil in name 
of his Catholic Majesty, he erected a stene with an 


by Ferdinand de oe eas “officers: in 
ish service ; it cost the Spaniards ‘a lo 
and  Ccaahchetuetithepeeataaies tanmmoae 


ndered z Captain Davisy'at the head of of 
eers. In Senpaputliian tartans 


amin. 


the service of Henry VII: of England ; but History. 


*- , and t . 1 
but the Spaniards, hay- 


for the space of three months ; 
ing sent a.squadron to the relief of the garrison, he 


ive of a 
new Florida ; and, in 1740, an expedi- 
tion was fitted out St Augustine y Bs General 

re= 
ceived in of the intended attack, made such 
additions to the strength of the garrison, and adopted 


Fit 
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Hele 
ite 


FLORIDA. 


. Lake 


877 


The coast is deeply inaented with small gulfs and in- 
lets, and intersected with numerous rivers. Along the 
south coast are several islands, which are included in 
the province, but which are of little importance or uti- 
lity. The most remarkable are Cat Island, eight miles 


Florida. 
Islands. 


. east of St teas Bay, above six miles in-dengthy-and- 
i pars pl with immense quantities of shells; Ship Island, 
about ten miles south of Biloxy Bay, nine miles long, 


and two broad; Horn Island, about six miles farther 
east, very narrow, and about seventeen miles in length; 
Massacre Island, two miles east of the last mentioned, 
also very narrow, but nearly‘hine miles long; Dauphin 
Island, five miles farther east, six miles in ie , and 
about two in breadth ; Rose Island, a long and narrow 
sandy slip parallel to the coast, between Rose Bay and 
that of Pensacola; and the Tortugas, about ten in 
number, nearly opposite the most southern point of 
East Florida, covered with mangrove bushes, and ex~ 
tending ten or eleven miles from north-east to south- 
west. Some of these oe are mere sand, and none 
of them uce any thing better than s and pines. 
The oriteipal idind in the east coast 3s Aniaatintsy op- 
posite to the town of St Augustine, divided from the 
in length. by a narrow channel, and twenty-five miles 
in 

The rivers, which empty themselves into the Atlan- 
tic ocean, are St Mary’s, the common boundary be- 
tween Florida and Georgia, about a mile broad at its 
mouth ; St John’s river, rising in a marshy tract near 
the middle of the peninsula, and flowing gently north- 
ward, traverses several lakes, (the lowest of which, 
, is 20 miles long and 12 broad,) and falls 
into the sea about 40 miles south of the St Mary ; and 
Indian river, which runs from north to south, and falls 


Rivers. 


“into the sea about 60 miles south of Cape Cannaveral. 


Most of the rivers which fall into the Gulf of Mexico, 
have their source in the province of Georgia, and the 
most Seeathy of paces ate the Appalachicola, which di- 
vides East West Florida, and is composed of two 
streams, the Flint and the Chatohuthe, arising in the 
Ape mountains, and uniting on the confines of 
ida ; the Escambia, the source of which is unknown 
to E , and which empties itself into the bay of 
Pensacola; the Perdido, formerly the boun be- 
tween Louisiana and Florida, and falling into the sea 
four leagues west of Pensacola Bay ; the Mobile, which 
has its source in the country of the Chickasaws, and, 
he! pce seats hghena ta Tombeche, and 
which, reeei becomes navigable 
nearly 120 miles from its mouth; the P 
which is navi upwards of 150 miles, and which 
falls into the about 16 miles west from Mobile 
Bay ; the Pearl River, which originates in the Chaclaw 
territories, and is also navigable upwards of 150 miles ; 
and the Regolets, which is worthy of notice, chiefly as 
issuing from lake Ponchartrain,-which is 40 miles long 


and 34 braede 
Augustine, the capital of East Florida, and origi- 7, 
nally founded by the i about the year 1580, eg 


stands in 29° 45’ North Lat. on the coast of the Atlan- 
tic. It is built at the neck of a peninsula, in an oblong 
pa re " oa I fortified withrbestiong 
at t les. It is forti i i 

po Pir ass adi itch, and is also defended by a 
castle called Fort St John, well provided with ordi- 
nance. The river St Mark flows the harbour, 
and separates the town from the island Anastasia. The 
and south breakers, at the entrance, form two 

whore bars Have sight feet of water. Pensa~ 

B 


Phorda. 


General as- 


Climate. 


$78 

cola, the capital of West Florida, was regularly laid out 
by the English in 1765; and is sbout senile fa’) y 
of an oblong form, lying nearly parallel to the beach, 
and defended by a fort, which was built also by the 
English in 1775. In consequence of a low and sandy 
shore. only small sessala are able tapeoenee Peers? 
but the bay affords a commodious Pardew 
ships, which may ride there in security 
every er a Mobile, a at the sae ‘ ve) ri- 
ver of name, on a gently rising . is nearly a 
mile in length, and contain several good houses, whieh 
are chiefly built of brick, “with a r fortress also 
of brick, towards the lower end of the town. There 
are, besides, numerous forts and settlements, generally 
in the neighbourhood of Indian villages. The houses 
of Europeans are usually of brick, <a only of 
one story, but built on an extensive scale, having gene- 
rally three sides inclosing a large square area. The 
more ordinary habitations are formed of a strong cypress 
frame, which is filled with brick, and then plastered 
white, inside and out ; or sometimes lathed, and then 


covered with a reddish well-tem mortar, which 
gives them the appearance of brick walls. 
The country GP Florida, in its general is flat, 


sandy, and barren, on the sea shore ; but upon advan- 
cing inland, it becomes very marshy, abounding in na- 
tural meadows. Thence it presents a rich and fertile 
appearance, especially on the banks of the rivers ; and, 
for the space of 30 or 40 miles from the coast, there is 
scarcely to be seen a single stone weighing more than 
two or three pounds. The interior -are more 
hilly, and covered with wood ; but the surface is more 
stony, and the smaller size of the trees indicates a de- 
creasing fertility in the soil. The soil is commonly a 
white sand, lying on a bed of white clay ; in some 
places a dark grey, brown, or black loam, on a founda- 
tion of whitish marl, chalk, and testaceous limestone: 


pr cae ae Florida, ake poy on 
often black, soapy, and ri ing on a dee 
bed Chali ec ade i nil 4 


The climate is various, and has been distinguished 
into two tracts, viz. the northern, which includes the 
continental and western part of Florida, and the south- 
ern, which comprehends almost the whole of the penin- 
sula. In the latter district, the thermometer stands ha- 
bitually, in summer, between 84° and 88? of Fahren- 
heit, in the shade; and, during the months of July and 
August, frequently rises to 94°. In all seasons, the 
sun is scorching hot at noon; atid, in winter, ‘it very 
rarely freezes, nor is the cold ever so severe as to injure 
even the China orange tree, the fruit of which is said to 
be there remarkably delicious, ‘ The air is pure and free 
from fogs, but the dews are generally excessive. ‘ In 
January, the weather is wet and stormy ; in Febru 


bruary 
and March, dry and clear ; in July and August, bs ned 


hot, and 

oan See 
lightful ; and then, says Volney, “ there is not, 8, 
sheer Ganetébaiheeadd:>” hs tax tine the’p 
ninsula is hotter than the west’; and, towards ° 


southern point of the west coast, there are, from 
side, the 


; but, fromthe end of ° 


i 


FLORIDA. 


it is altogether inconceivably de-" 


the winds are 


itudes; and many persons the Havannalt resort 
thither, as to's Montpélier. “In both the tracts of eli. 
mate, however, ee more northern, there 
are great variations from heat to cold, making often a 
change of 30° the thermometer, in the 

twelye hours. 


The vegetable productions of Florida are particu 
ly Sasiveaa et Seeiy Sar phew 
and luxuriant tapes can exceed the'majes- 
tic appearace of its towering forest trees, and the bril- 
liant colours of its flowering shrubs.. The 
cedars, and chesnuts, grow to’ an im 
and size. The laurels, especially the mag 
uncommonly wine objects, rising with erect trunks: 
to the height of 100 feet, rg arte eo 
perfect cone, and having their dark green foliage silver~ 
ed over with large milk white flowers, frequently eight 
or nine inches in-didmeter, The-live-oaks,. after:fornis’ 
ing’a'trunk from ten’ to twenty feet ‘high, and ‘from 
twelve to eighteen in circumference, a re werereens 
es fully fifty paces on every side.” _gene= 
rally jini te watery Girerlentuatty, tat like but. 
tresses, rising around its lower , then rearing 
a stem of eighty or ninety feet, throws out a flat ho- 
rizontal top like an umbrella, so that often in 
forests all of an equal height, ' present the appear 
ance of a green canopy supported upon columns in the 
air)’ The dog-wood trees rise tothe height of twelve 
feet; then ‘ ‘their branches horizontally, which, 
meeting and interweaving with others on every” side, 
form a shady grove, ‘so’ and humid, a8 completes 
ly to’exclude it rays ‘sppuitle skied a 
growth of any other ble, thus. ing tot 
traveller a natural shelter, frequently extending for the 
space of ten miles without int ion. But the most 
beautiful of the forest'tribe, is the: ery. ee i 
paya, which rises to the height of twenty feet, with a 
stem pr ly. straight, smooth, and: silver-coloured, 
having a spherical = Ad leaves always green, and or= 
namented at once with flowers and fruits. © er Fruits. 
fruits; yg a linies, pranes,’ peaches, and “figs, 
grow in the forests, and gra , Vines, whose stems: 
are’often’ ten or twelve inches in diameter, climb around 
the trunks of the trees to their very tops, but those which’ 

ce the best fruit creep along close tothe grouhd 


Ranrent low shrub to another. ' Among the shrubs’... 


ma’ icularly mentioned a'species of uy call 
yy ra thee) whieh grows'to the’ height of nine or: 
ten feet, and’ produces a number of large round berries, 
covered with a coat of white wax, which is formed by 
the inhabitants into candles, and more lasting 
than those’ made of bees wax. Of the numerous flower- 
ing plants, we can only ‘particularize a species a 


c ous p 
stem every year, yet grows tothe height of ten or twelve 


5 » Trees. 


Florida. 
———_ 


FLORIDA. 


3 tobe eccasioned by their standing during the Florida. — 
: of summer, in the lakes and rivers, feeding on ““\"" 


feet, branching’ seogulesia. ia, the fornn of a.sharp cone, 
. flowers. uring r 5 0. 4 
months, That si 


of fifteen. or twenty feet. 
Wherever the bark, it present- 
ly takes root as readily as if it had ors eainry the 


and deer 


rivers,the reeds and ruslies grow. to 

extraordinary size, some. ofthe former. being actu- 
ially,80 or 40:feet high, and: being used as masts to the 
»eanoes ; but among the aquatic the Pistia strati- 
soles is sparticularly. of notice, _ It resembles a 


;and. a 
miles indength, and a quarter of a 
in breadth, furnishing a habitation to crocodiles, 


; She pinciplvegetable productions regularly culti- 


enough for several 
shallops to ride init. The water is of a sulphureous 
mociciorsataoserasieay oeeinetn substance i 

in it, with a pale bluish ecoagulum ; but it is remarkably 


greatest distinctness. _ 
The country is stored with creatures fit for the use 
in, wi i that are’ very formi- 


3879 


the water-grass ; and horses, running wild, as well as 
kept in herds by the natives. They are extremely beau- 
tiful and sprightly ; but of a small breed, and almost 
as slender in their form as the American roe-buck. Of 
the wilder tribes, there are the wéasel, polecat, and lynx, 
which last is a very fierce little creature, preying upon 
“young pigs, fawns and turkeys ; foxes, of the small red 
8 , which bark during the night, but move so pre- 
cipitately, that are seldom heard twice in the same 
spot; wolves of different colours, larger than a dog, 

ly assembling in companies, particularly during 
the night-time ; bears, in-considcrable numbers, and of 
_great strength, but scarcely ever known to attack hu~ 
man bei When fat and full grown, they weigh 
from 500 to 600 pounds weight; and their flesh ‘is 


greatly esteemed as food by the natives. Of birds, be- Birds. 


sides many which are migratory, there are found sta- 


‘tionary in Florida, vultures, hawks, rooks, jays, parrots, 


wood-peckers, pigeons, turkeys, herons, cranes, cur- 
lews, cormorants, pélicans, plovers, &c. A few of the 
more remarkable are the snake bird, a species of cor= 
morant of great beauty, which delight to sit in peace« 
able communities, on the «dry limbs of trees, hanging 
over the lakes, with their wings and tail expanded, as ~ 
if cooling themselves in the air; and, when alarmed, 
they drop as if dead into the water, suddenly appearing 
again on the surface, at a t distance from the spot 
where they first sunk, but shewing only their long slen~ 
der head and neck above the water, which gives them 
very much thea ce of a stiake. The crying bird, 
a species of pelican, about the size of a large domestic 
hen, and of a ed colour, with’a short tail, having 
the longest feather in the middle, and the two outer~ 
most perfectly white, which the bird ‘is accustomed, 
whenever he is disturbed, to flirt out on each side with 
the quickness of lightning, uttering at the same time 
a very harsh and loud shriek. The wood begs a 
large bird, nearly three feet high when standing erect, 
fesling on serpents, frogs, and other reptiles, is gene= 
rally seen solitary on the banks of the marshes and ri« 


peer with his =e Scan: in w his shoulders, — 
is long crook resting like a scythe u i 
btoabt © iis bird is si re) to Ei ttle eiedbede 


to the Egyptian ibis, ‘The painted vulture, of a white 
or cream colour, except the quill feathers of the wings, 
and the tip of the large tail feathers,’ which cote. 
datk brown or black, is‘séldom seen, unless: when the 
deserts are set on fire, which sometimes happens from 
liglitning, arid is. more regularly done by the Indians, 
'to rouse the game; and then they gather from every 
quarter towards the burning plains, and alighting 
among the smoking embers, gorge their immense craws 
with roasted serpents, frogs, an lizards. The Creeks 
form their national standard with the tail-feathers of 
this bird, preserving them in their natural white colour, 
in en jons, but drawing a zone of red 
beneath the brown tips when they go to battle. ‘The 


re savannah crane; a'very stately bird, about 
length from the toes to the extremity or aetieak 


when extended, nearly five feet when standing erect, 


and eight ornine feet ‘between the extremities of the 

ings: they fly in detached squadrons, all 
rising and falling as one bird, and while they move: 
their wings in flight with slow and regular strokes, the 
shafts webs of their quill-feathers may be heard at 
aconsiderable distance in the air, ing like the 


wrorking, of a verge ta 9 RernpOnos Se. 


Planta 


880 
The coasts, sounds, and inlets, abound in excellent 


1 fish; and the inland lakes and rivers are, in some 


bab 


Amphibia. 


places, 
actually crowded with the finny tribe. Of these, the 
more remarkable are, the brown spotted ser, 
from five to six fect in when fully grown, w 
im skin resembles a coat of mai!, of which the 
ibentedaped strong, that the Indians use them 
as points to their arrows, The mud fish, about two 
feet. long, the flesh of which is white and tender, but 
rather soft, and not much esteemed. The golden bream, 
or sun-fsh, about eight inches in length, resembling the 
trout in shape, remarkably and rapacious for his 
size, and very delicious as food ; the silver og white 
bream, and the black or blue bream, which are also ex- 
tremely beautiful and abundant; the cat-fish, sting- 
ray, scale, flounder, spotted bass, sheeps-head, drum, 
&c. and many other varieties, are found every where, 
even in the smaller ponds and open holes, in the utmost 
abundance. This multitude of fishes furnishes subsist- 
ence to an equally numerous brood of alligators, which 
are seen in all the rivers and lakes, in immense 
bodies, many of them nore tae ee er. 
prodigious assemblage of them in the river St John, was 
witnessed by Mr Bartram pursuing the vast shoals of 
fish with which that river abounds; and his descrip- 
tion of the scene will best convey an idea of their num- 
bers, as well as of the prolific nature of the waters in 
Florida, *“ The river in this place from shore to shore, 
and perhaps near half a mile above and below me, 
weak te be cue solid bank of fish of various kinds, 
ushing through this narrow pass of St John’s into the 
ittle lake, on their return down the river ; and the al- 
ligators were in such incredible numbers, and so close 
together from shore to shore, that it would have been 
easy to have walked across on their heads, had the ani- 
rex 4 been harmless. What expressions can sufficiently 
declare the shocking scene that for some minutes con- 
tinued, whilst this mighty army of fish were ongse 
pass! During this attempt, thousands, I may say hun- 
dreds of thousands of them, were caught and swallow- 
ed by the devouring alligators. I have seen an alliga- 
tor take up out of the water several great fish at a time, 


and just squeeze them betwixt his jaws, while the tails - 


of the trout about his eyes and lips ere he 
had ar soc Sag pT he horrid naise of Piste ehosing 
jews, their plunging amidst the broken banks of fish, 
and rising with their prey some feet upright above the 
water, the floods of water and blood rushing out of their 
mouths, and the clouds of vapour issuing from their 
wide nostrils, were truly frightful.” Here may be men- 
tioned, as belonging to the same genus with the alliga- 
tor, the lizards of Florida, of which there are several 
species: the little green chamelion, about seven inches 
long, and very harmless ; the striped lizard, called scor- 
‘ons by the Americans, covered with small scales, vi- 
their tail, and darting out their forked tongue 

when cere epepiliag 3 asmall blue lizard, remark- 
ably swift, with a long tail, which is subject to 
be broken off like that of the glass snake. There are 
several kinds of tortoises in rivers and lakes, of 
which the most d ing of notice is the great soft 
shelled tortoise, some of which, when full , weigh 
from 30 to 40 pounds, extremely fat nil Selisioaa, and 
ho aga ee much in form and nce the sea 
turtle. ve whole back shell, except the vertebra and 
ribs, is cartilaginous, and easily reduced to a jelly when 
boiled. These creatures bury themselves in the slushy 
bottoms of rivers and ponds, under the roots of aquatic 
plants, leaving an aperture just sufficient for the head 


. extremii 


FLORIDA. 


: 
ey 

E 

F 
i 
i 

i 


: 
i 
i 
Wt 
in 
BEE 


Of frogs there are various kinds, the largest 

is about 8 or 9 inches in length from th 
oi to the ball frog of Viginia, but gs 
ferior indeed to the irginia, but 

resembling the grunt ofa hog. Ki Fino wel od 
are the bell rog, the voice of which is similar to the sound 
of a cow bell ; another species of abeautiful green ¢ 
which utter a noise like the yelping of young dogs; a 
still smaller tribe which infest the houses, whose voi 
is like that of young chickens; and an extremely di- 
minutive class, called Savanna crickets, which may be 
seen in the rainy season ing like Rey Omg 
the tall grass. There are red and black toads, the for- 
mer of which are very large, weighing upwards of a 
pound, but ne way venomous, : 


& 
# 


; 
5 


There are numerous kinds of snakes in Florida, but Reptiles. 


little different from those which are found ‘in the other 
southern provinces of the United States. The largest 
is the rait , Which is commonly from four to six 
feet in length, and sometimes even eight or ten. With 
a single scratch of one of his fangs, he is able to kill the 
largest animal, but is never known to strike unless first 
assanited 5, ner -cmh..ne, orang Cates, tate Geta 

be _with a single blow on 


abounds in East Florida, large as the rattle-snake, and 
said to be more formidable by being more ite ; 
the bastard, or ground rattle-snake, of size, but 
extremely fierce and venomous ; the green snake, a beau- 
tiful and harmless creature, about two or three feet in 
] , but not thicker than a man’s little finger ; the 


snake, v 
but scarce 


mon walking stick, 
the abdomen towards the tail like a switch, or 
i i ing at times to 
ing it only with \its 
lower extremity ; the glass snake, rage one 
lour, about two feet and a half in length, a 
and great of tail, which is so 


and. of beautifal butterflies hover among the 
shrubs 


—— Se 


di 
_—— ay 


me 


_ fire on 


Population. 


: FLORIDA. 


fly, of a splendid green colour, and golden head, which 
eee Mee the peek ot rol hot soodie or a spark of 


“tain, the greatest et it was given to settlers ; 
and at first considerable aiditions were made to its Eu- 


He 


ropean inhabitants. But their increase was extremely 
slow, notwi 


pee eas 

and, since the country was recovered by the Spaniards, 
its 

lated 
of the 


n possession fruitful regions, and in close al- 
liance with Spaniards, and now form one le 
with the remains of the tribes who were in ce 
with the uered race. There are found, - 
ly in East Florida, numexous monuments t 


nerally by the modern Indians to the exe- 
cution of their captives ; artificial lakes or ponds, to 
which avenues run from the mounts. 


- have n 


381 


tries, are a mere handful of people, and range at liberty 
over the richest plains of both provinces. They find, 
in the spontaneous uctions of the soil, and in the 
abundance of game which the forests afford, a superflui- 
ty of subsistence ; and secured in the midst of their 
swamps from any sudden attack of hostile tribes, they 
ing to occasion their disquietude, but the gra- 

ts of the White le. They are re- 


dual 
markably joyous and volatile in their dispositions ; and 


can be more ressive of lightness of heart 

tha ‘tice or vi ee. d okay and motions. 
They are fond of bling, and spirituous liquors ; and 
amuse Tugectres, Fike liven in pete rari by 
the most extravagant stories, to excite surprise and 
laughter. They are the most active and ex hunters, 
andi by the sale of deer, bear, tiger, and wolf-skins, 
honey, wax, horses, &c. they procure their clothing and 
domestic utensils from the White settlers. They are, 
however, treacherous and unsteady, and being far re- 
moved from the controul of the upper Creeks, with 
whom are confederated, and eed government is 
more , they are apt to pay little d to treaties 
of amity with the Whites, and to commit murders and 
ions on detached families who fall into their 

hands. See Modern Univ. Hist. vol. xxxix. ; Robert- 
son’s Hist. of America, vol. ii.; Bartratn’s Travels in 
Carolina, Georgia, and Florida; Volney’s Account of 
the United States; Bernard Romans Concise Natural 
and Moral Hist. of East and West Florida, published at 
New York in 1776, a very scarce but highly interest. 
be PT ;and Hutchin’s American Geography. (q) 
ORIS, Fiores, or Enper, is the name of a large 
island in the eastern seas, situated to the east of Java, 
between the 120th and 123d de, of East Longitude, 
and the 8th and 9th degrees of South Latitude. It is 
about 200 miles long, and has an average breadth of 
36 miles. The interior of this island is very en ince 
known, The inland parts are mountainous and woody, 
and it contains a burning mountain of considerable 
height. Towards the sea coast, the country is fine and 
open. The principal place frequented by the English 
in i the straits of Florie, “a the village 
of touca, upon the island of Floris. Refreshments 
for two or three ships can be obtained here, such as 
goats, hogs, fowls, and fruits, buffaloes, and some turtle, 
water. In return for these, the natives will receive 
gun-powder, musket balls, bottles, wine glasses, 
white linen cloth, and all kinds of coarse cutlery. Ben- 
zoin, ambergris, and small quantities of wax, are export- 
ed from the island, and sandal wood in small quantities 
may yor K sseycn oe of a ¥ she profess Chris- 
tianity, generally hoist the Portuguese flag. The 
Burman language peeve over the greatest on the 
island. The Portuguese visited this island at a very 
early period, and gave it the name of Floris ; but there 
is no reason to believe that they ever established a re- 
gular settlement. See Milburn’s Oriental Commerce, 
vol, ii. p. 385; and Hamilton’s East India Gazetteer, 


w 
( PLUENTS.. See Fiuxions. 
FLUIDS. See Cuemisrry and Hypropynamics. 
FLUSHING, Vuiissencen, or Fiesstncus, is the 
name of a seaport town of Holland, situated in the 
island of Walcheren, on the north side of a branch of 
the river Scheldt. The lies between two moles, 
that break the waves of the sea, which enters the town 
means of two canals, forming two basons. This 
town defends the passage of the Scheldt and of all the 
islands of Zealand. The Stadthouse, which is built in 


s 


Florida 
I 
Flushing. 
—_—o 


FLU / $82 FLU 


Calculus, as it is ie Ae creme oso and invent his Method of Indivisibles, in which he con- 
no further back than the 17th century ; but the inquiries sidered lines as composed -of an infinite number of 
which have led to it, must have occurred to Geometers we er omni of an infinite number of 
from the earliest peri tay void yew of; a re pen as Ant of an infinite ni end 
was cultivated. It rs from the writings o i e to have is theor 

and Archimedes, hit ven the ancients considered cur- the year 1629, att he Lin awn net with ti. 
vilineal , or the solids formed by the rotationof tle, Geometria sndlivisibélium isibilium conlinuorum novd quaédam 
curves, they established the truth of thei itions ratione : e of his method was at- 
by a peculiar mode of demonstration, whi was indi« tacked by Guildinus in 1640, and then he shewed, that 


Eudiits Elements, is arriustence of this kind ofdemon: lines; of drhidh Ga valetidis eocisillored thie! ratice"ana tiie 
stration. It is there to prove, that circles sums, are no other than the little solids, or the’ inscri- 
haye to each other the ratio of the squares of their dia~ bed and circumscribed ‘parallelograms of 


i > ‘differ 
lar gons inscribed in circles, have to each other cluded between them, by less than any given quantity ; 
RES Es coil ‘hace, by a mode of reasoning rather wae tiie investnette, anyone eaten, 
artificial, although quite accurate, the truth of of a curvilineal to another known one, employs 
ion is proved to extend to the circles ves, many words, an “indirect turn of demonstration ; 
Soe negte: Shere baad yt Deg om tageraye item the modern eter, i 
not be to the square of the other diameter, as the one ni in’ 
circle to a space either Jess, or greater than the other 


: 

. 

g 

: 

i 
ue 
i 
i 
THE 
ie 


2 


well be supposed, that t dfeccyered fieun at iitst by P Repeeval,'in A eS ee 
simple mode i ct i Cavalerius had-done in Italy. 
have quoted, as the ratio of gons inscribed ae 6 ee 


G5? = 


d 
| 


F 
H 
iE 
fu 
Poe 
a 
eee 
aT 
" 
BEL 
Ay SEraiste ster! 
SEOs. 
i 
af 
if 
free 


= 5 4) id 


8838 


Neil and Van-Heuraet gave the first example of a History. 
curve that may be rectified, one of the cubic parabo- ““v——* 
las.) Van-Heuraet’s od reduced the problem of Van-Heu- 
rectifications to that of quadratures. Brouncker and tet 
Mercator, proceeding in the path of Wallis’ discoveries, Brouncker. 


FLUXIONS. 
ner of the ancients, he gave them with that clearness 
pe er os la ought always to characterize the. 
style of warks-on science: ~~ = eal Ti 

earlier than Descartes a method of 


"Fermat 
“Rat he-only published it after Descaites had - 


History. 
‘ ov Ne 


Fermat. 


Slussius, 


de 
8. Vincent. 


Wallis. 


ee nistmosn, and ‘he joined to it a method de mazi- 
nis et minimis. "These are more simple than Descartes” 
methods, but their author, fir from imitating the f¥ank= 


mazimis et minimis, his analysis, and the mode of de- , 
monstration. By a multitude-of discoveries, several of- 


y his communicative character, and the simple man- 
ner in which he has presented his researches. arvel 
Huygens first’ demonstrated: Fermat's two: rules. 
Slussius afterwards found:a simple method of drawing 
tangents, which at bottom was but the enunciation of. 
the caleulus required by: Fermat’s method ; i 


ccontvived? lie-chiarpelicristic tritmgle)whicl in faetrige 
the same as the triangle that measures: the fluxions of 
the abscissa, the and curve; and’ thus the 


of tangents: 


plication. of al 


was infinite, the. last term. may be reckoned as 

. Considering, then, surfaces as formed ‘of a 
series-of lines, the'terms of which follow a certain law, 
he found the ion. for the surface by summing. 
the series; The area ofa triangle, for example; was 


na 
of ny 


iw 
te: J 


found the first series known for the rectification of the 
circle, and h bola. Brouncker also first. noticed con- 
tinued fractions ; and he shewed that the fundamental 


~ principle employed by Neil in the rectification of: 


curves, and by which Mercator squared the hy- 
were to be feund in the works’ of Wallis. 


‘Mercator published his Logarithmotechnia in Septem- Mercator. 


ber 1668, which contained his quadrature of the hy- 
perbola ; and soon after the book came out, Mr Collins, 
to the Royal Society, sent'a copy to Barrow, 


at Cambridge, who put it into the hands of Sir Isaac, y.wton,. 


then Mr Newton, and a fellow of Trinity College. 
Presently afterwards, viz. in July 1669, Barrow wrote 
to Collins, that«a friend of :his*(Newton,) who had ‘an 
excellent —_ to these things, had brought him some 

papers, wherein he had set down methods of calcula-- 
ting the dimensions of ‘magnitudes, like:that of Mr~ 
Mercator for the:hyperbola, but very general; as also 

of resolving equations: Barrow afterwards: sent these- 
papers'to Collins,-saying, that: he presumed he would. 
be much’pleased: with them, and “requesting him to- 
shew: them ‘to Lord’ Brouncker.. Their 'title;was: De 

analysi per equationes numero terminorum-infinilas.. In 
this manuscript, the -method- of flaxions« was first indi- 

cated, and rules deduced from it given forthe quadra-: 


* ture of curves, to-which it was observed, their-rectifica-: 


tion, and the determinatiow of the quantity, and ‘the su- 
perficies of solids, and of the‘centre of gravity, may be. 
all:reduced: moreover, the author ‘there asserted, that» 
he knew no problems relating to the quadrature or rec-: 
tification of curves, to which his method would:not ap-: 
ply; and-that by means of -it,.he:could:draw tangents’: 
to mechanical curves; so, there can: be no doubt: butr 
that. then, Newton: ‘the method ‘of fluxions,, 
and therefore he must. be reckoned: the. first» inventor. 
Indeed it a: that although his discovery was»pro« 
mulgated forthe first time, he ‘had been ‘inpos« 
session of it from about’ the year 1666; which wasitwo 
ears before Mercator published hisquadrature of the. 
bola. And although the MS: memoir De analysi 


 ccthne omer ey &e. professes-to' explain ‘the method 
? 


rather than to:demonstrate “it. accurately, yet 
there was enough to shew, that:the author-was aware 
of its great i as-an instrument. of investiga- 
tion, and that he had reduced it'in-some measure'to the 
form of an analytical theory: 
Barrow, Collins, and Oldenburg, . (another 


_ to the Royal Society, ) disseminated: the analytical dis- 
| coveries of Newton by. their: 


ce, and: coms 
municated them to several geometers on the-continent, 


_ stch as Slussius, and Borelli.. 


In‘the-year 1672, the celebrated Leibnitz, who: af-' 
terwards also claimed the honour of the-diseovery of the 
method of fluxions, appeared for the first time upon’ the’ 
scene. »to be in London, he communicated: 


first method was icable, deserves particular atten- to some members of the Royal Society, certain re-' 
tion, because it was the germ of Newton’s most beauti- searches relating to the differences of numbers; but he. 
fal discoveries, and is at present the most i ant part. was given to understand, that this subject had been al- 
of the theory of series. This method led ‘him to.are- ready treated by Mouton, an astronomer? of Lyons: 
markable expression for ‘the area ofa circle. Wallis upon this, he turned his attention to the doctrine of in< 
must be allowed to have contributed ‘tothe pro- finite series, which, at that time,\ engaged ‘all the ma- 
of sis, er his oan rd and ‘his thematicians ; and, in 1674) he announced: to Olden- 

i e doctrine of series, which led to’ burg, that he possessed important theorems relative. to 

all the great discoveries of that period. © ' the quadrature of the circle by series; and that be-had 


Leibnitz. 


Vi keaeery, 
—— 


5384 


general analytic methods, Oldenburg, in answer, 
Ctr dus Oneacey and Newton had also 
found methods, which gave the quadrature of curves, 

geometrical or mechanical, and 


brated 


SF 
z 


9; and a variety of other 
‘and quadratures, but nothing directly 


ii 
- 


letter, Newton speaks of Leibnitz 


cion which atter- 


r 
i 
i 
ZF 
Fe 
i 
7 


i 
Fe 
3 
: 


to O , to be also communicated to 
Leibnitz, he still of his rival with re ; and 
he here, in compliance with a wish ex 
nits, lains the manner in Which he found the bi- 


session of his calculus. 

On the 21st June 1677, Leibnitz sent to Oldenburg, 
to be communicated bi bape r= a — containing the 
first attempts at a m whi ied to ev i 
that could be done by that of Newton, This was his 
Differential Calculus. The death of Oldenburg, which 
soon followed, put an end to this epistolary correspon- 
dence; and seven years afterwards, viz. in 1684, Leib- 
nitz published his method in the Leipsic Acts for Oc- 
tober of that year, with this title, “ Nova Methodus 

maximis et minimis, i ue tangentibus, que nec 


his Principia, where he had occasion to give an ex- 


ory of fluxions: and it is worthy of © ti 


-ton.-At length tician 1 


“ns 


» judged prs trad att be proper to consult 


- - 
— 


FLUXIONS. 


from mine only in the:enindliilon, 
tion.” To this, in the i 

and in the manner of ivi 
generated.” 


It has been s 


who is said to have entertained a dislike to Leib- 
on account of his having omitted to name him in 
an enumeration which he made of eminent mathema- 
ticians, asserted, in a short tract on the curve of swift« 
est descent, and the solid of least resistance, that New- 
ton was the first inventor of the new calculus, and that 
he would leave to others to decide what Leibnitz, the 
second inventor, might have borrowed from the Eng- 
lish geometer. To this attack Leibnitz gave a spiri 
answer, and complai to the Royal Society ; and 
there the dispute rested for atime. Afterwards, when 
Newton's treatise on the Quadrature of Curves, and 
his Enumeration of lines of the third order, came out, 
in 1704, the Leipsic journalists gave an unfavourable 
account of it, and in effect said; that Newton had ta< 
ken his method froni that of Leibnitz, substituting 
fluxions for differences. This assertion called forth the 
indignation of the British mathematicians, and without 
doubt offended Newton himself. Accordingly, in 1708, 
Keill inserted in the Phil ical Transactions a pa 
per, in which he stated , that Newton was the 
first —- vs the Fluxional _ us, ae — 
nitz, in publishing it in ipsic Acts, 
changed the renee the oerren eon of 
Leibnitz thus accused of plagiarism, addressed a lete. 
ter to Hans Sloane, to the Royal iety, 
requiring that Keill should retract what he had said : 
But far from this, Keill replied in a long letter to 
Hans Sloane, in which he enumerated the reasons that 


i 


city. This letter was sent to Leibnitz ; who 
that the Royal Society should cnc: oa 


of a who was too young to 
paseed between him and Newton, The 


on in 1673, and went thence to Paris, where he 


of the differential caleulus, before his letter ox. 


thing 
the 21st of June 1677; which was a year after a copy. 


———O 


FLUXIONS. 
of Newton’s letter of the 10th December 1672 had been 


385 


drawing tangents. Newton replied, that he conjectu- | History. 
red what the nature of that method was ; and he gave an (~~ 
example of it, which shews that he was in possession j.6n Leib 
of a method in effect the same as these two geome- nitz and 
ters had found. He adds, that this is only a parti- Newton. 


History. 


i person: That Newton was in possession 

i hake titers the year 1669; and that those who 
reputed Leibnitz the first inventor, knew little or no- 
thing of his sr —— cere ee 
Oldenbur; - before, nor ’s having that 
~ method irae me years before Mr Leibnita began 
to publish it in the Leipsic Acts: That for these reasons, 
they reckoned Newton the first inventor, and were of 
opinion that Mr Keill, in asserting the same, had been 


in nowise injurious to Mr Leibnitz. 
In this report, the committee cautiously avoided gi- 
ving any direct opinion upon the int on which 


seems to shew, that were of the latter opi- 
with care over E with a view to vindicate 
the claim of the British nation, to the most important 
discovery that has ever been made in abstract sci- 
ence. 


It was not to be that Leibnitz would quiet- 
ly submit to this decision, so unfavourable to his pre- 


arisen from the insinuation, that he had stolen the in- 
vention ; for, as to the right to priority of discovery, that 
is, beyond this dapat favour of wwe aS 

is dispute was originally agitated, the natu- 
ral feelings of patriotism, which protect nations against 
the encroachments and unjust pretensions of each other, 


dispute about a mat- 
of faith rather than of testimony. Even Newton 
himself, who, for a time, does not to have taken 


ata tatioer by Cotes and Bentley at, Conbeidge, while 


tainty, whether there were just for the suspici 
ows e i Ae suspicion 
Montucla, in his History of Mathematics, vol. ii 8 
2d edit. 2 Thanet - tay, he 
mercium m, which treat of fluxions in.so-clear- 


of Newton’s invention. . 


cular case, or rather a corollary to a method much 
more general, which, without a laborious calculation, 
applies to the finding of tangents to all sorts of curves; 
geometrical or ‘nochaniéal, and that without being 
obliged to free the equation from radicals. He repeats 
the same thing, without explaining himself farther, in 
another letter; and he conceals the principle of the 
method under tran: letters. The only place where 
Newton has allowed any thing of his method to trans- 
ire, is in his Analysis per equationes numero terminorum 
infinitas. He here discloses, in a very concise and ob- 
scure manner, his method of'fluxions ; but there is no 
certainty that Leibnitz saw this essay.. His opponente 
have never asserted, that it ®as communicated to him 
by letter; and they: have gone no-farther-than-to sus- 
pect that he had obtained a knowledge of it in his in- 
tercourse with Collins upon his second journey to Lon- 
don. Indeed, this suspicion is not entirely destitute of 
probability ; for Leibnitz admitted, that, in this Inter- 
view, he saw a part of the Epistolary Corr lence: - 
of Collins, However, I think it would be rash to:pro- 
nounce upon this circumstance. If Leibnitz had con- 
fined himself to a few essays of his new calculus;-there - 
might have been some ground for that suspicion. But 
the numerous pieces he inserted in the Leipsic Acts,’ 
prove the calculus to have received such improvements: 
from him, that probably he owed the invention to his 
ius, and to the efforts he made to discover a method . 
t had put Newton in possession of so many beauti- 
ful truths. This isso much the more likely, as from the. 
method of tangents discovered by Dr Barrow, the tran- 
sition to the differential caleulus was easy, nor was the: 
step too great for such a genius as that with which: 


- Leibnitz appears to have been endowed:” In this opi-: 


nion, we are di to agree with Montucla; and 
we consider that we add to its weight by the fol- 
lowing testimony in its favour, from one of the most». 
elegant writers and able critics of the present time: - 
The celebrated La Place having asserted, in his Philoso«> 
phical Essay on Probabilities, that Fermat was the true 
inventor of the Differential Calculus ; the writer to: 
whom we have alluded, in a review of La Place’s werk,’ 
says, “ Against the affirmation that Fermat is the real: 
inventor of the differential calculus, we must enter a 
strong and solemn protestation. The age in which that 
discovery was made has been unanimous in ascribing 
the honour of it either to Newton or Leibnitz; or, as . 
seems to us much the fairest and most le opi~ 
nion, to both, that is, to each independently of the other, . 
the priority in respect of time being soniewhat on the 
side of the English mathematician. The writers ef the- 
history of the mathematical sciences have given their: 
= ee to nome oe Montucla; for poe 
who has treated the subject with great impartiality, 
Bossut, with no eet a certainly im. favour: of: 
the English phi In the it controversy to 
which this invention gave rise, all the claims were like« 
ly. to.be well considered ;. and the ultimate and fair de~ 
cision in which -all sides seem..to have acquiesced, is 
that which < pees ject mentioned. . ae be on 
good , that a decision passed by such com 
Seat judges, ahd that hes hewn now-in force foe a con 
dred years, should all at once be reversed.” Edinburgh 
Review, vol, xxiii, p. 324. 

3c 


386 FLUXIONS. 
Hotery. The new caleulus was not at first cultivated with that L'Hdpital; thie was when he came to Paris in the year History. 
—y—" attention which its importance deserved ; and, therefore, 1692. These are curious, as the earliest essays inthis =" 
in order to rouse the attention of mathematicians, Leib- branch . we wre Seay pe ae rote 
nits, in 1687, proposed the following problem: “| To merit. w ave an it 
determine the curve a heavy body ought to describe, to L'Hopital’s work, but they were not published un- _ 
in order to descend equally.in equal times.” Huy, til 1742, when they appeared pre hgmmeshnu ae 
sas: the’ fret cheb uhomredkquhab wnaidhe Manaieten the Bernoulli's works. . 2 : 


curve, but he did not indicate his method of solution. It is to be that Newton did not a 
James Bernoulli also resolved the problem by the dif- a design he had formed in 1671, of i _ 
ferential calculus, and published his analysis in the thod of fluxions, and its 3 for, 


Leipsic Acts of 1690. About the same time, John ception of what he done, herdiy'any. thing 
Laboars of Bernoulli, a younger brother of James, began his ca- ihe cevury. "Dund ‘Gregory explained same ts 
tbe Ber. reer as a mathematician: he studied the science, aided 
coulis by his brother's instructions, and he contracted a friend- principles pod applications; ana ¢iatinag dhe 
ship for Leibnitz, which continued until the death of /igurarum, printed in 1684. John: 
the latter, in 1716. He made the calculus known in __ treatise, De curcarum quadraturis, ist 1698,- which he 
oe ah ee RRR Sa ee prema irscn oo Byres res “s 1 in 1718, with 
de l'Hopital. Leibnitz and the lis resolved the title De calculo fluentium. oivre and Fatio 
many new and difficult problems, which they gave solutions in the Philosophical sl Teanseotions of the 
as challenges to the geometers of that hey also ama voomoerasitiy: tite S008 efi teat Galatea the 
2 Lek CORE aa 
achain or cord which hangs freely, but is fas- In the year 1703, George Cheyne, ss )Gledilicls seme Cheyne 
cmnoll andes easton), and the curve of swiftest de- thematician and physician, published his Methodus 
scent, which had proved too difficult for Galileo, and Fluxionum inversa, Edin, 1703. ‘The author committed 
the mathematical theories known in his time. A spirit some mistakes which were pointed out by De Moivre: 
na He had also been wanting or a rane the. — 
w a war of problems, each endeavouri maticians on the continent, and exposed to 
re eo etn i map dpe heir the animadversions of John Bernoulli. In the year 
degree of animosity on the part of John not at all be- 170¢, a treatise of fluxions was published by «Charles 
coming, was yet of advantage to the science, as it pro- Hayes Gent. This, we believe, a Hayes. 
duced the celebrated rical problems, a class prota han, pear tthr or fpervatitncnit ac yo 
more difficult than any that had previously engaged guage. 
the attention of mathematicians ; iho, indeed, _—_ It is remarkable that Newton himself should:have Newton. 
Newton had resolved a problem ‘of this kind in his been so slow in publishing any be considered athe 
Principia, when treating of the solid of least resistance. calculus. The 1699 must be 


The calculus went on, improving continually ; it was epoch at which his numerous 
tothe theory of evolutes, one of the most beau- env dest: nierle qpantelipaietesig bmanationndanties 


iful discoveries made by H ; but, with the ex- second volume of the works of Wallis. At length, 
ception of some pieces in the Leipsic Acts, there was however, in the 1704, when he printed his Optics, 
as yet no work Mulisbed his nad ror a he added to it, 4 acai Quadeaténs Curbarsenysin 


i pad 
dentially to Leibnitz in ier lifetime, ie ya a and rome Ki ee with rrp 


‘ . a L - 
differential equations, by se- Mensurarum, published in 1722, by his friend Dr 
the v: quantities an far back ae 1694, In Smith. The inventions of Cotes were extended and 
Manfredi. 1707, Gabriel Manfredi, an Italian, gave an entire eted by De Moivre, in his Miscellanea Analytica, Moivre. 
work, entitled, De Constructione poe at ere feos published in 1730, Dr Brook ‘Taylor also holds a dis- 7... 
tialium primi gradus, which all that tinguished place in the higher: wwhovexs 7 
Se Rows dine ‘Ainab uchening (SerRariategeel tel eee re me aterm 
inted in 1715, contains in second man 
Jobn Bere oe = a a series of lectures on the Piicaions of fuxions 40 ph ea al problems: 
noulli. integral calculus, for the use of his scholar and patron, theorem forthe developement of any function of 


History. 


—— ions ; and-one of the 
a 


Nicholas 
and Waniel 
Bernoulli. 


The sei 


FLUXIONS. 


binomial, leads to many beautiful applications of flux- 
Giaticebenathere ticiienhi iain 
late L , has made it the foundation 
of his theory of the calculus. f 
received considerable improvement from 
the mathematicians in Germany, particularly in that 
branch which relates to the fluents of fluxions, contain- 
ing several variable tities. The two Nicolas Ber- 
noullis, one a:son of James and the other a son of John 
Bernoulli, and Daniel Bernoulli, another son of John, 
/ i SORT woe 3% 
of profound disquisitions relating to the 
calculus; and to these may be»added the labours:of 


improvement of the calculus, by 
as challenges 


by name, to find the-path of a projectile, moving in a 
oa ee 
the velocity. » i quickly resolv “problem, 
not only in that particular case, but also when the re- 
sistance was as any a whatever of the velocity. He 
then required that should ce his own solu- 
tion ; but Keill had not resolv 


lor 
particular 
scodiegeatldigeteaienda tiine ipnaedivctesl 
to gui i resolve Taylor's 
problem, and more that he would Seaphearen 

which T: should not resolve, but whi 
could resolve himself.. Taylor did not accept this chal- 
pre mg solution of Taylor’s problem 
in the Leipsie Acts. 


The new calculi excited a con of a different 
kind, respecting the accuracy of their principles. These 
were attacked on the continent Niewentiit, and 
Rolle; and defended by Leibnitz, Varignon. 
rin. In England, Dr Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, called 
in ¢ ly the accuracy of the rea- 

employed toestablish the theory of fluxions, but 


aglish. As John Bernoulli 
aimed at, he offered 


also the faith of mathematicians in general, in regard to 
matters of at He began the in his 
work entitled the Minute P; But the principal 


addressed to an Infid , (understood to be 
Dr Halley,) wherein it is examined whether the object, 
principles, and of the modern analysis are more 


inferences 
listime tl ied than relict ix end! wed 
of faith: One of the best answers to the Bishop came 
from the of Benjamin Robins, in A discourse con- 


Berkeley, however, had some reason for his objecti 
The very: Guriéiss om 


manner in which the great inventor 


387 


had promulgated his discovery, might leave room for a History. 


ispute about the accuracy of the terms. Instead of de- 
Setitgsaheon it was better to adopt a mode of expla~ 
nation more intelligible, and consonant to the common 
methods of mathematical reasoning. This was done 
by Maclaurin, in his Treatise of Fluxions, (1742.) He 
has there placed the principles of the method upon the 
firm basis of geometrical demonstration; but his de- 
monstrations are tedious, so that we fear few’ have pa~ 
paves en to study the subject, as delivered in the 

ort-of hi 

ject.is considered in the usual manner, and algebraic 
characters are employed, is very valuable, and indeed 
the whole work abounds with original views of the 
theories connected with fluxions, and it proves the au- 
thor to belong to the highest class of mathematicians. 

Before the publication of Maclaurin’s treatise, Mr 
Thomas Simpson had given the first edition of his New 
Treatise of Fluxions, (1787.) He new modelled the 
work, published it in 1750. This was a 
very valuable work at the time it appeared, and, as far 
as it goes, is at the present time one of the best intro- 
ductions to the bnetbiod of fluxions in the English lan« 


ar ane a Doctrine of Fluxions came out in 1743. 
This has also been always much esteemed in England. 
It contains a great number of applications ; but ‘as it 


oo oo less within the reach of a beginner, 
impson’s is, we believe, more — 

- It is to the celebrated Euler that the calculus is in- 
debted for its greatest improvements. Indeed these are 
far too rumerous to find a place in the brief view 
which our limits allow us to give of the progress of the 
science ; even the titles of his various memoirs would 
fill several of our pages: his more remarkable works 
will be given in the list of books relating to the sub- 
ject in the conclusion. That branch of the calculus 
which treats of the higher class of problems, De mazi- 
mis et minimis, such as the solid of least resistance, the 
carve of swiftest descent, &c. was first reduced by him 
to the form of a distinct , in his Methodus invenia 
endi Lineas Curvas Maximi Minimive proprietate gau- 
dentes, Sive solutio Problematis Isoperimetrici lalisst» 
mo sensu accepti, (1744.) This was improved 
and new modelled by Lagrange, and denominated the 
Method of Variations. \t is aremarkable instance of 
Euler’s candour, that he took up the subject a second 
time, and laying aside his own theory, treated it accord+ 
ing to La ’s views, employing also the same 
notation. Euler's writings on the analysis of infinites, 
and the differential and integral calculus, are a trea- 
sure of analytical know 
fore produced by the labours of an individual. 

Adi 


Marquis Fagnano, or Fagnani, has contributed con- 
cident to the i ent of a branch of the flux« 
ional He found that it is always: possible to 
assign two arcs of an ellipse, reckoned 
mity of each axis, such, t cree, my egy be exe 
algebraic quantities ; a t any hyper- 
which has led to some remarkable transformations of 
fluxional formula, appears to have been but little known 
in Britain, as we do not recollect to have seen it in any 
of the mathematical works published in this country 
until it was also found by our ingenious coun nD, 
Mr Landen, who added to it another remarkable dis- 
covery, namely, that any hyperbolic are may always 


Maclaurin. 


work. The second, in which the subs 


Simpson. 


Emerson. 


Euler. 


ledge, richer than was ever be« | 


from one extre«" 


made by an Italian mathematician, the Fagnano. 


\ 


888 


Mistery. be rectified by means of two elliptic ares. This theorem 
—y— 


Agnesi, 


1D’ Alem- 


integral calculus. And an 


een eae to elliptic 
arcs all fluents had = 


lished in 1748. A mathematician ar antes 
ume of it in 


lish mathematician, Mr 
Colson, (who translated Newton's Fluxions), translated 


it also into ish, having studied the Italian language 
at an adv iod of life, for the express purpose 
of making himself master of the work, The historian 


Frisi, who has himself excelled so much both in 
mixed mathematics, calls her work Opus nitidissimum, 
7 issi et certe maximum adhuc ex fie- 
mine alicujus calamo proderat, For an account of this 


, see AGNES. 
invention of the Arithmetic of Sines, which is 


due to Euler, has contributed ly to the improve- 
ment of the calculus, and to its cation to the phy- 
sico-mathematical sciences. to Euler we are 


‘Fontaine and Clairaut; this was about the year 1739 


or 1740. 

The method of Partial Differen ces, one of the great- 
est i vements in the calculus, was the invention of 
D’ Alembert, who found it when he was inquiring into 


ly little increments, (infiniment petits). 
have been ur, It has 
been said, that is an idea quite foreign to pure 
roathematics, and therefore it ought not to be employed 
establishing its doctrines ; and still objec- 
ous countryman, Mr Landen, proposed to la: the 
consideration of motion in ini : and, 
instead of the Newtonian theory, he to sub- 
stitute another, which he called the A is: 


this was about the year 1760, tiie patho bos eens, 


FLUXIONS. 


followed, but his candour in i 7 
tional prejudice in favour of 's method, has 
procured him the approbation of foreign mathematici- 
ans. : : 


i) 


in 1792, and; at » later period, 
cons sur le calcul des Fonctions. These works 


quadratura 
ed along with his Optics in 1704; also 
treatise De Analysi, &c. by Jones, 1711.0 
Newton, ae Lib. II, Sect. I. Lem. 2, 1687. 
ary The Method of Fluxions and Infinite Series, 
Leibnitz, Nova methodus pro mazimis et minimis items 
foo 
story is contain- 
ed in the Commercium Epistolicum de varia re Mathe- 


matica inter celeberrimos praesentis seculi Mathematicos, 


1 


—_—— 


Lagrange. 


Waring. 


List of wri- 
ters on 
fluxions. 


FLUXIONS. 


Sc. Jussu Societatis Regice in lucem editum, 1712, and the 
~ third volume of Opera Leibnitii, 1768, also a collection 
- of piec Desmaiseaux, the works of Wallis, and 


two vols. 4to. 1745. 
feed dete petits, 1696. 


« Cotes, é 
Clue, Tntittion of Facto, 1725. 
: Praag keane Fantataee 
+ Stone, Thy Method of Flusxions, 
The Doctsine of Flusions, | 1736. 
, Le Calcul differentiel et le Calcul Integral, 


A Treatise on Fluxions, 1737 ; also 1750. 
A Treatise of Fluxions, 1742, 2 vols. 4to, 
, The Doctrine of Fluxions, 1743. 


Sec. 740.” 


‘! rinensia, tom. ii. et iv. 


389 


Saunderson, The Method of Fluxions, 1756. 
Lyons’ Fluxions, 1758. 
D’Alembert, Opuscules Mathematiques, 1761. 
Condorcet, Du Calcul Integral, 1765. 
Le Seur et Jacquier, Elemens d du Calcul Integral, 1768. 
oe Traite de Calcul Diff: et Integral, 1770. 
Waring, Miscellanea Analytica, 1762. 
' Waring, Meditationes Analyticee, 1776. 
Cousin, Legons de Calcul dz iel et de Calcul In- 
hagreh 1777, 2 vols. 8vo. also since in two vols. 4to. 


_Kramp’s Analyse des ee ae 


‘LHuillier, ; des Principes és 
Cale Su , 1786. Wi die 
Ll’ , Principiorum Calcu entialis et inte« 
ae Expositio elen elementaris, 1795. 
Principia Historia inventionis calcu- 
. Dafoe et I nec non methodi Fluxionum, 


eet Traité du Calcul ntiel et du Calcul 
poe one vols. 4to, 1797 ; also Traité Elementaire de 
Calcul differentiel et de Caleul Integral, 1 vol. 8vo. 


Fluxions, 1795. 
ariations, inthe Miscell. Tau- 


1802. 
Vince, The Princ 
Calcul 


Lagrange, Theorte des Fonctions Analytiques, 1797. 
eladt aabaw2 le Calcul des Poschisas: 
Traité de Calcul Differentiel, et de Caleul 


Inga 18 es sur la Metaphysique du Calcul In- 


Jfinitesimal, 1797. 
Woodhouse, The Principles of Analytical Calcula« 


tion, 1803. 

Woodhouse, A Treatise on Isoperimetrical Problems, 
and the Calculus "Beeay on the Ti ms, 1810. re or 
ce, An on t. cet various 

S domarithoic arithmic Transcendentals, 1 
pote ete Recherches sur quelpuer, Points —— Theorie 
fonctions derivées. i Ecole: ytechni e 
13. Cahier, 1806. . 
Dealtry, A Treatise on Fluxions, 1810. 
Du Bourguet Traité Elomentaire de Caleu! Diferen- 
“Coamien, Legon de Coes! Dien, 
‘aleul &e. 1811. 
Lagende, Beri de Cale Tega 1811 
relating tothe calculus, which have 
Seeshebehibibd ancien trapsistaarahtocese “societies, 
are too numerous to admit of a particular description 
woe Fama 2 the Bibliotheca Mathematica of M. 
epetentan’ ammuonlehdaiesy  taridetibes Lastserse 
editarum, slr, publ ty Sone T ana hich 
his w. 
is sold contains the titles of all the mathema~ 


aren have been 
made of the caleulus are’ torbe found in the Principia 
of Newton, the Mechanica of Euler, the Mecanique Anas 


Wages Grange, and the Mecanique Celeste of Le. 


d 
: 


History. 


Principles. 


SECTION I. 


. Fonpamentat Pruxcirces or THe Tuzory or 


Fiuxions. 
Anticts I. In the branch of mathematical 


If ymax*4-b2+4c; or if y=s/ (a* bs) if Lim 
yoart+br+ y= oa y=e 


the quantities 
because ae are. supposed. 
to be ies conechaphes chen 
A quantity which d upon two or more variable 
Pree pome a function of these quantities : 
peer wn if y=at bey then y is called a function of v 
x 


giagith debsidend ans-tatetinwel sons 
i ee cet not di- 
recy expressed by tt quietgy:nedl wean auhagh 

Ebatcosting ails tot town: Thee 
the equation yma puet nae 
tion of 2, and, on the hand, « as a function 


= that 4+ this is ee dant 
to x, t= in case an im 
. ary, y 


‘dienes atin divided into algebraic and trans: 
cendental. Algebraic functions are such as, when re- 


FLUXIONS. 


duced to their proper 
terms, or ecient aoe. 


i 


ely ie lo rithm, o 
tna ithe isi ocboaeeetia 
then, in case, y is a 


4 A chiar notions ofthe tatusolie fahatibh dtarve- 
riable quantity ‘ecies be obtained by: 


_ 


ties may in like manner be’ 1 _geome- 
“on ‘which the 
other two, 


. The hypothesis, : may 
hich Pa state of tan a. ps 
. gives 


<ipropetty. with, beldsige’ 40. all tintin 
is the foundation of the theory of fluxions. 


The existence of this propérty re ea 
neral way, without any Fefercase, 061 ao 


examination cases, we: 
method, at least i in the outset! of a 


a, the function u to.w's tae wisndbige 
Srh? + h3,, therefore CoE Rpts mere 


od Av) 2% ren et er 


S343 204M, that is, , Hh ~ Aishoot 8 sare 
wv “5 


. ain , CH seg ners! ’ 


dirtes atau 


The first: meni of this nation is @ of 
= member we ere function 


; ms 


tobe entirely i Sapsabeicecien | ther 
: thas 


Ld See a Memoir in the 13th Cahier of Journal de L' Ecole Polytechnique, entitled, Recherches sor gustquesipehatsiile Aa Whderie de 


Ponctions derivées, Gc. By M. Ampére. 


+ Consulting brevity, we shall in general express any ratio by 7 fracticn ee ee ee eee eee 
the =a thus, the ratio of N to D will be expressed by the fraction © , and, consequently, the ratio of N. to 1 will be ex- 


sin ofthe ince 


dont ae , 


 ‘Fandamen- the num 


i oO rer reve ae 


and denominator of the function 
— errer5 3 os 
+h) =, or, in other words, the terms of the ra- 


or ratio, that is, a ity to which it may 
approach,-so as to afer from 
which we have found to belong to the 
; (pho 
particular case. ——7-— extends to the general func- 


tion C$O"— » being any, constant quantity what- 


é give what we conceive to 
teal mre ng den 


Fonpawentat Prostem. 

6. Let v be an itive quantity whatever, and p 
and q any two whole numbers,. of which g is positive, 
and p positive or negative. It is proposed to 
find two boundaries, between which the function tome’ 


vo? —] 


By Srisip Spee pr 
CaF os Pol op 
ey SFE Oe 
we have a. A 


S 

: 
Fife 
eFeerei 


rr 
£8 


fal 


be-expressed exactly by po",* and so we shall have _ 


FLUXIONS. 391 


Pp 
ae and’ 1—v"= p(i—v)v®, (1) 


Tn considering the nature of the quantity P, it ap- 
pears to have these four properties : , 

1. Its value ds on the value of p, and also on 
that of v, so that it is a function of p and v, which we 
suppose to be independent of each other. , 

2. It is always greater than 0, and less than p. 

3. If p be supposed to increase, then P also increa- 
ses. 

4, The quantity P increases slower than p, so that if 
p is increased by an unit, P will not be increased by so 
much ey unit. Bi ‘ 

_ The two properties are sufficiently evident. _ To 
prove the third and fourth, let us suppose that when p 
increases to p+-1, then P becomes P’, thus we have, 


pr =1tvofpr?... 47, (to p terms, } 
(p+ lv” =1-+040"... +0? 40?, (to(p+1)terms.) 
Let the first.of these two series be denoted by N ; then 
we have evidently . 

pe =N; (p$1)o” =N4+v?=1+40N; 
and hence, dividing the corresponding members of these 
equations the one by the other, we at 
(p+1)e—" i id (2.) 


=f +-pv 


Now we have evidently 
po? _ oP 4 oP 4 oy &c. (to p terms) 
N Fp ov pet er pee 
— Ba1+14+1+4+ Ke. (to p terms), 
Teva... ae 
| Then, as v is less than unity, the. numerator of the 
first of these two expressions is manifestly less than its 
denominator, and the numerator of the second is greater 
than its denominator ; therefore, the first fraction is less 
than unity, and the second greater ; so that 


P 
t= 1, and, PS; 


and hence, from equation (2), : 

(p41) 2 ee Pot 1, and (p-+1)0" =’ S14pv} 
t v being les unity, 1-+-pv>~v +-py, 'that is, 

1+-pv > (1+p)v; therefore, also nes 
(p+1)0"—" >(+p)v. 
expressions it appears, that 

vo”? = 1; and v” —"Sy; 

and hence, by multiplying the quantities on each side 

of the sign of inequality by »”, we have 

o” =v" ; andv® yt, : 

As v is by hypothesis less than unity, we may conclude 

from the first of these expressions, that P’ "is greater 

than P ; and from the second, that P’ is less than P+-1. 

it appears, that the new value of P, which corre- 


to p+1, is greater than its former value, but 
thebts Setiee exceed its former'value by. so-much as 


From 


i*\Here we take for granted the obvious prinéiple, that if a 
‘ : variable quanti from one state of i i a 
coming Dp ob a abi q Agua magnitude to another without be 


og infinite, it must successively have 


5 


Fundamen- 
saleoes 
—— 


392 


which we proposed to demonstrate. 
Since it from Equation (1), that hemp ie 
any positive integer number, then 
1—v? = p(1—v) 0, 
So also g being any other integer number, 
a corresponding quantity Q, such thet 
1—vi sg (1—v)v* ; 
waere et ae 
P has to 
app poses sh any w 
ae af 


, for an instant, that 

Pad Q Q will also be equal, 
org. Now, let p be 
reas but as it 


number, there must be 


relatively to q 
dividing the 
other, we get 


(3.) 
pi poe 
to increase 


not increase 


we hine POs (pd): As is on Pand Q. 
snd these again on p,q and'v; it follows, that zis a 
function of p, g and v, It is =0 2 ens 


every other case it is a itive than uni- 
ty. By sbattating ¢ (pg) fo P— for Posh wa habe esr 
I—v? P yi PD 
dawnt +, qd 


Let. v=— = #80 that » being Jess than unity, 1 will be 


greater than unity- Instead of v, let > be substituted 
in the formula just now found, and it becomes 


th P nI—) (—9- 
ufl—1 
As zis some 


has been investigated upon the hypothe tat ls 
than 1, io aloo trae when et greater then 
Pin we positive Guksley 


We have hitherto su 
but to include in the nla thecassatp “oe 


tive quantity, let both sides of the oquetion 
plied by ov”, and we have * 
1-0? —p Poe 
I—vi q 
Assume now (p= q) —p=# (—p—9), and'then 
= -— : hence, as all possible values of z 
iPr 
included O and 1, so, all possible values 


ovis damaanee DXB DP ane 


13e( eae 


= th llomearents 


3, and so we have 


FLUXIONS. 
Pentmeeh 1, and these are the two properties of the quantity P, 


= a a Vy" 


sy ten 0nd br 
niet, instead the second mem- 
— the elation wil hae the same for a etre 

w , then, it » 
penton: i orhatever, sand p and q 
numbers, of which q is positive, and p oUber ploy or 


(rh =a, ond, fe EO 
4 Hiren 


a—l / / 
to ee j Naettibie 9 ait oS thera 
q » 


cr = mn 


and —— 
ves ; 


ese os 


ne, ti 
, "ut anne be bee 1 
sf Ot | ad at oP te. genta ‘expan 


ne the ratio, betveen nem, soda fa = ) 


hen (24-8). 
rive Soria alo to's: Blah Olin Siete 
the expression for the ratio approaches as 4 decreases ; 


— 


ioe 


OOD, DFO SEE rn en 


2s 


, 
~ 


AN ae En Rt. 


FLUXIONS.. - 
Am 2 4B mix” 4A mgmt debe.) ht. iene --Yese 


for then the fraction =) approaches continually to 


unity, iid a: the bowidnnies 4 the value of the ex- 
-g(w—1) remain unchanged, the function 


fete ee will continually approach to unity, and 4 


the ‘expression for the ratio to n 2*-*, which is 
a limit to its value, because the expression 
ft =~) nay differ less from unity than by any 


pe ey ck x 
have seen for the ratio is al- 
cart toeponarersead 6 lea These two ex 
pressions may be included in this one, » {(x-+-h')’—?. 
where h’ is put for a certain quantity greater than 0, 
and less than hk. We may therefore express the ratio 
otherwise, thus: z 
en =n (sph) (B’) 
end in arder to fave the two bo boundaries «ph tige 
we have ve to h’ its two bounding values, viz 
Oand h. This & another another formula, which shews also, 
in a very distinct manner, the properties of the expres- 
sion for the ratio. 
From this last formula, we have 


ch) n (24h) "th; 


and as, 
fmm lm mE 1 h’, 
on ta (0 hye, | 
inne and 4; we have, by pila 


Teeeiae ats 
ac Paarfns—ht-o (nt) (24h? hh 


ae = — natn (nl) (ch). 

This expression for the ratio is composed of two 
parts, one of which, nx*—", is entirely independent of 
the increment h, y and the other m (n—1) («+ e”)*— W 
is a function of » and hk, which can tly never be 
infinite while / has a finite value, but which vanishes 
We may denote thi smn eg ce 
simply by and then the Rito may Vis cowie the 


CA ane 


ate ei teary ld Sega cos prop dos Of te oe 
= Tae 
tio may likewise be detuced: - 
(c-+hy'=a" +n27"— h4Hh. 
which we have demonstrated to be- 
~ est ead cg us to prove that every 
function whatever, - a variable quantity 2, 


w=A (c4-hy? 4B (x mt 4. & 
Then because ae bat ips ns G(r te 
oe), as Fac Hh, and ha 
z = My so on, Wi 
art a Bd PO ne ete 
taliyaiecHt.&e. + &e. 


CH'"h 
pe Cones + AH 4. BH” clin &e. which vas 
nishes h=0, be letter H, 
then putting « for Ax® 4 hak oe we have 
VOL. IX. PART I, 


393 


a'=u+ 
stp any hence 


= “=A ma" 4B m! 24. &e, + H. 
Here it appears that the expression for the ratio 
— has precisely the same property as has been found 


to belong tothe ratio @F")"—=", it is composed of 


two parts, one a function " x only, and the other a, 
function of x and h, which vanishes when A=0. 
The fractional function 
Az" 4Ba™+4. &c. 
aa" + ba” + &e. 
has the same ; for by the substitution of x / 
instead of z, numerator becomes 
Ast4 Bov4-Se-4-(mAz™ +m’ Ba" —'4&e.)h+ H’i,. 
and the denominator becom 
ax" +b x” 4. &e. 4 (nae nb. 29'1.4. 8c.) hb". 
Put Ac™+-Br" 4 &c.=N, 
mAz™—1 +m’ Bo”! &c.=N’ 
ax*+b2" 4. &e. =D 
nas + nbz" +4. 8c, =D’ 


and we have 
eae wae Lote 
~D+Di+H% 
This expression, by actual division, is easily transform~ 


ed to 
ok 
Sp. ied pan Parmete capone, Wiis wh tncienntorbnely 
ba the quotient which is by one 
other of the three quantities h, H’ and ” ann which, 
consequently, vastishes when A=0; therefore observing 


i= 
As the tities D; N’, N and D’ are all in t 
of h, it 1s manifest that,” bs as capo, in veto es the 
ese espn ns gg Peres a Dong oF in 


9. Nahas ona bert at wtem ic ohiedgacet = -anezhal 
logarithmic exponential quantities, according to 
the plan we have laid down, c requires that we resolve 
this other 

PRopLem. 


which is 
Also let « be such a fanction of «, that c=. cand 
posed to find two boundaries to the values of w ; that is, 
two expressions, one greater and the other Jess than w. 
Investigation.—Let m and n denote any two given 
tee yaad ied iy, Ge beth grocer coast oak 
tities « and 4, provided are both greater uni- 
ty, it wil always be possible to find two whole nut 
bers p and q, and a positive quantity v, such that 


= a, tobe 


For, in order to determine them, we have by the theory 
of ; 


1 1 
p log. v =— log. x, and q log. v = 5, log. b. 


mlog. ¢ 
qo alg t 
Spd 


Prineiplén 
—_——— 


$94 


Feedasiee- Henee p and ¢ may be any two whole numbers, as 
wl duit he 


—_—o 


as we please, ve to each other the ratio of m log. x 
to w log. 6, which indeed is incomm , but may 
be expressed by numbers as near to perfect accuracy as 


vwe choose. 


The remaining quantity » will be found from the 
= ; 1 
Log. = log. x; or this, log. o= ag OB > 
Now as by hypothesis r=b", and by assumption z=v?" , 
and 6*=e"?™; therefore o?"=u"?, and hence pn=ugm, 


and 2-=™™. Also, sincev”=2*and o! =o, therefore 
q 
et =. Let these values of »”, »’, o°%, and F be 
ba 
substituted in the formula 
1 
=Ly—2, 
vi —1 q 
which was investigated in Art. 6. and it becomes 
i z : 
eal aes 
bu Ps 
and hence, 


Od scowls (C) 

a ™(b"1) 

where m and mare, as we have already observed, quan- 
tities of any magnitude whatever ; and z is some quan- 
tity, mp -of an intermediate magnitude between 0 


This formula exhibits elegantly the boundaries tothe 
value of w ; for as z can never be so small as 0, nor so 
great as 1, if we put ==0 and z=1, we shall obtain 
two expressions, one of which is greater, and the other 
less than v. These boundaries are 


z AE ALS 
n(x —1) _— 6” n(xr—1) 
1 x é 
m(b"—1) x m(b"—1) 


They are remarkable on account of their involving two 
arbi quantities m and n, which have no apparent 
connection with the function they serve to express. It 
also appears, that the bounding values of the function 


oe 
are to one another as 4” to x” ; now as we are at liberty 
to give as great values to m and n as we please, this ra- 
pater Breve: degree of nearness to a ratio of equa- 
er ence it appears, that the quantity « is a limit, to 
w 
. 


is equal to itself. The equation 4 — 
; v1 | ol 
ber to a common denominator. An identical 


FLUXIONS. 


supposell os incest and to which come near- Fandamen- 
er by an par a A ane us we have _. tal 
© complete solatiant at a 


10. If we suppose 6 to be the basis or radical num- 
ber of a system of logarithms; then, in the equation 
«= 6", u is the logarithm of the number x. (AtcEsra, 


330.) We have, therefore, from | C) this 

~_ expression for the logarithm of a : 24 

= I rE ede 

b” n(x" —1)° Lt 4 

log. 2=7;-"™— @). 

a m(b" —1) Bis, 

being some quantity contained between 0 and 1, and 
‘i and m any readied Ghaaorer: 


In effect, therefore, we may consider, that 


L 
log. 3 ol Re 


(E) 
m(b™—I 

vided we do not limit the magnitude of them and n, 
but them as greater than any assignable num. 
bers. Under either of these forms the expression for 
the ithm of a number is valuable, because it iden- 
tifies logarithmic and exponential expressions with coms 
mon gion quantities. 

11, 


erhaps, it may be doubted whether such an exe) 


L L 
pression as n(x”"—1), or m (6"—1) admit of any defi- 
nite value, bapa BPR of dee lndefiagende of the at a 


mandn. To remove this difficulty, we shall resolve 
this third 


ProBLeM. 
Let v be any positive quantity, and n any very great 
number, or ra‘ a mantioer preheat pf 


number: it is proposed to transform the expression 
n{~"——1) into another that shall be free from the inde- 
finite quantity n: and also to calculate the value of the 


expression, in some particular case ; for example, when» 


v=10. t n 

Solution. —Let V and V’ be two functions of v, so re« 
lated to each other, that 2V"=V+41: Then 2(V’*—1) 
=V—1, and pes A ae 


eg VideL it Veeed 


its two boundaries and the intermediateexpression as _will ap’ by bringing the terms in the second 
= I member of the equation into a single ion. Hence 
a(x? —1) A we have this identical equation. * pT IN: 
oas\* 7 continually approach, as m and n are V+i 1 Ve 
a mI). vam Hyqitt 
® An identical equation is so called, because it may be changed into another which shall epress merely that acertain quantity 


Pons is of this kind, as will appear by reducing the terms in its second mem- 


equation differs from a common algebraic equation, such as v’—3v+2=0, in this re- 
spect, that the latter holds true only when v : 5 ; : 


has certain particular values, which, 


other bolds true when v hay any value whatever. Many 


etrical theorems, when expressed 
“equations. The fourth pryposition of the second book’ of Kuclid's Elements produces this, (x-+ 


in the present case, are v=1 and v=2; but the 
‘braic symbols, are identical 
=a? 2ry--y*; and the ninth 


‘2 2 
sand tenth produce this other, rt yt = aL ace Lin theme end y may have any magnitude whatever. “ye 


<3 


te A 


FLUXIONS. 


: g z Vl . 
tal Witha Vir ta sbeidgs, put for 7, and similarly 7’ 


: —l- 1 
= for wp and, consequently, ¥ for 


rm tome tome, 


Vat | elt na get Petes 


V'41 


Vi. 
7 Vp then the for- 
mula may be expressed Pate. ‘ 
1 1 
Famt7tt 1.) 


Let us now suppose that V’, V", V”, &. to V™ 
(m) denoting the number of accents over the last 
term) are a series of quantities each formed from that 
before it, as V’ is from V, or so that 

2V9=V+1,2 V7=V' 41, 2V"*=V" +1, &e. 
2 Vel V1 VM) 


be briefly denoted by ¢”, #”, &c. to ¢™, then from for: 
mula (1) we derive the following series of equations: 


1 1 t 1 

g=ptate 

1 1 fd 1 

ar Pprte tap 

1 1 #7 1 

fr aetatoe 

1 Me Slee ahh 4 a rt 

el ge Oa Ge” ome 

By adding the ng members of these equa- 


tions into two sums, and rejecting wliat’is common to 
both, we find = 


ae ae a ™ 
= EtG ecee te 
1 1 i 1 1 
T=) +et+ arta ar 
ky, 
ara 


Now, the numeral series being a geometrical pro- 


P 5 pe | 1 
Pent eee a gt ene — a, 
and common ratio, its sum will be --——7_; there- 

4 8, 3.4™ 

fore, after substitution and transposition, we find 
eer ene 
a+ 

xe YS 3.4" 

a Se + ( t a” “er ™m 
ttate te 


Let us now assume that, 
aV=ed—, 
Then 2(V+1)=0424—-=(e42)'; but 
2(V-+1)=4V”, therefore, ; 4 
2V'= 3 * 
v +7 . 


_In the very same manner, it may be proved, that 


s 


3895 
2V" =v +4: and in general, putting » = 2”, 


that ’ 
I 
2V) — v4 ca r 
v™_ 
and as 4™)= —_—_-;; therefore, 
yor) oe 


want g1_ (ora) 
ve pevrga (v% 41) 


By substituting this value of *) in the denomina~ 
tor of the first member of equation (2), and n? instead 


of its equivalent 4"; and also putting for > its value 
(ae 2 (v—1)*+40 


o—1/ ~ 15 


t= 


40 
ots oo =i” we have 


40 | 18 
_ GF 41)F aay tat on oa 
2 Ul t"’ uv" pi J 
lS GtatS--- +e. 


And this identical equation holds true, m being any 
whole number whatever- 


Because 2 V=04 =, and 2V’=v$ +, and 2V” 
Uz 


usp + &c, v must always be a positive quantity ;- 
. 

but it may be of an magnitede whatever: And as, 

whatever be the value of v, the terms of the series 


4 at : 
v, v®, v*, &c. approach continually to 1, and very 
fast, if v be a large number, or a small tion; there- 
fore, the terms of the series V, V’, V’”, V’’”’, &c. con- 
tinued indefinitely, approaches continually to 1, which 
is their Limit. 
To discover the ratio according to which the terms 
of the series ¢, t,t’, &c. Te ap let us take’ any 
— i me 
two succeeding terms, txargy at's vrai the 
latter divided’ by the former is 
tv vet Wel V1 VV +1 
Pes Vie * Vv ae ta (W"41)?V—7 : 
But because 2 V”?= V’ + 1, we have V’”* ~1 
4(V’'—1) ; therefore 
tv (W—1)(V'+1) V4 


 ~ 2V741)2 (VW 1)~ 200" 4-1)? 
We have ‘ate g thet the quantities V’, ee, &e. a 
Uy 
proach continually to 1; therefore the ratios oe 
&c. approach continually to 4 


: hence it follows, that 
when any term ¢’ is found to be nearly } of the term - 
immediately before it, the same will be more nearly 
true of each of the following terms. i 

From what has been shewn, it appears that the series 
of formula (3.), viz. , 

ee 4). 
. state: tay 
as it advances, approaches in its form to a geometrical 
rression, of which the common ratio of the adjoin- 


terms is ;;. It will therefore converge very fast, 
so dat lactweven tbat the number of terms may be, a 


vr 


Fundamen-. 


tal 
Principles. 


ehyeet 


sc pik Bod DO Wat anion davai & 
rise lae x it a 


ing aly, an equal number of terms of the 
series t’, t”, t’’’, &c. from the formule, 

a a 

‘Spey! = war * = wy 
Then shall , 
o 7 
1 eee 
—_ i” ’ 


Thy eles being Seppe Eee aes 
Note, When any Sere of Be, sores 2 oe to be 


nearly ,', of the term before it, the remainder of the 
series may be reckoned a | 


page mrad 


The formula gives the value of the square of the res 
ciprecal of the quantity to be found, thence the 
quantity itself may be y - 

poieriation of ‘pe Damas NPE —1), supposing that 
= 

In this case 

V = 5.05 


V’ = 1.7392527130927 
Vv" = 1.9703108676146 
V’’ = 1.041707820748 . 
Viv = 1.01087315420.. 
VY = 1.0025899846 .. . 
Vv" = 1.000647274.... 
Vru = 1,000161805..... 


eas = 1234667901235 
R= -0883333333333 
P = Sum of positive terms, .2067901234568 


396 FLUXIONS,) } 
reatiqss) few rms ot the beginning wil. be. nomty equal to a ifs 0168671164758 
Prioaples “Lat ws now suppose that informal (8), i a very 1 a 
Sasi theh wo upen' Gg nghdatels 2: = can only be ex- ais 0000797965180 _ 
pressed by 0, we have v" I= vo 114 1=9, and a= 0000050388826 _ 
s nn 
‘ “ 2 yee 
wo the expression ‘ : ; will be simply, z= 0000003157452 
a(o"—1 : une 
5 ( ) : gi" = .0000000197469 
> Also the fraction —. will vanish, and i 1 : 
n(v—1) 2, v5 Of "nearly = = 6 .0000000012944 
Pau nf 
the series —(= c+ grt &ec.) will go on.ad inf Rem. of ser, nearly= sy. zy t= 0000000000823 
vito, 0 that upon the whole we have this rae 
To the value of the — n(v*—=1), in N = Sum of negative ternts, 0181784264458 
sec ele f pret a = re lA, mg : _ : 
number, so as to admit of being greater P—N= ————~ = .1886116970110 
Seen yiae es ie 
1. tire ag eee Fone “aoeaj EAEOS#BI9N5 
compute terms necessary n(10*— F . 
of the series of quantities (, WW" ec, from the for n(10%—1) = 2.902585092994 . 
en Vie le SP a af ne Oat, 12. We have seen (Art, 10. that in stem 
=v nipch va of logarithms, of which the or radial mimber 


io n(z and) ° 
* m(™ —1) ] 
and z a certain unknown 


geal tote boa In Briggs’ system, which 
is that in use, 6=10; and we have now 
found, that in this case, 


log. 22” 


m and x being any q 


m (8° —1)_» so 058009290428. 
Therefore, ‘th cans loguithan of ay sneer «i 
atu), If we suppose ¢ to be such a number 

2B 
that C=), which is evidently possible, then 
ina sytem, of logarithms, of which ¢ i the basi 
log.z= 
by Nope nd by ae th Napa 
tem. Since, therefore, 21) ap log # tmie 


* on 


n (er), This is the system first invented 


L ig s 
Inrly "(7 —1) = Nap, log. b. ais ash that: 


be 


———— 


a 


= 
J 


+ 
* 


PLUXIONS. 


Pea the number B is the Napierean logarithm of 10, so that 
"principles e"=10, na aad log. e = com. log. 10=1; and 
: hence com. log. ex qy = 434294481903, By inspect- 


Cy AB = age The Pee yee 


ing a table of logarithms, it appears tt that ——— 
3 its more accurate ap 
to be e=>2.718281828459. Let us now aol 


mil rents (F) 


2*1.(b). 
= it is to be observed, that in Napier’s system I. (4) 


= From’ this formula, and the series which we have 
, — tage 


pads ar 
that here gi 


pap ee. 
ils estigate the general 
eeeere tes 


Rie is, for the 


of the basis-ot” the system), we 


have, by formula a (F, 


x 
ar ) 


y {(e+a—it ; 
B(2-h)* 


Ba 
and therefore, ; 
Bu zt=n (<*"—1), 
7 1 
Bu’ (z+hy=n {+i} 3 
and taking the difference, and dividing by h, 


pfu(egp—ue} aflegnpoe ‘} 
h ee h s 


"by formula (B), (Art. 7.) the second member of 
AO Tes bale 
Pret ad ¥(S—') Gy being a quantity between 
0&1). Therefore, 

B fears ALL; 

Stes ico uc aera eae 
please, and and always of i 
magnitude between 0 and} iC: 0 dappled $6 be 
may be each reckoned =0, 


fet} of G1) 


very great, — an =, ana + 


oe a 
and then (2-+)*, 2%, 2", and {rth are each to. 
be accounted =1 ; our formula becomes:now simply, 
BW) eel i 
and hence, pertieke for u’ and u their values, 
log. (t-4+h)—log. « i _ ©) 
h 1l— (24-h)* 


From this formula we see, that the function which 


expresses the ratio of the increments of log. «, and z, 
has the’ ies which we have shewn in 
Art. 7. to belong to the function which expresses the: 
ratio of the increments of " and x; but that the ex- 
pression for its boundaries has a different form. If we 


make z’=0, we get — for one boundary ; .and if we 


make 2’=1, we haves Fy fo the other boundary; 


and between these, i 4 ar of the function express- 
ing the ratio is always contained. Or we may indicate 


1 
both boundaries at once, by this eS aay 
where i’ is some quantity cm, bart 0, and re than 
h; and, again, as a yee 
where H is mb ah uantity eG the a of 
baie yo = 0; we cas also 

log. aesaihent wr ’ 
h =sasri=mte (@) 
14. Next let the function be a”, where a denotes a 
constant’ positive quantity, and x any variable quan- 
tity. When «x changes to «4h, then a” changes to 
a* th — g* q* therefore a* +4 a*= a (isn 1). 
We have found (art. 9, and art. 12.) that if a=)” y 


then u= 


_—! 
#(1) n being any number, and 2 a cera 
B® . 
tain quantity between 0 and 1, and B=1(b). In this 
formula put 5" instead of its representative x, and it 
u 


becomes wax 2(F—1). To adapt this expression to our 
BE 
present purpose, change wu into h, also 4 into.a, and 
B into A, (that is 1 (2) into 1(a)) and it becomes 
sh 
pl) , or putting for the present A’=Aa*, we 
Aor 


ahat=(1 + p. 
Now we have found (art. 7.) that 


(ath)? —z amas h; 


397) 


Fundamen. ° 


tal 
Principt 
———— 


tal 


Principles 
—— 


$98 


AA iastead of hand ¥ for a certain quantity between 
0 and 1, we get es 
‘hy Aye 
(1 +) —i=A'(1+> h; 


but since (: +S)'= a’, the second member of the a- 
, s 
bove equation mE oat therefore after 
14— 
n 


Aha® - 
annie) 
Now, as we have it in our power to make n as great as 
we please, let us suppose it a very great number ; then 
of?" = 
=h may be reckoned =0, and a* =1, and ARS 0, 
” 
thus we have amply a'—1=Aha™. (I) 
and as a***_a* = a* (a*—1), it follows, that 
+ 
ae Aa*a**, (K) 

2’ being, as already stated, a quantity between 0 and 1. 

This ion for the ratio of the increments of a” 
and x agrees in its general properties with that for the 
ratio of <* and z, (art. 7.) Its boundaries found by 
making 2'=0 and 2'=1 are Aa‘a” and Aaa"; there- 
= an put 4’ for some quantity between 0 and h, we 
8 ve 


that : 
« =Aa*a". 


. (K’) 
And as spin, by equation (I) of this article, a’ = 
14A kh’ a™, if we put H=A h’a*, where H denotes 
a quantity that vanishes when h’ or h=0, we shall also 
h, 
have this fonmule ee =Aa*4H. (K") 
15. We come now to the circular functions sin. «, 
and cos. z, that is, the sine and cosine of x, an are of a 
circle, the radius of which we shall assume =1 ; and 
we are to investigate in each case an expression for the 
ratio of the increments of the function, and of the are, 
which we consider as its variable basis. 
ing x and a to be any arcs, from the fourth 
of formule (C) An:rumetic or Sines, Art. 12. we de- 
rive the following series of equations, ‘ 
Sin, (7-+4+-2a)—sin. z=2 sin. a cos. (ra), 
Sin. (2-4-4 a)—sin. ae a)=2 sin. a cos, (143 a), 
Sin. (r4+64 24-4a)=2 sin. a cos. (x45 ay 


Sin.(z42na)—sin. {42(n—1)a} C— 3 


2 sin. a cos. {2+ (2x—1)0}; the number of equa- 
tions being'n. 


By taking the sums of the corresponding members . 
* In the series of ares t+4-a, -4-3a, x-+4-5a, &e. the cosines of those less than a quadrant will be positive quantities ; and the. 


FLUXIONS. 
Pondemen- therefore, putting in this expression 1 instead of x, and of these equations, ont: celoction the quantities found F 


wisin. aa ae 
@sin.a { cos. (24-0) -008.(24-3 @) cos. (2-45 a) + 
Are yer +con(24[2n—1] a) }. 


sot pees eee 
raultipli num terms, 
be a quantity evidently ter than their sum ; and if 


by their number, ‘the pro- 


series ; it must therefore be less than 2n: We have 
now : bis 
Cos. (4-4) + cos. (r-+$a) ... C08. {e4(en—1)a} 
=n Cos. GN and hence 


Sin. (242 n a)—Sin. z = cos, («#+4+N a) 2 nsin.a, 


Let us now put A=2 na; then a= 5» and Na= 


hs as N is always less than 2x, 2 will be a posi. 
tive fraction less than 1, let us denote it by z, and also 
let us put n’ or rather n instead of 2n, and upon the 
whole we chall have = 


Sin, (24h) —sin.emcos. (2--2h)nsin. ~, 
and in this formula n may be any positive number 
whatever. , 

16. By the second of formule (C) Anrrumetic of 

Sings, art. 12. we have the following series of equa 

tions, 

aie Cos, « — cos. efi) 2sin, asin.(x-+-a), 

Cos. (x-+4-2a)— cos. (x44) = 2sin. asin.(z43a), 

Cos, A aan (+62) = pemipte i i so 

Cos. {e+ 2(n—1)a } — cos, (#-4+2na)= 
2sin. a sin, 2+(2n—1)a } ; 

the number of equations being x. Hence, by adding. 

as in last article, we : 

C08, 2-—COS, (-- 2n oe 

2sin. a { sin. (s-+0)+ sin.(x 48a) sin.(-45a) + 


wae $sin.(e+ [2n—1 Ja) i 
As the sum of this series of sines will ‘be less than the 
greatest term multiplied by the number of terms, and 
greater than the least term multiplied by the same. 
number, it must be exactly equal to some quantity of 
an intermediate magnitude multiplied by that num- 
ber. This quantity may evidently have the form 


sin. (a4-Na), where N denotes a positive quantity less - 


than 2n; we have therefore 5 
sin, (2-4-@)-+4-sin.(4-43a) 4 ..+++ 
+sin. fr (2n—1)abn sin.(2-++Na); 


sosines of those greater than a quadrant, but less than three quadrants, will be negative. Here we reckon that to be the greatest term 
which is nearest to +1; and that to be the least which is nearest to = 1. : 


$. 


ee a 


FLUXIONS. 399 
P eal 'g wh Megat > i! hi ~ Fundamen- 
tat Conmemetat oa) ealetauiN ayes sin.a, Segue ped bree, oy (= +3) sing Principles. 
i’ —— 


y ip : hy. 
=~ Asia last article, pat h=2na, then a=>> andNa ss Gin. (24h)=sin. x4 2 cos. («+-5)sin ak. 


Bee tet Put z toe: so that z will always be a po- 
. ae 2Qn , 


sitive quantity less than 1. Then ing the proper 
substitutions, and also putting instead of 2, we get 
from last equation ; ; 


: Cos.) —cos. 2=—sin. (r+-z h)nsin. ca 


and in this expression, may be any positive number 
whatever. 

17. It is an axiom in geometry, that any arc which 
does not exceed a quadrant is of an intermediate magni- 
tude between its sine and t. Now, z being = 
for some fraction between 0 and 1, and v for an are less 
than a quadrant, the expression Gray may denote 
any quantity between sin. v and tan. v ; use when 
==0 it becom es and when z=1 it becomes “= 
= tan. v; therefore while z increases from 0 to 1, the ex- 
pression will increase from sin. v to tan. v, and will have 
successively every degree of intermediate magnitude. 
Hence we may assume that w= en)? z being a 
fraction between 0 and 1. . Then sin. v=v cos. (zv). 


Instead of v put 4 and we have sin. A= cos.(2 i) 


and n sin —=h cos. (+). Now we are at liberty 
to suppose as great as we please, therefore the frac- 
tion — may be as small, and cos. (= 1) may differ 


from unity by as little as we please, and so n being in. 


definite, in respect of magnitude, we may express 
nsin. “by the are h, We then get from the two 
formule, ; 


Sin, (¢-+h)—sin. « = cos, (2-42h) n sin.” 


” 
Cos. (z-++h)—cos. « = —sin.(x-+zh) n sin. 


these others : 
Sin. (zh) —sin. x 
h 


= cos. (x-+-zh), 
(L) 
Cos. (x4-h)—cos.r ; 
et = —sin.(x+zh). 


Observing always that = is a positive fraction less 
than unity. And these expressions are the boundaries 
to the ratio of the increments, which we proposed to 
investigate, : 

If we put z=0, we get cos. x and —sin. x for one 


w is. to indefinitely ; and 
if we make z=1, we get cos. (w--h) and —sin.(2-4-h) 
for another boundary : so that the first of the two func- 
ba always yale 5 Palo a (eth); and 

Serened cos, (x » h’ being 
ome are. wher fy peg Ch Sey henna: 
—sin..a, and —sin, (4h), and may similarly be ex- 
pressed by —sin, (x4/’): And as, by the Anirumeric 
or Sines, art, 12. formule (D). _ 


. boundary to the functions which express the ratios ; 
: hihlante 


_will appear that the property belongs to ev 


If we put H to denote briefly the expression 
—2 sin.(« +5)sin. Pe and H’ to denote 
’ : , 
— 2 cos. 2+5) sin. ay where it is manifest that H 
and H’ are quantities which vanish, when A, and con- 
uently when 4’=0, we have also 


a ad —sin.t _ 24H \ * 
‘) 
= on TF = sin. t4+H’ 


18. We shall now bring into one point of view the 
different expressions for the ratio of the corresponding 
increments of the five simple functions considered in 
this section. ; 

hy—. 
is wey (t4-2')" =n +H; 


log. (2 + 4) —log. x 1 - 
A ~ Be@+#') 
PB LT Aa*t¥ Ag 4H; i 
sin. (x--h) — sin. x 
cos, rey —cos. x 


1 
1h Fate 
‘ 


= cos. (2 +h')= cos, « + H; 


=>—sin. (rh’) => —sin. cx +H; 


h 
and in each of these expressions, }’ is some uantity 
greater than 0 and less than h. : 

By comparing these formule, it appears that the five 
functions, 


a", log. 2, a®, sin. x, cos, 2, 
have the following common p: ies :—~ 

1. The expression for the ratio of the increment of 
each function to the increment of the variable quantity 
x, which serves as its basis, is always a finite quantity 
contained between two determinate ies, 

2. The ion for each ratio may be resolved in- 
to two parts, one of which is independent of the incre- 
ment h, and the other.is a function of x and h, of such 
a nature, that it is always finite while 2 is finite, and 
vanishes when h=0. 

3. From this last pro , the function which ex. 
presses each ratio has always a limit to which its value 
approaches, as / decreases, and to which it may come 
nearer than by any assignable quantity ; and it appears 
that in the case of the function 2”, this limit is m 2’—1 ; 
in the function log. z the limit is 5, B being theNa« 
pierean logarithm of the base. In the function at the 
limit is A a*, A being the Napierean ithm of a; 
and, lastly, in as functions sin. ye oy cos. z, the 
limits are cos. 2 and —sin. « respectively ; so that each 
limit is a new function of z, peculiar to the original 
function from which it is derived. We have seen, 
(art. 8.) that the of the limiting ratio extends 
to the algebraic functions A «4 Br’4, &c. and 
Ac™+Brv 4+, &e. .. é 

ax bas 4, Ke.” which are composed from the sim- 
ple algebraic function 2”; and in the same manner it 
expres= 
sion, composed in any manner whatever, by the opera- 


~ 


’ St henctits chaewe of 


400 


’otme- tions of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divi- 
Peows 


functions we have been 
a 


To the analytically ceeeihie an. 
tended » it will cunvenient. % sdopt, « subtle 
notation ; therefore, like as ve bee denoted the sine 
of an are b the symbol sin. x, and the logarithm of z by 
log. 2, also ) 3() ce we eee any function and 
<FO. quantity x, by the her {), 

‘and bene it sunat bd chieasal, thes the 

i Dee ee et wine 
lamactaiatie, indicating that the ex eesion (=) is 
formed in a determinate manner from quan- 
tity x, and constant quantities. And as, by substitu- 
ting «+A, instead of z, in the expression log. z it be- 
comes log. («+4-/), so, when x+-h mes then J rag 
expression f(.), it becomes r+ 

een cetyl ‘ 


Su wiebe pam E by the increment /, so as 
to er+h; by which the function will change its 


LEAN IO _ 545 H; (M) 


where p is a new dba of x, which is independent 
of A; and H is a function of z and h, which has the 

property of vanishing when h=0: So that p is a limit 
to ED hich the function which expresses the ratio con- 
tinually approaches, as A decreases. 

19. The proposition may be put under another form. 
Por from the formule which express the ratio of the 
increments, we have also these, 

(24h)'=a* paz h4- Hh, 


h 
Log, (2h) =log, «+--+ Hh, 
abe | Aah 4Hh, 


2+h)= sin. 2+h cos. x4 Hh, 
Con tebe | sins} Hh, 


ts pee 
F (e+ =f (2)-+ph-4 Ul. (N.)" 
From these formule we learn, that, if in f(x), any 
function of a variable q » We sul x-4-h in- 
stead of x, h some quantity independent of , then 
SF (+h), the new value of the 


an expression, one term of which pan 
of h by p, some function of x which is quite 
derives i 


Asset aeckr *)+ = MK 
the function p of analytical 
Spvenigntion Gates is also the limit of the ratio 
Se+ 2) p-+H; 
pS ev era ha Beg} find the co-efficient of 
dew power of h in the developement of f(z4.h), 
samme 
The property of a limit, which we have proved to be- 
to every variable function, affords a ion for 


FLUXIONS. 


1. To determine the limit to the ratio of: the inengr Rantane 
ments in any proposed function. 

2. To determine, on the other hand, the 
having given the limit to the ratio of the increments. 


Page & of view, 

is mel Newton, differential 
calculus of Leibnitz. 

Bee ha In explaining the method of Newton, 

writers on the subject in country, 

have scoabate considerations drawn from the theory of 

motion. According to their view of the subject, in or- 

dex. to sephinees Signet it CiNOeE ieee 

mg Faye oh nent nay ere see to 

‘dart at. the exe Inetont and to 


sobre niany Daan D ees 


a I a 
Cc 
A \ x 
One of them, c, is supposed to move uniformly, and 
ao, the distance it has in any time, is taken as a, 
geometrical expression for x: The motion of the other’ 
int, C, is supposed to beso regulated, th that AC, the 
= Eee Se ene fh ea 
ction ‘or exam) 
number which expresses ices Gaus ie 
sitinecd the Lanter which, Ceeer eC 
It is easy to see that there is no function whatever of 
a variable quantity which may not be conceived to be 
in this Sap And it tage that 


, the 

int C that generates the function, f(a) will move fas- 

feat da Sideoaes according to the ae, 

but never uniformly, except in the case when f(x) has a 

constant ratio to z, In some cases it will continually in- 
ot ay fi 


all Dien OO a ee 


te tc, 2 


FLUXIONS. 401 


- line BC bemg e described with a variable velocity, that ding increments, so that the fact, that every Fundamen” 
is always less than V, and CD with a variable velocity Varishle, quaitity "hes ednicthing related to it, which | 

than V; the line BC will be less may be made the subject of mathematical investiga- pl 

tion, namely, the velocity with which it increases, re- , 


tal 
“Principles. that is always greater 


_ “"Y~" than s, and the line CD greater than s, and conse- 


will be 


8 cD 
s 
greater than —; therefore — >= 5 and — <= 
cD 
ca’ 
of every function whatever 
ing velocity. 1f, however, the velocity decrease, then, 
Sarai, coca: Sree Ss be found that 
BC a4 cD r 

>< te? and — > —7: So that, in every case 
the ratio of the velocities of the generating points 
at any contemporaneous position, is always between 
the ratio of any finite increments in an in- 
terval of time ended when they arrived at that po- 
‘sition, and the ratio of finite increments 
inan interval of time that when they 
is, the ratio of the velocities is greater than the one, 
-bat less than the other of these ratios; provided that 
prover mecemacy eS described, the velocities are 

s increasing, or always ing. 

e have observed that the pe ary 


BC, snl pena weenie cue tre Hooves ena 

because of the acceleration or retardation of the motion; 
the less, however, these increments are taken, the less 
will be the effect of the acceleration or retardation, and 
the more nearly will the ratio of the lines BC, CD ap- 
proach to that of equality: Hence it follows, that, by 
continually diminishing the increments, the two ratios 
tA and <P may be as nearly equal as we please ; 


and as the ratio ig always between them, it must be 


ates Slats Therefore, the ratio of the velocities of 


time immediately 
stant. 
22. It 


quently ap will be less than 


This is evidently true, not only of f(z)=23, but 
erated with an increas- 


nay be formed of the of a variable quantity 
fom this definition, vet it has been jected by all the 
writers on subject, and some of the 

to in- 


foreten 
' ish: For it has been observ i 
tannins ince Soll tees SLE ccs ies 


F 
fe 
ay 


VOLn IX. PART 1. 


it; that — 


solves itself ultimately into this other fact, that there 
is a certain determinable limit to the ratio of the cor- 


responding increments of a function, and the variable 


quantity from which it is formed. 
We have found that the existence of this ratio, and 
the manner of finding it, rests upon principles purely 


‘analytical. It seems, therefore, to have been entirely 


without necessity, that motion has ever been employed 
in explaining the theory of fluxions ; and although we 
shall retain the terms Fluxion and Fluent, because no 
ee purpose could be answered by exchanging them 
‘or others, we shall not hesitate to reject the cumber- 
some apparatus of ing, as well as the incommo- 
dious notation hitherto employed in this country, and 
adopt the more legitimate theory and convenient nota- 


tion of the foreign writers. 


. Definitions and Notation. 


23, Resuming tlie formula 
+N —F(2)_ 544, 


in which fx denotes any function of a variable quan- 
tity z; h the increment of «; f(«+A) the new value 
of the function when zr to xh; p that part 


of the general expression for the ratio which is inde- 
pendent of h, which is always a new function of 


‘x, deducible from the original function f(x); and H 


the other part of the ion which vanishes when 
h=0; and contemplating the analytical fact, that 
supposing / to decrease, the ratio LE+M—S* ap- 
proaches continually to the ratio of p to 1; we shall 
call this last the ional Ratio.. According to this 


definition, as in the function 2”, we have found that 
(c+h)* —2x* 
—__—— = n2x*~1+ H, (art, 7.), therefore 


h 
Fluxion of (2* ): Fluxion of 2:: a1 :15 
ome eee of Fluxion of | 
‘s): i aieps ls. 
froma which ic flags that : 
Fluxion of («*)=n 2*~) x (Fluxion of 2), 
and in general, fluxion of {rz } =p X fluxion 
of «x. ’ ; 
By this definition, the quantity p enters always as a 
co-efficient into the expression for the fluxion of the 
function; we shall therefore call it the Fluxional Cocfi- 
crent 


From this view of the subject, the fluxion of a func- 
tion is not an absolute, but a relative quantity, which 
depends upon, and is co-existent with another quanti- 
ty of the same kind, namely, the fluxion of the vari- 
able quantity z, from which the function.is formed: 
We pa! yy meng vif maggd peat re of.a er le 

- an i quantity to inde- 
fine ( ele which have to. each‘other the leaiting 
ratio of their simultaneous i 


of this theory, and the claim of each to the invention, 
a i a modes of notation, an in- 
E 


increments. 
The different views which Newton and Leibnitz took ° 


402 


Fandemen- convenience which the'party spirit engendered by thedis- 


t. Newtonat different times 


pute has rendered 
of notation ; but that which a 
in 


sed by the character z, that of « by w, and so on. 

Leibnits and his adherents, on the other hand, having 
given the name differential to what Newton called a 
fluxion, they chose to denote ae 3 yore: Seer 
d (the first letter of the word) to the letter indicating 
the variable quantity : Thus what Newton expressed by 
xz and w, they by dz and du. 

In the first ications of this theory, it seems to 
have been a matter of indifference which of the two no- 
tations was employed. However, in the more extend- 
a : she adlenbe, the forsh ‘ sp: 

to have been found the most convenient ; for 
writers abroad, and icularly the celebrated Eu- 

ler, who has improved this theory more than any other 
individual, have adopted it. The almost complete ex- 
tinction of the dispute concerning the first invention of 
ar jices and nore pertounty-Gjousattable disco. 
the subject ; more i i 
veries ae Euler, Lagrange, Legendre, La Place, and 
others, which have been consigned to posterity in the 
of the foreign notation, and not yet expressed 
in of Britain, have rendered the foreign notation 
quite familiar to mathematical readers in all countries ; 
and in this country they seem to have produced a dis- 
position in some to it in preference to that hitherto 
employed. We are even di to think, that the in- 
commodiousness.of the. British notation is the main rea- 
son, why so few improvements in this branch of mathe- 
matical science have been made in the rn 

Viewing the matter thus, we do’not scruple to adopt 
-the foreign notation, as sriplayed by the latest and best 

writers on this subj e accordingly shall denote 
the fluxions of x and « by dz and du respectively ; and 
it must be carefully observed, that the letter d prefixed 
to a quantity, does not mean a product of which d is a 
factor: the letter is prefixed to the quantity to indi- 
cate ce heey cee asi oon letter'r, which has-since de- 
generated into ical sign, was originally prefixed 
to : quantity to open tte tartaze ae ”. 

n expressin e powers of dz; the fluxion of'a quan- 
tity z, we shall denote its pecan power byt: th third 
by d23, and, in general, its nth power by dz. 

By such an expression asd(a+xr-4-cz*), is meant the 
fluxion of the compound expression a+-bx+-¢ 2°. 

The fluxion of the sine of an are may be 
thas, d(sin. x) ; and'the'same notation may be follow- 
ed with to the curve, tangent, &¢. Similarly 
the fluxion of f(x), any function of a variable quantity 


,may beindicated thus, d { /(<). 


24. The theory of fluxions resolves itself into two 
principal ia TR ie ions , 

First, Having giveti the relation of two variable quan- 
tities to find the relation oftheir fluxions. This branch 
hes been called by the Evglich writers, the Direct’ Me- 
thod of Flucions, and by foreigners The Differ ential Cal- 


culus. 

Secondly, Having given the relation ‘of the fluxions 
of two variable 4 ies, te determine thence the rela- 
tion “of the variable quantities themselves. “This: has 
been called in Britain the Jnverse Method, and abroad 


FLUXIONS.” 


the Inte; Caleulus. We proceed to treat of these in 
eh i Z 


SECTION II. 
Or tuz Dinetr Merion oF Fiuxions. 


25. In the direct method of fluxions, the first object 
of inquiry is, how to find the fluxion of any 
function f (2) relatively to the variable q *, 
which is regarded as its basis. The solution indicated 
Te et coool: aliply 8 9p the oAilaty chm 
t i ient; multiply it byt i ’ 
bol dx, which denotes the fy -wr ofthe variable wi. 
ty x ; and the product will be the fluxion sought. Hence, 

e whole difficulty rests upon finding the fluxional co- 


We have investigated the fluxional coefficient in five 
different eases, which comprehend all the elementary 
functions. of a general form, usually admitted into ana- 
lysis. As we wish to investigate the binomial theorem 
and the series for i also the series for sines and 
cosines, by the theory of fluxions, we could not legiti- 
matelyavail ourselves of their aid in establishing its prin- 
ciples, and epee we —s na want of them 
by analytical artifices. In particular algebraic func- 
dioaa;however, the fluxional coefficient is easily found. 
Let us take, for example, the function 23: By substi- 
tating x-/ for x, it becomes 2343 2* h + Srh?+ hi. 


Therefore ("= — 3044 (S2th)h. By com- 


paring this with the general formula-=+") —S* _ 


p+H, we find H=(32+/) h, and the fluxional co- 

efficient. p=3 2°. Hence, fluxion of 2} is 327d x. 

In the case of other integer powers of x, the fluxional 

coefficient and the fluxion are found with equal facili- 
. Thus we have, in like manner, 


ed ll 4 (Gr44chphh; 


and hence, in the case of the function z*, we have H= 

(62°44 2h+4h*)h, and the fluxional coefficient p= 
4.3; and therefore d (x*)=4 23 dz. i 

In these two examples, we have determined not on- 

, the fluxional coefficient, but also H, that part of 


‘No s we do not want ; all ‘we have occasion for, is 
that part of the ratio which is independent of h. 
et i eee ee aaa ae By form, 
(Rf hat -eth+ Ce pach+h) i, 
and the general formula, Ads dl clio 8 un- 
blag Piatra ae 
r+hy=f (x 3 
and it will appear that the 2 soi Gnuling the fluxional 
coefficient may be expressed thus : 
_ Substitute x 4-h in the function instead of x ; 
Baler gf 1, vow valve which is the 5 
and p, a 


and Cos. 2. 


I. Let u=z", being any constant quantity. By 
3 


the" topression for the ratio which vanishes when A=0. 


a 


Direct 
Meshod, 


OL Ee 


ee — 


Direct 
: Method. 
= 4 


“FLUXIONS. 


substituting 2h for 2, the function becomes (x-+-h)”. 
Now, 
r+hyao"+n2*—ht+Hh, (Art. 19. 

Mitnch oh be: neaty ctnot asc Laut 
consists of the first power of h multiplied by a coeffi- 
cient which is independent of h; therefore, in this case, 
p, the fluxional coefficient, is n 2"— ; and changing / in~ 
to dx, we have 


Hence this rule, 


du=nazt— dx, 


pee Et eam : 
The fluxion of 2*, any constant ‘power of a variable: 
quantity, is the continual ct of the ent; a 
power of the same quantity, whose index is one less 
Lespob index of the power proposed ; and the fluxion 
tity. 
IL. pate x a : 
log. (2-+-h)=log. r+ zr@jth h; (Att, 19.) 
Here 6 denotes the basis of ce, and 1. (4), the 
Napierean logarithm of 4. Therefore, in this case, the 
fluxional co-efficient is, and 
«1, (6) 
dat dz 
_, £h (oy 


Hence this rule, ss 
The fluxion of the lo G of a variable number x 
is a fraction whose numerator is the fluxion of the num- 


ber, and denominator is the roduct of the number by 
the Napierean ithm of the basis of the system. 


Notr.—In the may 
common system we have found, (Art. 12.), 
- 1 (6) =2.802585092094= , 
uti 


III. Let the function bew=a", a being constant, and 
xvariable. We have found that 
bh 


system, l.(4)=1. Inthe. 


aw" =a fail. Hh, (ar 
Thievefne;"in this base; Whe titcionel Coatboont pox 
a 1. (a), and 
du=a'drl.(a). 


by pire on eh rr Be 


The fluxion of a variable power of a constant quan- 
tity is the continual ct of that power; the Na- 
logarithm of the constant quantity; and the 

of the variable 


IV. Next, letu=sin. r,u=cos.c, then we have (art. 19.) 
Sin, (z+A)= sin. rh cos. c+Hh; 
Cos. (x ates bach ith 
In the first of these ions, the fluxional co-ef- 
ficient is cos. z, and in the second it is — sin. x; there- 
fore, dv=d (sin, 2)=d z cos. x ; 

du=d (cos. c)=—d z sin. x. 


of the sine or cosine of af arc to that of the arc 
(article 17.), we have considered the arc as the 
ma basis, Mean snd conta te Sy Toriction. 

it to see expression for the ratios, that 
the lintit wil! be the very same, if on the contrary we 
consider the sine or the cosine as the variable basis, and 
the are as the function. Since, then, upon» the ‘first 


In 
ments 


hypothesis, we have the fluxional ratios “(2-#) — 


cos, x, and 


==) = —sin.2; we have, upon the 


determining the limit of the ratio of the incre-’ 


other hypothesis, the fluxional ratios, 
ey ROOERE TepEE Urs i 
d(sin.z)~ cos.x’ d(cos.z)~ sin.” 
Or, putting u instead of x, reserving x to denote the 
variable basis of the function, 


be re du 1 
d(sin.u) ~ cos.u’ d(cos.u) sin. 
Now put sin. w=z, then cos. u=4/(1—«*), and from 
the first of these formule we have; - 
du te) dx. 
dr 1=2*)’ and inte V4 Gath 
Next, let cos. w=2’, then sin. w=4/(1—.2*,) and: 


from the second formula we have: 
Ss ee Re sold gf tag tt Lod 
da’ ~ /(i—27y = I—2)" 


Hence the fo wing rule; which applies alike, whe- 
ther the sine and cosine be considered ‘as functions of 


the are; or the are beconsidered as a function of the: 


sine or of the:cosine.: —. 
_ (D) 

The fluxion of the sine is 
are multiplied by the cosine: and the fluxion of the 
are is equal to the fluxion of ‘the sine divided by the 
cosine 


the arc multiplied by the sine, and the negative sign 
prefixed to the result; and the fluxion of the arc is equal 


to the fluxion of the cosine (with the sign—) divided * 


by the sine. ; 
27. Let v and x be any functions of «, and let it be 
p to-find the fluxion of y=a+d 
a, b,c, denote constant quantities, 
Let p and p’ be the fluxional coefficients of v and « 


equal to the fluxion of the.- 


v—c u, where - 


The fluxion’of the’ cosine ~is equal to the:fluxion. of 


respectively. Then, (art. 19.) when # becomesix-h, . 


and u bécomes wp! , 


fooere 
us su when x 
% x Hi h+Hh) 
=a —c(u-p’ 4 

ih =e har ipmep (oot as 
that is Lat (pep he ; "h, 

Hetheoh ieee dg as iabecab bsniatolonbleg 
ence iy iS 
therefore dy=(6 a 


of & 
of vanishing when h—0: 


ut p and p’ being the fluxional co-efficients of y and 1, 
pdz=do, and p'dz=du’; therefore 
dy=adv—bdu.. . 
Hence this rule,, 


E . 

The fluxion of a Cones nate consists of several 
terms, is the sum of the fluxions of theterms, each re- 
taining the sign and co-efficient of the term. 

ekg one fluxion of a constant term:is to be reck- 
oned =0. 

28. It ma appear almost self-evident, that if 
two functions of t hee variable quantity be-equal, their 
fluxions will also be equal. We shall, however, demon- 
strate this proposition, because of its great importance 
in the theory. 

Let the two functions be f(z) and F(x), which we 
suppose are always equal, ‘although they may: be of a 


different form : For example, f(r) may be =~, and 
1 


it , two expressions which form 


14x 


ah, then y be- 


ip—ep’ )dx=bpdx—cp'da': - 


404 
the members of the dential equation = 7 
+ —-- 

1 


Uap be the Bion efit off) andy 


that not Fe then when x becomes 
Se seh) St bers hs Hh and FCs) become F (4-8) 


art. 19.) or as Gis fincelns 
values of z, we must have 
ph pete 2)p'h4-H h. 


(e) tee + Hh 
are (2): 


and H 


be universally equal, we must 


H and p’'+H’ 
se: fs Seach of tea de: that is, 


 Sugtne Pond Ht’: 
aff(znb aa F(=)}. 

converse of this does not hold true ; 
for 22dx may be the ap of x*, or the fuxion of 


=*+4¢, ipo, He any constant quantity). So that in 
the equation dv = du, we may infer 


Let y=v Po, for the fluxional co-effi- 
cients of 0 cea when x becomes «+-/, 
obec ate iti te 
u becomes u+-p’h-4-H’h, 


Petts) 
therefore a A h+Hh) (u+p’h+H’h), that is 
vu-t(v pup) h 

RUA ied oun cotanmiead bel 


for vu; and Hh, 
@ terms that that contain eas 1 
HA, HA, he, me fare 


= h+-H" h. 2 
Hence it eerie ape te of 
therefore u 
pe pe pdz=dv, rac gap domes det 
therefore. 
dy=vdu+udv, 


Hence this rule, 


To find the fluxion of the peodact of two functions of 
the same variable quantity: Multiply each function by 
the fluxion of the other, and add the products. 

If we divide the two sides of the equation d(uv) = 


ve Serpe uv, we have (42) — pa 
Gitak which ‘on pany vendliy nd hie Mexia 


and 
amount of tl 
three 


of the product of any number of factors whatever. For, 
te ape ems 
MO. ds 
en on ; 
and therefore, 


d(st 
Aira Styl 
Inthe sie manner it ay be shew, that whatever 


be Se member always 
d(stuv... &c. du dv 
stuv... &e. a tH 4, be. 

‘aud inenen the Saxton of the Ht ne i 


stuv...&e.X% {45 +545 w+ &f. 
If now each term be actually multiplied by the 


FLUXIONS. 


stwv... &¢, the denominator will be taken 
away, and the result will ese us this rule’: 


To find the fluxion of 


and the sum of all these results will be the flaxion re- 
. 30, Next, let it be required to find the fuxion ofthe 


fraction y= ~. Because v=u y, by rule (F), dv= 
ydutudy ; put — Coe in the second sci 
ber, and we have d v= """ 4 wdy, sai bichon 


saves aaa 
dy= = " 

errnetee oh 

To find the fluxion of a fraction, a 
of the numerator by the the fnsion 
pesparkayrncsy ) 2 weap numerator; culbtrast ties lat: 

ee roduct from the former, and divide the remainder 
e square of the denominator. 

rn Let u be a function of a variable quantity x, and 
again let y be some function of u. It is required to in- 
te a general rule for finding the fluxion of y re- 
to x. 

be te Bese oe 
think en « becomes 2+ teh) Agila, 1d 

et 


uth, ui k for i Ih) 
i: co-efficient of relative be then, aus 


Vovonee ie of « becomes 
y+p’ Pipes , Rising «ana that vanishes when 
cat) 5 od, eee dos vteasin ob ack 


* yep (ph+H h)-£K(p i441) 
| Sy+pp h+(p A+ ney 
But as when cig vas pone gc consequently 
K=0, we soc Ett Bow the loot tema of ex- 
ression, (H”" being a quantity Becdigint ut oa 
=0), then it will that when « increases 
to «+A, +: oe unction of 2, increases to 


y+ Pip 


ter 
to ‘ai 


pee bat p beg ad therefore, relatively # 

v to xz, amd u; aw, 

rn No a pei a he ay 
en to u, Xe we 

have this rule 7 ; “ 


(1) 

To find the fluxion of y a function of u, which is 
itself a function of a variable quantity 2 ; find the 
fluxion of y considered as a function of u, without any 

toz: hinge japaalel rhe pd acre lh 

find the fluxion of u considered as a function of x, and 
ps2 mal aa end the speak will he spe fare 
Sate dave 

32. We now ive some exam 
ein dl thas aia ples 

Exampce 1. Let uaz 4/z, or, as it may be otherwise ex- 


pressed, 3 F By rule (A), d neat ee, 
x 

“Gn ee | 

Ex. 2, alc ab that is, u = a-'. In this cad, 


7 


Direct 
Method. — 
——— 


FLUXIONS. 


Mood. by rule (A), du=—t2—'de=—yertds = 
—~ S8dz : : ; 


ine ; 

3. uma +b/r— crm Rule (E) applies to 
br hoon ral and as the term a is eines ager 
dusbd(s ab now, by rule (A), d(a® )= 


zx 


=I }am 3 — — —* 
aya? amd d (2 j= — 2c de=- ze therefore, 
d _bdx “edz 
“=O a Pes 


Ex. 4. Letu= =, In this case, we applyrule(H), 


and asd (#9)= 22d andd (1=2)=—d z, we have 
pes Q(i—az)edapardx (Q—x)edx, _ 
Ex. La pee a a then 

5. a zm). ta z=, 
y=u". This ct NE Dina i 
as there directed, we have, by rule (A), dy=n w"—"d u, 
and from the equation u=a+5 x”, by rules (E) and (A), 
du=mb2x"-1dz. Therefore, 


> dy=mn bla+b x"! 21 dz. 
Ex. 6. pe Y= ete "Paty gem’ and 
we have y=r u. youd«+ 


_ edu, Meaadiaiet a 6 Hes Iain dine 
vma?+2%, and then u==/s, therefore by rules (I), (B), 
and (A), dumeeazdux 0” 


you = eeey 
Hence, ; 
d 2 
PP aN ey Wan orev nts), re? ot 


ghee: peti aie) e! Now 
‘Seger hets—e ay « 
rules and (A), therefore, after substituting for 
u, d ot (Und ‘ ca alues, and reducing, we find - 
d _ (a 4ate*—42')dz 
I=" Ve) 

We bars re sowe’ letters for complex func- 
tions, with a view er operation to a particu- 
lar rule ; but, in actual calculation, this will not always 
be necessary. Thus, in the 5th example, in which 
oe ae by retaining the symbol a-++-b 2”, instead 

u for it, we have sgt ap baa 30 
Sexier), and as d(a+62")=b d(2")—mb x"~1d x, 
"px 8 Lety (a tqb)-42,0 (aa) (2d 
ees Pooh +6)*+24/( ) x (#—#). 
d {(ax+0)} =2%Xa2)48) xd(a245) = 
6ax*(ax+b)dz. 


Again, afoy(a—a) x (2—s)} 
aida) x d(a—b) + (2—b) Kd } 24/(a*—2") 
But d(2—})=d2, and d fey(a—e) ~ aol 
therefore, upon the whole, “i a 
dy=6a2*(a234b)d x + 20—tU+2ba)d x 


ae—z* 
33, Wed next. give exomplesof thm fune- 


one putting 1.(z) for the Napierean log. of any func~ 
z 


405 


. Ex. 1. Letu=l. (Fay). Put Tay =* 


then by rule (B),du=“* But by the rule for the 


fluction of a fraction, 


dnd (FS 
Therefore, warns S40 


zea) 
Ex 2. Letwnt, $V (t+#) + (1—e) 


1 i 
Put Y=1-+42, 2= Seoayh meee ore 


Then u = i(¢=) =1.(y+2) —L. (y—z); 
of LN aoe. 


y 
Now eedeeuty, oni S08 —dv. 


Therefore dy= and dex ="; 
Hence we have 


dyt+dz_  y—z dx 
ait3 ype Vyz 
_ te) de 


PN nate a ate 
ay yAP—*) 
But y? + vs y Aa 2s and yexy/(i—e): 


Therefore, du= z/(1—a") 
In the next two examples we shall merely give the 
results, 


@edx 


=¢= 


fy": 


and du= 


dy—dz_y4+2 dx _ 
Ye yz Qyz” 


— 


Ex. 3, wxifervigeyhs ;du=—__—__—_ 


Vey) 
ee ER Vee teet 4 dx 
(148) Vapey 


As an example of an exponential quantity, let 


; supposing y and z to be any functions of a va- 
rial ae then log. u=zl.(y);_ There- 


fore, (Article 28.) d-{1.(u) } =a feuy) bs now 
aj 1 (1 wh 4 and af 21, (9) } saei) +74 
by rules (B) and (F); Therefore, substituting y* for «, 
we have 

du=y fast) +222}. 


34. Examples in circular Wiactione .. 
Ex. 1. Letu=tan. 2. Because tan. preren 


fore, dud (= 2) =e dE (sin) sin. 2d eos.) 
But d (sin. x) = dx cos. x, and d (cos. 2) = — de sin. 2, 


role (D) ; theesborn dat ene) in 
cos, 2.x cos.7a" 

In the three following examples, we shall, for the 
sake of brevity, merely state the results. 

Ex. 2.. ux sec. x, du = dx tan. « sec, a. 

Ex. 3. u= cot.x,du=— Se . 

sin. * x 

Ex, 4 ux cosec, x, du =—d a cot. xcosec. «. 

35. In the above examples, the tangen 
are considered as functions. of the are : ‘but*we may re- 
verse the h and consider the are as a function 
of the tangent, or secant, &c. 

Ex. 1. Let it be required to find the fluxion of an arc 


Direct’ . 


Method. 
—o— 


Pirect” 
Methal 


—Y—" asa function of sin w; and i 


406 


considered as a function of its tangent. Put x fur the 
and w for the arc. Then we may consider u 
sin. w and cos. ™ as 


functions of x. Now, by Rule (D), supposing « a 


function of sin w, we have 
dues ti: (1). 
cos. 
And since by the Aniruneric of Sines, sin, x= 2 cos. u, 
therefore idering sin. « as a function of z, we have, 
by rule 
d (sin. u)=d 2 cos, w—xd(cos.u) (2). 
But cos.*# +4 sin.*u= 1; , by rule (A), 


cos. u d(cos,u) + sin. wd (sin. ~) = 0, and d (cos, u) 
= — 5 4(cin. u)=— 2d (sin, u); hence, fromequa- 
tion(2) we have, 

d (sin. u) = d x cos. u—zx* d (sin. 2), 
and (142*) d(sin.u)=dzcos.u. (3. 
From equations (1) and (3), we have, by rule (I) 

z 
1+? 
And since 1 4 2* = sec.* x = 

du =cos,*udz. 

Ex. 2. If we suppose u to be such a function of « that 


sec. w =, then, cos, w=. Now regarding u as a 


funetion of cos, u, we have, by rule (D) du =e), 


dix 


, we have also 


cos. *u 


dx +5 dz < cos.udx 
#'sin.u ~ sec.*« sin.u ~ sec. usin. u’ 
Hence putting tan. u for ~~, we have also 


Rie dz dz 
= sec. u tan. uw r4/(2—1) 


Ex. 3, Let cot. u=2 ; thentan, pay Tr Now we have 


x 
found that dw = d (tan. «) cos.* u, (Baamplp 1.) but 
d (tan. v) =—S; therefore, du= — =< «or 
= Cos. % 
since z= ——, 
sin. u 


du= 


du 


dux=—d rsin.? ae! Ss ; 
1+. 
ons If cosec,u= 2; then, from the formula, 
i = 1 
du= HO), and sin. u=—, we easily find 
dx da 


G0 =a dackens u  2/@—l) 


Some Applications of the Theory. 


36. Before we 
the theory of fluxions, we shall.give a few examples of 


its application to the investigati of analytical and 
ical formule ; ém the principle de- 
monstrated in Art. 28, namely, if two functions of 


variable ity be uni 
i acpaheh Bok laa 


FLUXIONS. 


By slenvenis Gereaiats i 
joan Fete tH. be i inink oF peal 
and therefore, 

a( =a) 


ia =t+ eat fat vee +2. (a) 
where n denotes the number of terms of the series. As 
the members of this equation are functions of the 
same variable quantity 2, their fl must be equal. 
cay H) fluxion of the first member is by rules (A) 
an 


(1— 2) fi—(n +1) et de42(1—2) de 
o>) 
| feat} dx 


1—z)* 
And. the fluxion of the second mémber is 
Dxp 2rd x4 3822 wove pne—idey - 
Hence, esting. Ore expressions equal to one another ; 
s 


also, diyidin by d x, and multiplying by x, we get 
x { 1—(n+ Dee tit 
= © 
(1—z)* ; 


242 22438 44at 2... 4n2% 
formula may be easily verified by multiplying 
the second member of the equation by the i 
of the first. - 
Let us now, in order to abridge, put 


xa +1)2"+ nar tl 
aa (i—2)* 
Then, by formula (4), 
Nasr42a' +3 34471... tnz, (c). 
then, taking the fluxion of each side as 
noting briefly d (X’ x X” dx, where X" is a func- 
tion of x, which may be found by rules (F), (H), and 
(1), we have 


X"dr=da4+2ardzr43*atdzr.., +n*2—"de; 
reer hence, dividing by dx, and multiplying by x, we 
X" eae estesg eat... 4 niat, 
From So by which formula (4) and (c) 
have been deduced from formula (a), it appears’ that if 


we put |—~ =X, and compute the series of functions 


Xamaprpaipaet ice. fe"; 

XX exq2z* 43254424... 042; 

Xa mar42? x? 4 $2734.47 af, . nites 

X"erar+23 24332344324... 439; 
&e, &e. 


where n may be any whole number whatever, and x 
any quantity greater or less than unity. In the parti 

cane Of don}, the forratile-g0ihol banana. 
plicable, because then the numerator and denominator 
of the expressions Xz, X’ w,&c. vanish at the same 
time. We shall shew, farther on, how quantities ha« 
Vig Oe Propety sre to Oe a 

hen z is a proper fraction, and nthe number of 
terms infinite, the funetion X becomes simply =~. Tn 


this case, 


and de« 


a 


—— ee 


» Direct 


Method. 


“te 


——~ 


—dx  dzx Quadu 
as tall i + 


-FLUXIONS. 


pall ie pes jhe Sea: 
ie Cor an a Ca 
Zz te . 
eset tbe phe. 
y: ‘ 
| RES 
a(l+r) _ ah; 
ee Tach git 3723 4-42rt-+&e, 
S++ 2), porte giet pater p&e. 


(l—2)" &e, &e &e. 

By the principle employed in this article, we may 
discover as many series, finite or infinite, as we please, 
that may be summed, - z 

37. As an example of another mode of investigating 
series that may be summed, let us assume’the series of 
identical equations. 

1—2*=(1+42)(1—2), 
1—z'= bet et 
1—2*=(1 +2*)(1—2'), 


1214 )2): 
By te the ucts of the two sides, and leaving 
8 oe bi ee to both, we obtain 


l—x*"=(1l—z)(14+2)(142*)(142) ... *(1+42"). 
Now it et ee ay oo 29. : that EOE r, 
* t, v, &e. to be any funetions of «, if y=rstv, &e. 

en 


¥y 
Therefore, assuming that 
y=l—a™, r=1—a, s=1 44, t=1 4-2, v= 1424, &e. 
and taking the fluxions, we have 
4x3d x 
i-a 


fet Type 
nv dae 
¥en”? 
and hence, by dividing all the terms by dx, and multi- 
plying by «, and transposing the — we find 
x 2nw ; 
=< 1a F tg 
a 2x" a n 
=Tyatige Tite +143 
This elegant analytical theorem holds true, indepen- 
dently of any particular value of x ; and whatever be the 
‘number of the terms, observing that the exponents of 


1—c** 


the powers of x must be the terms of the 


series 1, 2, 4, 8, &c. the common ratio of which is 2. 
38. Let us next assume this. other series of identical 
equations. 
a—1=(e—1)(2? 41, 
- hota (2t —1)(24-41), 
eis(e—ayat 41), 


of the two series of equations, and i 
ae to both, we find «1 expressed 


407 
(ot —1) (24.1) @t41)(2* 41)... X @P41). 


Hence, paaies. as in last article, dividing the fluxion “~~ 
of each Factor by factor itself, and leaving out dz, 


which is common to all the terms, we find wis 


w—l1 
a 1 j-1 ries s 
x : 43 z +t 
n(a —1) x41 rt] 
at ent 
+3 zx = x] +4 L > 
vet oe oe | 
ee am and multiplying all the terms by z, 
we ‘ 
2" = + 
n(2#—1) ag: 
x an 
a +} + § 
ve 41 ety erp 


This equation holds true, whatever be the number of 
terms: but let’us now suppose their number infinite ; 


rt 
cn 


then the numerator of the expression becomes 


of x, 


n(c*—1 
=1, and the. denominator is the Napierean 
(Art. 12.) Hence we have 

be aren 
L(z) 2—1 
: : 
ole oo teh 
er at+l1 vel 
We may give this expression another form, by wri- 
ting ~ instead of x, and afterwards changing y into =, 


+'&e.) 


and observing that log. (=) =— log. (x); we then 


have. 
1 1 
T(z) “21 : 
1 1 
5 er pers 2 Soe po Free 
. av? 41 at4t at 41 
By adding the corresponding sides of these two for« 
ha we get this third form 
1 yttt 
Oi 
4. 4 
-(34 43-1 +45 —l +e.) 
a4 x4 zi4i 


which is better adapted to calculation than either of the 
others, because it converges faster ; but it does not con< 
bb! abating’ whi we have in Art. 11. 

y taking the fluxions of both sides of this equation, 
ws sar the ex cp Mah ali ay of the 
uare zr), W investiga a diffe- 
peg Art. 11; and repeating the pescess, we 
ma’ ‘or 
mer ewe he’ bp the reciprocal of its, third 


highes ers. 
39. By Me RarinukHie of Sines, formulz (G), 
Sin. z=sin. } 2 x 2 cos, 4.x, and sin, 3 a= 
sin, .¢X2 cos, 4x, 
‘ore, 


Direet 
Method. 
—o 


408 
sin, r= 2 sin, 3 x cos. 4 r cos. 3.2; 
because sin. } =sin. 4 « x 2 cos. 4.x; therefore 
sin. r= 2 sin. 4 x cos. $ x cos. } x cos. 4 x. 
And, in general, putting m for of cosines, 
X cos. i x, 


and 2=2", 
sin. en sin. } zcos.f2cos.iz. . 
Hence, proceeding as in Art. 37. we have 


d.sin.x__nd.sin. tx d.cos.42 d. cos. 3.x 
sin.s ” =6ansin. Se" cond” * * cos. iz’ 


actually taking the fluxions of the numerators, 
snd rjocnieg the common factor dx, we have 


cos. FCO, Fe sin. 4x sin.} x 
tin. « ~ nsin.ie 200s. } x 4cos.42 


and hence, transposing and putting tan. x for at &c. 
1 
: ere ie eee 


ntan. is ~ 
+ftan.42.....42 tan. ty 

This formula is true, whatever be the number of 
terms in the series. Let us now suppose the arc x 
indefinitely small, and n indefinitely great ; in that 

n tan, } x=are 2; hence, supposing the series to 
cn ad iefaitom, we have 4 

1 i 
Stee Ft det pan. fa F tan F2+&e, 

This expression for the reciprocal of an arc, 
Bh cote found in Arrrumetic of Sines, Art. 
sg nr ae maar naa owt “et a 

By taking uxions repea oO sides of this 
equation, we may find veries for reciprocal of the 
squares, and any higher powers of an arc. 

40. From the few applications which have been given 
in this Section, it must appear, that the fluxional calculus 
is F peewee Yee in analytical inquiries. For 
as all quantities whatever may be treated by the ele- 
mentary ions of addition, subtraction, ipli 


FLUXIONS. 


iginal function, 

finding the 
fluxion of a function. For example, if u = x*, then by 
rule(A), 4 = nx*-!, therefore in this case p=n x”, 
and since dp=n(n—1) 2*-*d x, rule (A,) there- 
fore q = SP=n (n—1) a2, In like manner, dg= 


by the rules which have been given 


n(n—1) (n—2)x-5dx, and hence r atts 


dx 
n(n—1)(n—2)2"—5, and so on. : 
The relation that each of the fluxional coefficients p, 


q, 7, &c. stands in to the original function 1, is indica- 
ted by heap the fluxi coefficient of the first or- 
der, q that the second order, ¢ thasof the third order, 


and soon; so that in the case of the function u=2", 
the fluxional coefficients of the first, second, and third 
order, mis qtetetiyene tact os ( we 

nal, g=n(n—1 2, r=n(n—1) (n—2 3. 
"2. The jroo by which the luxiondl eneticientsp, 
y, 7, &e. are to be determined from the function w, is 


du d dq 
‘\ bon 5 I= 7 hae Fs &e. 


In these, the conventional symbol dx enters merely 

faction | erin, iat pertrasing’ the operons, ve 

; , in i operations, we 

= treat it as if it represented some constant quantity, 
and so we shallhave - 


eae eT ARLE a 
erate PO 


cation, and division, by attributing to them the proper- 

ty of being SENSE Stree ert and, therefore, aSa(du) ‘a 
ration, namely, that by which their uxions are taken. _du __—d(du) AS —? 
It must also be obvious, that the use of the character P=gz 9=qy-de’" = “dardacda > but instead 


dx is merely to shew, that the changes of magnitude of 
different functions are all referred to that of the variable 
quantity x, which, in a function of a determinate form, 
has the same relation to the function that a root has to 
its power. ; 


Of the Different Orders of Fluzions. 


41. In what has been already explained, we have es- 
tabeioeed (Oe Mppoctent peipeiple in. shel sis, that if u, 
any expression of calculation, be 


susceptible 3 
there is a certain p, deducible from u by de- 
terminate rules, which is a limit'to the ratio of the cor- 
eS ee and which we have 
the fluxional co-efficieni, originating from the 


uu : 
Now, by applying the same hypothesis to p, that is, 


of repeating the letter d so often, it will be better 
to put d*u for d(du), and d3u for d }d(du) + ,and, 


and hence again, 
<aenes, du=qda*, Bu=rd x, &e.* 


hepa ache end das the peed fcies ot 
rst 10n 9 u, 
ml do te third fuzion, and 80 ! 


* The reader must be careful to give each of these three symbols, d*u, dw* d(w) its true meaning. The first indicates 
ration of finding the fluxion of u is to be performed n times; the second, that the result of the first operation is to be raised to the nth 


power ; the third, that the fluxion of the nth power of w is to be taken. 
4 


ON 


7 PLUTON. 


Disest —fluxion of u (denoted by du) will be the fluxional co- 
ee, Soin of 


Method. 


ym Fe that is by d2*;* and, on 


+ 


nth order gig og by the nth power of 

e conta like as the 

fiuxional coefficient of the first order is J", the ux. 
ional coefficient of the mth order will be St 

43. It has been proved, (art. 28.) that if x and» are 

two functions, which are equal for every value of x, 


then the fluxional coefficients of thei order derived 
u dv 


from them will be equal, that is, dendet Now, as 
these expressions denote other functions of x, having the 
same as the original functions, we must, jn like 
i, q 4) ¢ (42) . 
dz dz au dy 


manner, have az = 
so that not only will the fluxional coefficients of the first 
order be equal, but likewise those of the second and all 
i orders. 
As the equations } 
a du__dv au d*v & 
Sas S Fo Ge = an? *% 


may also be expressed thus, 
d(u—v) d:(u—v) 
u—v=0, “Tz =O dat a 0; &ce. 


it appears that the same proposition ay yr pars 
sed as follows: If X be such a function of x, that =0, 


for all values of x whatever, then shall ?* — 0, —— 
ox dx dx 
= 0, and universally——— = 0, , 
> 2a 1 1 
For example, if X r r ee ae 
pression which is always — 3 + 


dz (@—ay * (z—a)— z 5=°% 
fe. opie (= 2 ) ( ett a] 
dv ‘(2*—a*)3 Go ~(z y Bye 03 Ke. 

44. The rules for finding the first fluxion of a func. 
tion of 2, are equally applicable to the second and high- 

uxions. 

Let u—a" ; then (rule (A) )du=n 21d 2. By consi- 
dering dx as a ee Fae: we have d(du), 
that is, d*u=n(n—1) 2—?d 2?, 'y proceeding in this 
manner, the successive fluxions of u—z" are 

; du=n xd x, : 

d* u=n(n—1)a*—2d x2, 
d? u=n(n—1) (pricey &e. 

‘From these expressions, that when n_is 

whole number, the flaxion of the ath hier, b-m te 
stant quantity, and therefore all the following fluxions 


vanish. 
log. x ; then 4, i the basis of the sys. 


Let u= 
tem, by rules (B) and (A), we get 

to ees aiid at __ 2d 23 
du= a Ms #1 Oyo "= aig °& 


Let u=e*, ¢ being the basis of the Napierian system 
of logarithms ; then, by rule (C), bd 


~ duxdae’, dtu=date’, du dae" -&e. 


VOL, Ix. PART IL. s 


de >thatis, Fa = Go . 


409 


From these examples, it appears, that the functions ‘Direct 
aS 3 Method. 
w=log. x, and u=e have fluxions of all orders whatever, Swe 


This_will also be found to:be true of the functions 
“= sin. x, and u= cos. x. 


Of Fluxional Equations. 


45. We have hitherto supposed ‘that the expression 
whose fluxional coefficient is. to -be determined, was an 
explicit function of the variable quantity 2, that is, a 
function of x of some given form. But it may be res 
quired to find the fluxional coefficient of y, an implicit 
function of 2, the nature of which is expressed by an 
equation, For example, the relation of y to x may be 
expressed by the equation 

if y2 me y+2*—a = 0. 
In this particular case, by resolving thg equation, we 
have 


Y=MTH Vf J ar+(m—1)x* b ; 


as y is now an explicit function of z, its fluxion may be. 
found by the rules already given. But the equation 
which expresses the relation of y tox may not admit of 
being resolved ; and when this is the ease, the fluxional 
coefficient must be determined upon principles which. 
we are now to explain. 

As we have denoted any expression of calculation 
composed of x and constant quantities by the symbol 


J(#), we may, in like manner, denote any expression. 
Bobet ofe, 


si y, and known by by S(=, 9). 
n this way, an uation, such as 2 mry+ar— 
a=0, aipeeelag the relation puewenl cant nney be 
briefly indicated thus, F(«,y)=0. * Now, al ugh we 
should not be able to resolve the equation, we may be 
certain that y is expressible in some way or other by 2: 
It may therefore be assumed that y=X, where X de- 
notes some expression of calculation made up of x and 
known quantities. This value of y being put instead 
of it in e equation F(x, y)=0, it becomes (a, X)=0, 
an equation involving only x and constant quantities : 
And as the equation F(x, y)=0 holds true for every 
ible value of x, so also must the equation F(«2,X)—0: 
is must therefore be an identical equation, and con- 
sequently it will have the ies which (in art. 43.) 
have been proved to belong to such an ion: So 
that putting u to denote briefly the expression F(x, X), 
or its equivalent F(2,y), as we have u=0, we must 

du ui. du 
have also —-= 0, —— 

da dx* 

which mean that if the fluxion of usF (2,4), (consi 
divided by dz, 


46. Let y be a function of x, of such a nature that 


¥+e=0%, or 
¥+2—a=0, 1) 

a being a constant quantity. _ In this case, 
uy +2°—a’*, 


therefore, taking the fluxions and dividing by dx, we 


410 
w= 2y av 42 r=; 
Hence, vos. (2) 


To determin the xia co-fient of the second 
order, pe fe =P then 
SF =2lyp+e): 
As p is a function of y and z, and y is a function of 


x, therefore p is a function of z. aking now the 
paras gf eee t we have 


Oe = 2(ysh+ ph41)=0; 


d d d* 
that is, because p= 5%, and P= a 
‘wu 


a PY Pe s 
oe = oy + Fe 41)=0. (8) 


Or, since = 


a a1 
ne Recta adits» 5 (4) 


dx 
To determine the, son coefficient of the third 


erder, we may put 5% = 9P = 4, and then substi- 


F di 
tuting p for “%, equation (3) becomes 


Gam AyatP*+1)=0. 


By taking the fazions of both sides of this oe 
x an 


The quantity 42= <1 i, that to be determined ; 
(i ial ae PS ae expressed in 
Spe ae ae (2) by means of x and y: Hence 
the value of La 4 may be found. And, by a like mode 

See the fluxional coefficient of any order 
This mode of dtemining the axonal coefficients 


%, it &e. is that indicated by the analysis (art.45.) 


It evidently furnishes the follo ical rule. 
* Tet doe ths ere a spt 
4 as function of, and dividing by ds the 
rem be a new equation, which serves to deter- 


mine 92. Again, take the fluxions of the terms of this 
new equation, considering y and as functions of z, 
and the result will be an equation involving 4%, and 
% which, combined with Pepi equation, serves 


FLUXIONS. 


to determine 44, A thind equation may be formed! 


d*y dy 
from this by taking the fluxions, considering. 5% 
any 0 Rennioneel Aa earn me ns? 
former, gives the value of $s, and so on to any num- 
ber of equations whatever 
Let the fluxional coefficients of the different orders 


ree ae Gh ee 


4 = = as (2) 
Frew: die serene by again taking the fluxions, 


we find 
oy _ Cre (1 mey | ¢ 
dxt ~ as gh ona (y—ma)’ (3) 


Or, substituting for $Y its value as expressed by pate 
tion (2), and reducing, 


$b = — 1mm a o) 
ies sides of equation (3), 


conaidecing’ apie wad =? as functions of x, we shall 
have 


d Pi oP tt4 OF +R (5) > 
Where P, Gaal cee ee ee 
posed of x andy; by substituting for > Y ana &, 
their values given in equations (4) and (2), we may 
have #Y expressed in terms of « and y. 


. 47. The piers wisi ay a RRO Soar ae 
equation, 3 y—lmery LS Lihpeveitgse Bc 10 

it as ef Apts rule, Jast article, are called 
Fluzional . The equation itself is the 


Primitive eqnnton, The fluxional equation, which gives 
the value of 9 in terms of y and 2, is said ‘to be of 


the First Order. That ‘which gives the raloe oe 29 


in terms of 7, y, anid x, or else | in terms of y and x 


in id © bof He Second Order ; and so of the 
pes Diagn us, from the primitive equation, — 
yn ees kp trt's 
we have found. 


joa 
sab Kates wuateeet-satompeiealiae 


dty _ (1—m*)x dy . 
ie Gaara t Gee | 
dty 2m a? 


The f 
tive are identical. ire 
48, The equation y= may +2*— a'=0 being of the 


Pee eZ q 


Ce gat 


ee 


FLUXIONS. 


second degree, y will have two values corresponding 
to any gi 2 of x, and as y enters into the ex- 
pressions for the fluxional coefficients $4, 4, fe 
these will also have each two values. A like remark 
will a ene ys ye coefficients ei eh an 
primitive equation of any higher order ; number 
of values of y determining in every case that of the 
values of the fluxional coefficients mto which it en- 
ters. 


49.. We have seen (art. 27.) that the constant 
quantities. which enter into a. function of a variable 
Emagen B athnatare 1.0" i from their fluxions. 

he same remark applies also to fluxional equations. 
‘For example, if 7?= a 2+ 6, the fluxion 2ydy=adz 
belongs to every particular equation which can be form- 
ed from the equation 7?= a z+4, by giving all possible 
va he flucional be also expressed inde- 
uxional equation may be p i 
pendently of a, by eliminating this quantity by means 
of the two equations 


i dy _ 
youth, T= 


yoy 


. , igi 
we then find 
dz Qiy Le, 

This equation expresses a relation that subsists among 
the quantities 2, y and %, independently of any part- 
cular value of a. 
. If the constant quantity which is eliminated is\not 
of the first degree in the ation, the result 
obtained will contain powers hi the first of the 
fluxional coeficient 4%. For example, let the equation 


be 
Hence, by taking the ftuxions, we find 
ydy—ady+2dz=0, 
z 


therefore a= YY SES, 
This value of a being substituted in the proposed equa- 
Pe an: 
(z*—2y) WY — gay —r=0. 
This equation expresses the relation that ought to sub- 
sist between the variable quantity x, its function y and 
its fuxional coefficient A independently. of siny parti- 
cular value of a. 
By resolving the equation y°—2 ay +.2*=a*, in respect 
ofa,wehave — 
a= — yt (2y*+2°). 
As a is now pan pages le quantities, it 
ya en in taking the fluxion: accordingly we 
a 2ydypede 


4 — y= 78 ay = 

‘ When this expression te freed fori the Tadical sign, 

it will appear to be the same as we have found by eli- 
50. number of conten quantities whatever, 

contained in an equation, may be made to disappear, 

—— fluxions as often ge thata ape questing 


Let y= m(a*—2"): by taking the fi 
” f 1 E 


2ay+2*=a%, 


we find 


i 


411 
dy , Pp D 
deme Taking now the fluxions a second y 
time, we get y SY 4p Pm; this value of —m 


being substituted in the former equation, it becomes 
oy td =o 

Vis * Ia —*9 Gam 

a result which is independent of the two constant quan- 


tities m and a. 


Investigation of Taylor’s Theorem, and its Application 
to the DracUipedent of Functions. i 


51. The principle established in art. 28, and. il- 
lustrated by various examples in art. 36, 37, and 38, 
leads immediately to an im t application of the . 
fluxional calculus, namely, the developement of func- 
tions into series. 

Let us consider, in the first place, the particular func- 
tion 2", x being su variable, and nm any constant 
quantity. We have found (art. 7.) that when 2 be« 
comes x-+-h, so that 2" becomes (2+4-4)", then 

(xh)" = rp leer +H h, 
where H is a function of x and h, which vanishes when 
h=0. As x and h are quantities which we suppose 
to be entirely i of each other, this is an 
identical equation of the same nature as the equation 
(z#+h)}3 = 23 ft Ow" + 32h + h*)h, and will hold 
true, whatever values we give to « and hk, We may 
therefore, instead of h put 4—x, where / denotes also 
a quantity ind t of x By this- substitution, 
(oth), the first member of the ion becomes 

; but as the form. of the function H is unknown, we 
cannot actually make the substitution in all the terms 
of the second member ; we may however suppose, that 
if it were made, the quantity n2"—-14H would be- 
come X, a function of z and £, and then the equation 


will be 
kt = x" 4 X (k—2) 

an identical equation involving two indeterminate quan- 
tities x and k, which, being quite independent of each 
other, we regard k one of the two, as constant, 
and still the equation will be true whatever values we 
give to x the other quantity, which may be now consider- 
ed as alone variable. This equation may therefore be 
treated exactly as the identical equations we have con- 
sidered in art. 36. that is, we may take the fluxions of 
all the terms, and after dividi dx, we shall have 


‘a new identical equation; and this equation may be 


treated like the former, and so on as often as we please. 
Accordingly, taking the fluxions, idering & as con- 
stant, and observing that d (a”) =n a"—1d x (art. 26.) 


and that d {x (i—n)} =(k=2)dX— X dx (art. 29. 


and 31.)-we have 
=na—'dx—Xdx+(k—x) dX, 
and hence, dividing by d x; and transposing X, we get 


X =n 2-1 4+ (k—z) 


da’ 


‘a new identical equation, involving x and k, We next 


take the fluxions of the terms of this equation exactly as 
before, considermg 4 and dz as constant quantities, 


and get a 
dX=n(n—1) 2% 2*damdX+ (k—e) z ye 
And hence we find, after dividing by d x, 


Direct 


412 
2 : x ” (nat) #4 (bos). 


Method. 
ws = 
This is a new identical equation, which must hold true 


for every value of x. From this equation we may de- 
rive another, just as we found the last from that before 
it, and so on. ‘Thus a series of identical equations wil! 
Sa eee 
they hare been derived, will stand 

lt = 2" + (k—2)X, 


=n + (bs), : m 


efx = n (n—1) 2°-* + (k—2) = 
ss = n(n—1) (n—2) 2-3 + (b—2) er 


1X wnat) (m2) (rs) HT, 


&e. 

From these equations, » ‘wat vais one after an- 
other, the functions a ie & the follow- 
ing series of successive values ot X is obtained, 

dX 

X=onx 1 +(4—2) 

Nonx"-14 en (k—2) 

G—2) aX 
a mee Fo 
Xone + nd (k—2) 


sear aie 


&e. 

ee ae expressions for X in 
, ke=x" 4X (k—2), 

we find < 
Bampnzt) (ka) +(h—2)* 5, 


as4¢n2) (ka) + pet (hms)? 


(—zys aX 

+O 

&e. 

And again, ing r+-h instead of k, and h for 

k—w, but retai til the hypothesis that the fusion 
> dX z 

al functions >—, >—;» &c. are functions of x and &, 

ictal 2 faccmmenanteie eee 


n(n—1) 


(2+hyma"pnz— hy Sdere See ee 


And in general, supposing the series to be continued 
to m terms, (without reckoning the term that contains 
the fluxional expression ), 

(24h tan he nO) ao js 


1) (n—2 ‘ 
$ MOTO) oot 1; Be 


he aX 
+ 53....tm—l)* de" 


FLUXIONS. 


If we suppose this series to be continued indefinitely, 
then we have the binomial theorem in its common furm 
ocenan, wei meie Sele Pee, Se quan- 
Cal PAX 
23...m—1 dey 

on ta ee 
the first m terms. For example, 4* ——— expresses the 
spate, Sh all the terms following the second; and 
D * Gar °kpresses the amount of all after the third, 
and so on. ; 
When n is a whole number the series terminates, be- 
cause then ali the termsafter the canis den jenwianyrae 
In this case the expression Sn oo” be Soe ht to be 
dat gan OB 0 
=0. To veri 
recollect, that 
ai a now, when n is a whole number, the nu- 
merator is exactly divisible by the denominator, so that 
XS) pnt ems at. htt ams 


hence, considering & as constant, we have 
aX Skem-*8 42k 3243 htt... 
dx ~ L4(n—2)ka-9 4-(n—1)2-2 5 


aX f2h-342.3h—19.., 

viper +(n—2)(n—3).2*-4 4 (n—1)(n—2)2"5, 
By proceeding in this manner, we may express alPthe 

functions 4%, 2%, &e. in terms of k and 2; and it 


is manifest, that the series which expresses each, will 
have one term fewer than the series which expresses 
that before it, because of the constant quantities /"—?, 
ke—2, &c, which have:their flaxions =0. As the series 
which expresses X has terms, that which expresses 
<x will consist of n—1 terms, and that which expres- 
ses will consist of n—@ terms, and so on tothe va- 
1 ¢ OOX 
ae Fa Me 
{ (—1)(n=2)(n—-8).-t0(n—a) factors} atti Gm) 


=1.259.4... to(@—1). : 
As tle fo a cunatangapeensy ote Sealey will be =0, 
ill be = it 

thoralcee 2 ik bs sith as we Tal Gone? Gt 
er ‘ , a: 
When x is a fraction or negative, then X= 7—— 38 
still a fraction, when. the numerator and denominator 
are each divided by their common factor. In this case, 
whatever be the number m, the expression > can 


never be = 0: still, however, it may be calculated. 


Bea 1 
For example, if n=}, then X= = : 
7 hme Bt 


de ~ eet at ay de gah (Bp ady 
From the first of these expressions, we find ' 


4) 


which will consist of'a single term, viz. 


therefore, 


)% 


i 


OO EE 


_ Methed. 
—— 


many terms as we please. 
~ other 


» 2 2 h , he 
th ; — —— > 
CTA A eanaay 
and, in like manner, 


we ney develope (x-+-/)* into-as 

his expression, and every 
found by this theorem, is merely an identical 
equation, as will appear by reducing all the terms to a 
common denominator, for then it becomes (24)? = 
(apAy?. 

52. Ve might develope each of the functions, log. «, 
a’, sin. x, cos. 2, al ei tet the ard pene! as we 
have developed («+/)"; these, every other 
fanction fat oat Aa arty where « and h 
are indeterminate quantities in ent of each other, 
may be included in one general formula, which we shall 

Let f(z), any function of a variable quantity x, be re- 

u, so that we have f(x)=w, then, when x 
its 


JF (A=u+X(k—2). 
“* . . k : 
Ae bis indepintento et ane 


the u and X(k—x) relatively to x, and divi- 
ding by dx, we in the ft place, k 


u 
o= > en + (k—«) 7 
Xa osx A . 
Considering now dx as a constant quantity, and tak. 
i repeatedly 


fore, we find, as in art. 51, 
dX Hu 
ie Bl 
dz 


et Fryn $e 


(k—«), 


Shou $ (ie) +e ays, 


FLUXIONS. 


Sa+hyaut h+ 
te he 
Sethaut 7h + 


value, and becomes x4, we have seen f(r-+h)=u+ ae + 


413 
Shay Se) 4 Te Cosy Mathod, 
—— 
aX (k—2)3 
qe 2” 
&e. 


and hence again, by substituting r+h for k, but still 
retaining / in the function X, so that 
x — fH—"_f®S@) 
k—x —r 
where & is to be considered as a constant quantity, and 
x alone as variable, we have 


Jla+h=u+ X4, 


d dX, 

ae 
Bui Rs aX hs 
de 2 * de 2’ 

du alee Gu hs 

a2 2" dz 2.3: - 
GX hea 

+ ie 28 

If we suppose the series to proceed ad infinitum, then, 

without paying any regard to the éxpression = 


which enters into each finite developement of the fune- 
tion, we have 


du du h® au h3 
h)= ete: lass mA ESS 
Set da! tas 2 + dx 2:3 ; 
Au 
da 3.307 t 


This formula, remaikable for its elegance and sim~' - 
pny. was first found by Dr Taylor, an eminent Eng- 
ish mathematician, who. published it'in a work. called 

Methodus Incrementorum, about the year 1716, and is - 
called Taylor’s Theorem. Sir Isaac Newton 
ve a similar formula in his Principia, where he treats 
of the theory of comets, but it is icable to a series of 
quantities having finite differences. Newton's formula 
becomes Taylor's theorem, when the differences are in- 
definitely small. This theorem has considerably excited 
the attention of mathematicians ever since the late M. 
to make it the basis of the fluxion- 

al or differential calculus, first in- the Memoirs of the - 
Berlin Academy for 1772, and afterwards in his Theo- 
rie des Fonctions Analytiques. ‘The demonstration of it 
iven here, is taken from a Memoir by M. Ampére, pub- 

fahed in por as th Cahier osha leat Siietens 
ique. Itis simple and very e t. ge 
has also given an el ¥ t pita! bee <n which has 
been improved by M: Poisson, and is now ly com- 
plete as that which we have: here » but more 

diffuse. 

53. We shall now apply. Taylor's theorem to the 
developement of the five elementary functions, which 
have so often come under our consideration. 

Ist. Let,f(z)=u=a", then, (rule (A) art. 26.), 


du 
d x* 
ited =n(n—] ) (n—2) a3, 


=n(n—1)2"—*; 


414 


Direa, Therefore, by the formula, f(s), that is, (244/)'= 


— ze ht + &e. 


6. x, then supposing 5 to be at 

and putting B for |. (4), we have, 
bye (8) a (ya pets 
u i 


F 


pressions in the general 
+h), orlog. (z+h)= 


1h he is i 
bog. 2 + ef — st gaat *} 
By transposing the first term ] EN idle 


log. (z4+-h)— log. x= log. it's log. (1+ —), 
this formula becomes 
log. (1+ =5 {2-5 +4 - &e.} 
From this » lati the calcula 
ere ead shewn in ies 
ALGEBRA. 


$d. Next, let f(x) =u=a’, let A=1(a); then, by 


prin) oes 
du a’, Ae Gu z, 
—s As, fe aNe ’ ate 
du _- = 
a At » &e. 
Therefore, substituting co fie gene Beate A find 
at zh 
S (t+h) ora"  =aae = 


Ath Ath 
1.2.3" 1.2.3.4 


+8} 


Let both spre methane bedivided by a’, and 


then changing h into z, we have 

a a1 +Arp AF 4 ae 

It we suppose 21, then, 
o=i+Ay Vy A 


and if we make x= =i a 


+ A* F ond 
2.3.4 


+ &e. 


» 


oe 1 1 
aeSt+otastisa : + +f 
I 
Thus the quantit: a “is a constant number, which jis 
the value of a, when A=1. By taking the sum of a 
L 


sufficient number of terms of the series, we find a*—= 
2.71828 1828459045. 
Let this number be denoted by ¢, and then a! =*% 


anda=e*. AsA isthe Napierean logarithm of ,e 
must be the Jasis or radical number in N; : 


tem. We have found its value by a different poikpa 


ime ting ing Since a=e*, therefore a™— 
qauntity of which the of Ax; hence, an exponen- 


basis is any number a, may 


FLUXIONS. 


be transformed into another, determinate 
robe for by whch such hat er “ 
this scopy Sie See ree important element 


ih, Spon ow tat (== si, by rule @) 


8, Vo» Fethew 


—— = SiN. 2, 
dei axe 
in this case, the general fila oh. 
tf Ee sin. (ex++-h)= ‘ 
sin 2 — hy c08. 2 


sin. xh eos.0— A 
it —_— 
$l sine + coe 2 hes 
5th, Let f(x) =u=cos. , then, rule (D) art 26, 
au es u_ Bu sin, % 


‘ 
~ 


and hence f (*4-h)=cos. Sa ier ty 


“cos, a — sin. s— = 008, 2 r+ sin. z 


3 2.3 wail 
ie he re eh eh. io 
se 9) WH ‘hee pan) geese 2B 


ae; ay . 
eae 
Pao aka neck ahs 
hs hs 


a xh! BR &¢ 
Qh 54 xehb 2S be Co + ee 


edi ai ents of the functions sin, GH: and 
a C4 =P sin, 24+Q cos. 2, 
Cos. («-++h)=P cos. r—Q sin. 2; 
But, by the Arrrumeric of Sines, 
Sin. ab =cos. A sin, e+sin. h cos. x, 


— 


Cos. (#++-h)= hice = Phe HAA i 
From these equations we bxas! aaa 
(P—cos. /) sin. x+( me a 
(P—cos. h) cos. eam #=0; 


and hence, ae 
P—cos. i=0, Q—sin. h=0; ; 

therefore, cos. h=P 5 sin, h=Q, tai ping 2 ine 

stead of h, 


maps Th + +s S7a373.4,516" 
2 Sen he? + 
F845. 640 ot 


; x 
pe Ts ag o.a6 
&e. 


54. Resuming Taylor re 4 i ‘“ 
3 u 
Seth) sup Sth pF 5 gt aves &e. 


ce ge hen #= 0, then f (2), oF, be 
w = u, De- 
comes Ua tha mpee the. rs nig 


ah old ', 


spectively. The theorem then’ vig a=0, 


s@)aU +UA4UrS i oil in 


0 Og Og Cpe x! 


~~ 


FLUXIONS. 


As h denotes here any quantity whatever, ‘we may put Now, when x= 0, then sin. x= 0, and cos. # = 1, 


x instead of h, and then we have - 


- +, 2? ” x3 Vv Ca oy 
fla)=U 4 U'e4D" 5+ UO" 55 + Ua gg + fe. 


This elegant formula for the devel tof a func- 
ila BE of Inte years, Been sacibad by the French 
penne sar estione Commer Irs ae 
rin, who gave it in his Treatise o ; 
Art. 751, (printed in 1742). : 
that Maclaurin seems to consider it as identical with 
Taylor's theorem, to which indeed it ie stvetly piles. 

ce- 


suppose, Ist. that f (x)=u=(a-+2)*, m being any con- 
stant be then, - 

; Tenney, 

ean (n—1) (a+2)"—, 


ten (n—1) (n—2) (af2)"-3, &e. 


when r=0, then u or (a4.)" becomes a” which is 

therefore the value U. Also, by making #=0 in the 
du du du : 

values of > 750 qv &% we set 


U'=na—,U"=n (n—1 a", U" =n (n—1)(n—2) 0", 
&c. These essions, when substituted in the gene- 
tal theorem, us 

(a4+2)"=a"+4+n ama Det = 


HONE sy te 


Thus we haye another demonstration of the binomial 
2d. Next let it be required to develope the functi 
log. —— series. In this case, putting B for 
( Beneneneee Pte) weds 

. u 
u=log. (a+2) ; n= Bays)’ dv Bafa apny? 
Gu 2 du 2.3 


qa=t idea Blapaye * 
of mele Nd A ae 


eaten «ot 2 bedaiaes ; =U’; in like manner we 
= dx Ba 


; 1 at 2 J 238 
find Wa— wu =p "=A & 


Henee, from Dafoe, re a) ci 
log. (a2) = logay + {2 — =. 4 a0} 


the same expression as was found in Art. 53. 
3d. Next, let /(2) = u=a*; then putting A for 
1.(a) oo here —. =Asa*, &c. Now 
)  dacrniyg nT ? dxi ee 
when x=0, then a*=1, therefore, in this case, 
= U=1, U’ =A, iy ge =A}, &e. 
substituting these in the general formula, we get 
et as, Bey Dae - 
ets” as ee 


4th. Lit fiegieen = sin. 2; in this ease * = cos. x, 


dtu ‘ du u J 
Ge =~. = — 008. 7, Gy = Sin. x, &e. 


415° 


Direct 


Method. 


U=0, U'=1, U0, UY =—1, U"=0, & =“ 


and the general formula gives in this case, 
x + 2 2: x? 4 we 
23° 2345 , 2.3.4.5.6.7 “e 
3 2 
5th, Iff( «)=u=cos. 2; then 5 =—sin. 2, = 


Bu dtu 


sin. z= — 


— 00S. 2, 73 = sin. x, Toy = 008. x, &e. When x=0, F 


then cos. 7=1, and sin. c=0, therefore, 
U=1,'U’=0,; U’”’=—1, U0, UVs=I, Bie; 
at x6 
asa zsaset & 
In like manner, we may develope the function 
u= tan. x, and w= sec. x into series; but the expressions 
du d 
for a <=, &c. will be more complex than in these 


and cos, « =1— o+ 


Rxemples. On the other hand, we may find series 
whi 


shall express the arc by means of the cosine, 
the sine, or the tangent, &c. We select the last as the 
most simple. Let /(x)—u= are, of which the tangent 
is «: then tan. u=2, said wit ek (art. yeas 


142% sec.*u 
=d x cos.*u; therefore, 
du m 
Fg 008? He (1) 


Regarding now cos. w as a function of u, which again is 
a function of 2, and considering dz as constant, we haye 


(by rules (A) and (D) art. 26.) 2 =—2dusinu 
X cos, u, but we have seen that du = dx cos.? u, there« 


fore, substituting for du its value in the second mem- 
ber of the last equation, and also putting sin. 2u for 
2 sin, u cos. u, we have 
Pu 
dz —— Cos*wsin.gu. - (2) 
From this 


tion, by taking the fluxi rul 
(F) ast 9, and rules (A), (D) art 26.), ‘we > fa 
u 


da = — 2 4x cos. u (cos. 2 u cos, u—sin. 2 u sin, u). 


_ Let the value of du be substituted instead of it 
in the second member, and also cos. $u instead of 
cos, 2u cos.u—sin. 24 sin. u, to which it is equal, 
(Anrrumeric of Sines, art. 7.), then dividing by dz, 
we have — 
Gu ' 
Tat = — 2 008.3 u cos, 3 u. (3) 

From this equation, again, by proceeding as before, 

we find 
d*u é 
r= 2.3 cos.4 u sin. 4 u, (4) 
du P 
as = 2.3.4 cos.’ w cos. 5,” (5) 
&e. . 

Now when «=0, then u= 0, and cos.u, cos.3u, 
cos. 5u, &c. are each =1; also sin. uv, sin. 2u, sin. 4 u, 
&c. are each =0. Hence, from the formule (1), (2),. 
(3), (4), &¢. we have 
U=0, U1, U’”=0, U”= — 2, UY =0, UY=2'3.4, 
&c. and recurring to the general formula, we get in 
this case : a 

xe 
u(=arc to tan. “= Zt ci 

The preceding investigation affords an elegant ex- 
ample of the utility of the arithmetic of sines in the 
fluxional calculus. 


&e, 


Dvtreet 


Netiood, 


416 FLUXIONS. 


56. atten ihe Oe ied Mac- du _ 
laurin’s theorem, quantities U, U’, &c. haveallfi- de ~~ (z—@ 
—— ore Cae ae 
an infinite value, we may conclude function general developement of " 
does not admit of being expressed by a series, the terms of the functiail) Se (e+h=ay 
of which are positive integer powers of x. The func- anes 


tion w =L(2) is of this nature; for, from it we get Waka — he him ke. - 
dw 1 dt te er (=—a)* rae) ay Ly 
=, dw >=~2 ae => In the particular case of «=a, every term of the ¢ 
7 din ¥: —. Mabe sgwesnts hep ad Sy bey 
position that x == 0 renders 7- = = an infinite quan- grerns eee or b - 
ae Sto quantity indicated by the developement is 77 = ~, 
tity ; in like, manner the quantities =, qar> &¢- an in which the exponent of A is ne 
become all infinite as well as the function u itself. As the developement contains only positive powers of 


h, it could not express the new value of the function 
The quaitities denoted by the symbols 4° $e, bee in this particular case. Waar ernest value, ° 
true. 


aly bscomejafinite, however, when perticalar valussure 0 6eneeslidevelopensent wOEue me EeiaE aS G7 


iven to x; therefre it ~will always be possible, by Ta : iva 
for's theorem, to develope any function f(z+A) into dual cases, it has been or. paen Saree 


that, although in general the function may be developed ee MA oa be 4 
: : : : ° si t, and ed that a be a 
into aseries, the terms of which contain only the inte- Giri so new state of the f s. : ie tree 


4 
i 
¢ 
Zz 
5 
. 
- 
Z 
H 
E 
5 
j 
a|3 


all the coefficients of the 
have 54 (x+h—a)® for the new value or the <a me ster ac in term, will te init." On 
= other when a particular a renders 
state of the function ; and because in this case [> ee Rotictente faGnite, we mas pare EK 
1 an 1 , &e, by Taylor's theo ent ought, in that particular case, to contain 
2a)? #  Aa—a)* or negative powers of h. ‘ 
rem, we have, F , f 
+ b4(xph—a) =b4-(2—a)"+ —h , Sc. 
+(«+ph—a) =b4+( (aa)? . Of Vanishing Fractions, § | 
je ; oa Fa . r 
Wt &e. ms 57. A vanishing fraction is.a fractional function of a 
+ (aa)! Mi : iable quantity ¢ of such a form, that its numerator 


In the particular case of x= a, or z—a=0, the denominator become both = 0 when a pariieular value 
-quantity to be developed, viz. b+(24h—a)?, becomes is given to x. Such, for example, is this, 


b A san ion containing a fractional er of P ps, es 
baw which haa the twofold value be/iemad bo h, Which when c=a becomes > ; however, by remark- 
because the si, a square root may be taken either jn; —a=(«—a) (x 1 appear th 
+ or —: ‘As the developement contains only positive pe Be mt BIR Ane lee - ne 
oan pees of dp SR ES quantity, itean >—Z = xa, so that the value of the fraction when 
ly have a sing’ ue, and therefore it is impossible ss imvfact hence it that the 
that it should ex the function in’ this parti 5==0, 30 IEEE OA : P 
ys: Dy, when x il a faction basin tht ose Fal angnabe value; and 
velopement, its first term u=b + (z—a)® Wecomes 5; we also see that it assumes the form > only be 


but the coefficient of its second term, viz. > ae flee eles Space have's-comanes 


s ia bat ity i xi—ata—rat+a3 
a(e—a)t > aot ee ee great, The fraction - re hae also the property 


and the same is true also of the coefficients of the third inp oe ee , 
and following terms. “Thus the analytical fact, chi ‘of Jooming  elaetedoath Kan ray sdigaerl 
the devslepereset penmet in thls, particule chew ropes. nominator have a common divisor z—a, and this being 
sent unction, is indicated its terms failing to Pe ta’ 
pga thing —s If, However, we give tox taken out of both, the fraction ya a: 
any value, except that of z=a, function is Upon the ition that c= quantity be- 
rectly expressed by its developement. * ned chais Toenticetly 0 Pher ps 


Next, let the function be = =" :im thee, ection SEA pecomasissO, 
8 . 


azc—a* 
Wy \ 
7A: : os 
ey 


- fe 


FLUXIONS. 


becomes 


x—a out of the numerator and denominator, the frac- 
tion is changed to —“-; and this expression when 
ra becomes an infinite quantity. 

Hence we see that a vanishing fraction may in some 
ea eee a others may be 
nothing, or infinite ; but in every case jue ma 
be determined by freeing the mumerator and denomi- 


then, by Taylor's theorem, P becomes p+ oh + 


2p fp? dQ aQ h* 
Tey tSe and Q becomes Q4 FS i 4 TYE 
+ &c. and the fraction becomes ) , 

dP dP he ; 
2 Cat lk alee 
dQ, @Qh 
Qt ae hase th 
E dP @P 


Let us denote the fluxional coefficients 7—, ie 


qQd 
briefly by P’, P*, &e. and 52, TR, ge by @, @, 
&c. then observing that when x = a, P= 0, Q=0, 
have, after dividing by h, pen ~ oh 


P’443P"h+&e. 

TOTP 
for the new value of the Vy sae If we make h=0, 
this expression becomes simply &, which must be the 
value of the fraction slit wai liislite it is evi. 


dently the same thing to sw first, that z= 2+h, 
and afterwards Ridess h=0, as to cappoan' ti 


once that z=a. If it happen that one of the two quan- 
tities P’, Q’, is equal to 0, then the fraction —-is either 
nothing, or infinite ; but if both are =0, then, after re- 
jecting P’ and Q’ from the neral expression, and di- 
viding again by h, we have @ for the value of the frac« 
tion, in the case of xa; and so on. Hence this rule. 


To find the value of; 4 fraction which becomes © 
when r=a. Divide the fluxion of the numerator by 


that of the denominator, let the result be ai then if 
this expression does not beeome +, when a is substitu. 
ted for x, it is the value sought ; but if it does treat this 


in all respects as the ether was treated, dedu- 


VOL, IX, PART 11, 


417 


Direct 


cing from it a new fraction Z, and proceed in this man- Method. 


ner, until an expression be found which does not become 
© by the substitution of a for «; and the first expres- 


sion that occurs havin this property is the value sought. 
Ex. 1. The sum of terms of the series 14-24 .2°+4- 


—tl 
23+&c, is 


z—1 : Jf we suppose x= 1, this expres 


o- 
sion becomes —-. It is required to find in that case its va~ 


lue. Here P=2"—1, Q=x—1, therefore d P=n2"—) dz, 
dP nat pr 
dQ=dz, and aa" a oO 


Q” 
when 1 is put for x, becomes + =n, which is the value 


This expression, 


sought, as is otherwise sufficiently evident. 


ax*+actk—2acr ¥ 
Ex. 2. Let the fraction be b—2bcap bor? Wed 
0 


becomes —- when x=c. In this case, 


Spe amisddas dQ= (26 2—2 bc) dx, 
dP _az—ac 


dQ ~ ba—be~ BY 
This fraction =, becomes also, when «= c, there. 
fore, ing as before, dP’=adz; dQ’=bdz; 
and Jey => Which is the value sought. 
a —}* 


Ex. 3. The fraction 
Here 


dP= fa", (a)—8" 1. @} dz; dQ=dz; 


al. (a)—b' 1, b)_ Pr 
dQ~ Q” 

Pr a ‘ 
when # = 0, 7; becomes L. (a)—1. (8) = 1+) which 
se ae if 

59. tule of Jast article will not in iy 
it Taylor's theorem does not give the dev: gl 
the ions P, Q in the case of =a. When this hap~ 
ro ey substitute a+-/, instead of 2, in the frace 
tion Q° and develope the numerator and denominator 
into ascending series of the form A k"4.B k*4.Ch? 4 
&e. A’A™ 4 Bh” + Ch?’ 4 &. We have then, 
instead of Z, this other fraction, 

AI4BR+C iP &e, ' 
Al} 4B" 4ChP’ +. &e,” 
or, dividing the numerator and denominator by jm’, 
Ale” + Biles CHP" 4. Be. 
A+B "5 CH=" > Be, 

Under this form, it is to see, that if m be greater 
than m’, the supposition A=0, makes the. frac. 
tion =0 ; weparaeteten > 6 the same supposition re. 
duces the fraction to 473 because whatever be the va- 
lue of h, h™—"’ = h°=1; lastly, if m be less than m’, so 
that m—m’ is ive, then, when h=0, the fraction 
becomes infinite, Hence this rule, 

A 36 


becomes ©- when «= 0; 


PLATE 
CcLy. 


Fig. 1. 


wi —tas* +7 a2—2a) —2 a's/ (20 2—a%) 
—2ar—a* 4 2ay/ ( 2ar—r*) 
and let its <minaeianes When @+h is 
substituted for x, the fraction becomes 


re er a 
+ a (a—h 


Stow Ieyhe Gnenilel yg ONTOS 
Me 2ah)aph— Ep To Be, 


i? “ie 
RIE LL 
When these series are substituted for the radical quan- 
les adh fo peodacpe), wage -abadeeemeae 


the fraction. 
60. If P and Q are funetions of x, such that when 
sa, then P=0, and Q= infinity, which is expressed 
by the character , it may be to find va- 
tha gfe peeing {Pt, e t R ae ae Put R= 


ae See OAS ae Rae Se 


make R=—0; and as PQ=4, the value. of x, which 


makes PQ=0x #, will make f= 2. The. problem 
may therefore-be resolved by the rules of ait. 58, and 
art. 59. 

Ex. Supposing " 1p stan. (dbo , and « any 
arc, 2 yg 1—x) x‘tan. (42) becomes 0 x 
when z= 1.  emrrad = tan.(422), R= 


ee (42), and— “y= = sates) when z=} this 


Q 

expression becomes Now dP =—dz, and dR 
d 

sm Ay (att 30), Hence in the case of «=1, 


2 
we have-Sp-=-— for the value of the expression 


(1—) tan. (} #2). 


Of the Greatest and Least Values of a Function. 


61. Ify be a function of a variable quantity x, of 
such a nature, that x being supposed to increase or de- 
crease continually, y increases to a certain value, but af- 
terwards : when y has‘that extreme value, it 
is said to be a maximum. , on the other hand, if y 
decrease to a certain value, and then increase ; when it 
has that particular value, it is said to be a minimwn. 
The co-ordinates of a curve par conveseaeiy tis 

relative changes of magnitude 
q , and any function of that quanti- 
Tm Plate cel, Fig. 1. ‘T let CQD be a curve, re | 
to an axis AB, such that, if any abscissa AP all 


© For, supposing the series to be tt. 
the same ; bi theenpreiong trate 
&e.) un any tatio of inequality whatever. 


5 


-term y becomes, by 


po abt mont oy t under this form 
and may be less than any thing mg 


FLUXIONS. 


between Q’ 
again between Q” and Q’", and returns to. 
wards the axis in the branch QD ; and so on. Suppose 
now the ordinate to move to itself from C 
along the axis, it increase from C to Q’: in the po- 
sition P°QY, it will be a maximum; then it will decrease, 
peared eweelfh Mae be a minimum ; after- 
wards it will increase, and be a mazimum in the 
position P'’’Q’”, and so on ; so that it may have vari- 


the values which or which immediate~ 
ly follow it, are smaller ; on the the minimum is 
exceeded by the values which precede and fol- 


62... It is an immediate consequence of this character- 
istic property, that if a be the value of x, which renders 


will both be less than a maximum va- 
Ios, oF tsa hans, endl both qrertes ter than a minimum 
value ; but when this substitution is made, the first 
the maximum or mini- 


alae Coa Therefore, in the case of a maximum, we 
must have 
* pay dy Ws 


y HP 
y—Z Hag FL 


sia Gai G Wed neat 


ae <—¥? 


and similarly ‘in the case of a minimum, 
“) 


+ ein Ze 4 ae astie a 
2 
— Hi. ties as Te ggtee oe 


thprit + &e) ——— remains 
$ therefore, ph may exceed hgh pr A? 


FLUXIONS. 


its first term, provided that SY, the coeficient off in that 
term, is not aia its. hem. fhe, term itpel maul base 
now this must really be the case, that is, G/ must be =0; 
for were it otherwise, h might be taken-so small, that 
one of each pair of series (A), (B) would be a positive, 
and the other a negative quantity, and the same would 
also be true for every smaller value of 4. But this 
would not accord with the nature of a maximum or mi= 
nimum, which requires, that, .in the first case, the two 
series should be both less than 0; and that, in the se- 
cond, they should be greater than 0: therefore, when 
the function y is a maximum or minimum, we must hav 


dy_o ; and then it will follow, that in the former- case, 


dx 
te Gt 5c co. 
BER Bhd heen 
and in the latter, : 
qe et ae et ae utero 
is @ ae 6 tae oO 


In all these series, the sign of the first term is the 
same ; therefore, when h is a very small quantity, so 
that the amount of all the terms after the first is incom- 
ee ee tee a 
in pair will have the same sign as they ought, and 
this will also be true for every smaller value of h. More- 
over, as in the case of'a maximum, each series must be 


<<.0, therefore 77s, the coefficient of the first term, 
must be a negative quantity. In the case of a minimum, 
however, eachseries is 0, and therefore 4 must be 
positive. 

If, however, the substitution of a for x in the deve- 
lopements makes not only $Y — 0, but also $2 =0; 
then, to satisfy the condition of the maximum, we must 


have 
+52 M+ SY ™ 4 80.20, 
and in the case of the minimum, 
oy By AYE geo, 
Te ae 


By. ing the same train of reasoning as before, it 
ill abpear, that thediccatitionsieanalte, be entoted 
when we haye also “+2, = 0; and 20 on. 

63. Upon the whole, it appears that when y, an 
Retantigin Oa cinglé varidhle quailty 4 te’ itstinns 


or minimum, then 4 = 0; and that if the value of x, 
determined from this equation , make 7% a negative 


419 


quantity, the function y is a maximum ; but if it bea 
positive’ quantity, then y is a minimum. If, however, 


this value of x render Sa =0; then, unless at the 
5. 
same time it make zt} =0, the function can neither 


& 
be a maximum nora minimum. If we have a = 0, the 


dt 
function y will be a maximum when 9 is negative, 


and a minimum when this expression is positive ; and 
so on, the first fluxional coefficient which does not va~ 
nish, being always of an even order when y can have a 
maximum or minimum value, 
_ The correct theory of maxima and minima, was first 
given by Maclaurin in his Fluxions, Book.I. chap. 9. 
Examp.e 1. To divide a right line into two such 
le contained by its segments shall 


parte, that the Bt 
e ear possible. 

Let the whole line be a, and one of its segments 2 ; 
then the other will be a—x; and the rectangle, x«(a—w) 
=ax—z2*. Therefore, we must have y=ax— 2%, a 
ay hence, by the general rule, 

i= a—2x=0. 
This equation gives c—=}a, Moreover, since we have 
<i —2, a negative quantity, we infer that the va- 
lue x = }a corresponds: to a maximum ; which is also 
easily st upon other princip] 
“ane 2. To find the ee exceeds its cube by 

greatest quantity possi 

Let x be the fraction, then we must give such a va- 
lue to #, that y=x—z shall be a maximum. In this 
case, 

dy 


dz = 132° =05: 


Pt , 
therefore, v—=—t4/+. And.since cJ=—6e= = 6/5, 


it follows from the rule, that the maximum value of the 
function corresponds to a=+/5; but it has also a mi- 


ween salen Corse Ae ve 
Ex. 3. To determine greatest rectangle that can 
be inscribed in a given triangle. 

Let ABC (Fig. 2. Plate 

le, and E Gii the 
scribed in it. Draw 
EF inG. Put BC=a; 
of the le EFGH=y. By similar triangles, 
BC: AD::EF:AG; ba is, a:b:: ae: AG; hence, 
r 


=O) snd DG X EF= 
a a ‘ 


4 
ive x—x*)=y, therefore, 


dy_4& 

er oe z)=0; . 

hence a=2 2, and z=}<a. The altitude of the rectangle 

is therefore half that of the triangle. ; 
64. When the quantity which is to bea maximum or 

minimum is:multiplied or divided by any constant quan- 

tity, pre: rc may be rej : Thus we may re-~ 

ject —, and make y=a«—2*; which will lead to the 

same result.. In , when-a variable function is 

the greatest or least possible, any constant multiple or 


CLV.) be the given tri- Prater 
- SaypRamlab 4 that can be in. CCLV. 


perpendicular AD meeting F's: * 
—b ; EF=z; and the area 


420 
nswet part of that function, also any constant, or root 
Method of it, will be the greatest or least In some 
cases, it may be convenient to remark, that when a 


Fig. 3 


Pig. 4 


Fig. 6. 


quantity 
or decreases. 
all ri r fin te 
ee oe Mol at which has the grestest aren 
Let ABC be the triangle (Fig¢) 25 pe ae ae 
a; AB=-x; 


bp & AC= the 
— , because by 9 Pe en Be pee Fa 
het nas), "we have ya deyo—), and hence 

ao of « may be found as in the former examples. 
Or, paige eta carte and find x, so that the 
@—z*), may be a mazi- 

= (art. 64.), so that putting y/ = a? (a? — 2°), we 

ve 
4 = 2a? x—42'=0. 


Hence 2° = «from which it appears that the sides 
about the ri angle are equal n this, as in the pre- 
i nature of the question excludes 
of a minimum. 

as yd To determine the dimensions of a cylindric 
at the top, which shall contain a given 
iquor, grain, lias ass esrb 
le. 


ABCD be the measure (Fig. 4.) ; 
peace cpa the depth AB=v; the num ~— ex- 
rac circumference of a circle, of which the di- 
ity, via. 3.14159": and let ¢ be the con- 
tent of the ey 


a - Then, geometry, wa is the 

ray woes Aprons yep 

Src ofthe pine. penser Foe AN I 
== | and the solid content is =>" ; which being made 
©; this value of » being put inthe Yrq— 


+ 
expression for the concave surface, it becomes ——; 


oe the whole internal surface of ud ey/thiter i is 
Sei > which being denoted by y, we have 


c 
“rea 
8c 
=3 
Frm the it thee uty we get e#3= 
shige nee 9 eer 
we have found for x? cor- 


repo to mii ( (art. 62.) Now, since 
=8c, and x2*u=4c; we have r23=2 x 2* v, an 


hence 2=2v ; thus it appears peng ene 
base must be exactly double the depth of the measure ; 


=c, we find v= 


dy —_ 
dz” 
a 


8c, 


to be its 
the Fi 
v4 ee ee 


FLUXIONS.” 


of the distance from the point : therefore, the 
efoct of the ead to lumina te pane at A maybe Me 


expressed by “rt. Put a CAB 


in. CAB __2(1 bee a 

Ar = ; and s0, rejecting the constant 
divisor a?, we have y=x(1— 2?) =r —2*: Now we 
have already found (in Ex. 2.), this function is a 


pang ate em: dre Ape 1:.71 nearly ; there- 
fore, BC=8.5 inches, 

Ex. 7. To find the position of the Venus in 
respect of the earth and the sun, when the area of the 
peg nay tyros ep ey em 
Sun, 

Va aed VE pemepticses 
to VS and VE, The illuminated surface of Venus is. 
the céa; but of this, only the part ba 
is turned towards the Earth, Ba gto ASE oor boa 
nous crescent contained between half circumference 
of the disk and a semiellipse ; the breadth of the cres- 


Sr temas dean ev wena 
a, bei e angle a is to 
ig, tangle DVE; therefore, the breadth of the crescent 


Sres th besa tect tee ouighe ae Now, b vo 
nature of the the area of the crescent will 


iene 


nae" some 
Put “pat SVna a VE=z ; then, by eapegenin 


cos, SVE ="+2—"" Let y denote the apparent 
Wo then, from what has been shewn, we 
ve 
_ (a+? + 2a2—H) 
2ax3 , 
therefore, shige fluxions, 
a. c(3 #3 a®—4 a x—2*)_ 
Raz 
Hence we « o 
244a2=3(b*—0"), 
a quadratic which gives 


=e of bls 
8. To tion of a stral, or lb 
when it rests in ar - id one end 


upon & prop, 


E the Earth, and the Fig: 6, 


Pig, 6 


FLUXIONS. 


prop, AB th beam which touches the wall at B, 
pact eth at P, Let C be the centre of 
ity of the beam. P draw the 
DE, and draw CD perpendicular to DE. Put 
PE=a, CB=, these are given quantities ; also, put 
eh ee 
ust . 
ig similar ah peBC : DE:: PC: PD; that is, 
b:a+ax::/(a*+y*): 2; Hence, 
: (ata? (4 y) =P, 
and taking the fluxions, phere Be he 
(a2) (28-49%) + (+2)? (=+y fae. 
Because y is a maximum, dy =o, therefore this last 
equation may be abbreviated to 
(e+2) (2° +9") +2(a+2)=h2. 
When we have elimi z*4y*, by this and the first 
equation, we 
(a+-z)i=a b*, 
Hence -z is determined. 


In this example, as well as in some others, for the 
sake of brevity, we have assumed the possibility of the 
uantity y having a maximum, as it 1s sufficiently in- 
dicated by the nature of the question. For, 
P the of su to be between, C and 
if B, the end of 
FE 


in. esploving this theory, we have only con-« 
sidered functions of a single variable quantity. When 


Ww 


= 
3 
S 
ll 
4 


pet ry plete ag Fonctions Analytiques, No. 160; 
to ix’s Traite du Caleul Differentiel, Vol. 1. 


Method of Tangents 
67. Let CPD be any curve referred to an axis AB, 
(Fig. 8.) and let PQ, P’Q’ be two consecutive ordi- 


hates, and AQ, AQ’ the corresponding abscissee, A be- 


value of y corresponding to x+/ ; therefore, 
d yl? By is 
PQ st i+ Tasty ggt &e- and 
8854 CY BE _PE wy 
Bvnde aah ES SE FE ete 
—pE 8 the trigonometrical expression for 
the tangent of the angle P’PE, or S ; therefore, 


dy h | &y i? 
dee 2 tag t & 
Sup’ now QQ’=A, the increment of x, to be conti- 
nually diminished ; when Q’ comes to Q, the two 
pone of intersection P’, P coincide, and the secant 
P'S becomes PT, a tangent to the curve at P; and as 
theangle S becomes then the angle T, and A=0, we have 
tan. angle T =. (1.) 
The segment TQ of the axis comprehended between 
PT the tangent, and PQ, the ordinate at the point of 
contact, is called the sublangent. By trigonometry, 


_ dy 


(2.) 
Hence, in the right angled triangle TPQ, we have 
tangent PT =v a4tdy*) (3) 

Draw PN i to the tangent at P, the 
point of contact, meeting the axis in N ; the line PN is 
called a Normal to the curve at P; ahd QN, the seg- 
ment of the axis between the ordinate and normal, is 


called the Subnormal. By the elements of geometry, 
the angle QPN is equal to the angle T; now we have 


found tan. T =SY ; therefore, observing that PQ = y, 
we have by trigonometry, ms geometry, . 
Subnormal QN = y. (4) 

_ Normal PN aty(dst+d y) (8.) 
68. We shall now apply these formule to some ex- 


am; 
on . Let the curve be a circle, (Fig. 9.) and let A, Fig. 9. 
igin of the co- 


one extremity of the diameter, be 
ordinates; put the radius OA=a ; the equation of the 
curve isy?=2axr—a2*. Hence, taking the fluxions, 
9 gag A888 & and, by formula (2) (Art. 67.) 

‘x 
F9= a= 10 the subtangent ; 


therefore, OQ: QP :: QP : QT. 
Ex. 2. Suppose the curve a 
that A, the vertex of the axis, is 


the origin SS 
c0-or. 
dinates. Let abe the 


of the axis. The 


Hence it appears that the su 
the vertex; and that the 
meter. 

Ex. 3. Let the curve be an 
let O, the centre, be the origin 
a denote half the , and & half the lesser axis: 
The equation of curve is a®y?-+-b?2?=a*h*; (Co. 
x Sections, Sect. VIII.) hence atydy+0?2dz=0, 


dz 


is bisected at 
is half the. para- 


ellipse 


ay? = z 
‘The general formals for the was investi« 
gated upon the supposition that the abscissa and subtan- 


10.) and Fig. 10. 
e ~ 


Spe; (Bly. aL )'atd p, 
Gr tie es ediaten. to © 


422 


Diveet gent were on the same side of the ordinate: as in the 


Fig. 12. 


Pig. 13. 


pomeavent Gauieseee we Se uan- 
tity, we infer that and the eatin es 
ies sides off the ordinate; So that; Without 

t 
positian, TQ="—"", from which it appears, that the 
subtangent is independent of the conj axis. In 
the hyperbola, the subtangent may be found by exact- 
ly the same process. 

Ex. 4 apogee (Fig. 12.) of which 
AB is the axis, and AHB ing circle. Let 
the origin of the co-ordinates be A, the vertex: and let us 
suppose that the radius of the circle is unity. 
Put the are AH =v ; then, by the nature of the curve, 
(see Ericyciom,) «= 1— cos.v, y=v + sin. v ; therefore 
dz=sin. vudv, dy=dv-+cos.vdv, therefore, 

dz _ ysin.o a, Y L008. 9) _ 
ay it awe inn ~=T2 
is, POX RO TQ; therefore, QH : QP:: QA: 


QT. Seog or recreate rethld are 9 
F of the generating circle, as was 

ved in the article Erircycuorp. en 

Ex. 5. In the logarithmic curve, of which the equa- 


tion is y = a*, we have dy=a"l.(a)dx=y 1.(a) da, 
de 1 
« 
dy? Lay 2 em. 


In this case, the subtangent is a constant quantity. 
69. When a curve 2% 


a polar equa- 
tion, we may first find the equation of the rectangular 
i as i ined m Curve Lines, art. 21, 

and then 
venient to 


is 
y the formule ; but it will be more con- 
e formule suited to that particular mode 

of expressing the nature of the curve. 

of the 


Let the centre 


ing radius AP=r, and the variable angle PAB=v, 
w it makes with the axis AB. We may now res 
gard the angle v as the i t_ variable qnantity, 
andAQ=2,QP=y,and AP=ras functionsof that quan- 
tity. Put ¢ for the angle PTQ ; then because the angle 


=v— tan. TPA = _“4n..v— tan. ¢ 
TEA oi -h neers Ae pinta ee 


(Anrrumeric or Sings, art.26.) But tan. v= ae = 
4, and we have found (art. 67.) that tan, i= oh 
Pa . ey 
therefore, 


44 
tan. TPA = 242 94s —sdy. 


dy” xdatydy™ 
14 ue uv y 
Now, by trigonometry, 


2=r cos. v, y=r sin, v; 


the fluxions, (art. 29. and art. 26. 


dzx=cos.vudr—r sin. vdv, 

dy=sin. vdr+rcos.vdv; 

and hence again, 
ydz=r cos. v sin. vd rr sin.*v dv, 
ady=r cos. vsin. vd r+7* cos.*vdv, 
2dz=rcos.tvdr—r*cos. v sin. v dv, 
yd yar sint odr +r*cos.v sin. vd. - 


therefore, 
Rule D.) 


FLUXIONS. 


Therefore, y ” sevid Sate ridu, 
adr =rar; 
oud koche’.  Paeeeh 


tan. TPA = — = 
var 


Through A, draw AT’ perpendicular to the ras 
dius AP meeting the in T’; and the 
point of contact P, draw PN perpendicular to the tan- 
gent, meeting T’A in N; We may [? 
as the sublangent and AN as the subnormal. be- 
cause, in the similar right angled triangles TAP, PAN, 
rad. : tan. TPA(= 5 ::PA(=r): AT’:: NA: PA, 


therefore. subtangent AT =—S' 5, (7) ' 
subnormal AN= = (aye ores 
v 
Ex. Let the curve be the spi 


70. In some curves, the distance between the ori- 
gin of the co-ordinates and the point in which the tan- 
pt dpe cn bseghprawhgere he | 

issa x is infinite, that distance becomes P 
SN Te aan. aur eel 
axis at a finite distance from the origin: It is then an 


Gi, % (Fig. 8) the abscissa AQ =< be subtracted, Fig. & 


the remainder eyo is the general expression for 
TA, the distance of the intersection of the tangent and 
axis from the origin’of the co-ordinates. If when < is 
infinite this expression is finite, we may conclude ‘that 
the curve has asymptotes, but if it be infinite, then the 
curve has no asymptote. 

Ex. 1. The equation of the hyperbola(Conrc Sections,. 
Sect. VIII.) is a? y? = 4? x*—a? b?, the origin of the co- 
ordinates being at the centre; in this case, atydy= 
xdx, and 

dz _ ay? _x—a? a 
y= prs : 


totes, which through A 
Ex. 2. The equation of the parabola is y*=a x, hence 

a2 ymax; when z is infinite, this quantity becomes 

infinite ; therefore the curve has no 
The method of tangents i i 


tigues, Lagrange; Traite du Calcul Di i i, 
Lacroix; A Treatise of Fluxions, arma Analyse 


OE 


FLUXIONS. 


Direct Infiniment petits, L’Hopital; and in most works 
_ Method. Asa coaae expressly of the fluxional or differential 


Fig. 14. 


Fig. 15. 


Of the Fluxions of the Area and the Arc of a Curve. 


71. In any curve, we may consider 2, one of the co- 


ordinates, as an dent variable tity, and 
then the other, also the area, the arc, aid avaey ob 


area CEQP, and it as a function of x, let 
s=f (x); then the area CEQ’P’ will be f(z+A) ; and 
ee oe will be the in- 
crement of s, ing to h increment of 2. 
Let P’F, the increment of y, be denoted by 4. 

The curvilineal is less the rect- 


GQ’=( y+), but than the es 
PO my be theceteney ie wil equal to (y+k')h, k’ 
ing a ity between 0 and & Hence, f(x-+4)— 
S@=Cyt¥ and 


Let —Se) =yt+e. 


now / to decrease continually, then k and ’ 
continually, and the limit of the ratio 


S@+H—IE) will be y; therefore, the fluxional ratio 


d {re} ord! 
a2,°. ds 


= ¥y, art, 23. and hence 


ds=ydz (1) 
From which it that the fluxion of a curvilineal 
Pp. a ordinate multiplied by the fluxion of 


72. When the nature of the curve is by a 
polar equation pie. ap eprdaen high cay apreecd 
position, which meets the curve in C, and A a given 
point in that line, round which the variable radius AP 
revolves. Draw another radius AP’, so that all inter. 
mediate radii may form with them an increasing or a de- 

ing series of quantities, and on A as a centre de- 
scribe the circular ares PG, P*F. Put PA=r, the an- 
gle PAC=», and the curvilineal space ACP=s; and 

Gre Or peel dg 
Put A for the angle PAP”, the increment of v.. 
employing the usual notation s=CPA=f(v), and area 
CP’A=/(v-+h), therefore area PAP’= OF Se). 
Put  =P’G, the increment of 7, then’ the arc =rh, 
the arc P’F=(r—A)h, the sector APG=} r*h, the sec- 
tor AP’F=}(r—k)*h. Now the curvilineal space PAP’, 


is less than the sector APG, but greater than the sector 

AP’F ; therefore it will beequabto 4(r—¥’ }*h; supposing 

/ some quantity greater than 0, and less hk; hence 

seashore yh, and f a bet 
ROAD SO) — irk: 


423 


as h decreases, k and k’ decrease, so that the limit of the 
expression for the ratio is }7?; therefore ; 


a ONE ae ea 23,) and 
dv dv 
ds=}eede * (2) 


Hence it appears, that the fluxion of the curvilineal 
sector CAP + is half the product of the square of the 
revolvi: 
with the ficed axis AC, 

73. Archimedes, and all geometers since his time, have 
admitted as an axiom, that if two lines of any kind have 
the same extremities, and their concavities turned both. 
the same way, the shorter of the two is that which is 
in the apane bounded by the other line, and the straight 
line which joins their common extremities. Hence it 
follows, that an arc of a curve, which has its concavity 
turned all one way, is greater than its chord, but less 
than the sum of two tangents drawn at the extremities 
of the are. Proceeding from this principle, we may de- 


termine the Limits of the ratios of the arc, the c , and 
the sum of the two ts to one another, su 
the arc to be diminished indefinitely, as follows : 


Direct 
Method. 


Oo . 


radius r, and the fluxion of the angle it makes ° 


In Fig. 16. let ADB be any arc of'a curve, AB=c the Fig, 16 


chord ; AC=d, and BC=a, the tangents at its extremi- 


3 A a sin. A 6 

ties. By trigonometry, — = an, (AqBY and >= 
sin. B a+b _ sin, A + sin. B 

in (aE) ee oe aA tap ee 


sin.A + sin, B=2sin. }(A 4 B)cos.}(A—B), (ArrrHMe~ 
ric of Sines, art. 12,) and sin, (A4+-B)=2 sin. 4 (A+B) 

x cos, § (A+B), (art. 13, form. G), therefore 

a+b _cos. }(A—B) - 
c ~~ eos, (A+B) 
the ; roped ae yadhg the aha 
int ing to A; angles _A-and.B 
wil imenifestly both arene and they co become 
less than any ay aoe angles whatever ; therefore 
A—B, and A+B, proach continually to 0; and 
cos. }(A—B), and cos. 3(A +B), h to 1, which 
is their common limit. Hence the limit of the ratio of 
a+ to c is the ratio of 1 to 1, that is, a ratio of - 
lity ; and as the are ADB is always.of an initevinedixts 
itude between a+4 and c, much'more is the limit 
of the ratio.of the are to the chord, also the limit of its 
ratio to the sum of the ts a ratio of equali 
74. In the curve CPD, (Fig. 17.) let PQ, 
two ordinates dicular to the axis AB; and su 
pose that the intermediate ordinates go on colstiandally 
increasing, or else decreasing. Draw the tangents P 

P’H’, meeting the ordinates-in H and HM’. The are PP’ 
is less than one of the two PH, P’H’, but 
than the other; for draw the chord PP’, and let 
tangents PH, P’H’ meet in I, then because, from 
the nature of the figure, P’H’, one of the tangents, must 
make a acute angle with the ordinates than the 
chord makes with them, it will be less than: the chord, 
and therefore it will be less than the are, And again, 
because the acute angle, which the other tangent PH 
makes with the ordinates, is less than the acute. angle 
made by P’H’, the line HI must be greater than P’I, 
and HP greater than P’I+-IP, and therefore HP must 

be greater than the arc P’P, ‘ous 
ence also it is-easy to infer, that the limit of the ra- 


"tio of an arc to its chord is a ratio of equality. ‘For the 


lines PH, P’H'’, are manifestly to one another as the 


PQ! be Fig. 17- 


424 
Direct cosecants of Prcke dnciinstions te the cnlleete PR: CTS- 
Methed- Gonomerny) ; but as the 


—\~" inclination of the line P’ 


Fig. 17. 


Fig. 15. 


Poel 
and at last the two lines coincide 


of the ratio of PH PH ma matio of equality, rar oa 
the chord and are are of an intermediate be- 
tween PH and P’H’, the limit of their ratio must also 
be that of equality. 

75. Genes i A to hea arigih of he. xestenguie: 
in 


then, because the arc PP’, and the line PK, are corre- 
sponding increments of = and 2, the expression for the 


fluxional ratio $= will be equal to the limit to which 


the fraction "1?" approaches, when QQ’=PK, the 
increment of x, is diminished indefinitely, (art. 23.) 
Now we have seen, that the arc PP” is of an intermediate 
magnitude between the lines PH, P’H’, which touch 
the curve at P and P’; therefore the pai 
fastege of an intermediate magnitude between these 


PH’ 
But we have seen, (art. 74.) that 


two, => PK, and Se 
when P’ to P, the ratio of P’H’ to PH ap- 


proaches to» ratio of equality ; therefore the limit of 
ea will ey! and eonsequently the limit of 


PK’ 
a spp’ PH a? = PH 
PK ill also be —.— 7K" Hence we have =~ = 7K" 
And since, by trigonometry, Fe = secant of the angle 


HPK=,/(1-+tan2 HPK), a by art. 67, formula 


(1), tan, HPK = $2 therefore 72 = (1455), 
and hence again 


de=y/(ds*4dy?) (1.) 
From which that the square of the 
fosion of the ar, isthe sumo) the aguarer of Ufone 
of the rectangular co-ordinates. 
76. In the case of curves expressed | a 
tion, (Fig. 15,) patente rey M4 he bp ng which 
the radius AP=r revolves put» forthe variable angle 
which r makes with AB, a given by position pas- 
sing A; and the Gite tobe aude re- 
ferred to this line as an axis rectangular co-ordinates, 
Fy origin at A, so that AQ=« and QP=y, 
z=rcos.v, y=r sin. v, 
pce eer gh aig bed 
=—ydu+ <dr, 
dy=r cos, vdv+-sin,vdr, 


eran 
dtaydty Fant ~<! dedy, 
dY=z'd vt aLangtt2 dudr; 
Therefore, . 


detdy=(st4+y)(dt42P), 
but 44y'=r’, and dz*4dy'=d 2, (art, 75.) 


FLUXIONS. 


ves a the PE, 
ms erent enna mens 
presently shew), we can find also the of the 


more points in the curve as we please. 
Take another point P’ in the curve, and draw a tan- 
gent P’E’, meeti a ppd in G; also draw AE’ 


besitos rai rpendgcular AE by py and 
Wy ? Pee 


be regarded as functions of u. Put h for 
pear te a for an ero 
new values t, correspo to u+ new 
value mid evn the disposition of the lines in the fi. 
, we have 
E'P/—EP=E’G+ GP’—(EH4+ HG—G 
= PG j{GP'_RH—tHG_—GR); 
and dividing by the are /, 
es fhe tre 


a HG—GE’ 


h 
trigonometry, EH tan. h; and, because 
AEH GEA are emilar, EG= GH x 


Nom 


seg ‘ore, by substituting, we get 
de — PG+GP’ tan. 1—cos.h 
ne ee ee 


now, h to be diminished indefinitely, 
Lome P’ will approach to P; we have then, ‘bait 


—=t=4 (art, 23), and bait a (art. 


23. and 73.) ; and because limit tant <1 (art. 78.) 5 


hp AE Wasnt dai du. 
er bo the Bie penton sora sey a4 

arc , : same 
Sate fen Os pee 


2 du 
To express ¢ by meat of pai u, we have 


‘ 
OE 


nh ae 


FLUXIONS. 425, 
’ —-AH+HE’—AE Circle PE aa circle P/E’p! = x(y+k)?; Direct 
_ AB CABS AE’ AH_AE; Cylinder PUG hoe yth oS mr? Methetes, 
a HE’/=¥/G x tanh, and AE= = AH x 008 hi Chlinder KE RPE’ p me + k)*h. 
therefore, after substituting and dividing by h, As the conoidal solid P'E: p/P Pee csae than 
Uaaigee “tan. h 1—cos. h one of these cylinders, and than the other, we have 
Lees i HG +. hk AH.» t=7(y+)Ph, an expression in which &’ is some 


Fig. 19. 


Suppose now i to decrease continually, then we have 


limie P—=P= Ps tmit SA a, timid BG = 15, ‘lis 
1. = 0; therefore 
ten 
dante ‘ 


tangent and curye proceed in the ‘same direction from 
‘the point of contact ; when they proceed in opposite di- 
rections, it will be [—~ pole 4 Pt, so that, including both 
cases in one formula, We tid ; 

fae Ee (A) 

This formula gives the tangent in terms of p and u, 
when the elation of p to wis known. ya also, it 
follows; that'd ¢ = == “TE so that, in addition to 


du 
the formule inv in art. 75: and art. 76. for the 
fluxion of an are; 


what has been found in this 
article, we have these 


two, 
Wa ae be (8) 


I i estigated in this 

Sects wl ond, in the , Second Part of this ar- 

we come to the Quadrature and Hectifice 
tion of Curves. .. 


Ke the phe of Solias and iy of Revolution. 


bs 
5 
ce 
a 
nag 
aE 
i 
es 

R. 

oS 


VOL. IX, PART II. 


quantity less than /, and greater than 0; and there< 
fore, 


; + == (y+). 
eters now the Huxional ratio $* for the limit 


of the ratio — i =, and observing that the limit of (y—A’)* 
gorge tee can pglledgd Dy tee 


ery 
andds=ry da. 
Hence it , that the flurion of a solid of revo» 
lution is to the product of of the general expression for 
the section of the solid, aye pla perpendicular to the 


axis, and 


e flusrion of the 


80. To find the fluxion of the surface generated by Fig. 20. 


the rotation of the curve APP’ (Fig. 20.), join the ex- 
tremities of the ordinates PQ, P’Q’ by the chord PP’, 
and draw the ts PE, P’E, meeting in E, and 
draw EF ieular to the axis AB, meeting it in 
F. By the revolution of the curve, the chord PP’, and 
the tangents PE, P’E, generate surfaces of truncated 
cones: and, by an axiom in the étry of solids, the 
surface generated by the are PP’, which may be regard. 
ed as the increment of the surface, generated by the 
curve AP, is than the conical surface generated 
by the chord PP’ , but less than the two surfaces gene- 
rated by the tangents PE, PE. Now, by mensura~ 
tion, the surface a by the chord PP’ is 

=(PQ + P'Q)PP’ () 
and the cenietacanipaneestad bi thd tangents PE, P/E 
are, taken together, 


” {rq +EF)PE + (PQ + EF) PEL (2) 
Therefore, between these two , quantities, surface 
gowenes by the are PP’ is always.contained. But as 

to P, the lines PQ; EF, P’Q’ approach 
ra so that, ultimately, PQ+ PQ, PQ + EF, 
wai EF are to be considered as aay therefore, the 
limit + the ratio of the expressions (1), { *} is, evi- 
dently the same as the limit hit) of the vatio e chord 
PP’ to PE+PE, the sum of the sangents 5 and as this 
last is a ratio of equality, (73.) it follows that the li- 
mit of the ratio of the curve surface generated by the 
are PP’, to the conical surface generated by the chord 
PP’, is a ratio. of equality. 

Put 2=AQ; i= PQ, a= arc AP, h= QQ’, the in- 
crement of x; 4 = P’H, the inerement of y; and 
(=P the increment of Also put_v for the curve 

os by the arc CP, and i for its incre. 
ment ; then we have — 


surf, gen by chord PP’= #(2y-4+4) x chord PP’, 


Hence, passing to the limits, and substituting the sur- 
i face generated by the are, for that generated by the 

and the are for the chord, also observing that 
the limit of 2y 4 his 2y, mind 


Fig. 21. 


Limit 4 Sdeyxiimit 5 
the fluxional ratios instead of 
and regarding 


On the Contact of Curves, and Circle of Curvature. 


81. Let two curves, CD, ed have the same axis AB, 
Ce renee eee . of their 
co-ordinates ; let y= PQ’, and v=P"Q be ir respec- 
tive to the common abscissa 
z=AQ, and let their equations be y=f(x), and v=F(z). 
Let us also , that when x est+h, y 
comes y’, and » becomes v’: then, by Taylor's theorem, 
y yah dty ke 

du he 
taint! Ship See rik + &e. 
ieoureree i Hae sebnrgsrto- bare 9-comnarn. Belial, 


nyo on ; the nature of their 
contact at that point is such, Godt ae tte deviate 
the same common point, can pass between them, unless 
peli vs me cor fiver that is, supposing w to be the 

curve, corresponding to the com- 
a aaa 
so 

&u he 


Waugh + SES 4 80 

this curve, wie 
t dv 

wo, unless 9 = 2 4°, For let us suppose it pos- 
sible ; bovine ga, prac hh ae 0 ex 


mee (EG) A+ (S292) 5 ae 
and by hypothesis, y= v, also 4% = $°, therefore, 


(ty _ doy ¢hy Boy h3 4 
ore (ae rr 2*(73 aa) e t+ * 
expression for the excess of P’ 5 

di veainas the fin Grve shove DQ, the ordinate 
of the second, In like ‘manner, the difference of the 3 


— + ke, 


Se eee ee 
¥ —w Hye gata + &e. 
or, because y = u, 
smen(E—$) 4 (GEE) Ea 
apa tp to pass be- 


FLU XIONS.. 


(Ger te) F+ (a-3 &e 


re oe a 
and hence chy 


(G- Ps(S—$2)8 ou 


dy ad Ah 
> (i-z) + (75-Ts) a+ & 
This ought to be true Sonsevenprveioe of h Widlbhets 


than But h to the first 
of these <roeupesatieetaas Rapiuiions teat 


assignable, because h enters into all ts torme, while the 
second approaches to the limit =a “Now this. 


— 7, = © that is, 
,» for Wed ; 


3 (25 2) etem(Sh Baa 
which “is evidently” possible. 


‘is tly Hence between the 
courses of the two curves, which have a common ordi- 
nate y=v, and which have also = 52, no other earve 
can pass ; unless the Muxion of ts nde x be equal: 
to the fluxion of y or of v; co that 44 = 4. 


2. Again ; if in the two curves, whose equations are 
y= hae v=F (x), and which have a common ordi- 
nate y=, we have also 4¥= 9, ana Y= © ; then, 
no third curve, of which pth: wiretap met x), 
and which has a common ordinate with 
can pass between them, ales a the sae ime 
dy du aty— 
as ae ee Ga = For if it were possible, we 
ould, as in last article, have y/—o' > y’—w, or, 
jecting the quantities that toatl cach othe) Lae 

at doy \ h3 + Ae & 
—as)et+( cay an m 
du uy “a i. 

Te) Sea act 


Now this cannot hold true, unless 22 — — 7 =0,and 


also 4 S% 0; for, were this not the case, k 


ponsrngtrs Retire de, pedicels 
amount of the first of these two be 


iy 


He 
ae 
iF 
te] 
| 
BEE 
25° 
in 
Th 
oF 


Yawk the ‘rine cliteetin, bene 
tae Nye povee of A. Er owerte, 
i u 
dye and ——~ iam = 7,2? then, that the third curve 


re Mra seein se oe | requisite that 


d3v 
da Za) +e: 2 (Topiges ailalle 
which is certainly possible. : 
88, In general, if there becuny: carve 
» Seen re ee ee it, 
which requires that their re es 9 
the same abscissa should be equal ; ‘then, ff the first 


EE ——. 


= SS Regrets te 


Fig. 8, 


FLUXIONS. 


spectively equal to the first and second fluxions of the 

enced smh to the two curves, and.so on of the 

ya hn only coincide in the point 
two. curves in 

in which their ordinates are equal ; el theoiatennt 

the different orders of fluxions merely shews, that no 


ee 
Be! 
i 


i 
i 
i 
: 
e 


i 
F 
i 


i 
i 
i 
i 


(Art. 67.) 
84. Asan illustration of this 


origin 
common abscissa. Let AQ =2; and PQ (takenas any 
ordinate of the curve C D) = y, also PQ 
_ordinate of the strai line TP) 

tangent of =t; then 
straight line PT is evidently u=t¢ (a4+7)=—ta+tx; 
hence, as a and are constant, we have, for every point 


in the straight line TP dvZta<; md *’=t. As be- 


dz 
sides the straight line and curve having a common 
point at P, which is expressed by the equation v = y, 
we farther suppose the nature of the contact to be ‘ 


with what we found in art. 67, formula (1), and thence 
the subtangent TQ may be determined, as was there 
. being thus ined, it is i 
, let 
Put AS=a’ ; tangent of angle S=t’; PQ poli 
— es : eek = consider- 
ed stan oninate of PS) = then the equation of the 
line PS isu =¢' (a’ +2), and hence 5 = ’: Now, in 
order that the line PS may between the curve and 
the straight line PT, it ought t i iti 
moe 


dam dz (#tt- 81.): hence we must have t’/=#, that is 


the nt of the angles PTA, and PSA must be 
cdiiedde + ‘Thos the like is aean eaniten oh 
. a \e. to 

the strictest ion of the term. 
85. Let us now consider the contact of a circle and 


427 
any curve ; let the.circle EPF meet the curve CPD in 
the point P, (Fig. 22.) that AB is their com- 
mon axis, and A the origin of the common abscissa F 
AQ =z; then put y= PQ, considered as an ordinate of 
the curve CPD ; and v=PQ, considered as an ordinate 
of the circle EPF. Let H be the centre of the circle ; 
draw the radius HP, and draw HI, HK perpendicular 
to PQ and AB. Putr= PH, p= AK, q = HK, so that 


- p meg are the co-ordinates of the centre of the circle, 
then HI 


= p— wx, and PI= v—q; andsince, from the 
nature of the circle, PH? = PI? + HI ; therefore 
_ (p22)? + (v —q)? =r Q.) 
First let us suppose that the kind of contact is such 
as is indicated by the equality of the first fluxions of 


di d 
the ordinates ; so that 77 = 7 The preceding equa- 


tion, in which p,q and r are to be considered as con- 
stant quantities, andy as a function of 2, gives us 
—2 ars + 2(v—g)dv= 0, and hence 

' v 


dv _p—< 

- pat pare 2.) 
p—*_ HI_ QN_ QN. dv_QN. 
ea g EET Bg ing MO BE 7 


and #2 y= QN; and since by hypothesis, v= y and 
dv dy d : . 
dsm ds therefore Ay = QN. But this expression 
for QN is identical with that given in art. 67, for the 
subnormal of a curve; therefore QN is the subnormal, 
and uently the centres of all circles, which have 
the kind of contact we are considering, are in.a normal 
to the curve at the common point P. 

When a circle has this kind of contact with a curve, 
no other circle of an equal radius, but whose centre is 
bg: of the normal, can Mey son it mnie 7 

or, su ing it ible, let p’ an e co-ordi« 
nates of the centre of thie Weds eck: and wu its ordi-« 
nate to the abscissa x; then, in like manner, as in the 
former circle, we have found " 


dv_p—« p—« 


we Dears Sf ( yy 
in the other circle, we must similarly have 
du p—r 


a= . 

* vi{r—w—y} 
And as upon the esis that this last circle passes 
between the other circle and the curve, we ought to 


ve (art. 81.) therefore 


ed Phage 
ane ON SET | Fee 
v{r——ay fv {r—w—2)'t 
This tion gives , from which it follows, «that 
dimadan teh soabane have their ‘centres at the 
same point, and therefore are identical. 

The kind of contact which we have been consider- 
ing, which is to the contact of a strai. 
line and curve, may be called a contact of the first 
order. 

86. Let us next suppose the curve and circle to have 
a closer degree of contact, so that not only is y=v, an 
dz~ dz’ dz ~ dz** 

From the second equation of last article we find 


Direct 
Method. 


ig. 22. 


Direct 
Methed. 
—— 


428 FLUXIONS. P 
- Slteoes +6 ‘ad given pedi eos 29 cates g may bord 
ds (o—)" ae cxprtaned by 6 eeee eaeeeeenee ceo nee 
instead of dv wubstitute its value £—— dx, a8 given by parr strnpregdine! hen! Trae fata be assianteaby 
the, segs ‘equation, .and soxeover, pidion yor soesne of ie two-sgguetioiag mid Ug rseale wl! be sn 
* + (e—9)" as given equation, ation involving ind known quantities, 
Or dak dividing by 4% we get which will be an Sten or tos local of ths eoaire of 
deo r the circle of curvature. aoe 
de @—9 oa Festa (A) Of test artis nage bea 
i i i 1) and (2) in dius of curvature, when the nature o curve: 
hiegge senate ng eatin OT the Laden trae oan of the rectangular co-ordi- 
do_d lastly, ates: But let us now suppose, that its nature is de- 
circle, but as we suppose v=y and 5 = 5%, and y aed Wy it SOROS Si ee ee 
AE= perpendicu from 
T= = $4, the same three equations relatively to the axis B cient a ella ta? balk Ore BAE =u, 
ds dss which that perpendicular makes with the axis (Fig.18.) Fig. 18. 
curve ‘CPD ‘will stand thus: ! Draw the normal PN, and let 2 and y be the rectan- 
(p—#? + (y—9)'=" () gular co-ordinates of the point P, ‘The angle at N=w 
5% ae’? meee (2) 7 neni" SOR ee eee 
a es vt (3) ‘tangent makes, with the axis; hence 5% = cot. u (for 
im (gana ; é , the é ey os ; 
Food he tek util eStansd a Chins Sehltitiig we Sell Spee (1), OTs) Se OR ape ate eee 
rd (4) and y as functions of x, 2 nt “5. re it gen weet 
=: Mit 
(4x'-+-d9") (art, $4.) but cosee:* w= 1 + cotant v= 22 hI" 
-1= = (5) therefore dxd*y= —du (de +dy)=—dudz 
1 teat aye ja ( ing read Seri that d2*= 
and again, from . and equation (3), da4dy, art. 75.) and since by formula (A), last art 
dtd + pgrottieyben cn hay be 
ae | vt a. (A) = — Geter) 2 ES y therefore, = 
This value of r being substituted in equations (4) and 2M Bi ot Sue Vy ee eee 
(5), pS cae these results r= (A’). csdsthees 
+ Pa =" . . ae 
=s—dy——, B hav ; for the radius 
BEE Fe PD got Soret ae aadnc abcess te anarae 
+°9 fuuxion of the arc divided by the fluxion of the angle 
WY Fendgit pi eR acy: Redbone nerd 
The three constant quantities p, q, r, which enter into “And as we have found (art, 77.) that dz=pdu 
the general equation of a circle, being thus determined, d? p 
it may be concluded that no other circle can be- ee therefore : — 
tween Sy Sp eer ok gy is panto y few a &p n 
values » Gy Ts or it ible, let u = a *\. 53 
cudiinate in thét'cihde ittle caeieaondling 40 thie Bie = Pt Te (a) 


scissa 2, 7’ its radius, and p’, 
a 


the co-ordinates of its 
centre ; then its equation w 


be 
p—#)* + (u—q')* = 12, 
Now, that on! cincke Aspe ts between the curve 


and the other circle, it is necessary that u=y, fe = 
a 
ot = a - But these being the very same conditions 


they will give 
the same values for p’, q’, r’, as we have found for 
must coincide, ! 


osculating circle ; also the circle of curvature, because it 
serves to measure the curvature of the curve, The 
quantity r, the radius of the circle, is called the radius 
of curvature. 

87. The centre of the circle of curvature being dif- 
ferent for different points of a curve, there is a certain 
line LM, belonging to the curve, which is the locus of 
all the centres. Th uantities p,q are manifestly co- 
ordinates to any point H of this locus, and its nature is 


Pid : 


This is the expression for r which we proposed to in- 

vestigate, t : 
89. We shall now shew the application of the for- 

mulz we have found for the radius of curvature. 


Ex. 1. Let the curve be a parabola (Fig. 23.) and Fig. 28. 


let A, the vertex of the axis AB, be the of the 
co-ordinates AQ = 2, and QP =y. Let a be the pa- 
rameter of the axis, eat noe apse sate 
; Pw heer Peer 
=ax, hence =at«t, ndd =f and d?y= 
Rei dying A rh RATE Nah 
| ata? - ‘ada 


2" Pherefore, di? of: dot alate ae 
at ore, + ce ha haw 


) pi det pay (a 40) 

ro dad*y * Tiae ave “mn 
Ifx = 0, then r= 4a; this is the radius of curyature 
at the vertex. 7? wih in velar : 


As an example of the application of the third formula 
for the radii OF COLYER let 7 again take the para- 


"a: 


_ 


Direct 
- Method. 


FLUXIONS. 


bola, and let F be the focus, and FE a perpendicular to 
the PE. Draw a straight line from E to A, the 
vertex of the axis; then AE is a tangent at the’ 3 
pee me aan Sect. IV. Prop. 14. cor. 1,) and there- 
ore FAE is a right 
FE =p, and the angle AFE = u, and observing that 
AF = } parameter = }. a, we have for the equation of 
_ the curve ~ . 
a= 
P= Teo. 
And taking the fluxions, by art. 30. and art. 26, 
ing that p is a function of u, 
dp__asin.u dip _ (costu+2sin.tu)a 
du” 4costu due ~~ 4cosiu : 
Therefore, by formula (A”), art. 88. 
d 2(cos.? u+-sin.? u)a 
19-4 T= 4 cos.3 u 


observ- 


@ . 
2cos3 u’” 


Ex. 2. Let the curve be any one of the conic sections. 


Ti Ae cogin. Ade cove tostes be taken stone srire- 


pri ys the equation 


Hence we find, Sala canoe 
_dy= fneenis, 
fay+ (m+4+2n2)? i dx* 
4y* A 
fa( me 4 nat) +(m +2n2)} dst 
= ¥ 7 > 
Qnydx2—(m+2nx)dxdy 
_ : 2y" a 


axis, their nature may be expres- 


d at4dy* = 


dy= 


4 {any — (m 4 2n2) } dt 


4¥ 
Hence, from formula (A), we get 


3 
{ast (m-p2enay} 
ca ny—Z (M4 2nz 
and substituting for y? its value, ; 
F a¢mix-t-ns*) +-(m-42n2)*} 
r= . 


: 2m* 

By giving to m and n the values that belong to the 
different curves, (Conic Sections, Sect. VIII.) this for- 
mula will give the radius of curvature in each case. 

90. It appears from what has been shewn in this section, 
that the contacts of curve lines may be accord- 
ing to different orders. The of contact, in which 
the ordinates, and also their fluxions, are equal, 
(art. 81.) may be called a contact of the first order ; 
and when in addition to these, the second fluxions are 
equal, (art. 82;) itis a contact of the second order ; and 
so 


There are curves which, with a given curve, admit 
only of contacts of a certain order. A straight line, for 
instance, is only capable of a contact of the first order. 
A circle may have a contact of the first, and also of the 
second order, but none higher ; and a curve, whose 
equation is y=a + br-+c z*+4d2°, is also capable of a con- 


led triangle. Hence, putting ' 
angl . Lm second requires three; and so of the higher orders. 


429 


tact of the third order ; and so on. ‘The degree of con- 
tact of which a curve is capable, depends upon the num« 
ber of constant tities to be determined, These may 
be called the elements of contact. A contact of the first 
order requires two constant quantities ; a contact of the 


In an analytical point of view, the contact of a straight 
line, or of a crcle eth a curve, is not more interesting 
than the contact of any other curve, unless on account 
of these curves being more elementary. The circle of 
curvature is, however, interesting, because of the sim- 


le geometrical expression it gives for the measure of a 
leflecting force. (Principia, lib. i. prop. vi. See also. 
Physical Astronomy, 


chap. i). 

91. The first formula which we have given for the 
radius of curvature, (art. 86,) has been investigated 
upon the hypothesis, the curve is concave towards 


the axis. In this case, 4 is a negative quantity ; 
and hence the sign of the expression for r is negative. 
If the curve had convex towards the axis, pe the 


sign of 7“, and of the expression for r, would have 


been positive. Upon the first h esis, 7 comes out 
a positive quantity in the applications of the formula, 
as in the examples we have given ; but when the curve 
is convex towards the axis, it has a negative value. 


Of the Evolutes of Curves.. 


92. Let LHM be a curve of any kind, (Fig. 24.) and 
let us suppose that a thread, fastened to the curve at 
some point beyond M, is. drawn tight, and applied 
upon it, so as to have the position CLOM ; that thismay 
be done, the curve may be conceived to be the common 
section of a plane, and some solid rising a little above 
it, round which the thread is wound. Suppose now, 
that while the thread is tight, it’ is ually un- 

from the curve. hile the portion between L 
and H is unwinding, its extremity, P will describeu 
the plane some line CP, and the process of unwinding 
being continued, a curve CPD will be generated, the 
nature of which will depend on the mode of its genera- 
tion, and the ies of the other curve L 
The curve along which the thread is wrapped, is eal- 
led the Evolute of the curve, generated by the extremity 
of the thread ; and, on the other hand, the latter curve 
is called the Involute of the former. Our present object 
is to shew, how the evolute of any proposed’ D: 

generated 


may be found. 
may immediately draw these three 


93, From the manner in which a curve is 
from its evolute, we 
conclusions : 

1. The to of the thread PH, which is disenga- 
ged from. the evolute, is a tangent to it at H. 

2. The straight line PH, is equal to the are CH of 
the evolute. 

3. Any tangent to the evolute, is a normal to the 
curve. In fact, any point H of the evoltte may be con- 
sidered as a momen centre; and the line HP ‘as 
the radius of a circle which the point P is describing, 
when the point of contact of the tangent’and curve is 
at H. It is from this last property, that we propose to 
deduce a solution of our prow ? 

Let AB be a common axis to the two curves, and let 
the normal PH produced meet the axis in N. Let 
P’H'N’ be another position of the normal, mecting the 


Direct 
Method. 


Fig. 2h. 


Conceive now the point P’ to approach P, then O will 

to H, and ‘ine OG SiN in mag- 

nitude to HP=r, which will be its limit ; ee 
tion to which OG is equal, will approach to POP haw 
art. 73.) Hence, remarking that the arc PP’, and the 
<' P', are the corresponding increments of and 


x, and passing to the limits, we have (art. 23% = r. 


Bat this value of r, is the very expression 
have found for the radius of curvature, (formula (A’), 
art. 88.) Therefore, ris the radius of curvature, at P ; 


tre of the circle of curvature ; and the evolute LOM is 
the locus of the centre of that circle Hence, if AQ=a, 


pact be the co-ordinates of P, any point in the 
curve PD, and AK=p, and KH=q, the tes 
of H, the corresponding point in the evolute, by art. 
86. formule (B), (C), its equation will be, 
dy. dattdyt) 5 datpdyt 
P= — ds a =9 t dy 


For example, if the curve CPD be a parabola, van 
putting a for the parameter, in this case y*=a 2; and 


hence, dy=H*, doa > — 
ans Me: 


p=3r+ 4a, I=——’ 


As 9 comes out negative, the parabolic arc kd its 
delaioticien sides of the axis. Moreover, since 


ay om = amma (4 ne | “1\iayse x, we easily find, 


27 a q'=16(p—}a)s. 
to the semicubical parabola. _, 
evolutes, one of the most, elegant 
ath in hie Hovolog: , who hand- 
in 


F 
Fe 
a F 


Ee 
nt 


j F 
| 
i 
‘t 


eg 
i 
8 E 
I 


FLUXIONS. 


in eunerianny ahethdeaen eager: to: fatiis , 


Fe ree Tan oak cera 
onc griele Svea 


7 


oF changing the Independent Fri oni 


95. We have all along supposed z to 
manner whatever, and estimated the ceo 2 ey 


place in y, any function of 2, by it to the 


ay tan pee Son SD 


t variable quantity. It is sometimes 
at tin ecmapehiot ate he hypothesis, and pass 
oy being a imation of , to that 
pepe, netion 
ire em aa 
upon the quantity that is regarded as the i 
variable, Thus ‘'ar€°@7, we have fouhd, if s de- 
note the eub-tangent SESCEYG 0d 8/408 MANERA 
dinates, then «== y ; and thisis true, whether y be con- 


Giclee ay & Palio A 9 ee: From 


this expression, regarding Fanchiong ? 
(oo tak Ue Wemmetanet nant? ite we 
Rea say) = dz— sie nit 


If, however, we sie z as functions of y, og 
asdy must be now constant, we have ded. 27%, 


an expression quite different from the former. We are 


now to inves ah sacri by be pra eg Aca 
=o ), and let tae whats 

), us su} it w az bes 
en y becomes spins Taylor's theo- 


pa oY Bg SY 
det at & SY Rtk. (1) 


But %, us now sup} that from the equation 
y=f(@), we deduce z=F( (9); 00-that w ton finctioe of 
eas she rpee 

rkt dz : 
hah ge dp Dt ayiagt® . @) 

Let the value of 4, as -the first ion, 
be substituted in the secon ; and, witha view to abridge, 
let us put > ' 


dy dy. da 
y for, ee also for 7, 


dry. 
, &e. and we 
dy’ 


hav hty Sty” nt &e.) 
acs tye ty" + &e.)* 

+ yh sy ety" E+ 8c) 48. 
oferta nate 
Ox(e ¥—Ihb (ely! hatySe 

aly" Baty! ype yf) $8. 


comes Pak 
rem, 


-- 


x" for —— 


FLUXIONS. 


Direct Now, as / is altogether independent of 2’, x", &ec. y’, 
— ys Cenc ie operate 8 e-porala shee Uo wah ee =0, 


a y—1=0, 2! y"+2x" y?=0, a 
a! yf" £3 2" yy +2" y'=0, Ke. 
from which equations, we get » 


Pe eee 
ae a= 5: r 72? 
15 y's loy’y” y" 
27 = ? 
id y¥* ¥° 
97. i ig he fri re ee 
Bas Py ‘=— Cree sb + 0g a 
as the in 6 - Now, to shew 
bo ae cn faclc orentinnteh last. 


sa be sone nn ei inte 
Re a a ns 
a a 


Now, b sieameiaie pis from they 
pothetis of y, ction of 2, to, that of 2, a function of 
ro 


Ys wemust make y= » and y= — =, This. sub- 
stitution being made, Oe 
ra Ot ij? _ = (dm pay’) 
ae dyd*z 


The ea hae expensing moter, 
by substituting 5 for :', and 7 for 


98. totes 9a bsedeth hte tas 
y (a function of z) as functions of'some third quantity 


3. and in this view of the matter, neither the fluxions of "gle 


x nor y can be considered as constant. For example, 
in mechanics, we may consider x and y, the co-ordinates 
of the path of & projectile, as functiotse of /, the time of 
the motion. 

Let us suppose, that when ¢ becomes ¢4i, then z be- 
bes rota. ke lh dl and to abridge, let 


a woes by x, 2 a", &e. 


ty AY web 
fe, SE, Be. by (yo (y" wie 
Then, by Taylor’s theorem, 


y= (2) gives b=(Vh+(¥") ote 
y=F (@) givesk = yi +y" Sp ke. 
= ¢ (f) givesho rig 2” £8, 


"we first devel 


431 
Achaea of ee et a of , these three 
ie of t, 
“ > must_all. hold true at once. Therefore, by 
the value of h, as gi seo ew gwen reg 
ton in the fs, and then” putting th two values of & 
equal to each other, mas 


(y’) {ritertyec} 7 
5 oe? fa fame tro 


or = 46. 
Hence, finding the second power, of the 
sas al pig the co-efficients a0 wha of i=0, 
«(y)=y> Hr) 9°") =y"’, &e. 
therefore, (y)=4,,(y”)= £2) ge 


99. Let us again take the formula for the radius of 
curvature, as an example, which, when expressed in 
conformity to notation of | "last | ieticle, will be 


1 
me ta Si By substituting for (y) and (y”) 
ae % 
igen a and re- 
d 


* we find 


to be taken relatively 
not indeed appear in the 


to a quantity ¢, which does 
‘must be kept in view.. 


formula, but, ey it 


pete me Fluxions + Functions, which contain two Inde« 
‘ariable Quantities. 


t Variable 


Ste eilipandiaiida tcl only functions of a” 
variable quantity ; and this is the most commion ’ 


case ; but a function may involve two or more variable 


feat toa awe quite 9 dyer other, 
we su int on surface of a 
fn geet we spon ny es perpendicular to 
each eer which pass avagt i its centre, and put 2, y, 


z, for the co-ordinates of that point, and a for the radius ; 
the equation of the surface is x*-.y¢4-2*=a}, (Curve 
Lines.) Here each of the quantities x, y, 2, ‘may be 
say eapeeaap een of the other two, w may 
of one another. 
tet u be any function whatever of two independent 
le quantities x,y; or, re the notation of 
boriprs let-u=/ (x,y) ; = pnd & 
values, 80 that x 


bee 
comes and again, in conseqi 
(eh) it becomes f(2-+h, y + ees - 
supposing x , 


h, > 
y constant, an st datlteard tar asc 


peters 
ment yk for y, Gene have the complete 


rh, y+k). 


we may reverse 


instead of x ; 
arrive at the same final 


at once #+h for x, and y-+4 
ee Sy 1 ee 
3 am a. hs 


In this st Liteon ar leis «, 
DOTS: aE 
Seeds annalaeniaian become y + 4; by which 
fis }hyg) meommen hte thy got ty the dons plotealy 

pag = ns 
oe ke bu et 


ue of y, u 
wt Tit oe ay 3 tay ast 


by cither 
result, as if we wereto substitute 
[ang Oe functions. 


of these methods, 


‘du\ 
dz} ke 


dy 2° 


Lae 
d(7*) 
But it is easy to see, that the expression dz! indi« 


cotes, chit Ua Bald of w fr Go'be taken twine ist rs- 
Lesintly,eo-4; siding ional, Vhanihdlositelyto:g $ it may 


au 
therefore be more simply wrieen thus, sae a4 


ot 


like manner, _-——+, ee Pe which means thit ‘the fluxion of 
w is to be taken once relatively to 2, and twice relative. 


ly to y, nay be written thus 7. ® Sik afciomoel 
d*+™u : A 
in geeyl, [das Om mapas Se Deennl cocci, 
ot the wih onder of the Sancta 22%, in which y 
alae decmiiierel = fon ambi geietty eal apta 
"u 


‘Ty means the fluxional coefficient of the mth order, 


hase ete tanya 


bing undertod, whet y becomes y +4, then * bes 


coms 
, i+ yeas tapas 
and ™ becomes leben 
tat ayaa! + aganza + 
and so on for, &e, ; ' : 
These values of i ap wan 8 


* To exemplify this motation, let use 2%y%, then ee saty'; a = 


= l2zy, &c. 


FLUXIONS. 


4 Peek da. 


a Sf 


a a. 


necceemaaeantt | 

ue reas 

wt tt ay et, ra ate 

Hint apa apa 
“dtu Ie ke 

tide & irre is + &. 

: a. 

+ Te a t 
“ 4p hee, 
| Thin the cmp drlpemet he new alae 


the function a. 


101. Pape pr eer a 


remain the same, 
melee +h} 
au kb Bu B ‘ 
“4G tape tapas A 
Here + enters ito the fonctions i, &e. as a con- 
stant 3 but wramntless ey 
value, and necro then « will become 
du du ht} AD sow] 
* hag t tae GUS 


Also, (employing the same mode of notation as in the 
other ten gore a. will become 


“a 


“y ye woe 


Bu he Peay ee 

. at iaay" taedy 2 2 + he 

ua age Tice ro i 

du ae 

7 + asig asap & 2 FH he. | 

and soon for > &e, Pharr 

being substituted i in 15 Saaamnaepe FS (a ER) 
“eared tos 

@u 
eet: hi ee 


Mi catriaait 2) 
a3 + 


the fmetion 


* 102. If we com in these two sore the 
nth ot , we 


terms which contain the same ee fs 
u 
> shall find this series of equations, ase Gedy’ 
Gu: ; antag a*tmu 
dyda = ardy mine Ta = Tedy 


=6 an ae Oa sh 53 = OP apt 


' Direct 


Method. 


FLUXIONS 


The first of these equations shews, that the fluxional coeffi- 


cient of the second order of a function, containing two vari- . 
waa sean kent a 


ively to the one, and then re~ 
other, is the very same, in whatever order we 
proceed in finding the fluxions. This isan important 
theorem in the calculus. To exemplify this property, let 
a=x* y®, then, taking the fluxion in respect of «, we find 


<* = ma" y* 5 and again, taking the fluxion in re- 
spect of yy oo = mn st yet. By proceeding 


in the contrary order, we find pane! and 


peed rans 


ia = mn) y—", the same result as before. 


' The other equations given above are merely conse- 
quences of the first. 5 
" 103. As, by the transition ofa single variable quan- 
tity from one state of magnitude to another, there ori- 
ginates from any function of that quantity a series of 
other functions, which are denominated its fluxional 
coefficients, (Art. 23. and 41.); a function of two in- 
variable ities must have an analogous 


oP single vertable aaa care 5 Sith ‘that 
tion of a single uantity (Art. 52.) wi 
of a taco of two fidepenklent variable quantities 


24h, u any function of 2, becomes w + ote +> 
+ &e. 5 


t quantities z and y, when « becomes x-+-h, 


and y becomes y 4%; then w becomes w  ~h + 
du, , @ul? , du Pu ke 
Sprit ae Nady Ot ay Tt 


ble thé flation of « is indi s 
ing its fluxiona coeficient by d 2, the Sahel fer te 
fluxion of z,) so that the fluxion of the function may 


frese the sane quantity 2, which will be expressed 
by 7. d, and the other derived from y, which must in 


ial fluxions of the function ; and, in the language 
Daumrnememnensae! Sipornire The sum of the par- 
tial fluxions, viz. T= dx + ig jis the whole fluxion 
of u considered as a ;, re: 


VOL. IX. PART I. 


the 
of 


and in the latter, u being a function of the. 


433 
When wu is a function of x only, instead of ge dx, it 


is usual to write simply du, because, when there is 
only one variable quantity, the symbol dw can have 
but one meaning; but when there are two variable 
pega it is to indicate. what part of 
the whole fluxion results from each ; which is con- 
veniently done by writing the fluxional coefficients 


du\ {du - 
thus, (7): (F ), as was done by Euler, or more sim- 


ply thus, hd 7y , as is now the common practice. 


104. As examples of functions of two independent 
variable quantities, 1. Let «=x + y, then du=da + 


dy. 
2. Let u=ary; ot =y, and da = yds, 
paz Gy d= Hay, therefore du=y det 
vdy. , 
8. Let w=, then ¥o 1 @¥_ = aug, 
y dz y dy yx dz 
dx du ady dx «dy 
== 5 dy=——;} ; hence, du= —— — 
LG soi d y yon 
yi. 


yheorsdy. In these examples, we have evidently 


got the same results as if x and y had been functions of 
some third quantity ¢, (Art. 29. and 30.) Indeed this 
ought to be the case, seeing that the fluxion of w can- 
not be affected by the circumstance of y being a func- 
tion of x, unless the particular form of the function be 


105. From the first fluxion of u, a function of the in- 
dependent variable quantities « and y, we find its se« 


r F du du 
cond fluxion thus ; because BS ae ay det, eM 


therefore ®und (Fae) +4 (Hay); but, ems 


y 7 2 #*) dat 

u u u 

* dyads dxdy;andd dy) = Tody Cte 

Tye 19 here dz and dy wre considered as constant. 
F Bu @u 

Therefore, observing that tte Sade. 

we have 


(Art.102.) 


Thus we see, that the ny Serer pind bet rN 
or- 


ee fluxions of the sec 
dest third, and higher fluxions of u, may be found 


in the same manner. 
ori funetions which contain two independent 

variab we might proceed 

tain dues Suppang’y to be a function of the three 

i variable quantities x, y, z, it. will have 


three partial fluxional coefficients, one relative to .r, 


to such as con- . 


which may be expressed by the symbol £"; another re- 


lative to y, which will be 5 and a third relative to z, 


Sr 


Direct 
Method. - 


484 
Stethen whose sum Sede + dy + 7.4% is the complete 
Guxion of w. Our limits, however, will not permit us 


to enter farther into this branch of the : besides, 
it is easy to extend what has been ly shewn, to 
functions of any number of quantities. 


Application of Infinitesimals to Fluxions. 


107. The colshated Lelhadts Gatuten hie thecry of 
the differential calculus upon the doctrine of infinitel 4 
little quantities, To this. method it has been obj 
that the notion of infinitely goer bee ie tint fy) 
to form the foundation of a mathematica theory, and 
on this account it has been laid aside by late writers, in 
establishing the principles of the calculus. It must be 
confessed, however, that this view of the subject gives 
readily all the rules for the calculus, and affords a great ed. 
facility in its applications to geometry and mechanics, 
particularly in questions of an intricate nature. On 
this account it is 2 and, besiiene we a: 8 


that in the developements of the mee a Tine selve 


tion, all the Tomeglected, that were hi 
to find ime 
pei mca having deel the proc 
MORSE SIRS Ral 


ction xy, 
‘E eg en rept of tev 


nitely less any_ 
then dad y tonat be lntinitely less than dy or dx, 
== then (See By substituting now 2°, 
,.md 22d 2x instead of dy, in the formula’ 
d(2 (ey) fedy ty de, we get d( (2) = 25 Free 
inakseny; e fl vfluxions. of the high 
With regard to fluxions, of her orders, his, 
theory required that-fluxions, ‘or 
second 
respect to those of the first order ; and therefore as ho- 
with the squares of these last. Hence,, to 
Lag gp deri his her differentials, it was only ne- 


we to find iginiageee be 
» other any sinligaea telat 
* resolved, is far Sion, The ary 


quantity represented by 1, 


tials of the | 
, should be considered as infinitely little in _. 


indicate thé pian aie Fact 


FLUXIONS. 


Thas, $Y will manifestly be the trigonometrical tangent 
of the angle which a tangent to Whe’ curve makes with 


the axis, and consequently § 


Also, y dx will be the i increment, or dif- 
tere of the sheet ad, ie re 


led hav Vide )= ee 
an, » we e = 
ap Sy for the differential e ae ” 

110. Al Lalbnite’s view of the oi led to 
correct results, dil ot scze the tr oA 
method. He coghe be here vena beter 
rejecting certain quantities, 
definitely small, when com i 
retain The trath was, Cupiic Wine eee 
jected, STs (Riet ay Catton! ifan hog On 


small 
Mra Ce i ae 
SECTION Ill. 


Or rue Inverse Metuop or Fivxions. 


11. Tue I Method of malt aun Inverse 
a ic anes ap 
fluent of 


;in« 
he 


cena 


—— are itis carr to 


’ lation ofthe 


to the sittin 


con ee 


ramet amy 744 ubeta a 
ee the.direct ames. quantities are aseaee 


=e 


of any flaxion, we | employ character 
” the i et ee ge ee toe 


to consi differentials as new, variable Pe aid? by 5 

whi had themselves, differentials. opted \generally by foreign, British 

= 3 ofa snare ar ai te, meri d ates | a. 
terms “were of an to iy wi jon a2” wis ~ cals 
Raieiecierae led.a fluent, is: “tree the fg, 


tity is i inate omnis it 


aed ca from which it is to des 
vo dg 


dz; then, cor, ving pig 2 ae | 


ay Be and, z | ee Oey called Ji 


nimnanl PH kirk 


hy ) that “in?a 


such as are cons, 
5° . 


esares Pines ah Ne ad 
~ sey ahd asa tile wih? 
wilt * ve ye 
11s. We 
function ¢ 


: ae , 


FLUXIONS. 


stant alwa disappear in taking its fluxion ; so that « 
a variable, and c constant, the fluxions of 

diced anton expression du. 

on the contrary, the 


an any, Ah ony ders the coh cre 
This constant quantity is common! = by writers 
on Fluxions, the Correction of the 
114. By reversing the principal rules-of the direct 
wethod We find as many for the inverse method. 
I. The fluent at agg consisting of several terms, 
isthe sum of the facts of its terms, each r its 
sign, and coefficient (art. 27.) nog deer ee du, 


=av—bu+te, for the constant 
quantity, or eae be ay ag 


IL. As the fluxion of x* 4+ cisnz"-* dx; (Rule (A 
Art. 26.) ‘on the contrary, th Ment of 9 = de wi 
be «* + c; that is, we must increase the exponent by uni~ 
pS Nnetgd ste “ind divide bythe ‘exponent 


Az'tl 
[eet +c 
As particular examples, 
SS afar de=— har fen— ate 


Allee, Siz aavess 


applies to all fluxions which can be redu- 

cid bata? Pee Fer eset let the fluxion be 

ax" dz(b + e2* )™: as the fluxion of 4 + e2* is 

qreords, We er the first factor a 2"—' dx to 

this form, dice in ay in the constant factor ne. 
» putting z = 6 4 e 2", we have 


< xnexidz(b+ea" =< Sande; 
, 
Therefore the fluent is 


” eh a . 
it << ne(m+1) Crear Pinte. 


The transformation which has introduced + is not abso- 
me, rer er nae in such a Sieemes may with advan- 
av 
focercore baa hie 
TH. The foregoing rule fails when n=—1, because 
then fz" diss = 4, an expression of which the first 


term is infinite ; but this because the fluxion 
belongs to another kind of It appears from 
Art. 26, Rule (B), and inore ge- 

5 fea Miro 40 
meralor is th futon ofthe Spee Me 
so ong pad — lar denominator. In this 
10 the lsent under the orm l(c), 

fu ci 4 523d x . 


435 
rule by a eee of its constant factor : thus, 


Se aur 12 so {h(Se47) 41 (ot 


=5 1 fo(ss4+7)} 


IV. We have found, (Art. 29.) that uw and ¢ being 
any functions of avarable quantity, d(u #)=ud¢-+1d 
therefore, 

ut=fudt+fidu 
and fu dt= ut—ftdu. 


This manner of expressing a fluent is of great im: 
ance : waiters oA the, digerenttsl ke pate 


thud of integrating by parts. As an example, let the 
fluxion be 1, (aie then, putting dt=d 2x, and w=1. (2), 


so that d um, we have 


fi. @draal(2)—2fe. 
The rule indicated by the formula has the advantage of 


making the fluent depend upon’ another, which, 
analytical address, may frequently be more easily sd 


V. From rule (D), art. 26, if the radius of a circle 
be unity, we have 
rp idz 


va) 


Sms = are. (cos. =z) 4c. 


By these expressions are meant the are, of which the 
Poy pe open Again, from art, 35, 


SGs= are (tan.=z)-+e. 
We may also suppose the radius =r, and we shall have 


= are. (sin, =) +c, 


rdz 
Ae apni fe 
To find the fluent of epbacrstes eam 
m al 


pat ols age 


Resta Spe Therefore, ——— Fa) are (tan. = ¢) 
is the fluent 


sought, supposing the radius unity, and 


dz ‘ 
JSagie= Tat’ ahs (mises) pe: 
ee eee er 
fi. mdz 


J 7@=by= Ve 


are Gin. ==) +e, 


Inverse 


calculus call it the me- 


The direct method furnishes other rules, which willbe — 


noticed in the sequel, 


Decamposition'of Ratiinat Fractiont: 
115, Let it be proposed to’ resolve the fraction 


ast! y into two others, of which t shall be the 
Ce rma. teat tl , that the 
fractions sought. may have the form —*— and > 


A and B being indeterminate coefficients, which are in« 


lowers 
Methed, 


—y—" minator, and adding, their sum 


436 


dependent of z, 3B: reducing them to a common deno- 
i (A+ B)s—(bA +B 


which, com with the 
A+B=4, 6A4+¢ B=—/, from 
katl 2 
A=———— B= 
Hence the practicability of the resolution, and the man- 
ner of performing it, are shewn. 


te By redu- 

cing to a common denominator, we find 4x* + / x 4- m= 

fa hs LF orate fA? LB ae = — Bd). 
Hence, of indeterminate coefficients, 

k=A+C/=B— Ab—2aC,m= atC—Bd. 

By these nome ceed ay re Faes 

A, B, and y be determined. Exactly in the same 

esti tail. Sound, that the fraction 


ES +lz*+meztn 
@—a)"e—5) 


be decomposed, so as to be equivalent to 
= Azt+Br+C a: bo 
(2«—e)5 tmb - 


In general, Jet be an irreducible fraction, such, 


that the power of = in the mimerator is one 
less than its highest the denominator, and let 


v= Le goge past being polynomials which have no 
common factor, and in sara a ot 8 


est powers of x are p and gq. We may assume 
Aa? * + Ba? 3; 


Fo a of sae vtech ate reget 
degree of w exponent 1s —l same 
as that of U, de seseeunet sie tee fraction : 


IID and @ at themselves the roduc f two for 


a aeedite aioe ee, Oates peas an 
Ss wo prceling n thin was he propa raabe: 
may be mpd bers ac meee 

numerators 


Whatever be the degre ofthe numerator ofthe 
pierre Vy” by division, it may be brought to a 


of the fraction thus nee cases. | 
gon He the: dononsecior ead on eae 


my ight (Ke Be . x S, we may sup- 


oo A 
v= ee eS = 


rb Meh E aU i 
Q 


FLUXIONS. 


— 4" 


Examece 1. Let the fraction be — > By the 
ory gin, (Atanas) be he rt 


ee =90,. a ore tata 
— I— ves 
tea) e—r-—2>= G9 e+) 
so that we must assume 

A B 


2—42 
at—c—2 = 7-2 tT 
Hence we find A= —2= Band the rope ie 
2 2 
2—2 ) 240° 
Ex. 2. se ears fraction 
A 
be ope Gur a—x 


tion = 


1 
sat — x" 
——, by reducing to a common deno- - 


minator, and putting the numerators equal to one ano-, _ 
ther, we find 1= Alias +a(B-+ A); here we. 
must make aR hs 0, and pen arse $ which 


gives B=A= 3, and 
Yan) eee ma 
a?—xt”~ 2u(a+z) / 2a (as) 


. " eae’ B 
Ex. 3. Assuming ———~ (a=) = a4 age t ane 
we have 1 = Aa* +aa2(B+C) 4+2* (C—A—B,) 
which gives 1= Ae, Bot : Sores 20; 


La 
- oe ea) * 


‘ 


wisi geetres 
- Fd 1 1 é 
~ivGts t2e@—a) ett th 


oc mT At ee 
so that 


V=(et+prtqye+prt+”) - 
we may suppose 
ip Ac+B C2z+D 
V-Ptpetg) @+pete += 
e—xpl oA Be+C 
OMA yk he ig Tea 
Ra a 
Ex. 5. ois eee ee 
+ pat pp we ind A= C=—B= eo : 


Gaastte If V has real and equal factors, so that V= ’ 


U Awrt4 Ba P 
vo" Gm PS. 
bot tile better t0 pat 
A B TP 


Ex'6, Thies" forthe freee 08! 


thovigh it maybe decomposed into’ + cyt 


FLUXIONS. 437 


“ane a eaieni aks Ai 
Carty Which gives A = 2, B=—3, C=—E=j, cea? * we have v’=s; therefore also jew. 
D=—§ it will be better to make the fraction = i —~— 


: | i. al 
A B. & D E Inthe fraction ———, U==1, Vza?-ta*; therefore <— 
er (+1)? + z41 + (c—1)* ma! iar ate “ 


This expression, by substituting the values of A, B, C> = me 953, when, xoca, 1 becomes.a== 14 and te be~. 


Selena we rate 1 comes o’ =—2a, therefore, one of the partial fractions 
2 2 @pip ~*aq1t Gay test . . mec) = Tas The other is mee: : 
reap dig gga RERRER BEET PROBS Sipame hae teats Vous 

pa ae Pe g vagt e a a a 


1 1 2 x 
. = + / Let both members of the equation be multiplied by 
I teh Ee ¢ 
Case IV. wee SE trinomial (x — a)", then, observing that Sis 6) 5,54 pe 
= + pt + q to be imaginary, if V has for a factor ting K for-5, we have - 
(2*-4-p2+q)", we may make : 


U_ Aa*'4Br2-24 .., +T P K=A+B (7—a)+C(x#—a)?+ wee 
v= (--pa+q)" + > Now, make « = a, and put u and:s to denote as be- 
or rather, | fore, and have A=K= -“; and since 
pf nine Cog K—A=B(z—a)4C(c—a)'4... 
vo (x*-4-pz+q)” + (2*--p -+49)"""* Ress the first since sah yee pa e Lee Cl; 
1 : 
: ant — it will therefore have the form K, (c—a) ; t 
Ex. 8 Thusyiwe make (e441) BiB Co e)troes 


A B C.. Derk F G H I now «=a, and that then K, becomes & 
Getatst ar teptes thus we have B=, and so on. ; = A 


ik 1 


F=—G=}, H=—I=3. . K=A+B(z—a) +C (c—a)'+... 

117. ‘The manner of determining the quantities by taking the fluxions, 
A, B, C, &c. as expressed in last article, is that sug. 4K — Bye c(ena)$3D (ea): py, 
gested by the theory of indeterminate coefficients, (AL- dz 
GEBRA, agt. 313.) but itis very tedious, We shall now @K 
pointy AA saben, se Gua *C+6D(z—a)+... 

Joni, amen Lat cn, BEE Pir, bo. fede eek 7 fe, 
Soy Fe a a mappesingalo shah s—iaiesiote’ a. respsctively, in the! particulir dhee'efoxsassthes, 


factor of S, we propose to find A independently of P, making that hypothesis, w. 
} e find 
Reducing to a common denominator, we get A=k, B=’, C=} k", Dai kk”, &e. 


become w ails respantividy tee Reet 8 P2842 C@ply tapi? s? 
w=As, and A=—, Hence, staiisa + B(x 4 1)4 Fw )s 
Oe tte + i SB + be 


——, we have L=/ , _ 
aae we. have 1 A(a+2)+B(a 2). When ing now a=— 1,.we fnd A=—}, B= —{. 


z=a, this becomes 1 =2 Aa; and when 3.). Let the equation be it , 
r= —2, it Becpmes 1=>2Ba; hence A= B= (), o Az+B: ry 


z - Vir Sepang? 37)  yoiletgna 
; : ee vee js then U= (Az + B)S + P(a?+ px+q). - is 

T the flaxions of the identical V= , vd UT a 
—a), considering that -V and pene If ‘we substitute for x, one of the imaginary. roots of 

st sill ¥ ieee of the equation 2? +pa$ q =.0, P will disappear, and. 


dv : 
By we find 5 =~ (c— 4) 4p Si supposing now w=, the OLS imagery, Weeation reine ee 
then, putting w for the value of when a is substic. tities on each side of the equation equal to one another, 


lorerme 
. 4 


—_——— 


438 

Fill be obtained, by which A and B may be determi- 

ned,*. Let the fraction be ’ 39 TH fet 
z Ar+B 


(2—1) (#4241) ote 
Now pap ito aps ys eter 
apt Ra aay last spctina,'e bapiesas 
j= fae pa ects ry 
Fieie ee en he 
rately equal, and dividing the latter 
=+/—3, we find B Seer B; 

(4) Let us consider the fraction, when 4 = 


Arc+B * ~"A'r4 Br on 
GPP Fret) re 
Let sides of the equation be multiplied nage f 

(+ps+9)", , and observing that'V =(2*-+-p 24-9) 

let K= =5: , and we have 


KsAstB+(A's+B)(s4 p44) + &e. 
This case is the two » and 
Scar bs etlaak ix tas coe ohbOar In the first place, 
we substitute’ ey 2” whe ee etn 8 eq ion 
w+pe+q=—0, w e 4 . 
K=Aa %. The caspiailey “qed ake 
now so ta ads petite ye, gor Bh pa and 
hence Smo eqestios.ane get Sen bich Aso Reape. 


a taking the feesions of both sides of the equation, 


therefore, 


SE HAs (Ac BY(224p)} 
mandi Rs avec sony mem ode. walaet Clad 
eee in this expression, th a 
nary value of x in eqestion «4 x+q=0, t- 
we gong found, b vebedy, etal 
tw ’ - 

© equations are 7 are de- 


For example tthe faction be = Om 
assume it 
Arc+B A’ «c+ B’ 


=@oaspop + Paz49 


By reducing to a common denominator, ‘we find. 
P— 22 + 2r—3= 


A r+B-+(A'r+ B’)(2? —2 24-2). 


St y—f. Ths being cobeiated Ba'ay 2=0 is 
r=14/— being substituted for 2, e equa 

tion becomes 

4/1 = A+B —1. 

Hence the two equations are ey ee 
A=—1, therefore B= — $. Substituting the values of | 
A and B in the equation, and » we have - 

P— 2x? 4 2e=(A'r + B #— as +2); 
and taking the fluxions, and divi 


S2— 42 4 SAA Pe te ruts 


on again substituti 
29/1 =— 2/4 2(A’ BY) /— 
hence’ A’=1, reese rents iar " 


_ ALB, p, qm b 


oe Clee 


FLUXLONS. 


_ *=+3 + 
— Fare? age 


ie hs wes eure acy 


into its by the tri 

ed in Anitn! we vigns 
comprehends also ol. 
of ie cata 
Equations Nu 

vier fedétions, 068 lee I Tit, Cal. 
Post: cap. xi. eaa ¥ os 


Fluents of Rational Fractions. 


119. We have seen, that every rational fraction may 
be reduced Rens be a 
@—ap 
Arce B 


of 22 
oe, ee, two penne 


, tions are transform to 


ate Att Br 


Case I. Mets 


(Art. 114, Rule ITIL.) But But 1. (c) being a al- 
together arbitrary, ronmey pat bnedt cf Ne AGS 


+ and then the fluent. is i be 
dx id . 
P alepet amet: (art, 116,, 


dx 
And singe —— ees 


mij altas gare a rd 
g{herVe-9410} 

dx plats), oe 
e—2 a—« 9 
In like manner, @ss)de = 28 2% has for 
its ‘ent —21 Cee er 1. (@ 14 “e L(o), oF 

Goa 

SP att 


or 
2dx a 


Ads, has for its fluent 


¢ 9 regi wcearer wee 


(art, 114. Role IL) ~ 2: 


—ay~" 


. For the management of inpousible ox imeginary quantities, see ALczania, At, 190-194 


AAhis AXL (2-2) +16), | 


FLUXIONS. ooo. 439 
x aha $25) constant, but indeterminate co-eficients, and let us ass Inverse 
—2ae * sume. Method. 


Inverse 
Method. Wehr i 116, Ex. 6.) that 
—— 


4 a dz Kgorrrio y Lae —— 
= 24s dx - dx , dx. , 
Eh + —l —¥{ 1): =e (2*+,°)" “@+a—) et @4ey-. 
cake Clarita ) fhe’ Let the uxions be. ‘iathag a which, in. respect.to 
. quantities affected by the sign f; is done by merely res 
+ ah = ahaa 4 the mon 
sGtiy jecting the sign, and we have » 
ale +1) +6 dz. Kdz 2K (wee ste 5 
Case IIL. ‘The fraction Art dz may be ak @+Fy~ +e” (eee 
+ 
— "“Azdz Bdz The fl en Bak tie yas" 
ved, inte faa mae 37 e fluent of By reducing these fractions to keting sl 
of these is 4 Al. (2* + 6*) +c, (art. 114 Rule III.) ba and rejecting such : ape as are found in all 
Hs B oz), the terms, we get 1=K (2 + 41) —2K (11) 2? 
and the fluent of the second is [are (tan. = =)+e +L (2 + 62), or : 


(114, Rule V,) therefore, uniting the corrections of the { (2n—3)K—L ple K+ L) 0; 
two 


Hence, by the theory of indeterminate co-efficients, 
var Didee FALQ 489 4 > are (tun. = = =) +e. (2n—3) K—L=0,1—47(K + Lae, 
Wa have found (alt. 116.°Ex., 5.) that From these equations we find K = = (n—1) 6” 
adz righ aie x (®—1)dz Qn—3 | ; . 
Aoi si Pa eT yeh L= sia —1)eF Therefore, substituting for K and 


The fluent of the first term of the second member is L, we find 
Lie (art. 114. pimp Make z= z— } by dz Bon 
d«=dz, then Ap separ termacia tramefermntad to eccemenrice: tak saat + 8°)" 


, zdz 
tT +3 Qn—3 ff dz 
Now epee ‘ELD; tea—pe/ G4 
(art. 114. Rule III.) and the fluent of the other is Te ey Joitee the woe, sf Se Ps by means of 
37S are (t= 75) therefore, restoring x in these it the fluent aay is made to depend upon ano= 
expressions, we ae 
adx * f capppeein which pia diminish y an unit, 


3.1? fug@enyery (tyes yt This last, last, again, is reducible to another, in which the _ 
¢ ; ‘ef @e41 exponent ee and so on, until we come to the 
te sare (ton = =F) fuent of ~ 
bringing ing the logarithmic i i into qne.term, MM AHoS 
a epostg the arbiter correction to be 41. (c’), The tain ERE Ee will serve to 
abl 1) rau ne ew ey exemplify this Peel 6 5 decomposed it becomes 
L {<< team um. = are (tan. = ae ) (—2e+41)dz2, Pci +1)dz dx 
v (#4 4-2-1) 73 (#1 epi * #41 
As a second example, veers DE The first terms of each of the two first fractions give 


1) (#41) 
= bes 116, Ex. 4.) may be decomposed ) REET 6) Vg hin Pde, = 


into 
@ +1) 2@o4 @piy= = eopT 
me pens, the latter of these’ again may With respect to the other terms, ba,sny, feral, 
adx > : dx . 
teem tei tei Teme | fears ate t Yee | 
ae Sie dan eh seh teeta of ovr 
‘ ry a clo de ha 3 . second eran! we have in like 
ay aside pabivnenaemaiand 
z+ dz Azdz z a : a 
matey The fluent of the first of eho ie, E309 oi arin seein’ tasty Sta 
ay eaters, email 
2 (mn — 1) (# BER Mrs 5 Ue Heloll) Bat it The ditierent parts apited.give ns 
rth WA Piles ath as ip hay re (tam 2) +0 


+ + 
120, Tofind the fuent of Trzgop let Kand Lhe FFI) ae hue 


3 which is known by Ritle V. art. 114. 


the fluent of by the circle and- logarithms. 


ays 

John Bernoulli Taiowed in the same path as Leibnitz, 
but their methods were very laborious: The theory 
by the discovery of Cotes, 
i noticed, (art. 118.) 
On this branch of the subj see John Bernoulli, 
pm: ; Cotes, Harmonia Mensurarum; De Moivre, 

iscellanea Analytica ; Simpson, Epeeue oe several sub- 
jects, awd Fluxions, Vol. U1. ; Landen, Mathematical Lu- 
cubrations, Part VIT. Euler, Inst. Cal. Diff: et Integra- 
lis, 


Of the Fluents of Irrational Functions. 


122. We have shewn how the fluent of every rational 
algebraic function may be found ; the same method will 
apply to all such irrational functions as can be rendered 
rational by transformation. Let us consider, in the 
first place, fluxions, in which the terms are singly ra- 
dicals, such as : 

Soft fe xox x* 
t +42 ” 
it is easy to see that by making x = 2‘, the irrationa- 
oe 5 ma and as dz = 62° dz, the fluxion is trans- 
formed to 


6(2"4 + 2% 4+ 2) dz m 62zdz 
( wat =6z ek thal ager Ie 
which presents no difficulty. 


Let the fluxion be “= da; put x ==, then ds =: 


22zdz, and the fluxion is transformed to 
ads _o4 2Qdz 
Bal en ea 
of which the fluent is 2 z 4 log. (z—1) —log. (z++1), 


or 


c/t—c 


123. We are now to consider any function whatever 
affected by the radical 4/(A + Bax ==Cat); which 
may be also expressed thus, Voy (% + Ge) 
There will be two cases, according as #* is positive ‘or 


ve.« 
nse [When the i ' 
we radical has the form 4/(a4-b24-2*); 
V(@ 462+) =e -b2, or = sez, 
hence we find a +62 == 2x2 + 2', 


_ #—a 
* = bo2? 
2(b2>= a= 2) 
lien (roa 
® we tp that the factors are 
4a+4b2— 


be positive, and ¥(6* 4. 44) a real quantity. 


FLUXIONS. 


Thus the radical, or r=, will be rendered ra- Ini 
tional, ae swollen he peppeesd feedior : . 
: z 

Fer a th catanibab ie By = 
_@+tbzta 
ual? 2246” 
and the proposed fuxion i transformed to 22; the 
fluent of which is 1. (2 = 4 6) + const. therefore 


eters at {e ce +U4+-V(a+br42")7} 


Hence, [a= 1. fete+v(2 =«)i} | 
Suppose dy = d x4/(a* 4 2*); we put 4/(a* + 2*) 
=z—2, hencedy=zdz—xdz, andy=— }xt+/fzde. 
Instead of d z, put its value 2% (a 4 2), and then, ta- 
king the fluent, and substituting, we find ee 
yactiey(ode)tiel fry yes ay} 


Ie we put dy = 77-"* under this form dy y/—1 
dx 


= ETT ae ea ne oe 
y=) 1, {ervey} rer! 

If y be an arc of a circle, x is its cosine (Rule (D), art. 
26.) and 4/(2* —1) = o/— 1, sin. y;, the equation of 
the fluents is therefore i 

shy Y—1=1. fos. y =e7—1. sin. yf. 

The constant correction c in this case must be = 0, 
boosie: wlien + 551g laa Se eee ‘Moreover we 

i =k, because t i if 4/— 1 ma’ 
either + or eyo e bein ‘the ada amber in 
ier’s i art, 12. 
Napiers System of Logarithms (art. 12.) by the theory 


yv¥—l1 : ; 
ae me 


putting the radical = z— 2, it 


> ar 


cos. y fo 4/1 sin. y= e 
cos, y—/—1.sinny=e 


yVv—t 
> 


cos. y= 2 ‘Gaw 
v—1 —yVv—1 

. ey yj one yt Pees 

sn. ¥ = 2/—1, : - 


considered these formals as one of the 
most analytical discoveries \ 
They were first given by Euler. Form diffrent matie 


of investigating see ARITHMETIC oF Stnes (29 
124. Case II. Let the radical be 4/(a phe ; 

the method cannot now Be apple’ witlnaee 

introducing imagi uantities: But in this case the 


trinomial « -{- Beans? te the profiakte? thads toro meal 
CHES (440) — $b, 4Y(h + 40) Hh b—2, 
Let them be denoted by  — «and @— 2a, and let us 


assume 
V(ap-bcmn)j=V/ {(e—«) (a—z)} =(x—«) x. 


always real, it is to be observed, that as a ..be—.2? is supposed oA’ k pihacive ‘cjuastily.= 
4 x* = b+ 4a— (b— 2x) will also be positive, but (6 — 22)! will always be positive, therefore b% -f- 4a must also 


4 


Snide 
Method. 
ay 


i al 


x 


FLUXIONS. 


441 
Then, squaring and suppressing the common fatter, m41 - 

ye Mave etsicss).°3 hence ae (2a) _ ‘ 
; Baz _ 2(a—8)zdz 4 mel" 
BF pant | Got) vedi Sehcae tt 

Wile 468 0) (onin) 8 eran) PY ebeietions the prapoved Harien bevatres 

These functions, as expressed by z, are all rational. B Ste—6) 8 ad 
# nba ; 


UA dah se oS ER then, 
making the above 


f 1 tore? 


ip >> the fluent of which is — 2 are (tan. = 


dz s—zx 

Pr oy TCT 2are fen. = /=} 
If we suppose a= 1, b= 0, then, because 1 —x* = 
+ s)G—s), we have «=—1, 6=1; in this 
case, the ula becomes 


ic (aro hae See: 


The fluent of this fluxion is otherwise expressed by 
arc (sin. = 2) 4c’, (Art. 114, Rule V.) 

If dy = dz /(a* — x*), by applying the transforma- 
ij ving that «= —a,&—=a, we 


 —Satz2dz 


dy= J 
j= +2) 

The fluent may now be found by the rules for ra- 
tional fractions. 

The same mode of transformation will apply to. the 
es pa ee rman e Bs 4620 
are real. 

125. The radicals 4/(a+-b2-+4-2*), and ,/(a+-b2—<2*) 
may also be transformed ing «= z— 46 inthe 


first case, and «= z 4+ 46 in the second; then 
Soiree eee Leone) In the 
case, the irrationality may be removed by making 
7 (a = 2) = a—uz, for then 
2au ?@=e1 


a= Pag tet a8 Seis 
‘ x —dz 
It is ~ that Tata) ene Alay 
by ere lepers the fluent may now be found 
by - art, 114, Again, making 4/(5?— 2?) = 
6— uz, the fluxion is changed 


an a fluxion of which the fluent has been repeat- 


edly assigned, 


from its second form to 


Of Binomial Flusions. 
Of binomial 126, We propose now to find the fluent of 
fluxions, pe 2 
K2"de(ab2"). 
m,n, p, being any numbers whatever, whole or frac- 
, positive or ve, 
In the first place, we put 
zmatbn; 
i 


Hence, = (=“)’: Raising now both members 
of this i the i, and taki 
h ages power m + taking the 


VOL. IX. PART It. 


tution, it is immediately trans- 


Now if =i, bad “2, -0hiih: anion “his “HG” Bich 


K’ 2? dz, and its fluent may be found by Rule II. art. 
114, 


If as —1=some positive whole number r, the flux- 


ion has the form K’ (z—-a)"z” dz. This expression may 
be developed, by the binomial theorem, into a series of 


a finite number of terms, each having the form A 2! dz; 
their fluentsmay therefore be found as in the former case, 
and thence the fluent of the proposed fluxion will be 
known. 


If a bea negative whole number =— r, the 


Kids ~ ; this expression 
(z—a)” : 

may be transformed into a rational fraction, by assuming 
z= ul, g being some whole number, such, that pq is 
also a Whole number, as has been shewn (art. 122). 


Therefore, if the exponent of x out of the binomial, in« 
creased by unity, be divisible by the of x in the 


fluxion will have the form 


binomial, the fluent may always be found by the rules al- 


read: ined. 

This, wever, is not the only case in which we can 
find the fluent. If the part of the fluxion in the bino« 
mial be divided by 2", and the part without the bino« 
mial be multiplied by z”?, which will not change the 
value, the fluxion will be expressed thus 

Kat" (6 aan Yds a 
and putting z= 4 +ax2-*, roceeding, as in 
Seimei vale. Gis Bixien be ttuiheoerto 


From this expression we Iearn that the fluent may be 


found when leaky ha Fda tae or rather when i + 
—n n P 


is a whole number. Hence it appears that when = : 


n 
is not a whole number, if p be added, and the result be 
a whole number, the fluent may still be found. 

127. When p is a fraction, (which is the most im~ 
portant case,) and g its denominator, it is most conve- 
nient to assume a + b2"='2’. For example, let it be 
required to find the fluent of 

5. 
a~*dz(a+23) 5. 
e m+1 Par 

In this case, —~— = — }, to this, if we add p= 
— $, we find —2; therefore we must multiply and 
divide by (23) or a~*, and then the fluxion be- 
comes 


3K 


442 


mide(l 4a); 
—— We now make 1 + a2 =2', from which = 


fs") by raising both sides to the — 6th power, 
and taking the fluxions, we get 
a(—1), 
a* * 
Hence, by substituting, the fluxion is transformed to 
| ; . 
—_pl—=)ds 
of which the fluent is Ke 
1 v4 24 
eA (8$ 1) =¢— sap 


In like manner, the fluxion 2° dx (a? 4 2) be- 
comes | dz (=*—a*z'), by making a* + 2*=23; hence 
the fluent is 

3/(a® 4+ 2*)*(420°—Sa?) 4c. 

128. When OS entices lo not satisfy one of the two 
conditions specified in art. 126, the fluxion cannot be 
rendered rational by any known method; we may, 
however, reduce it to the most simple form of which 
it will admit, by means of the formula fu d¢ = wt 


— ft du (art. 114. rule IV.) 
us put u=2P and dt=a"dz, then du= 


rvde=— 


+1 
pz? dz; and (= 5 hence, 


r™+12P Pp P11, m1 
m1 Jaf z dz. 


Bat z=a 4 bx", anddz=nb.2"'dz, therefore, 
1 
fren 2=Z LS wendin. zPol 


wdz.2?= 


Again, because 2? = 2?—! z = 2?—! (a4.5.2"), there- 


fore 
fordz.2=aferds. P46 [Pl etd e (2) 
These values (1) and (2) being put equal, we find 
b(m +1 np) fP- erde= 

xe 2P—a(m+41) fz? xd x (3) 
Change now p—1 into p, and m 4. into m, and we 


have 
wf) 
preva —a(m—n+1) far? d x 
6(m+1+4+2p) 


and putting for the last term of equation (2) its value 
as given by (3), we get 4 : 
(B) ‘ 
frrdzs?= xPgeri + anp fz" dx. ‘ 
129. We shall now 


m-1l+np 
in which it must be 


shew the use of these formule, 
recollected that 

z=a-+ bz". 
1. Formula (A) makes the fluent of a 2? dz, 


pend on that of 2»—" 2?d'z, and again this last on the 


fluent of x2 ="d x, and so on; it therefore serves 
to diminish. the mt of x out of the binomia 
@; at last to bring she hasnt to eco 
a Pd 2, i being any whole positive number. 

2. Formula (B) serves to diminish the exponent p 


FLUXIONS. ? 
by 1, 2, 3, &c. units, and thus to make the fluent of 
d on that of 2" 2?“ ds. " 


the fost in tee gedpad member os phe vie or eo 


[rasa 


_frades? aE Hating i frrind S 


de- Es cay V7 =e2*)’ 
SFeH 


depend on that of 


a 2? dx 


equation, then substituting’m—a instead of m, in the 
hot Geel ae instead of p in the second, we 
. , 


ons, Pt 1 pnt p+n+1 Yfomerehd. Py 
(D)" (m41) ; 


an(p1) 

These formule serve, on the contrary, to increase the 
exponents of «, out of the binomial, and in it, and are 
useful, when the one or the other is ve. 

- 4. These formule shew the law according to which 
the terms of a fluent are formed : thus, it is easy to see 
that the fluent of ; 

ada 

het Ny Bb: rseed, Vv (1— 2%). Pe 
B i e fluxion of thi ion, we 
the co-efhicienta, A, B,C, by the meth method of indleter- 
minate co-efficients, with less trouble than by applying 
the general formula. j 

130. We shall now indicate a mode of finding fluents, 
remarkable on account of its simplicity, and nume- 
fons faatasde in Wiech 1 sadly Wage. Taking the 
fluxion of a*—'s/(1—22) we have d fe-yu—«)} 
ee 
ov (1—z*)’ 
the first term of this 


= (n—1) 4 /(1 — 2°) dz — 
By multiplying and divi 
flaxion by 22) my after taking the fluents 
and transposing, ®) 4 veer 
ede em tY(isa) nlp mide 

70—*) n a J 7a—y 
By treating the expression 2*—!4/(«?=+1) in the same 
manner, we get 


ae psiloc Il PO dar 
n aS J (el), 
find the fluent of every 


wdx 
V@=D 


z 
form Fatma) © (tata) 
ced at last to the m7 (eae) ” Va 
By dividing the numerator and denominator by a, the 
radicals in these expressions may be changed into 
hen oil and 4/ («* == 1), ahd ‘Chati Sottitglas (E) 
and (F) make the fluent at last depend on 


rdzx xdx 


or 


if n is odd; 
dz 0 f Ezy if n is even. 
The two first fluents come immediately under Rule 


II, art.114, by putting 2*=£1, or I=t-z*=z, from which 
adx=or—xdx=d z; the third has been 


in art. 124; the fourth is the arc, of which the sine is a. 


For example, we have. 


4 


DRiavere adz 1 yas a 

oats, Jay EV at 
edz a. 12 
V¥Ui—2) =—($+75)v0—*) $6 
ay = BV (0 2) 4} ae (in. = 2) bo. 
wtdz 1.32 


x3 
Wins =~ Gta = 
+ st arc (sin, =r) 4c. 


131. However, if n were negative, formule (E) and 
, and (F) would no longer apply ; but, by making z = 


1 
? ‘>? we find, 
dz pe —2-1dz 
FVI—#) ~ V(#—1)’ 
dx 1 dz 


2/(@= 1) Jase 

Besides, we may find formule which shall apply direct- 
ly, by ing as in last article ; for, taking the flux« 
ion of z*+14/(1—a*), we get 
7 dz —__ x(i—=*) 

wr/(L— 2?) ~ — (n—=1) 2 } (G) 

n—2 de 

+71 J 0—) 
When z is an odd number, this formula makes the 


dx 
fluent ESE i 
at last depend oe fa which, by Ex. 
2. art. 33, is 


LI Vv0+2)4+V0—2) 
ooh d Saeahiaet os) 


se ftvC—-)} 


In like manner, we find 
adzx 


gm! 
VQae—2*)—~ om anes t (H) 


(2m—1)af* 2—dz 
+ m J/(2aa—2) 


Of Exponential Functions. 
132. It appears, from art. 26, rule (C), that 


pruzty 
L(@) 
Let V be any algebraic function of ar, then, because 


oa? 
d (a*) 
‘ _ dr= » if we put a*° =u, we have Vd = 
a* 1. ( 
Vdu “) ’ . % 
it ive a.., 
algebraic form, For example, let V= ——-“——_ 
Vl + a") 
pas ade du 
pe! V+ el Ee: 
uent of this last i 
F : rad t expression may be found by the 
Let z be any function of x; then, e being the num- 


ber of which Nap. log. is unity, we have d (z¢*)= edz 
+ zda; , ; 


FLUXIONS. 


Judizut—fidy, making u = 2", 


443 


Inverse 
Method- 


—_—— 


dz - 
fe ds (: +7 )=e fe. 
a. 
For example, let z = «3 —1; then = 32", and 
zr 


Sede (3 2? 423 — 1) =e" (a3 —1)+-<¢, 
133. In other cases, we may have recourse to the 
method of integrating by parts, (art. 114. Rule IV.) 
Thus, let the fluxion be «* dz.a*; then, by the formula 


dtz=a‘dz, we 


ara” n 

fedeaa L(@) ~E(a) vd e. A 
By treating a* x*—'d x in the same manner, and re- 
peating this as often as isnecessary, we find Ja ade 
{ a na! n(n—1) a-* 

* UL(a) ~ TF (a) t~ 13a) 
1.2.3...” 
~~ Seat + ¢. 

In this series, 1.* (a), 1.3 (a), &c. mean the square, the 

wet Te the Be t n is negative, by following th 
134, e n isn ve, ‘ollowin 2 
same method, we may anordiee the fete Bo: of x, Tae. 


cordingly, from the formula fu d ¢ ='u t — ft du, ma- 
king u =a", and dt =<, we find 
aad x 


ard x —a l(a) 
G te =G—pe ta) =r 


By repeating this transformation, we bring the fluent 


ad d. 
J {Sto depend on <=. This last fluent has long 


exercised the ingenuity of analysts in endeavouring to 
reduce it to circular ares or logarithms, but without 
success. It to be a transcendental of a pecu< 
liar kind. For want of a ri s method, we may 


employ a series ; thus, putting A for l(a), we have, by 


art. 53, ‘ 
A®x? A3z3 
@=l+Ar+ —3-+ 95 


Therefore, multiplying by and taking the fluents, 
we find pad he 
A?x? ~ Ai x3 
L(2)+A a + ga t+aagte++ +e 
135. If n be a fraction, either of the preceding me« 
thods will serve to reduce the exponent of x to some 
fraction between 0 and +1 or — 1; and then, recourse 
may be had to the method of infinite series, which we 
are afterwards to explain. 
regard to the fluxion of 


zdx.a*, will ly equally to zdx.a", supposing z to 
ti say kina eee act: 


+ &e. 


Of Logarithmic Functions. 


Let it now be 

zdx1."(2x), putting 1." (2) to denote the nth power rithmic 

of the Napierean log. of xz, and supposing z to be any y=) 
braic function of zx, 

n be a positive integer, then recurring to the 


required to find the fluent of of loga- 


_ 


444 
formula fudi=ut—fidu, and making s=1." (x), 
= and df=rd-z, so that t= fzds, and dw= 


w L=* (2) iy we have 


dx 
fries (= Ln(a) feda—nfms (=) feds, 


mynd hs ny ee og ap eatpuas A 
established, the proposed fluent is is form le 
to on another of the same kind, in which the 
exponent of the logarithm is an unit less. 


Thus, if=—2", we have 


freee @=ayi mary foo (2) .2" de. 
ing the fe Ja to this last fluent, and agai 
PR Sr ar tease > oe; we qt ‘we 
Seni (sz) dz= 
, fhe) nl?—(2) , x(n—l )Le*(@) : 
oe eet eri eee te 


187. But if » is a whole negative number, we must . 


| sp lorasbayer udi=ut—Jid u, so as to increase 
exponent of the logarithm, This will happen, if, 
in the expression 

z2 

[*(2) = —n+1 


d. > 
we make 2a = u, and L— (2): = = dt, by which 
I—*4+4(2) | 
—n+l 


x (—n4$1)1=*(2)%, 


=, for we then have 


zdz_ gn 
I) =~ —n +1 
— L-* +! (x).d (22). 
Let us suppose z = 2”; then this formula becomes 
xdz — gt! m+1 ~amdx 
Tz) ~(@—1) b=" (2) Fal P@’ 
By transforming this last fluent in the same manner, 
and again the fluent that thence results, and so.on, we 


wd 
at last make the proposed fluent depend on nO 


L741 (2) 


Now, put 2+? = +, then L. (2) = =), and a"dz= 
dz 
meV therefore, 
wdx dz edu = fra: 
Te) ie) =" ou 
pepe A agg The fluent of this last func- 
tion can only be expressed by a series, as we have al- 


ready observed in art. 134. 

198. When » is a positive or negative fraction, the 
fluent may be made to depend upon a similar fluent, in 
which n is between 0 and +1, or —1,. This last can 
only be expressed by an infinite series. 


Of Circular Functions. 
Of circular 
functions, 


139. 
of such expressions as coritain trigonometrical fune- 


There are several methods of finding the fluents - 


FLUXIONS. 


arc, its fluxion may be transformed into an alge. © 
braic function, . For example, let sin. «= 2, then 
dz 
cos. t = 4/(1—2"), dz=-—_—__; 
sip Va)" 
sin.” «. cos." 2dx=2"dz(1—2) a 

1. If n is an odd number, the radical in the trans« 
formed expression di i 

2. Ifm isan odd number, then the exponent of z out 
of the binomial, when increased by unity, will be a 
multi le of 8, it exponent ies, Mnausial Thus, one 
ie first) of art. 126, will be satisfied ; 
and therefore the fluxion may be made rational. 

8. If m and m are even numbers, then the second 
condition of art. 126. will be satisfied, As an example 
of this method, f‘sin.} x dx, 

dz ry 
VO—*) ~ 
RS. II. Method. It follows, from art. 26. rule D, 


— i con. «(8 ascot x) 4c 


_fizcos kas + sin. ke +6, 
\ 

[asrsin kes =F coke +0. yest 
Now, we have shewn 24 crip. « or Sines) how to 
develope the powers of sin. x and cos. « into series, the 
terms of which are multiples of 2; every 
fluxion of the form cos.”"2.dx, or sin.” xd.x, may be 
transformed into a series of futions, of the forms 
dx cos. kx, dx sin. kx; and hence the fluents may be 
found from the preceding formule. . Thus, because 


ae 5 pete 
Cos. & = ‘7 08. ee ee a ee 
(Anirumetic of Sines, Formule (S), therefore, 


nT Bis g: ‘ 
ross 2d 2 = 5 sin. 524 Gesin. 824 sin, & 


This method “is often used, because it is easier to find 
the sines and cosines of the multiples of an are than the 
powers of its sine and cosine. As-the expression 
cos.” x sin." z, may also be resolved into a series, of 
which the terms are the sines and cosines of the multi- 
ples ot Se the fluent of cos.” x sin.” xd x, may be found 
as in ere 
pc E on Pe ccbon Noe Sah Hotta 
may be as i i ‘or 
m of at. 195; bad tae the eaets of ony Sixxions 
into which enter, may be found by art. 132---134, 
142, IV. Method. This proceeds by the formula 
Sudt =ut—ftdu, which we have already so often 
4 ed, the fluxion be d w sin.” x cos." x, which 
oo dee gig ee protess oe 
sin."—! x; then, putting vu = sin.”— 2, t= 
dx sin. z con't a oon which it follows, that ¢ = 
ae and du = (m—1) dx cos. # sin." 2, we 


ve ; 
* sin” ze . 

UJ as sins cosa = = SS cost x 
| — _frosrtrasinm ad x, 

this 


lue cos." # (1—sin,?z), 
1 


for cos.n+2.2, its va= 
transposing, we find 


4 
L FLUXIONS. 445 
~ Invers 16) ef — When the be ee of the sine and cosine are Iavena 
_ Method. . — __ sin." x cost » negative, we multiply the numerator by cos.2a Me 
—— S dz sin” 2008," 2 = Ta mon + sin? 2=1, and aia / Beart 1 
° m—1 , dx iy. dx dx 
+ aan t# ee Nt sin.” x cos.” 2 ~sin."=* xcos/at sin” 2008 8 
resolving the proposed fluxion into the two fac. By repeating this operation, we come to fractions hav- 
Gece tine eet nes aad ing in ing only sin. x, oF cos , in the denominator. P 
the same manner, we find m=N, as sin. cos. z= 4} sin. 2 x, the denomi- 
d c 1 
; ei wud 4S nator sin.” x cos.” x becomes gn Sin.” (22). i, 
* ‘ d x sin.” x Cos.” «= mtn 146. We shall conclude this branch of the subject, 
? + ‘ a 
; fhe” ; by fin the fluents of four of the more elementary 
+ aaah a sin.” x cos."— 2. circular ions. 
dz  dxsin.x 
J One of these formulz serves to depress the exponent The first is ——~= ———__; put = 2, and it 
- of the sine, Se, ae ae of tie caine and, by 2 ren T—cos.2z* Pu 00s. 7 = % an 
| their joint ication, the fluent may be found when a2. : : 
r Pye i cay Wo positive’ itkger “Hinatbert.” For becomes — 7—,- The fluent of this expression has 
: exam) 


ple, 
Sd x sins x c08.*.z = — + sin. xc08.3 x 
+3 faz sin. x 0s. x 
S dx sin. x 0032.2 = +sin# 2c0s,.24 fd 2 sin. 2, 
Observing, now, that fd x sin. = — cos.x, we find, 


ats enlceniogiall eo terpe./ die ts ern 
cos, 2 (— + sin.? 2 cos.? 24-2 sin.ex — 3 ms 

. 143, But if m and n are negative, these pede sab 
quire some modification. The first gives 


@).. 
desin.™ x sin.™—"x 
cos.” & mM—n COS" x 
m—1 dx sin." *z 
~ m— Tl cos.” x 
dz sin, x 


This brings the fluent to depend on that of 


cos.” x” 


or-of 2, according as mis an odd ot an even number. 
bi te a Sep aenb Cretan er tert tinea edhe 
comes ——;: the fluent of this is obvious ; the fuent 
Treslael aan olen aes 

~ The second mead gas le, by making 
n negative, and bringing the fluent in the second mem- 


ee tae ee allen, fh 


ly, changing n into 2— n, gives 


pdesint 2 sintt's — mmnt2 pdesin”™ 2 
cos? ¢ (n—1)cos"—2 r—tl cos,"—2 z¢° 
By this, the fluent sought is reduced to that of dz sin.” x, 
= to 228i." ; Re 
cong? according as n is even or odd. ‘The 
second is found by formula (I); the first is present- 
ly to be noticed. 
144. If we make m or n =0, we have 


. —cos, x sine | m—1 
S sunrdss = T af ax sins 


sin. 2cos."—"z n= 
S corvds= ~, + ft cose 


* 


dt _ —cos.2 m—2 da 
ain 2 (m—i)sin”—2 m—,) sna 
dx ” sin. 2 n—2 dx 
i 008," — (i—I)cos."—*z tn cos." x 


been given in Art. 119. Case I; thence 


SJ se (04a FEI = fy Coes) 


And as cos. «= 1 —2sin.2 4.2 = 2cos.2 $x —1(A- 
riTHMETIC Of Sines, formule (T) ; therefore, 1— cos. 
=2:sin# 4 2, and 1-+cos, x = 2 cos.* }.x, so that 


2. By a like process, putting cos, «=z, we find 
dx =i {wv 1+sin. x) 
cos.z U4/(1 —sin, x) 
1 — cos. 

If in the formula [pene a= tan.t} 2, we putie—x 
instead of x, (# being 180°), we get i 
1—sin. 
=tan,” —37)=—_.— > 

Ct terrae 


therefore, f° 22. =1. {tan (45 4 Fs) } 4 e!, 


3. Let the fluxion be “#008 In this case, the 


numerator is the fluxion of the denominator, therefore 
(Art. 114, Rule IL.) 


8 O88 of 2 =f decot.r=1. (¢ sin. 2). 
tan.z 


x 


sin, zy 
4. In like manner, 
S SS dx tan. x =f S>{S}- 
cos. # cot. x cos.x 


Of the Constant Correction of a Fluent. 


147. Let P be the variable part of the fluent of 2dx, o¢ the con. 
(z being a function of x), and ¢ the constant quantity stant correc. 
which ought to be added, in order that the fluent may tion of a 
be the most general possible, we have fz da =P+4c. fluent. 
While we regard the fluent merely as a function, of 
which the fluxion is to be identical with a 
fluxion, c may be any constant quantity whatever ; but 
when the fluent results from the solution of a particu- 
lar problem, it generally happens, that the constant 
pie c has to satisfy some condition, which restricts 
it toa inate value. If, for example, it be propo« 


4416 


sed to find the area CEQP=s, (Fig. 14.) com 
Method. od between the ordinates CE, PQ, ott) de abatia- 


Fig. 14. 


“constant arbilra : quantity. 


sx are AE=a, and AQ=4 ; because d sy d x (art. 71.) 
in general, s=fy d =P + c. But let us suppose, that 
when x becomes a, P becomes A, then, corresponding 
to the particular case of s=a, s=A+c. Now in the 
present case, when x=a, then s=0; therefore, ¢ is re- 
stricted to the i that makes A+c=0, that is, 
e=—A, hence s=P—A ; and if in this expression we 
+ instead of x, we have the area, or the value of s, 
wom the Henke of ene ae oo ; : 
in, us su u x are two variable 
qiatities, ov telaten, that der ds, then, in general, 


ate But let us farther suppose it known, 


c= 
. a"+1 
that when r=a, then u=/. In this case, k= aqit® 


and hence c—k— at and, in the question under con- 
sideration, it can have no other value; therefore « = 


pil on +k. In this manner, we may determine the 


n+ 
value of the constant correction c. 

Supposing a to be the value of zx, when the fluent 
=0, then a is called the origin of the fluent ; and it is 
said fo begin when x has that value ; and to end when 
x has completed the change in its magnitude, so as to 
have from r=a to x=b. These values of x are 
the /imits of the fluent. When neither the origin nor 


joe limits of the flu- 
ent are , It is definite. us, supposing A to 
be the value of the i ge 2=.4, on B its value 
when r—6, then B—A is the definite fluent. As c has 
the same value in A and B, it disappears from the de- 
finite fluent, which may therefore be found by putting 
2=a, and x-=b in the indefinite fluent, and subtracting 
the first result from the second. All this will be illus- 
trated by examples as we proceed. 


Fluents found by Infinite Series. 


148. When a fluent cannot be assigned in finite terms 
by algebraic quantities, nor by circular arcs nor loga- 
rithms, then recourse must be had to methods of ap- 
proximation. Let fd be the fluent. If we develope 
the function < into a series, proceeding according to the 
ascending or descending powers of x, and multiply the 
terms by d x, and then take the fluents, their sum will 
evidently be the fluent sought. We shall now give ex- 
amples. 

Ex. 1. Let the fluent of A be required, which, 


we know, comprehends in it ].(a+.2), (Rule(B), art. 
26). acbaale derision, fot ere 
1 we igts, 2 
Saat al sami valet Oe. 
Therefore, multiplyi dx, 
> otorereacadeg jon, Aad 


dz z F id 


a agar Seed 
f sea a ear t sa Tere Pa 


In the most general expressiun for the fluent, ¢ ma 
be any constant quantity whatever; but regarding it 


FLUXIONS. 


as expressing the value of |. (2+4-a), ¢ is restricted to a 
particular value. pee acy ig arama 
when 1=0, then L (+e) becomes 1. (a); but when 
x—0, all the terms of series except c vanish, there- 
fore c= 1, (a), and 


2 # x 
1, (v4) =L.@+o—eat 5qs — &e- 
as we have already found, (Art. 53.) é 
Ex. 2, To find the fluent of 5", we expand it by 


division into the series dt — 2*dx4atdzr—2x°dzx+ 
&c. then taking the fluents of the terms, we find 


dx , 
sr—tz pig 
i4e ile i) ch i ath db 
As this fluxion is that of an are, of which the tangent 
is x, and radius unity, (Art. 35), by giving a suitable 
value to c, the fluent must express that are. To 
determine c, we must consider, that when the tangent 
= 0, then the are =0; therefore the fluent ought to va« 
nish when x0; hence c must be =0, and 


arc (tn. =2) = 25 +S 48. 


which is the series origi found by James Gregory, 
and perhaps prec 25 Leibnits,” Hence the ratio 
of the diameter to the circumference may be found, wee 
Anitumetic of Sines, Art. 82); and the 
$.14159265 ... which expresses the measure of two 
right angles, and is commonly indicated by the cha~ 
racter x, ’ 


d 
Ex. 3, Let the fluent of F ; = jorda(1—et) 
be required. In this case, we must the radical 
into a series by the binomial theorem, (Art. 53. or 54. 
See also Atcesra, Art, 323.) which will give 


a 1.3.24 
ary f=14¢ + gq + &c hence we have 
dx x3 S x6 3,5 x7 


Vas) =*+ 93 + ong t or67 t St 
This fluxion is the same as that of an arc, of which 
the sine is x, (Rule (D) Art. 26.) ; now the are vanish~ 
ae Antone by i Ata eee ie! 
ill express the arc. If we suppose arc to be ¥ 
the circumference, or 30°, then «= }. "Therefore ob« 
serving, that the are of 30° is ¥ #, we have 
gical 1 1.3 1.3.5 
t7=3+ 939 + case t+aae70 + & 


149° John Bernoulli invented a eral expression 
for any fluent, which is 8 Taylor's formula 


for any function of a binomial. Let z be any function 
of x, then any fluent whatever, containing only one 
variable quantity, may be represented by f/zda: em« 
ploying now the formula fu dt = ut—ftdu, we have 


prdzaz2—fadz 
fotenfierimiot fae 


a Fei! a as 
and taking the fluent ye eee ey ee 


az dD z 


ad 
Tat des jt atl at 
tnstead of f'rd, ft FE, Se. substitute thei 


dis 
dz® 


&e, 


FLUXIONS. 447 


c for the constant quantity, which is the circular are of which the radius is a and the sine _ Inverse 


Inverse 
z, and this arc, supposing AD a quadrant, is PD ; let Method. 


alues, and 
pr to obrlete the foest, and we have 


== 


Fig. 10. 


ig. 9 


dz 2 d?z 23 
frteaetee- iF at dz 23 —~ *- 
This is Bernoulli’s Theorem. It may be otherwise 
readily deduced from Taylor's theorem, If in the de- 
velopement we make z = 0, all the terms, with the ex- 
ception of the constant quantity, vanish, therefore c is 
the value of the fluent when z = 0. 


d : 
Examp.e. To find the fiuent [== (a + x) by 


ate@ 

this method: When 2=0, then 1. (a + x) becomes 

1, (a), therefore c= 1. (a): And because z = 
dz —1 © dtz 2 

therefore dx (a+z2)?’ dx? (a+ 


1 
atx’ 


js? Oe ad 


z = x3 
Liepal=} (9) +iye +3(apayt Hapa 
&e. 
This series differs from that found in last article, but 
the one may be transformed into the other. 


Quadrature of Curves. 


150. Let «= AQ, (Fig. 14.) be the abscissa of a 
curve, y= PQ Phaaped ‘abe 2 Ards the ane CEOP, 
com ded between the indefinite ordinate PQ, and 
CE an ordinate having a given position. We have 
found, (art. 71.) that ds =yd-z, so that s=fyd «, 
We are now to apply this formula to particular exam- 


Exampre 1. Let the curve be a parabola, (Fig. 10.) 
in this case, a being put for the parameter, y* =a 2, 
and y=a* x4, andds= dz=a* x4ds, therefore, 
Coie tes deans 118) 

s=fyde=ia a* hemsyepe. 

Let us suppose the fluent to begin at the vertex A; 
then, when x= 0 we to have s=0. The ge- 
neral equation of the in this case becomes 
0=0-+6¢, therefore c=0; and sos =}y-x, which 

with what was found in Conic Sections, (Sect. 

IL. Prop.1.) If s were supposed to begin when z had 
some given value 5, we would have O=3a?4* 40; 


then c= —30%6*, ands=}a4 (2*¥—53), 
Ex. 2. Let the curve be a cizcle, (Fig. 9.) and sup- 
ely of the co-ordinates z = and y= 
to be at O the centre; put a for the radius. © By 
the nature of the sant hak An mprate therefore, 
ydz=dx/ (a*—x*): Apply to this fluxion the for- 
mula fudt=ut— ftdu, (making 4/ (a?— 2*) =u, 
and «== 1?) and we have 


edz 
da (at—x*)=2/ (a — x*) + 7 amar 14 
fe eda ST ray 


: io. natde 
Again, Waa) = 
bringing 


i teal 

es to a common de- 
nominator ; therefore, substivuting, and putting zy for 
ad : 
a? — xt) 
Now, (Art. 114, Rule V.) the fluent of a 


it be denoted by z, and we have 
ae af His daz+e. 

This is the complete fluent, which holds true, what- 
ever be its origin. Let us now suppose that the fluent 
begins when «= 0; in this case z= 0, and as then 
$= 0, it follows that c= 0; hence 

s (=area ODPQ)=42cy+ haz. 
Now if we join OP, the triangle POQ> }.ry, there- 
fore the sector POD = jaz. 


Ex. 3. Let the curve be an ellipse, (Fig. 11.) of Fig. 11. 


which the semitransverse and semiconjugate axes are a 
and 4; suppose the origin of the co-ordinates to be at 
A, one extremity of the transverse. The equation of 


the curve in? = (202 —24); hence 


safyds a dz @a2r—at), 


If a circle be described on the transverse axis as a dia« 

meter, and y’ be put for pQ, the ordinate of the circle, 

corresponding to the common ‘abscissa x, and s’ for the 

circular area AQp, we have y’? = 4/(2 ax —x*), and 
& = fy de=fde/ (2ax—2°). 


Hence, the variable parts of these two fluents have to 


each other the constant ratio of to 1, ot of 6 to a, and 


as they begin together, the fluents themselves must have 
the same ratio, that is s: s':: 6: a, as was shewn in 
Conic Sections, (Sect. VII.) 
Ex. 4. Let the curve be an 
25.) and AX, AY its asym ; and let it be re- 
uired to find the area included by the hyperbolic arc 
P, the straight lines CE, PQ, which are parallel to 
one asymptote, and EQ, the nt of the other 
acymptote, intercepted between Let CE, one 
the Is, have a given position. Put AE =a, 
EC = 6, AQ= 2, QP = y. By the nature of the curve, 


b 
zy = ab, hence y = “~~, and 


tafyds=ab f= 0b1(2) +c, 


By the nature of the problem, when z= a, then s= 0," 
therefore in this case,0 =abl. (a) +c, hence c= 
—abl.(a), and 


s=ab fl (z)—1(@)} =.a51. (=). 


If we suppose a = 5 = 1, then s =], (=), hence 


the area s is expressed by the Napierean logarithm of 
the abscissa AQ, and these areas serve as a geometrical 
representation of Napier’s logarithms. On this account 
they were called by the early writers hyperbolic loga- 
rithms, but improperly, as any logarithms whatever 
may be represented by hyperbolic-areas: See LoGa- 
RITHMS, 

Ex. 5. Let the hyperbolic area PAQ be required; sup: 

ing PQ to be an ordinate to CA, the Aa cra’ am 
(Fig. 26.) Let C, the centre, be the origin of the 
ordinates ; put CQ=., PQ= y, 


= a, the semiconjugate = d, 


the semitransverse axis 
e equation of the curve 
(Conic Sections, Sect. VIII.) is y= by (t— a); 


hence 
3 


equilateral hyperbola, (Fig. Fig, 25 


CO- Fig. 26, 


FLUXIONS. a 


if 4 


448 


Taveree 
Method. 


Fig. 12. 


Pig, 27. 


'@= 4AOxarec AH—} 0Qx QH = circ. 


safyde= & fas Vee’) 


We may proceed with this fluent, as with that in exam- 
ple 2d, or else by formula (B), art. 128, which gives at 
once 


d 
faz J/(t—o) = ha (a) —4 “fT5aey 
Now, by art. 123, 


Senay eh fre v(e—o)tte 


Therefore, 
oo ss Vena — 1, fe + Vat — = 


Now, from the nature of the figure, when r=a, then 
¢ = 0; therefore, in this case, the general equation be- 


comes 0 = — “71. (a) —e3 


hence ¢ = — “1. (a), and 
6 cm 
s =i yee) — FL pti ve ot 
ors =4zy—" 1. {-+4} 


If we join CP, it is evident that 42y expresses the 
area of the triangle CPQ, therefore 


ab a omy 
Sector ACP = $l. {~+5}- 


Ex. 6. Let APD bethe common cycloid, (Fig, 12.) 
of which AB is the axis, AHB the generating circle, 


having its centre on the axis, AK a perpendicular to gree 


the axis at the vertex, and PR a to AK 
Se B tare pated ha tha coca, coll tcl a eee 
to find the external area APR. 

et leg che eqntee 2° the eaee Tend 
Pe perpouioae to , meeting the circle in H, 
join OH, Put AR=z, RP= y, AO =a, the angle 
AOH=v. Then AQ =a(1—cos.v), QH = asin. », 
arc AH = av; and since, from the nature of the curve 
(see Ericycioiw), PQ=AR = arc AH + HQ, there- 
fore 

x=a(v +sin.v), y= a(1 —cos. v), 

‘de=adv(i +cos.v), fydx=a’ {dv (1—costv), 

Now this last fluent, or f‘d v sin.’ », is found, by art. 
144, to be — 4 cos. v. sin. v. + $v, therefore 

2 


s= 5 (o—sin.v. C03. v) + c. 


When v = 0, then s t to vanish, therefore c= 0, 
ion putting for v, sin. v and cos. v their values, we 


. AQH. 
This agrees with what was shewn in the article Ep1- 


CYCLOID. 

Ex, 7. As an example of a polar curve, let us take 
the spiral of Archimedes, (Fig. 27.) Let A be the pole, 
AC the position from which the revolving radius AP 

ins its motion. Pat AP =r, the angle PAC = 0; 
let a be a given line, and # = 3.14159, &c. The 
nature of the curve is the ion 2aer= 
av. Now ifs denote the area AP’P, we have found 
(art. 72.) that in curves expressed by a polar equation, 


ds=jridv. Inthe present casedu= “Far, there. 
fore 


sah frdvatfrdra Zeige 


If we suppose the fluent to begin when r = 0, then 
c=0; therefore, when r has made a complete revolu- 
tion, so that v = 2, and r = a, the area generated will 
be “ = } of a circle, of which @ is the radius, To 
find the space which r passes over in the next revolu- 
tion, the fluent must be taken between v= 2, and 
v = 4-, that is, between r= a, andr=2a. Corre- 


sponding to the first value of r, we have s = = © and 
to the second = 5 at; the difference of these, which 


is the area required, ig 


151. As the area ECPQ (Fig. 14.) of any plane curve fig, 14. 


is expressed by the fluent f'yd, in which y (PQ) is 
some function of the abscissa « (AQ), on the other 
hand, every fluent /"y dz may be represented geome- 
stan fi Sapa ne eto the ab- 
sci inate. geometrical represen 
tation of a uent shews distinctly wherein it differs from 
a common analytic function, such as a + 6.2", or a*, or 


sin. «, &c. These last have determinate Cone Fe 
ding to any assi value of x, and the valueof = 
cach function ia i of its preceding 


of magnitude to another. 
152. The analogy 


of nearness. Let the fluent / y dw be required between 


the limits of = aanda= 6, Let CPD (Fig. 28.) be 
ig i Fig. 28. 


a curve, such, bag ye etc _ is 
begin at a given point A; ma x of 
the axis A, take AQ =a, : ig een re Se 
AQ” = 4, its greatest value, and draw the ordinates 
PQ, PQ”; then the area PQQ” P” will be the geome- 
trical expression for the fluent f(y dx, between the li- 
mits of « = a, and « = 6: and by whatever means that 
area can be found, the same will apply to the determi- 
eatin oe be divided ber of 

Let ivided into any num parts 
QO OO, he. and let the ordinates P’Q’, P"Q” fe. 
be drawn ; these will divide the figure into the curvi- 
lineal trapeziums PP’Q’Q, P’P"Q’Q’, &c. Let a series 
of rectangles PQ’, P’Q”, &e. be constructed, each ha- 
ving the shortest of two adjoining ordinates for its 
height; these will fall pains! within the figure, suppo- 
sing the curve to be entirely concave or convex to- 
wards the axis. Let another series P’Q; P’Q’, &c. 
be constructed, each having the lo of sroginns 
ordinates for its height; and all these will be- 
yond the figure. Because AQ = a, and = b—a, 
and the number of parts into which QQ’ is divided 
is known, the abscisse AQ’, AQ", &c. will be 
known, and from the nature of the curve; the cor- 
responding ordinates P’Q’, &c. will be known. Hence 
we can find the inscribed PQ’, PQ", &e, the 
sum of which will be less than the curvilineal sp 
PP"Q"Q;; also the circumscribed rectangles P’Q, > 
&c. the sum of which will exceed that space. Thus two 


FLUXIONS. 
Inverse’ limits may be found, between. which the curvilineal 


space oF the fluent is always contained. Besides, these 


may differ by as small a quanti 
dr diferente i manifestly tbe resangle PMT: 


for | I e 
which is containedby PM’=QQ’, andPR= 
the difference of the extreme ordinates; and QQ’ may 
Re sa soll 8. e pleas: 

If chords PP’, fasens Bs Gals, the gan tees 
lineal trapeziums PQQ’P’, &c. be a nearer approxi- 
pean iE ory aloe leccay pprpee pees p74 

or inscribed - . As an example 
Set eyelicanians eA tis: iecthodp We tube pero Oo 
approximate to the fluent gr? between the limits 
of 220 Gnd 2 231: FH Aser ok ts 

— the equation of the curve CD is y = 


Let 9a” equal parts, 
’ be divided into ten then, put- 
ting z= 0, x=.1, z=.2, &. to x=1, we oltain 


eleven equid ordinates ; the numeral values will 
be as WS: 
The Ist, 1.00000, . - The 7th, .73529. 
The 2d, .99010. | The 8th, .67114. 

_ The 3d, .96154. The 9th, .60975. 
The 4th, .91743. The 10th, .55249. 
The 5th, _.86207, The 11th, .50000. 
The 6th,. .80000. 

By the elements of etry, the area of the rectili- 
neal figure forured by the trapesiume, is found by add- 
ing together all the ordinates ex the first and last, 
and half the sum of the first and and multiplying 
the result by the common breadth of the iums, 


which is .1. peerala: ines 7.84981 for the area or 
value of fia veeween the proposed limits This 
fluent is the arc to the w, (art. 35). We have 
srpmanss hy.8. cutee) art. 148). If in that series 


we put «= 1 fluent, between ron ropa abe 
mits, will be 1 —+ 44 —44 &e. ; but is converges 
too slow to be of any use. The fluent ought to be 
glans 

153. If the ordinates PQ, P’Q’, &c. go on continual- 

increasing, the inscribed will be construct- 
ed on the Ist, 2d, 3d, &c. ordinates, and the circumscri- 
bed parallelograms on the 2d, $d, 4th, &c. Observing, 
now, that the ordinates are the values of the function i 
corresponding to AQ, AQ’, &c. values of x which differ 
from each other by the common interval QQ’, we have 
manifestly the following rule for approximating to a flu- 
ent pes between the limits of x=a and r=b. 

interval between a and & be divided into 

equal parts, each to h. J 

per BER . . Y®, be the values of y corre- 

©>= 4,@>=a+h, r=a+2h, &e. tox = 

+n h respectively, and let us suppose that Y, Y, &e. 
go on continually increasing ; then 
Syd UY4Y 4... 4¥P-), 
 Sydz ah (VEY 4... pO). 


The difference of these is h(Y—Y), which, by ta- 
be.as as we 


Sep Reelicentiy small, may small 

‘in ie oe 
which Y, Y’, ¥”, &c. curgitinibilivindtarmecet 
pip Y’, &c. first increase, but afterwards 


=a and «=é may be divided 


VOL. IX, PART I. 


449 
into two or more portions ; so that y may increase or 
decrease continually; from one extremity of each to the 


other. i cra 

Whatever be the values of y, provided they be al- 
ways finite from x=ato v= 6, if Y, Y’, &c. be de- 
termined as before, we have evidently, i 

Sydea=Vh+ Wap Yh... 4 YO h, neatly; 
and the smaller the increment / is, the more correct, 
will be the approximation to the fluent ;. so that the 
number 7 peng supposed to increase continually, and 

uently A to decrease, the expression will a 
- continually to the fluent, which will be its 

Leibnitz, and such as have taken his view of the 
subject, considered the fluent f‘y dx as the swm of the 
infinitely little elements Yh, Y’ kh, &c. Hence the 
origin of the terms integral, to integrate, integration, 
&c. (art. 112.) And as each was the difference between 
two infinitely near values of the’ integral, regarding hk 
as the differential of x, it followed that yd 2 (the general 
expression for each element) was the differential of the 
i This manner of considering a’ fluent is ex- 
tremely convenient, and on that ' account is ire 
employed in the application of'the integral or fluxional 
calculus, to physics and the higher geometry. 

154; We shall now make some general remarks re- 

‘ches 


Inverse 


1. If an area s is contained between two curves CD, Fig. 29. 


ed, or two branches of the same curve, (Fig. 29.), let 
PQ=y, and p Q= y’ be their ordinates corresponding 
to the common abscissa AQ = 2, then fy dz = area 


CEQP, and fy’ dx = area cEQ p; therefore {(y—y') 
dx=area Cep P, 

2. Or employing the calculus of infinitesimals, we 
may the area CP pc =<s as, made up of an in- 
finite number of trapezoids PP’p'p; each having dx 
for its breadth, and these again as made of an infinite 
number of rectangles m, of which the sides are dx and 
dy, 86 that dxdy will be an’ element of the second 
order of the areas: Then, to obtain s, the fluxion 
or differential dx dy must be integrated from y = PQ 
to y= pQ, and again the result between the limits 
2 AO and a= AE, so that we arrive at the same 
final result as before. 

3. The entire area of a curve that returns into itself, 
is found by taking the fluent of (y—y') da from the 
least to the greatest value of x. 

4, The ordinate y of the curve ought never to be- 
come infinite between the limits of the area. 

5. The fluxion yd changes its sign with y or 2; 
hence the area becomes negative if « and y have con- 


6. If a curve cuts the axis of the abscisse between 
the limits of the area, the parts on each sicle of the axis 
must be found separately, because the one is positive 
and the other is negative, and the fluent requires to be 
taken without any rd to the latter sign: 


For example, let KOACD be a curve of which the Fig, 30. 


equation is y=2— 2; (Fig. 30.) the origin of the co- 
ordinates bang at A, ae dave thee through A, and 
meets the axis in H and & so that are 
The al expression for the area 5 is 4: atc, 
If we su oD th bogie a6. dhe posta Rha a = 
AE = 4/4, then, at the origin of the fuent, O= 7— 1, 
bd hence c = — +, and s=> fat —fot— ys. If 

area is to end at F where «= AF = 4/3, we shall 
find.s = 0, which pao that the areas ECH, HDF’ 

L 


lovene 
Methad. 


Of the recti- 
fication of 


curves. 


Fig. 10. 


rig. 


450 FLUX 
equal but with opposite In fact, 
>= 1, weed that the area BC =venid the 


fluent | s*— 4 2* 4 ¢ between the limits x= AH=1 
and 2 => AP =4/}{, we get the area HDF = —4.. In 
like manner, the area taken from~K to'H comes out 
= 0 because the space KOA below the axis is equal'to 
the space ACH above it. 


155. Although it is not 


the abscissa x, then if we assume the ordinate y = =, 
we have ydx=du, and fyde=w pe. For ‘ex 
ample, let w = aa", ee ett aren Hence 


every curve of which the co-ordinates x and 

related, a fy Ba pi is quadrable in 
terms, and has its areas-aa2"+1+4¢. The case of 

pate Bs A ag te tga Pe 


Of the Rectification of Curves. 


157. We have found, (art. 75.) that 2 and y being 
the co-ordinates, and 2 any are of a curve dz = 


dx + dy*); we shall this formula 
v(d oa : we now apply to 


Exampe 1. a ee 10.) 
Q=2, parameter = 2a. The equation 
of the curve 2adx = y', gives ade=ydy, anddz= 


dy “2 / (y+0*) ; the fluent (art, 128, formula (B), and 
art. 123.) is 


see¢ Ee v@+y) tbat fy+ vier}: 

If the fluent begin at A, then, when y= 0, z=0, in 
this case the general formula becomes 0=c + 4 a1.(a), 
and hence c= —}al. (a); therefore s=¥¥ (+2) 
+ hal fetes te}. 


fais Re rae eis Se Alia the sea 
cul parabola, which the equation is 93 = aa%. 
In this ‘case: the general: formula gives d=" 


ayy (1492); hence, by art. 126, 


t= tral (14 92)" +c. 
This curve is ‘ectly rectifiable, and is remarkable on 
account of its eg owes thet cotrve thet tanning 
This dcovery wat de y Neil, and after- 
bra, chap. 77. 
Des Cartes’ , end of 
Ex, 3. Let the curve be a circle 
the radius OA =a, then, ; ig St wat 
OQ = z and QP= y from the centre, ep+yca’ 


KIONS. 
ewds sinh ee 
. —, Method. 
Wehr dey ala ea, 
e have 
an; inlining eles 4g rah inet a 
rad = 1. 8 a we have only to sub- 
ative = for x and = for a, we thus find: 


If the are. AD be a "and the fluent begin 
at D, then when x = 0, = 0; therefore in this case 
e=0,, 

“We have given a d ‘series in art. 148. Ex. 2. 


for an arc, in terms of the t ; and othersmay be 
found which shall. express it’ the cosine, cotangent, 
&c. from the formule of art. 35. But in no case what- 
ever can an arc be expressed by trigonometrical lines 
in finite terms. 


Ex. 4. Let the curve be be ge clipe t (Fig. $1. es Me SL 


ig oh the fiche (Ione FS 

ite =, ,w is 1l—c*),=e: 
(oe eee at ee eee 
CQ =eund PQ=y, and put the are BP (reckoried 
from the extremity a the empyema By 
the nature of the curve 


cy =4/(1— 2°), hence d y= exe 


vay 


vfi—asewe}ae a lemae 
VU Bs 0 AO 
The fluent of this’ cannot be found aaa 
tray eve withthe help of ciel reso ga 


therefore it can only be expressed by an infinite series. 

By-the binomia) theorem, we get 4/U'——*0= 
sH) 1.1.3: 

Lape oe ot oF eres Be 


pea ciao en grirr sp lp series by 
Faas amd take the uents, which will all be of 


eed 
the form A Va—ay and may be found by art. 130. 


and 


de" 


Thus, putting for the arc whose sine is x, we 
+= elie te BP = m et 
Vag!) os geal 10 

pss 1A aoe gai ~aaases—**) 

-ihereey 

che Ut? + a3 s*)va—=} 
1S 1.3.5 . 

4 ER f(t Fee +355" a. 

+ &e. “im 

This expression vanishes wera 2D, a tought, 
therefore it wants no correction. a=1 
all the terms containing ona) mak , as in 
this case 9 = } x, we Mi cniptis gy 
AB=ja(1— hem 1 LS pea 
This expression eeeeas 
Kargdre-mpar pestering 


have a complete solution, Eisley of ny wa Te 


SS Sere 


Fig. 31. 


FLUXIONS: 


Sie, neal te fecen at nearly = 1, Our.li- 
us torefer the teader. to the fol- 
ay er Se 


he Gp sy — Comm. Pet toma Xviii. te 
Mem. de UAcad. 1786p: 620; and 


Exercises de Calc. Integ. Ivory, Edin. Frank ‘Vol. IV. 
Wallace, Edin. Trans. Vol. V,. Woodhouse, Piil. 
7 ioe eats os hype found exact 
length of a ic arc may be 
ithe same mane, omits equation cy = Va —1) 
158. There is a very ic arcs, 


property of 
171 Op. T. IL. p. 
sir) which has igen iby fe aes in the 


It be easily 
fl gn ar 7 rin ei of ce 
a at in 
(Fig. 31.) Draw C from the centre icular to 
EN ap A tantra 
con to wn 
tno D: also, ee nen dicular to the axis, 
As et, let CA We =c, the eccentrici- 
Tae CE =p, DE=t, Hp .snale 
AcE Cece ea the elliptic are AD = 
Because HK*= c# (1—CK?) und HK = CH 5 <cos. % 
also CK = CH x sin. @, therefore CH? x cos29= 
(1 CHP x sin’ ¢), and hence 
CH? = con aint? , and putting 1 — sin.? 9 for 


cos,? 9, and e* for 1 —~ c* in the denominator, 


c 

cH= J/U—é an. %)? 

1 Poe 6) CH x curve, (Conic Sec- 
20,) CH x CE=AC x CB=c, 


phaiebe W(1L —e? sin. 9), 
“fire gas 


And since in curve 

ofthis kind, (at. 77.) d (+ 1) = pd@, { 
Pye, eek alah eat hie 

COs tah hence ae ee ee oe es 

eee ad : Let usnow sup- 


« = sin. Q, then it follows that dz = do cos. 9 = 
Gop — 2*); we have also 1 —e? 221 eee e 


And en b 
TION 


Sesh bea eeiiconattg (2.) 
pe formule (1.) and (2.) it immediately follows 
d (241) =dz, and? +¢#=24 ¢. 


ic ant, draw D a tangent to 


451 


assignable straight lin 
ce whch hsb ei ‘been asigable sight Tine 


6 ere the hyperbola, 
ag much to. discuss 
On this subject, con- 
ig Te Euler, Nov. 
T. vi. vii. aie Act. Acad. Pet. 1778, Pars, 


at Fag 
iscell, 


Hee phd ekg Ok 
The T. iv and’ "Theorie des Fonct. Ana be 


pena 


“edit. 
Legendre, Exer. de Cal. Integ. and Mem. de l Acad,1786, 
ony a ao Memoirs, vol. i, ; Lacroix, Traité 

‘al. Diff: et ante, vol. ii. ‘Also; ‘Wallace, Edin, 
Trans. “voles . Brinley, Trish Trans. ; Woodhouse, 
Lond. Trans, ; ‘Ivory; in Leybourn’s Mathematical Repo= 


Ba Part ii. p. 9- 

x, 5. If we employ the same construction and the 
same notation in the hyperbo yperbola, (Fig. 32. 

lips that if DE boa tngene st By 


=e, the 


CEa 
t, and if we 
bolie ‘arc 
ar CE=p, 
d exactly as in “he 

kip: pat way ?), and (art. 77) 

d(e =d9/(1 —e? sin.? ?) en (3.) 
In the ellipse e¢ is less than unity, but here is great« 
oe hay i sree Sie eiemanetance MK an essential dif 
in the two fluxions: the one form is, however, 
neible to the other, as, was, first shewn by, Landen in, 
Phil. Trans, 1775. In either case, the fluent. may 
ml by re -/ (1 —e? sin.? Q) into a series, 
term by d@, and taking the 


(Fig. 23,) let F be 
E intone at-P, and FE.a 
ar to Pip op nti =a; 


perpendicul 
the angle AFE = 9, the vse E= p, the.tan. 
PE=t, the areP A‘ 5} we have found (at 89 Bx. 1) 


that in the parabola p =,——., hence © RS Mit, 


Ee 6. nar in. the. 
Pt yy eee 


foc B 
ado 
Teos, 9? Andy by arte 146. 
aod 
iota 3 [ioe 1, fein. (ge eae b 


This fluent wants no constant ‘quantity, because when 
? =0, both sides yanish as they ought. ° 

From this we assign parabolic ‘ares, 
which should be to each other thie givep Moyea 
number to another, which was first done by John'Ber- 
gat Ce ese a 

, ; 82. g 
thé parabol ee relation to Fagnani’s theorems, 

Ex. 7. Let the curve 
33,) of which DC is the axis, DH’ a circle d 
on the axis, of which the radius = 1, PG an ordinate 
to the axis, which meets ‘arcle ih H. Put DG=z, 
GP =y, cire. are. DH =», cycloidal DP=z. By the 
nature of the curve (Evieycrom) 21 — cos. v, y= 
nv +-sin. v, where n is agiven number, which in the 
common cycloid is unity. ence Sd sift 6, ag= 
et Nba °) ad v/ (1 nt 2 

z= of (da? + v +2n cos, v). 

Instead 2 ae v, ie Toa taape, ‘and put e for 


a oe and we have ; 


Tet 


a 


as in the Fig. 32. 


Fig. 23. 


a cycloid of any kind, (Fig. pig, 39. 


452 
aan f= (1 + 1) f'dv/(1—esin.* jv). 
—— = This fluent idently ona of apt ar = 
wn elie, alo bythe J 
tangent (onal (1) (2 art. 158. 
Ex. Let the civ he rol Of Avehtasicéa’ 
Pig. 27. finn) 1 n which AP = 1, the angle CAP = v, the 
PnP a; the equation of curve is2er=a, 
where a denotes & given ye In this case we appl 
pT ae (Pde + dr), (art. 76. 76) 


Fig. 34. 


a= fi rV(a+"). 
If this expression be compared with that for a parabolic 


arc, (Ex, 1..art. 157. s. it will appear that these curves 
are equal, when r is the ordinate of the parabola, and 
~ the parameter. 

159. The early writers on fluxions endeavoured, as 
much as possible, to find simple geometrical representa- 
tions of such ee call not be by finite 

‘functions. They succeeded in ems 4 
such as involved the radical ./(a + 6 x + ¢ x*), whi 
can always be made rational, by circular and h 
lic areas; when the fluxion contained a of the 
form /(a + bx 4+c«#* + dx), in some cases they could 

express the fluent by elliptic and hyperbolic arcs, and 

in others by the surface of an oblique cone. Maclau- 

pe eller dg od ert ength of thismode 

' fluents, in-his Fluzions, k ii. . 8, 

a the subject ‘was extended by D’Alembert, Mem. 

de Berlin, ae and 1748. Landen, in his Memoirs 

and Lucubrations, has arranged, i in Tables, the various 
fluents that may be found m this manner. 


pater mre’ watt sete orrar tration: in a man- 
bod te fens: and this last ma: tician, in 
sur les Nee Yranaendangen olsptiguey, and more 


recently in Exer, de Cal. In. has reduced all fluxions, in 
which the only radical is 4/(@ + b24-c2* + d2*) to 
three species ; and he has shewn how the fluents, may 
be sre by series which shall always converge 


160. "As any number of curves may be found that 
are | craggy hoe picgh or; 4 epee tems 
r We shall now resolve this 


Solution. Lach (ie st penta as Neots pian 
found, and let AQ, co-ordinates at P 
in thé curve. Draw the tangent PE, pny ellie 
AE perpendicular to the t, Put AQ=z, 
pai! agp alert ig ae Diy 
tangent t, angle EAB =u. formula (4), 
ar 77, we have in every curve whaievet (#) 


de=pdu+?, 


and s=fpdu4—5"., 


As = is to be an algebraic quantity, we maast bare Joes 
an algebraic quantity; let us suppose it =U, some 


function of u; then pdu=d U, ed put. Thus 
the relation of p to the angle u is determined. 

From E so har ne PED EEa 
co-ordinates ; then observing that PE n= EAB=u, we 


FLUXIONS. 


have Em= EA sin.u=p sin.u, Am=EA x cos. w= 
pcos. u, En=EP ocr tine <b yd wr X sin. u 


=t therefore, z= fsin.u, y=p sin.u 
scene But we found (for (A), art? 7) that 
(a4, therefore t= — 5 and 


pena d ' (3) P 


ive a complete solution of the 
blem ; for by the perdi tay = 


and obtain an equation involving 2 and y only. | We 
can also determine U and $Y in terms of 2 and y, 
and thence the value of z. Fon dicta otis held 
U=4a sin. 4u + ¢, then wa. 8 eelkiaid eu 
ts 3 du ~~ du 
—asin. }u; hence 

«= 2 acos. w.cos. u 4 asin. }-w sin, 

y= 2acos.}u sin. « —a sin. } u cos. u,. 

z= 3asin.dute 
By adding the squares of the values of z and y, and 
putting 1 for cos.* u + sin. u, we find 
a+ y= at(4 cos? fu + sin? 4 u) Ser 3 coats x), 
ate" = 003.2 bu. -— ti) 


Sith py net 2 sin. § & Cos., u for sin. 
cos.* 4.u—sin.* 3 ey Skew ie ae oh 


Ws Get 
oa cos.s $i * 


From these two last equations we readily find 
27 at xt = 4 (2% + y?—a*)3 
for the equation of the curve, which appears to be a 
line’of the 6th order: And as z=. ‘in. tu 4c, there: 
ons by bil | its value with that of «, it may be 
he truth of these woo may 
eauily be verified by putting 9 = $u, and 
that w=} cos. 9+ a cos. 39, , paeacBiaare 8, 
oar z= Sasin.g+e. ston 
uygens resolved - this his- of 
sivtlede aiiaiee (Horologiwt Oscllaioyium, Par ii) 


and Newton gave a solution u 

(Methot of . of luxione 

the attention of . Euler, 

(Nov. Comm. Acad. Petrop. dt) are has 
ven a solution, upon principles purely analyti 

fis Calcul. des Fonctions Legon, 19. The wchieotele i 

ven here agrees with his in the renglt, eakit ea bees 


DRAG FO 9 Sitter renee. 
Of the Content of Solids, 7 

161. Let A~PE p (Fig.19.)be an formed by the of the 
revolution of a Map St sl frme by the oh cn 
f=», aa PO, Fe a a of Paty int lids. 

in curve, $s content 

saafyda ee om 

We shall now apply this formula to some examples. 


: 3 FLUXIONS. 


Fig. 36. 


and (= ET f(Gds—2¢ eds sds), 


453 
Inverse =—- Exapye 1; Let the ing curve be a line, which, passing through A, is carried round in the _ Inverse 
= Se IeasrEne ths cr aaaeutais Greanference of he PRY p’. Method. 


Let.AQB, a perpendicular to the base of the solid, 
meet PE p, a section parallel to the base inQ. Put the 
area of the base = 6, the perpendicular A B = p, and 
wehitsves, be paler (avai pees tae heap eons 
whatever, by a plane | to its ing always 
similar to the bust, we have prati:b: X, hence 


523 
3p?- 
Here no correction is wanted, because when z= 0, then 
s=0; and putting X instead of =% 
} Xz, but X 2 is the content of a cylinder whose base 
is X, and altitide x; therefore every solid of this kind 
is one-third of a cylinder of the same base and altitude. 
This rule applies to cones and pyramids, whose bases 
are any whatever. - 

Ex, 2. Let the solid’ be what is called a Groin 
(Fig. 38.), which is 
cefg moving 


Xde= fedex 


» we have s= 


ee by 
to itself, the section DAH, 


and taking the fluents of the several terms, the je of the opposite sides, being a semi- 
we AMO et on ied AB ical to the plane of the 

$= — (9tr—igtz3 2) Le , put AB=p, AQ=z, PQ=7; then f=2 pxr— 
~~? aSAns FEE Fall: by the nature of the circle, but 45? ia the area‘? the 

If the fluent commence when r=0, thene=0: And section ce fg=—X, hence " ‘ 
x 


z 
duced by the revolution of an ellipse about 
DE=3, also AQ=s, QP=y. 
ellipse, y*= = (az—=2"), hence 


making 4 =<. We gato P! a= ff the content of 
1st Ett site i APD, (ig 9 pro. 
fixed 


a, the revolving axis 
rom the nature of the 


safXde=f(Sprdze—s2°dz)=4p2——_. 
no correction is wanted, because if z—=0, then 
és 


= When «=p, then s=£p3, the content of the 
hole’ solid ‘P> P* 


Of the Surfaces of Solids. 


a variable square Fig, 38. 


_ eh, «bt 
=f G@r—s)de= = (fas*—425) 4. 163. In Fig. 20, let AB be the axis of a solid of res of the sur- 
volution, and AP the oe ree Bae put AQ=z, faces of so- 
PQ =y, the arc AP = =, and the'surface generated by lids. 
the curve AP=v. The general formula is in this case Fis- 20. 


3 supposing a = 6, have § ra? 
content of a sphere, > debater isa A et gee ede 9 
is the area of a section of the spheroid v=2n fyo/(der+dy)=2" fydz 
the centre, it ‘that: the ~whole solid is 3 of We shall now apply this to some exam: 


Exampce 1. the solid be caohie at which the 
Ene ne nae eae renee te Gael be Pig, 34, 
r . surface of segment, tpl 7 AW gre oT ca 

etx + ama pendicular i of the sphere 
162. If the solid APE (Fig. 19.) is not formed bythe °° SMaWPO sili uadinenie 20 
teen & Waid; yot if theca =a, AQ the height of the =2; the radius of 


"be eferred to an axis AB, so that PE p, airy section of  '° P&=y; by the = oe Netiwue 
the solid by a to axis, issome %42—x2*, hence ydy=(a—x)da, and dy= ’ 
known function of AQ = z, the segment of the axis be- 


tween the plane and a given A, its content 
le found fen the wiry taasd fornonle Bor ©. aiay-bo 
as m art. 79, that a ratio of equality is _ hence, du=2ryi/(d2*+dy)=2 rade, 


and vw=2 raz. 


2, 
8, 
F 
E 
: 


. equal to a rectangle contained by the height of the 
a ever and. a given point out of it ment, and a straight line equal tthe circumference of 
" Sito warn a straight that the whole surface of the sphere is four times the 


Fig. 39. 


of one of its great circles. Both of these conclu- 

sions were found by Archimedes. . 
congas reabry tees gi me Noe a A 

19.), then putting AQ=-+, PQ=y, the parameter of 

- eer saiennenee (art, 157. Ex, 2.) that 


¥de+dy= ~ dyvi(y? +a"), hence 


de=tay/ (de +dy)= SF ydyVly +0") 
and taking the fluent (art. 122.), 


= Sa 
If we we suppose the fluent to begin when x=0, then, 
because y is also =0, we have O=}ra? +o; hence 
c= —} 7a", and the adjusted fluent is 


sale {(fser—o} ’ 


164. We have observed (art. 107--110), that the inde- 
finitely small increments quantities may often, on the 
grounds of convenience, be taken as their fluxions ; and, 
indeed, this is in effect the same thing as to seek the 
limit of the ratio of the Ente Sortiateeh. and then to 
consider it as the ratio of the fluxions. We shall now 
give two examples of this application of the infini- 
tesimals, 


Exampce 1. Let it be required to find the surface of 
ue cone, (Fig. 39.) 
be the centre of the base, V the vertex, VA the 
from the vertex, pent re pend in =H 
pert the civeumfarers 
take B any in the eineninfarenen aree 
draw the nt BD, CA_ produced in Ee 
draw VD icular to BE, and join CB, BA, DA, 
VE. The triangles VDE, VAE, are right-angled at 
DandA; 
AE? — AD? = VE* — VD? = 


“‘DE2; therefore "AD is 


porpenslictlar to EB, and uently lel to CB. 
us su) the radius of base to, be 1; put a 
fe fe istance of the from the cen- 


p for VA the altitude; and ¢ for the variable arc 
HB. P The trian les ECB, "BAD, are similar; hence 


EC: CB:: EA: AD; that is, sec. 9: 1: 7st. O— a 
sec. 0—a 
:AD = sec. @ = 1—a.cos. @, therefore,, 


DV= were acos.e) hs 
Take a point 4 in y near to B in the circum- 


ference of the base of. the cone; and join C 4, Vb; the 
small arc B 4 may be considered as coinci with its sma 
tengint. We are now to consider the indefinitely little 
arc Bd as the fluxion of BH=¢9,-and the VBé 
as the fluxion of the conical surface which the line VB 
poe over, while it moved from. the, position) H, 
along the are HB. We have therefore B J=d 9 ; and, 
as the area of the triang! Pee Nahe g ks 6x VD, if we put 
¢ tr td eee a ie tons oe, 


dsx}doy fr+a 2u'@ con Oe a 


This is the expression for the fluxion of any conical, 
surface whatever, having a circle for its base. The des, 
termination of the fluent has long exercised the i 

of mathematicians ; and we .observe, that 

has at last; succeeded in expressing the whole 
app eeny (that is, the fluent between. the li- 
mits of @ = 0, and = 2 #) by elliptic arcs, ( Ezercises 


FLUXIONS. 


ore VE? — EA!—VDt— DA?;hence 4 


2 0 cm'gul 9 il be te phere? surface APQ: 


de Cal. I 178). Bat the indefinite Aegot, ioe the 
n for the nace 


whatever, has not-been 
the conic. sections, pe for pa 
and p.° 


t f rf my 


cd 
If make cos. shen a sig rig tp eat Dash 
we ox oe Va—s) 1s)! 


The fluent be. fi 
Ph ge fy i 
on Bee A BT On UM A ate pres 


ds=4do FSi ty ve 1 ae 
the surface is Mire frodack of 3. acre fe 
sant side ofthe cone 

x. 2, Su circle to be di a Sm 
radius of the base of 1 eseibed aru 
an upright cylinder to be raised, 
here the hemisphere ; it eee 


the oval Hole made in the a the su 


which is bounded’ 
one of whichis DPAQD. 


Take P ae ate 
plane to pass tle re pose 
throu, 


P, m Spl the 
eee DPF, its its Sask me ocr: and fe 
of the cylinder in the straight line PE. Let CF meet 
rT es the base of the cylinder i in E, j join 
an 


_, The right angled triangles CEP, CEA have the 
sides, CP, CAy. ite .to the _ angle in: each, 
equal, and the side GE common to both; therefore the 
triangles are, equal, and the angle ECP:is equaltothe 
e ECA,. are FP is equal to the are FA: 
ee D. — pa ater eramnE nas UAE A 
and suppose another: ‘circle pq to 


ap fen indefitly near to the:former.»: We may 
consider the surface eontained»betweenA-PD and 
wh <Deatl.the capmen aeadehiod whieh 
as gq f 7 ‘ 

meters Put a for the radius of the sphere, and 
be ae > ACF or FCP ; then: the: AF, FP, 
and. AQ _ will each be, tae go to: ag; and Qq will res 
pendrin nt ears the are AQ;; and because 
the radius. of the small circle PQ iscw cos. 9,°we have 
a: aos, 9:29 (mare AF): PQ, hence PQ=a¢ cos. 9; 
and the area «PQ q p,. (= _—a xr ) Oss 
AF OP CO%.9 dQ; shenefucethasiads all the areas; 


(arre ts 


(art. 153,) “This fluent is a? (, 
but when ¢ = 0, then, the ; 


a = — a’, and,.the- <y" n 1 to 
sin, @—1). —_ 
gunn (4) giver {at a aune 2 a ‘ 
wi '} 
area of ehaeoal Nelolle “vault. - So 


165. In the year 1692, Viviani, ane of Galileo's dis« 


FLUXIONS. 455 

ataialad qriantty, end the nie may be found by the common _Invene 
ie - —~ 

its form is circular, en a ee 


d, he we have shewn how to\pass from any proposed primi- equations of 
add- tive equation to its estinalacnation 6 any order, We the first or- 
or eae ates ta Re reverse problem, ; 

. which to find e — itive : tion I } to « a 

of this a fluxional equation ‘ot the first order, cilitaltting two ite 


(Act. Lip, 168. It Eaten iain dAdh 49), that, in deducing 


ave a solution, from a primitive equation its fluxional equation of the 
and David first ic. ine we can always eberahaabe ay one of the 
‘until the year constant quantities contamed in the primtitive equation ; 
: therefore, that this last may have the most general form 

On a ver- possible, it ought always to contain a constant but arbi- 
centre of the trary quantity, that does not appear in the fluxional 


AHC, CKB, equation. ; . 

esphere, and _169. Every fluxional equation, which involves only the 
; then, semicylinders simple powers of dx and dy, has this form, Mdx4+Ndy 
ill, when produced =0, M and N being supposed functions of any two vari- 
‘form four openings, able quantities x and y; and it expresses a certain relation 
sane oe between the ent teas x, its function y, and the 
ee ees. figxinsl poeticions <2. The method which analysts 
a? ; their s ax —4a°; first thought of employing, todiscoverthe primitive equa- 
spherical surface of the dome is 2a**; tion, was to separate the variable santitiill Wd tanive 
perfectly qua- it, if possible, the form Xdz 4+ Ydy=0, X being a 

2 ‘ ter of the base. _function’of x alone, and Y a function of jalone. 
solution, but without a demon- primitive equation was then f’Xdx4 f'Y dy =c, and 


to geom es 
gsomctia a pte sp Repstennl seston le 


Traités de Cal. Diff. vol. ii. mydxtnzdy=0; 
vol. i, Part 2d, divide the terms by « y, and it becomes 
mdz, ndy 
y oh ey = 0. 
Rectification Curves « Double Curvature. Hence, taking the. fl of the terms, we find 
' & of . ml, (x)-+nl. (y)=L (¢), or 1. (a™) +1 (y")=L (c) ; 

Rectifica- 166. The nature ofa line of been and passing from s to numbers, 
tion of in Conve Lives, (Art. 51). Let CPD be st of ay =e; 
ance cur--gueve of eis Kind, (Fig. 42 to ‘thireé co-or- and this is the primitive equation. 


‘Y. From every point 170. The variable ies may always be separa- 
in =a ee _PP’, &e. be drawn to ted, when. the Acciaeal enmetins is homogeneous, In 
Saree <a 3 aa ek too oe this case, elie equation BLS -4-NudyoaO ben the form 
Palin Wilcke the projection wf the cd curve, (Ay* 2h 4 Byk—n okt" 4 &e.)dx 4(Dy!tra'—P 
Again, from P’ draw P’QY, P’R’ perpendicular to AX. + &c.)dy=0, : 
AY. Pat AQ, or PRY = 2; AE oe PQ oe the sum of the exponents in each term being / +/. 
Toit eres 5 oes je ion C’P’=v’. Then Put m=h+hk, then, dividing all + pe terms by x”, any 
we if we suppose 
cin suice Ae exalted upce & plata, term as A yt. becomes A (2) ; thus Mand N be. 
curve, and its into a straight line, each come functions of 2; 80 that if We divide the equa- 
of the curve v, and tow Nd. BE oe 
have d v=4/ (ded #5 therefoce,by substituting for on Tet N Ga by M, and the fraction ay By #* 
dv’ its value d x*4dy*, we find Sn pret weareane¥ will be a function of = 
doen (dna rede), : d Sade. rating saga danas, 
i f for the rectification a Diy aha es . 
fine of double carvature.” B By uae gy the tee equ, therefore, #d 244 (2-+2Z)de=0, and hence 
tions which the nature line, » " dz, dz | rye FEF 
of the line, w nee Ft Gz Ho andes. (7 =C. 


uxion of the curve will contain only a single variable © Examrre 1. Let (aw-by)dy+ (fx+gy)de=0. 


. 


456 
Divide by @246y, and put z x instead of y, and the 
equation 


dy te: : d«=0; 


instead of dy put now zd 24d, and the equation is 
transformed to es et 


—* (a+bz)dz - 

bP + GFE th 

The fluents of the two parts of this equation may now 
easily be found. As a case, let yd y + 
(«+2 y)dz=0; then, because a=0, 6=/=1, g=2, we 


move <2 =0. This is easily transform- 


=. 


e tig¢e7 GFR 
and hence, taking the fluents, 


Led h Ob) + pee 


or L fe(r+29} =-y and putting y for xz, 


1 fe(e+y)} +575=° 
Ex. 2. Let ay™dy+(2"+)y")dz=0; hence we 
have 
1+é:- 2d 
dy+ tt= d2=0, and a gia ead =0. 
lace the tustehle uantities being separated, the fluent 
maty bo foal te waat: . 


FLUXIONS. 


innit tent fanctions of z alone. This equa- 
= called finer, bt “opened gency gre, Coke 
pms yor equation of and of the 
order. Paneregi fn, substitution the equa~ 
tion becomes 
cdtptdeqPatda=Qde; 
ody? make an prec inet 
os ial the coefficient of 2 oan =0;, is 
AEF eet d mn ( 


The first equation gives =- Pda, ‘and. aes 
L (Q=—f Pde; and as Pax does 9, its 
a Ap td ; peti oskirbeer: 


fluent w 
then aL te L@® "capa Lied, 
quantity) and ¢ =e ~*** =e=" es Aches 
@'Ws the numbier of whieli Bap: deal Syed og = 
for the constant quantity ¢ " We now substitute 
value of ¢ in the pee Ly leap yh ced hoe 
A dz= Qe'ds,and hence’ bogus 


Az=J Qe" dake " 
edyprrieis pore ri a) 


* ar get RED aloe 
* and at last we find. ae Ati: ona 


olusde mT. 


ye “=f Qe" aon o Wiaioaia rPas. 13 
From this we may infer that; ‘was not ne- 
cessary to add the constant quantity a to the fluent 


Ex. 3. Let sdy—yda=dx4/(2?4y*); we divideby fPdz=u, as it ag appsered sanin i Sia mabecanet 


x, and have dy— 2 da=day(1+ £): And ma- 
king y=x 2, so that dy=zd2+42dz, we have | - 
dx_ dz 
z Va+e) 
hence (art. 128.) z=ez+4c,/(1 + 2), or 22=c 9+ 
ev )» wide, by tran: PE Oe 
a2 cy+er 
“F170. In some cases an equation may be rendered bo: £¥ 
mogeneous by transformation. Thus, in the equation 
loatbotediys(net-ngtn)d =o 
we € (ar+0y7+0e)=2, mz+ny+p=t, 
hence SOS8S aged wd epee, 
and dy= mdz—adt : oe bdt—ndz 
en b—na’” — imbue 
The proposed equation now becomes <d y+tdr=0, 
or (mz—nt)dz+4+(bi—az)dt=0, which is homoge- 


If m 6—n a=0, this transformation fails; but then, 
na 
™ =~,» and the proposed equation is 
bedy+bpdz4(az+by) (6d y4ndz)=0, 


the variable quantities ed pails separated by ma- *s 


dz—adax- 


king «2 +-by=z, by which dy= org The equa- 
(e+z2)dz 
~ ae—bp-+ (a—n)a 
171. Let us now consider the equation 
dy+Pydz=Qdz, 


part of the calculus. 
EXxaMPLe. Let the equation be. ay 4 gdu tends; 
then P= 1, Q=aH,u=/Pde=a, ' 


SQe*de = fests e*dz= ae’ (2®—82?+6%—6), 


therefore y =ce  +a(23—32? + 62—6). 
172. early analysts classed fluxional equations 
by the number of their terms. In such as of 


shee seems, ape wine Sheneiane heck the fen ant * ae 


pees ie terms camprchenel nth 
yu ‘Fas pue pe du at ° oldu. stihy 
‘This may be put under a more simple form by divid- 


ing all the terms by 3 «2%, it then becomes 


Be Se hes ate 2 
ere Alga ss ena at 
a el a Se B cna ir to 

(Kft 1)2 Ra yah 
19+ @—itily! ’ 
Eton _ (kf tide at ef 

re ang wg te a 

een 


- a 


. 


~ eek 


FLUXIONS. 


then the equation . 

amis dy + by dxr=ar"da. — 

“When n=1, the equation belongs to the class we have 
last arti 


considered in article. When -n= 2, the equation 
porehihee ae oe Lelyader 
James Bernoulli was the first that considered this 


however, did not ap until the year 1744, almost 
ve, 


i ioe sree emt 

; particular cases, he pro- 

it to the consideration of geometers. ( . to 

Lei; Cc pteeh ty uk rf r- 

H the son “ots be varrh-aenaeny how-to 

lutions rete sgl pee ye 
which equation is ; x=adzxz, 

d 7. 


dz= ali . 


ing from this case, geometers have succeeded in 


Soediiaghle variable quantities when m is any num- Sun 


—4i |. 2 
ber of the form Bice? * being supposed any inte- 
ger number. The problem, however, remains 
unresolved, and indeed its solution is as much a deside- 
ratum analysts as the qua¢ e of the circle 
wis sinaing the gecneters of ancient tines, _On Ric- 
cati’s equation, see Euler Inst. Cal. Integ. vol. i. sect. 2. 


. 1. Lacroix, T'ratté du Cal. Dif. vo ii. p. 256, &e. 
“if the separation of the variable tities general] 
be a problem of i 2 in so 


its fluxional may be the result left 
after the fluxion of the pri has been divided by 
‘its terms. Thus, if the pri- 


ing the common factor = xdy—ydx=0: This ex- 


pression «d y—yd<« is not an exact fluxion, but it may 
VOL. IX. PART II. 


_ as independent of 


457 
1 - 
be rendered so, by restoring the factor ry for then it 
becomes *2¥ = ¥4 ‘the fluxion of 2, 
Food x 
174. In let u be any function of two vari- 


able quantities « and y, then, whether these be regarded 
shenithabandiienaimditenatioset 


du du : 
the other, we have fem afte ay Oh (art. 103.) in 


this expression * means the fluxional coefficient of the 
function u, taken as if x were the only variable quan- 
tity contained in the function, y being of course con- 
sidered as constant ; and 5 is to be understood in a 
similar sense in regard to « (art. 100.) Put $“ = M, * 
= N, then, te sa Sait ta it has been 
du u 
proved (art. 102.) Pets de dsdy’ therefore 
aM _aN ps 
dy — az 
Hence we may conclude, that if M and N are such 

ctions of two variable ilies x and y that M dx + 
Ndy isa fluxion, the condition expressed by 
the equation (1) will always be satisfied. 

On-the contrary, if M and-N are such functions of x 
and y, that i = SN, then Max-4Na y shall be an 
exact fluxion, which in every case be found. 

To prove the part of the proposition, let us 
su See eee eee the hypo- 
thesis, that in the function M, « is vari e, and y con- 
stant; and let the fluent be P+-Y, where Y is any 
function whatever of y, which serves as the constant 


correction of the fluent, and P is a known fiction of” 


«and y, which results from /"M d « relatively to x only, 


so that M= SP. The complete fluxion of PY is 
dP aP 


dP 
ay ttt WF dy+d Y (103.) or Md x dg net 


dY ; by comparing this with Md2+Nd y, we see that 
the two expressions will. be identical, if we can. give: 


such a value to Y, that Nd y=-5 dy dY, or 


dY= (x— Say (2y 


and then the fluent of Md.x4-Ndy will be PY. 
Now, by taking the fluxion of M= 5° in respect 


a 
aM_ @P dM 
y 


of y, we have it 2 but by hypothesis on 
a&P 


dN or. dN_ dP 
ge and dydz™ dzayo™ ntherelone ery 
dN &P : dP\ 
Avie Tidy = that 18s a(N—4-)=0, 
the fluxion being taken, supposing 2 alone variable ; 
therefore N — is constant in respect ef x, so that 
it is a function of y only ; hence the possibility of find- 
cl lama 


Inverse 
Method. 


tavere 
Methaat 
—_—o 


458 


fluent of Mdx4-Ndy expressed by p+f( (s—S ev, 


fluent of Ndy, i pro- 
ceed in all as we have above, In ge- 
neral, we ov to begin with that term which brings 


wt aint ouh Ge ego ren 
Examrece 1. La 2b2de+50 4 4+ady=0. 


In this case M= =2bs, N= Zag +t” 


o™ 30, 0, 5 =0; as the condition expressed by 
the eatin (1) ie tied the expression 2 6 x dx +4- 


d exact fluxion. To determine 
Try) tere po : 
the fluent, we have P= Miaebe “a, = , 


S(8— ay te ( 49+ =i) 
=ay+l. feytevaa +9} 
Hence the primitive equation is 
bs pay+l jeyterV(l +} 


Ex. 2. Let the fluxional equation be 
a(rdz+ydy) dx—«dy 


y bydy=0; 
Tees to tye Tales 
a “ ax 
PERE Lalonde 
Ss Jer eee te 


These expressions for M and N satisfy the condition pe sasina qutond 


= > (we omit the calculation for the sake of 


brevity,) therefore the expression which is put = 0, is 
an exact fluxion ; to determine it, we have 
p= ardz y dz 


STEFH* Ate 


= 0 /(2t +9) + are. (tan. 


the fluents being taken upon the ms) that y is 
constant, 
dP 


N—Wy 


ay z 
dy = J@+y) FF¥ 
Jon Bienen ees 
The fluent is therefore : 

ay (ey) + are (tan. =) 4 dy + o=0, 
Ex. $. Let the fluxional equation be 


wetmt® [+ 7eemh= 


z 
M=1+4 Matty)’ 
—7y dN —ry 

dz ~(#+y)¥ 


=36y, 


Hence it appears that the first member of the equation chap, 4. 


-=0, 


FLUXIONS. 


weed Tee eerie ot ee 


76. hee ee We 
dition = 4N (which is called the condition of in- 

ility, satisfied, inquire 
ae ibe it said, we ny ext ini 
1» and’, bY 0his ich, when the expression M de + N dy 
is mali, it may become a complete fluxion. Tet 
the Huxional equation be put under this form 72 4-K=0, 


K being equivalent to This equation’ results fom 


the elimination of a constant quantity ; ¢ between a pri 


mitive equation, which ma be expressed tas e 
in enna a sane Or else ie Gg) 

minated directly, ve 

to the form Fe 9 i Aan 8 Twilleaa ee Svan 
see Example in article 49.) Put w for F (#, y), 

—_ x for the fluxion of u taken relatively to «, and 

Qdy for its fluxion reetively toy; so pre oe 


Qadyand =P + QY=0; hence $Y 4% = 0. 
parpraferetsnneridbgiey Sonne ic er 
be identical with the equation 42 2 4K= 0; therefore 


P “Pas 4 Qady, ‘ 
=z 


Q(dy+Kdzj)=du. 


Now, the second member jon comeion fluxion, there- 
pond groaning 9 aay Urry 
cists n 
fluxional euction yp RAO be alii 
e fluxion 
Let both sides of this last equation be multiplied 
U, any function whatever of u, then we have " 
meEed Ne Udu. t 
Now, U duis still a com fluxion ; ‘therefore the 
other member of the equation will also be a complete 
— and as the factor UQ may have an infinite-va- 
ety of forms, ita rb me von oe Se num- 


nfinite 
re ‘actors, such, fluxional equation be multi- 
by any one of tens it aa oA oes fen ad 
f 
ving a fluxional Sele ctacel bites 
<e ng tne ce This, 
ws of insuperable dif- 


uation is 
eae 


oy and inquires what fluxional 
rendered integrable by factors of a On 
this subject we must refer to his Instit. Cal. Int. vol. i. 
sect, 2., or Lacroix, Traite du Cal, Dif: &c. 2d’ part, 


. 
—— 


FLUXIONS. 


177. Let M be any function of two quantities x, y,, 
and let u=fM dz, the fluent being supposed taken 


that x is variable and y constant; 


ry to find the fluxional co-effi- 


cient of u relatively to y; or in other words, to find the | 


fluxion of fMd'r relatively to y, without previously 
finding the fluent of the expression in respect of x. . Be- 


ae du. @u dM 
cause w= {Md 2, therefore — = Vedas ay’ 
Pu d?u 


@u dM en 
dydx dzdy’ dady~ “dy wanda ey 445 
OM SeeGrrt: ; 


dy 4% and taking the flaent relatively to x, considers 


—dz 


| dy 
will apply to the ealeulation of in art. 174, with- 


out previously taking the fluent P= f'Md=. It was 
invented by Leibnitz, and was considered as an im- 
portant discovery in the calculus. (See Bossut Traité 


du Cal. Diff: &¢. vol. ii..p. 58:), ‘The whole fluxion of 
Siete G eiice eas bbe 


Mdz+4 1 fz a} dy. 


Observing that the fluent in the parenthesis is to be 
f walone tobe variable. 

L178. a fluxional equation involves the second 

or higher powers of dz and dy, as in this example 

dy — ads? =0, we may find the value of “Y , by re- 

ei ee equation. In the present case, 

52 ==ta, s0 that dy + adz=0, and also dy—adz=0; 


hence y+- az 4+-c =0, and y—ax + c’=0, are tw 
shitive’ equations, from either of which the dodo? 
SS may be derived, and also ftom their pro- 


(y+42-+4¢) (y—azr+c’)=0. 
_ 179. When the ion contains only one of the va- 
triable quantities, « for example, we may deduce from. 


d 
it St = X, a function of z; and hence y=/X dz. But 
oie) <5 Kig 1525 EET equation ‘in respect. of 
», then, putting 5% =p, we may find «=P, some- 
function of p, and hence dz = d P ; and since dy=pdz, 
therefore, dy = pdP, andy = fpdP= pP —{Pdp. 
‘The relation between x and y is ‘now to be found by 
eliminating p, by means of the two equations 

we oP, FPP ae es ee 
Let the equation be rdxady=b4/ (dz*+ dy’); 


d 
Making p = 7. we have 


_ powers of ¢ 
nate i 


459 


ra=bJ/(l+p?)—ap=P, - 
y=bp/(1+ p)—dap?—b fdp (1 + p’)- 
The fluent of d p 4/(1 + p*) may be found by art. 123, 

180.” When the primitive equation cannot be dedu- 
ced from a fluxional equation by any of the known ar- 
tifices of analysis, then, as alast resource, recourse must 
be had to approximation by infinite series. 

Ex. Let the fluxional equation be dy, + ydz= 
m 2 dx, and let us suppose it to be known that when 
z=a,theny=6. Assume «=a +t, and y=b-+-u; 
then when t= 0 we have u=0; we have also dx=di 
and dy=du; by these, the proposed equation is trans- 
formed to 

du+ (b+-u) dt = m(a+t)" dt. 


We next assume _ 


us Ate Betl cette &e. 


«, A, B, C, &c. being indeterminate quantities which 
are to be investi, From this assumption, d «= 


f. Ao epi 4(e$2)C% t+ &e} dt. 


The terms of the equation being now brought all to 
one side and put = 0, and these expressions for « and 
du being substituted init, we have 


aAfm 4 (241) Be +(e 42CKt! + &e. 
Hy lig A+ Batty softs 
—ma—m 2 gett mars 2—&e: 


If we suppose « = 1, the terms placed vertically be- 
come similar, and then as ya meyeer like 
=O agreeably to e theory of indetermi- 
coefficients, there results Gn 
A+6—ma*=0, 2B+4+A—mna!=0, 
n(n —1 


b emaiee 
TC. a’—2= 0, &e.. 


3C+B—m 


Hence. A = m a” — 3, 
B-™2 a1 ma"+b 
2 + : 
c _-mn(n—1)a"—?—mna"—! +-mar—b 
a 2, 3 > 
&c. “ 
These values being substituted in the series, we —_ 
u expressed. by ¢ known quantities ; we may then 
put «—a for ¢, andy— 6 for u, and the: result will, 
uns relation between x etard 
e might have proceeded wi original equation 
dy+ydx=ma"dx exactly as we have done with 
the transformed equation, assuming y= Az*4Ba*t! 
+&c. But as the result would not have contained a con- 
stant correction, it would only have’ given the relation of 
yand x upon the i :y=0, when z=0, The’ 
transformation, serves to introduce the constant correc- 
tion. 


181, In the assumed series w= A" Bi**) &e. 
the exponents of ¢ form an arithmetical. progression, of 
whic the common difference is 1. In many. cases,, 

ever, the common difference will be a fraction, as. 
in this example (dz + dy)y = dw; here we may as-. 
sume 


Invesse: 
Method. 


460 FLUXIONS. 


Method. yr Aae + Bay tC ae + KO 
yr" By proceeding as before, we find 


Avast? "yABos® F844. ACaa’ 4-&e. 


+ABee ty | pst 4 be. re 
facet yee | 
—! +A" +32 +e, 


Hence 2a— 1=0, a4+-b— l=a, a+c—1=4, &e. 
Therefore a= 4, 6=1, c=}, &e. 
Again, Ate=1, AB (a+-5) + A=0, &e. 
Hence A =,/2, B= — }, C=y'54/2, &e. 
and y= 2446/2 — dat y..t 28/2 —Ko 

This is the primitive equation upon the hypothesis 
that y=@ when r=—0. 

On the resolution of fluxional ee - 
mation, consult Euler Jnstit. Cal. nleg vol. i. sect. 2; 
Lacroix Traité du Cal. Dif: Partii. Chap. 6. 


Of Fluxional Equations y the Second and Higher 
‘Se 


Of fusion. 182. Let f(z, y, c,c’) denote any function, or expres- 

al equations sion com) of the variable quantities x, y, and two 

ofthe s- constant quantities ¢, c’, besides, any other constant 

cond and = quantities. Then 

higher or- = 

at —— 3g uatio u aking the 
may y ve equation. Dy ; 
fluxion, (as explained Art. 45—50,) we obtain its, flux. 
ional equation of the first order, which will contain 
in addition to the other quantities, and may be expres- 
sed thus, 


S le 9 -, ¢,¢)=0.', (2) 


By taking the fluxions a second time, an equation 
will result, involving the fluxional co-efficient of the se« 


2 
cond order, which may be expressed thus, 


dy d* 
jes (x, » 7 ae Cc, e’)=0. (3) 


As these three equations will all hold ‘true at once, 


‘we may exterminate the two constant quantities c,-c’, 
and the result will be a single equation 


P(=y, % $2) =0, (4) 


in which the quantities c,’ are not found. This will 


the constant quantities c,c’. 


ad 
We may arrive at the very same equation (4) in two, dz 


other ways. 
1. We may give the primitive (1) these two forms, 
oa e)=e', (2, » c’)==e. 


pe pt ae per result of the first, nor 
¢ in the result of the second. These results may thgre- 
fore be put under the form 


After eliminating a and 4 by these three equations, we 


get 
2y— 229 4 ot SY x0, 


a fluxional equation of the second order, of which the 
complete primi ve equation is 2%—' az = 
We may otherwise put the primitive ples rhems or 


Taking the flaxions, and arranging the results, so that 
the constant quantities may stand alone, we have 


d 
at Qey— ne wet 
=2b, = 2a. 
ay = ay" 
I~ ae Yas 


taking the fluxion of either of these equations, the 
pe bien quantity in the second member disappears, 
and we find 2y— 29% 4 2 LY, the same as 


da? 
before. 
183. As two of the constant quantities contained in 


the fluent of X dz, then taking the fluent ofboth mem- 
bers of the equation, and considering that, in the first 
member, dz in the denominator is constant, we have 
afxae= Pc, anddy=Pde4cda, — 
Taking now the fluents a second time, — 
y=fPdepoate 


+ 
a 
» 
¢ 


-. 


1 gg menses = 4 


ae 


2-99 


Pe er 


hte he 


FLUXIONS. 461 
L cao As fPdz=Pr—fedPa2fXde—feXdz; dy Inverse 
“Method. i st; dp=Ydy, therefi => : 
F— therefor y= 2fXde—feXdeporten .° as Nidyp an pf mR git; Ueenehone pg.) Se 
; Hemiaand aes den twa scenstmnhcommartinnaytnas '=54/(0-42 (Tidy) and a 
dy—ard£f= 0, here X= az, in this case, =f +7; 
eld ada ages She enter 7 (c+2f Ydy) 
n.the very same way, the primitive of the. uxional, where ¢ and c’ denote any two constant tities. 
sigs tall 1 apace aeipnete: eet TEs, "Hles the equation’ te ys powenndil or 
under the form aaa Xdz, then we have ie = ed =a+4y. Here Y=a+y, and 2f¥ dy=2ay-+y* 
fXdz=P +c, where P denotes the fluent /X dr. hence 
perp eprint ng aghemanyert soe td beeper pas dy "; 
rest the operation is the same as has been explained. “7 Jetiagty) + 
The primitive will contain three constant corrections : 
alike fluxional-equation of the fourth order would cons = = 1. fa +yt+ ve+2ayty)} +c’. (123) 
tain four, and so on. , 
ji ‘dy d?y eg — 187. When the equation contains os and x, 
aeiad dz dx?” # ut 9 it may be transformed to a fluxional equation of the 


d i 
put =p, then, dz being regarded constant, =~ 


= 22; the equation will now involve p, dp, dz, and 
constant ities, and it will be of the first order in 
respect of p and x: we may thence find dz = Pd p, P 
being put for some function of p; and since dy = 
pdx=P pdp, we have 
2=fPdp, y=fPpdp 

These fluents being taken, and a constant quantity add~ 
ed to each, by elimi p, we get an equation 
expressing the relation between 2 and y. 


dy - d , 
Ex. Let aft sy (145% * — 0; when pis put 
d. dp, d’ : ad 
for 5% and Fp for 5 this equation becomes —~? + 


+p)* =0, hence 
OE ES ead LO 


(+p) (4p 
end takitg the Huents 


i i metelnnen expression 

problem : ae Ned Balen nde onan Me ead 
quantity. e primitive equa- 

tion just now found shews it to be a circle, which in- 
deed is sufficien! tly evident. 


frees 


first order, hentinae hated yond. Ses * for 
dy: then, if we can primitive of that fluxion- 
al equation, and thence the value of p in terms of z, 
we may have the value of y from formula y = 


Spas, or else, if we have the value of « in terms of 
p, then because fp dx = px—fxdp, we shall have 
y=pr—fedp. 

Ex. Suppose the equation to be 

_@e+ayh = y 5 OHryide _y 

dedy  ~— dp " 
where X denotes some function of # then 

<< Op and [= sh » 
OES aA 

2 Vv 
Let V represent f/'S, then p= Ja=v) and, y= 
n Vda 
vaU—VYy 

As the first member: of the proposed fluxional equa- 
tion the radius of curvature of an cee: 
its primitive equation expresses the nature of a curve 
whose radius of curvature is a given function of the 
abscissa. 

188, If the fuxional equation contain 5, 
and y, we may, as before, put p= 9, from which we 
got OY dP _ REP the -equation will now involve 
dp, dy, pandy only. When the primitive equation 
can be found, cdl Cette “lar Vitias be in terms of y, 
we may find z by the formula «= “Y; but when y 


is expressed. by p, we may then em loy the formula 


Shaul 


dy 


dx” 


to the same 


imitive equation. In fluxional equations 
of the 


order, however, it must always be under« 


Sars hkae: tion 
measure the fluxion of the other quantity, We have 
supposed y to be a function of x, sa. that d is consi- 
diese wo conctent, bet, to poss Sune ie of y 
a function of x, to that of za con- 

? 


art. 96, and put 999° foe #9." A similar remark 
Oy a ee ee 


regarding = and y as functions the one 
of the other, they may both be referred to some other 
variable quantity ¢, by means of the formula above 
4 a 
ey 


Exampte. Let the equation be (a4z) * ~— ar 


+2 49 0, in which de is constant te ho 
the above substitution, it becomes (a+) ian 


t a tay? in which dy is regarded as constant. 


190. gg amainath ia ete pe which 
have this form, 


like ion of the first order, Fndecd, except in 

partodiar cases, there are no kniown methods of redu- 

i to the finding of the fluxion of a Ga 
variable quantity, that is, to ‘the quadrature of 

If R=0, in which case the equation is 

a ad 

Fo +P 5% +Qy=0, 
to 


a 
i be reduced to a fluxional equation of the first 
order by a very simple transformation. Putting ¢ 
for the num umber of which the Nap. log.=1, assuine 
y=e/*4*, then, taking the fluxions, by art. 26. rule 
©. considering d x as constant, 

dy=udzel*@+, diy= e/uds (dudx+w'd x*), 
The values of dy and d'y being substituted in. the 
equation, and the common factors rejected, it becomes 
du (u'+ Pu+Q)dz=0. 


If P and Q were constant nem Me u might have 
been 4 constant quantity, we then have d u=0, 
and to u we have 

u+ Pu+Q=0. 


Let a and } be the roots of this quadratic uati 
then w=a and u=6, and hence these two values Spe 
ed Athy . 


Faby nine 


or putting C for e°, and C’ for e° ; 


FLUXIONS.: 


’ as one of the 


~ 
> 


y=Ce™*, y= 
lara es ony pr  of  ee, 


const quantity, bat by a owege 


if. rd y=Ce® Peo Rag 


or the complete primitive ara F To 
i th cml : re 


¥ =a Ce 


age Be 
= +iCe * Bt cwcd* uC . 


T=7v7'\ 


From thi and the prinitve equation, fer elimina 


ting C and C’, we have : 


Papeete -- ions 


TR mom Hd il 


This will agree with the proposed proposed equation, i we ove 
a and 6 such values, that a +4 =p | 
If a and 6 come out impossible q 

ponents of ¢, Se Se will have the form 


“++ 8s/—1, but then the exponential e® "1, “may be! 
expressed by circular functions, Art. 123, and pe 
METIC io Sang pe” 

191. wealeiile oueiibindiin. 
tos os, then fy and ae two. Pip of y, which. 


each mitra Sechide + Qy=0, 
we may take > WY 32 
yaCu poy, 7 wr 


for the com equation. _ " 

_ sisviaattaad Sue Far the “3 
al equation becomes 

(Fr + Ps ose 
WA Pes: ‘hy whe ster 
therefore the identical, d > the value of 
inte he Maes and 80 ue 


The property which we have china: fo, be 
linear equation of the second order applies to nae 


equations of all orders whatever. See Lagrange Theorie 


des Fonct. Anal. 65—70.. 
192. As an exam —— of the manner of resolving a 


fluxional equation gig ie order by approxima 
tion, let the 
yt anyds =O, 
batters = see 

y= (ALB ott ae 2**4 ps JTS 00), 
thence we deduce 7% = Bui cy 
room yas Epa mb eyodng NBS Fade 
ax*y= aAx*t "+ &e. 


Fepeniste: mibsissing. in de usipond egeetie, 
we get _ ; 

~a(a—1)A=0, 
Wk “ch 2+ 2 PNB SPARED, be, , 
“The first uation ppt ils sper 
corrections that enter into 


then 


the value of y; that 


have a = 0, a 8 Vetter 8 oe 


may be the case, we must - 


a aA 


~— 


“TOF DE t D+ 2 
va c = a A- Id 


ead 7a 
A sel 


series, but it is incomplete, because it contains only 

one arbitrary constant ity. Let us next consider 

the case of » = 1, and putting A’, B’, C’, &e. for the 
ing values of the coefficients A, B, C, &e. of 

which the SEE ET: eae il 
—aA’ ot 

/_ a See 

P= Gea) (2) “ ba: 

c re ham Al = 


(1+2)* 


—_—a@ 
1.2. $(n+8)(2n-+5) (847) (242)5 
“This 'eivéel's aeodnid Hcbanglati : aie, 
liy adding theltwo valties of 4, we get aa 


yr=At Bo cet Dee t 


ae Certs petty yas 


i 191. 
a (art. 19 gr ; 


D’= 


+ &e. 


But then we may assume y= az, and the equation 
owill become a(a—1) + a@=0, which gives two values 
of a. Let them be a and 2’. The two incomplete 


fluents are y= “x and y= «'z", and their sum y=«2" 


64 
+-«'x is the complete primitive equation. See Euler 
Instit. Calc. Integ. vol. ii. cap. 7 ; Lacroix Traite du Calc. 
Diff. &c. Part i. chap. 6. This last work, as it is the 
latest and most copious, may. i i 
ing the most complete ‘view 
of any extant, 


Miscellaneous Problems. 


193. Having now given as full a view of the prin- 
ciples of the Reseed erlesig as we conceive to be 
compatible with the nature of our work, we shall con- 
clude with a few more examples of its application to 
the resolution of parti lems. 

__ Pros. 1. To find the length of the enlarged meri- 
dian in Mercator’ s, or rather Wright's projection of the 


FLUXIONS. 


of e and z, then, by the, principles of the projection, —Miscelle 


be considered as exhibit- ; 


: 468 


rad 


jet se Reale therefore, putting the ratio of the fluxions Problems. 


v cos.0 i 

. > gr wa? ee , z 1 
Pane Oe peat Peep eee odes eae 
apd dt oe Therefore, taking the fluent (art. 


146), 2=1. { tan. (45°44 of. Pui no correction 


is wanted, because when v= 0, then z=]. (tan. 45°) 
=I. (1) = 0, as it should be, 

If we compare the fluxion of z with that of the dif- 
ference of a parabolic arc and its tangent, (art. 158,) it 
will appear that they; are identical. Hence we have 
this elegant theorem... If, from the focus of a parabo- 
la, a dicular. be ‘drawn to any tangent to the 
curve, and a circle be Pn sem ee are as a cen- 
tre to throngh vertex ; the meridional 8 
SE ee to the are of the circle between Bote 
tex, and the perpendicular to the tangent, is equal to 
the excess of the parabolic arc between the vertex and 
point of contact, above that portion of the tangent 
which is intercepted between the same point and per- 


Henry Bond, in the 1650, discovered, by chance, 
that the eniarged meridian might be expressed by the 
logarithmic tangents of half the complements of the la- 
titudes, a rule easily found from the preceding solution; 
but the difficulty of proving this was then considered so 
great, that Mercator off to wager a sum of money 
against any person that should undertake to prove it, 
either true or false. James Gregory, however, proved 
it in his Exercitationes Geometric, published in 1668, 
and afterwards Barrow, in his Geometrical Lectures ; 
their demonstrations, however, were intricate. After- 
wards Dr Wallis and Dr Halley gave demonstrations, 
which were sufficiently simple saidalagent 

Pros. 2. A body T proceeds uniformly 
straight line BC, (Fig. 43), and a body S in pursuit of T, 
moves always direct! 'y towards it, with a velocity which 
is to that of T in the given ratio of 1 to n ;“wHat is the 
nature of the curve described by S? 

Let the tangent AB, which makes right angles with 
BC, be put=a, the abscissa BR=z, the ordinate SR=y, 

dz 


the are AS = =, then the subtangent BASVa, 
: - 

(art 67,) and BT =e — 9 Now BT and AS being 

described in the same time, they are to each other as 

the velocities n and 1, therefore BT = n x AS, that is 


c— vs =n z, and hence, taking the fluxions, making 


dy constant, — y = ndz; butdz=,/(d2x* + dy?), 
therefore 

ndy _ ae 
yy ode+dyy 


Put dz=pdy, then d?x=dp dy; hence, by sub- 
stitution in the second member, 


ady___ ap" 
y  A(+py 


Bid Ging eat tila i 
cml (el fr+ vit pt. 


along a Fig. 43. 


Moeeils- 
we 


Problems 
—_—\o 


Fig. 45. 


Fig. 4 


464 
Now, because p= 7 = um. RST (art. 67) when 

dew ena te Ry apeirof emery st 

hence » l(a) — #1 (y) = v fetyc +p )f and 

i Sal {reves ripe and and == p+V01 +P") 

a veitng thi epeliialonagtie and putting 


a 
adra 29 re, 
and taking the fluents a second time, 
a yin qayri ‘ 
<=— 7 adi +6; 
but when y=a, + is =0; therefore 0= | 


curve is 
at yi a ti 2na 
88 — Tae aed Ce 
This line is the curve of pursuit remarked by Bou- 


guer and Maupertuis, (Mem. de U Acad. des Sciences, 
1782). 
Pros. 3. If number of straight lines are drawn 
svcmecistentelaa tar; it is required to 
find the nature of a curve to which these are tangents. 
pts poh iri ogo crak r Po- 
sition, (Fig. 45), and K a 3 let 
number of lines KD, ED’, Oe: be Gevtiedewen,: oie 
in D, D’, &c.; and let lars: DC, D’C’, 
&c. be drawn to these lines; it is required to find the 


nature of the curve ACC’, to which perpendicu- 
lars are 

Without to the parti case, we shall re- 
solve the » and AE to be the 
axis of the curve ( re hee a of the co- 


oe cearn Fes ABoam Bios), Poseenie coe 
t in the curve, put AB=a, BC=y ; but again con- 
sieing Ce C as an 4;-~ whatever in the tangent, put 
AB=r’, Then, whatever be the conditions 
of the tangent, the relation 

rt A ms point in it, may be 
= P 4-Q, where P and Q 
disarm functions of con- 


gen may expres the mie which 
che selena anh &c. 


Let us now suppose, that the variable quanti 
anges ite Se eee ieee Be 

the new ion of the tangent corresponding to p+h ; 
then, considering P and-Ges finstions of 9, 0 oth 
lor’s theorem (art. 52.) 


P becomes P+ Sh 5S he. 
Q becomes Q. + ——- anh bt TOT + be. 


FLUXIONS. 


The relation of x’ toy’ in the new position of the tan- 
gut will now Ween eT -% 
¥= Pr 4+Q4(Soe + SEHK + 8. 
whe 4 8 ptr al rng tem 
the series. 
Now, as this holds true of every point 
the tangent C’ Dy, and thoequation # = Pats =P Gs 
at ¢, the intersection of the:to 


aio wy is be true at the same time ; et ath ee 
ve Pre * 


Greta Fo) b+ Ke Be, =05 


and dividing by 4, 92! oe +Kh+ &.=0. 
Colisaiva ape GS to “to coinci- 
dence ; when C’ come to C, then ¢ also fall at C; 
and fh, and all the terms into which it enters,. vanish ; 
also 2’ and y become « and y: and to determine the 
nature of the curve, we have these two equations = 


veer (1) 
= ip tap Ora 
= acterey Lea renredee 


XAMPLE 1. Letus now recur to the 


ses Su SE ae iB pe . K Fig. ts. 
to AE; AF pt Aten By KA KAS oan et 
DB 


ES Cm hh gain 
it will appear BaF a pli $ therefore” p= 


are o=t a? —P, ee SUED» 
a 


The second of tibee egutlncs pine Wane and hence 


the first becomes y= = — es therefore 4 a y= 2® is 
the tion of the curve, which is evidently a ps 
bol, of which AK isthe axis K the focus, and A the 


Bel ‘2. Sappoee w ray of tight RD (Fig. vane * 


from the sun to fall the concave 


po- asphere at D; atid te bestiened-xeteceed in the direc. 


tion DH; it is proposed to find the nature of the curve 
pln) a a all rays reflected in the same man- 


‘a ieee ih the radios of the phere, and AE parallel 
Saecaeped ep theche let C orks = 


the reflected ra the curve ; let DC meet AE 
in BH, and draw CB icular to'AE: Put AD=a, 
aay the print vi be the variable angle DAE. 


~ sae AD bisects the angle 
me whihs'te oceud oo HE, that is to the sum of 
angles DAH, ADH; therefore ‘the angles ADH, 


DAH ‘are: eqaaly aa angle DHE=2p: Now, by 
trigonometry, 


‘ 
S 
= 

¢ 


Fig. 44. 


Pig. 47. 


quantity p may also 


eliminate the tri- 
Fao capa ipo ja = 


gonometrical 
at he than scotons. 6t sh, anon. uebsia sm 
cloid, as we have demonstrated syn i 


article Epicyctom. The curve in a maiede Z Glee- 
tacaustic curve to a circle. 


of the curve 


a J(#, y, p)=9, / Q) 
that is, let some function.of 2’, and p, be supposed 
then be upposed 

arts curve HCD. 


and have. some other position H/C’ 
VOL, IX, PART U, 


is 
Let 


FL v XIONS. - 465 
‘) a : 3 AB’ =2", and B’C’= i esis on Salinabonsoh shi 
ans SADE x = ting a, other curve, and as, Tih , the two curves are 
eps. CHB Pre 1 ; exppeteed by evarap © the same form, we must 
xCB=—— 5s) ten “er 
f | BAS in CHE * pet Paretie fle’, y" pERy SOF 
Hence # = (AH+BH)= ae a4 op! tag Taylor's theorem, is equivalent 
sin. 2p sin. p h (2.) 
= ; a. (# 
m9 aap om ape x ys py 
‘By comparing this with the general formula (1), it ¢p- LOY D4+——ap hp Kitp&c. 
ep SO 8B Gus SP = tiehaé;* * The fluxion being. taken’ upon the h is that 
w Pe eases co.2p rity alone is variable, and Kh?4 &c. being t for all 
C8 AO Sereda ahem: mliplcd bya power 1+ 
= »z= a: 
“Ep cos22p’ dp cos, 2 p a SP (hig intersect each other in c, and let 
Hence, by formula (2), Ab, and c=, be the common corinne then, 
Qu cos. p  2sin. 2p sin. pation (1) olde tone of crore Boe i cane 
cmap Yoon pt ~eomrap J* HEB sion Fane pth ake ci 
oa geet pope HO dily find, in them x and y, the: co-ordinates belonging to thei 
pan ay aeysaieey Ara Pe) o common point ¢; that is, we must have 
nr 8 Ae Sf (29 P) =O oe 
and PS aah that sin. p= 2ein. 0S. p, =e 
oy hor ceeetectbacriny tae? pf Anes, alse, oy 
pe spatertanohsin ner FCI?) A= Gy h+Ki24 &c.=0, 
c=}cos.p(142sinp) a; y=sin3p¢ ; , 
From these equations it is and hence ‘we'must also have _ os 


af (x; ys P) r eis F) 
Menos yak po 0. 


Let Cand C’! be now ‘the in which 
the curyes He.D;.H’e¢ D’ touch>the curve PCC’Q, 
whose nature is requited; then, if we su h to de- 


crease continually, and at last to vanish,: C’ 
and c will approach to C, and:at last -will-coincide with 
‘it, so that x and y, which are.¢o-ordinates of c, the in- 
tersection of the two, curves. Hic'D, H’'c D’, will then 
become the co-ordinates of the curve PCQ. As all the 
terms which contain: will then vanish, we have evi 
dently this rules. i)s.»» 

Let the equation. of She, given carves, be 


S (YP) = 0% (*) 
« and y the ¢o-ordinates, and p a variable para- 
meter. From this iy the fluxion, sup- 
posing p to be variable, and all the other quantities con- 
stant, deduce this other equation, 


d @, Ys 
ob Ackiic Ba 


a ane var ea ee 
, which the nature of the curve, that 
touches all the given curves. 
This formula includes in it that of Pros. 3. 
Exampte. Let ACD, AC'D’, &c. be Parahols Se 
scribed by a projectile thrown from a en point A, 
wrish mgineds walodity tha "givin vertiod It is 
proposed to find the curve PCQ which touches them 
all, Let EF be the’axis of any one of the curves, AD 
an.ordinate to the axis, AP = a, the height due to the 
velocity of (see Prosectites), AB = 2, 
BC = y, the co-ordinates of C, any point in the curve, 
Put the parameter of the axis =p, and considering 
AD as a function of p, which isto be regarded as va- 
riable, put AD = q. 
3 


7... 
neous. 

Problems. 

—o 


Miwella- 
tio on 
—_—— 


a 


466 FLUXLONS. 


the theory of 
of the 

=px BC; 

“ge—=py, (1) 
From the first of these, . 

Se pps + py—qe=O0," > 
and taking the fluxions, considering x and y as con- 
se ee 


“fires aie i 
ape ; a os “eRe 
therefore 2 20; bat frem equation (2); taking the 
fuxions, eee and hence ga 
wid by the first equation 2 = 1—, therefore 
> atic and sub- 


stitating for g* its value dyphncte hy sa (2), we get 
qz=2ap; ce, and by 


A= ptt aa A cdned te 
we have these two 
earns (2); 


) boc ad 


2a prery Me 
paeneteen ~ ay’ 


42°? = (Sa? —4ay—2*) 2. 


Hence, 44 y = 4a* —x*, and this is the equation of 

the curve which is evidently a having 

‘common intersection of all the 'para- 

ae on hot 
rameter = 4a.) 00 / of) on Ee 


d = yydee eoyutit 3 
ee aryieey ) “ye -rdz=0, 


i constant quantity ; but besides 
Bie hat gulps satan ‘ 


—s=0, 
Son aichengh i edunic” an arbi Same praia a 
uation, 
peeps voit ithe eee The bounds 
within w ne to confine this treatise, have 
not allowed us to enter into this branch of the subject, 
pope although interesting, is Ly rs penceye - On 
this subject, see Euler, Instit, vol et 8 
cap. 4. ; = m, Mom, de dead . 1774; also, 
‘on, 5, 16, and 17; La- 
place, Mem, de l Acad. Par, 1772; dre, Mem. 
on. 1790; Poisson, Journal de ? Ecole Polytechnique 


5. to be 
given by position, and that the force of each is. reel 
procally as the nth power of the distance from it; it is 


to find a curve in any of which a needle 
Gade i _ , its direction; when at 


Hes 
iff 
ia 
ee 
: 


or rejected, it be- . 


iican ‘etd ‘Seonbtibeal 
curve, We are now to 


number of points in it may 

‘Let the CNS=— and CSN 8 
the are of the curve NC. It appears 
roula 6,) that the tangent of the angle ACN el 
=r, therefore its secant carne 
but the numerator Sa ete ee 


of, We 6 formula 2,) Piette. 4 rec. ACN = 


‘ sign in,positive, s eaninh ; Et, to 


gether:) we have therefore p*:q":: 


and pl :g"1::— de: dy; ‘bit teh NCS, 
scigoas eae road Aa orenanae! 
seistign eee hence we geen ay = 
Eriery =e =» nore ¢ 
an eae fe 


ie 
ah 


aid JSsin.gd Oto} tnsshihah se4 ‘ is exo 
or taking the fluents, ; CATIA 
WPS a4 cos. hia io 


ch enn a al gpa gina ie RP A Noe 


Se 


ORD 


Fig, 49. 


| Fly-Wheels, 
- Flying. 
ys onaha 


_FLUXIONS. 


of 


eivarde'D, with an intensity w. -is in the inverse. 
pc a clap ys gaa point from B: It is 
i anor to determine the a bait ap apne 


Let AB =a, AN=s, the space described t 
in a variable time ¢, Bis the vey which 
uires in the same time ; denote accelerating 
Bice,” whic it from N towards D, andm the: 
value of the force at some given distance, (an rt 
from thé point B: Dy oc eT oe Singtel ; 
or (t° =, therefore f= Again, let g des 


I eae a “ fore, whieh, act upon 
mov t from force F,, 
oe esr ao bite Fey asia Ben mpm Ke 
difference of these two forces, therefore F = f—g. 
From this , and the principles of Dynamics, 
(which see), we have these three equations i. 


F ras Fdvsvdv, dsSedt: 
en bythe Lelia eliminate any two of the fur 
re ae 
rch hie tal Ssbtiid Wr net vdv= ses ae, 
and hence, taking the fluents re 
5 = mlog. (a+s)—gs+4e: 


To determine c, it is to be observed that 
have v='0, and s= 0, hence c= — m log, a 
adjusted equation of the fluents is 


it ace! 


a formula which is 


‘ reed {eae CP) —2g eo 
“This equation. gives ip 


ag t has s described the space 
‘o determine time Trt aaak vobatiente foro tes 


Be Saas canter and then take the flu- 


ent, which however rand be found by approximation 
or infinite series. 

If we sw DB to be a cylindrical tube, open 
only at the upper end D, and A to be a piston, ‘which 
fits the tube iy, em and descends xeviseliy te 
pti tg (Oh the air in AB the lower: 
Bein a e compressed air to 

piston Ai go is ee ‘to be inversely as 
space it occupies, that is inversely as AB, and cao 
the same time the piston is urged downwards by the 
force of 4 AF we abstract from ston, the pis-» 


ton will two forces e 
mipposed the materia point inthe entation of the, 


We have another example Of thia kindof. motion:in 


467 


as we have, 


sid 


a bullet fired from a musket or cannon:, By the inflam. - 


mation of the arenes Vee the it filled i is sudden- 


ly occu by a i al gr ty of elastic vapour, 
Shel uten ga forces the Pallet along the tube : 


If we ninpoee,«== AD, the. distance from the mouth, 


of Fe SPR 18 
of the cannon, then 2! 


@ PAM MN Sae. 
wa be elocity with which the ball leaves it: We. 


may abstract from the resistance of the air eae 

t of the bullet, which alter this v very lit- 
pr, achrtn the pam ne baste ‘ey Aa 
is nothing: Therefore, making g= 0, we have 


raw f nba ()} 


to Gunnery. 
For other. of the icati 


FL Yy 
FLY-Warers See Mecuanics, a 1s 
_ FLYING, Artiercian. Mankind have a 
of the feathered tribes as an 
ve ascribed it to benge mae ere a 
ves, whose was courted or dreaded ra 
them ; and, after i 


and abilities of the human frame, that “to fly in the air” 
has universall pongo se one of those chimeri- 
cal + apresntee Hence 


ly as 
fancy.” Yet, on considering the nature of the 

in common with other fluids, the disposal — 

of matter of known specific gravity, and the applica- 


vicge hn Oe highest crane We 


Butso’ for a short time in the 
| its fins, fe 


oper” 
effect of the ‘ 
: Ein to levees eaatpe ee ‘ oe Bee 


sec Re asa to qi A species of 


ofcrelb Is ded with two broad membranes, connect-. 
ing the fore and hind li means of which it ace 
complishes leaps resem! lings ort flights. \ The nu- 
merous bats w inhabit » enjoy the pris, 
ow also en eg, 
is-a fish which ‘can leave the sea, ‘and ‘s 
_ by the * 


or two- 


win) insects; ne bd dala theapels le of support- 


ing the body. "The win 


of the motion of the: 


of fluxions to’ 
the theory of forces, see Dynamics, Sect. 5.. (&). i? 


sand ins, 


tself 


gs — are Pe ivaribly orms — 


Miscélla- 
neous 
Problems. 


which the move. ““Y~"” 


ers, bid od Flying. 


468 FLY 


Flying. @d 6 feathers, Jong and light, and in general tapering 


at: those of: insects consist, (in some, of a thin 
pd cent Cam substance, covered with scales, which 
fall off ina powder, or of a reticulated frame, or of thick 
horny plates con) with the thinnest membranes. 
Bat all these varieties perform ana functions, in 
enabling the animals to accomplish theif aérial navi, 
tions. Nevertheless, their mode\of ction, is pot alike, 
and great specific gravity"is overcome by the rapidity 
of percussion on the air." ‘Thus, the broad wings of the 
butterfly, slightly exerted, sustain it as if floating above, 
while the wings of the humble bee are in the quickest 
raotion daring its flight. There is also'a considerable va- 
riety in the structure of birds, ‘and in their powers of 
flying. Some, as the kite, the eagle, and the swallow, rise 
to an incredible height, while in,’ the ostrich, 
and the emu, are incapable of elevating themselves from 
the earth. The penguin is provided only with short fea- 
thered stumps ; the ontrich has wings which are never 

ed but to assist it in rurining ; and the texture 
of the whole — of the emu plainly evinces, that 
it is not formed for flight. ‘It is not a covering of fea- 
thers, therefore, that imparts the faculty of aérial trans- 
portation ; nor is it essential that wings should be com- 
posed of light substances. poe ns 

Mankind have considered it possible’ to attain this 

faculty by the aid of artificial wings ; and have always 
resorted to them, in history and fiction, as the primary 
mode of rising aloft in the air. It is an idea that has 
been equally indulged by the ancients and the moderns. 
Dedalus thought to effect his escape from Crete, by the 
close iniitation of nature, as pictured by Ovid. 


Fistula disparit 
Tum lino medias, et cevis alligat imag 


Atque ita compositas parvo curvamine flectit 
Ut veras imitentur aves. ‘Meramonrn. lib. 8. 


But the ancierits went farther than ‘the mere concep- 
tion of such efforts} for we are told that they constructed 
machines in the figure of animals, which could actually 
fly. At the same time it must be acknowl] , that this 
is rather reported from tradition, than described by spec- 
tators, asthe wooden pi of Archytas, which is alluded 
to by Aulus Gellius, in these words, “Sed id quod Archy- 


tam Pythagoreum commentum esse atque fecisse traditur : 
, arash ms erry pobipro has videri 
dat hana rique nobilium Gracorum et Favorinus 


us memoriarum_ velerum (eo ogy affir~ 
ips i e. ligno ab 


account is less specific than could be desired of so. sin= 

gular a contrivance ; and, although it has been imita- 

ted by the moderns, there is the same defective expla. 

nation, After Charles V. resi oe, va various 

expedients were invented to amuse his leisure hours : 

Sot tea Seay ame oe cco 
ySrtin red fo epc 


fly, which having left his hand, flew about, and.at 
length, as if weary, returned to its master, -me- 
chanics have been content with representing the me~ 


ING. 


tions of birds on the earth, but not in flight ; though ee ; 


this is less difficult than may be supposed, 
Bishop Wilkins considers, “ that there are four se- 
veral ways beet this fyi in 2% geteniey 
may be atternpted, two em 
cae things, and two of them by our own strength. 
L. By —_ or angels; 2. By the of fowls; 3. By 
wings fastened immediately to the botly; 4. By a flying 
chariot/” The first he rejects as not being founded on 
nataral and artificial grounds, and the we have 
seen realised in the modern invention of balloons ; the 
second has se wht ne tried, though the extreme 
docility of animals mi it apparent! ‘be an encourage. 
ae the third has excited : notice, and 
the ingenious have endeavoured to reduce it to prac- 
tice. “5 wey 7 iy Se 
The chief and principal obstacle has ‘been found in 
that law of nature, whereby bodies of greater 
gravity than the fluids wherein they are immersed sink 
in them ; but this proposition is liable to modification, 
partly resulting from i of the body and the 
motion of the fluid. observers cannot fail to 
have remarked, that towards autumn the dandelion, a 
common » is covered with a do substance, 
Pals tr prota Uae tf gute Ixeale & ee Nighy 
falls to the , but ina e, it rises hi 
peckrtect eh ef mtaih in the air, until 
it ‘from our sight. 25 minute inspec 
tion, this substance is vered to represent a para- 
chute in miniature; the head, is feathery, and at the 
Oh at cae i 
vi e atmosphere. The 
One we see floating around us, is of considerable 
specific gravity; and it is sin, ‘ that it is not those 
birds eae erty ose bins it, nor those of a 
least specific gravity, that > greatest distances. 
the feathery Ganecaee could be put in motion while 
the air is at rest; or if an analogous machine, very light, 
could strike the surrounding atmosphere by any means 
that could be devised, its rise and progressive motion 
would be certain. sasefl Yeu I 
Weread of attempts at artificial flying in various coun- 
tries and at different et but we sod left without 
information respecting the means em : it has been 
conjectured, > stores that most of ne performances 
resembled the descent of ‘mountebanks on ropes, from 
lofty places, secured by a or traveller, while 
the agitation of) wi _ to their shoulders 
broke the force. of fall. Such was the exploit 
of an ese who, at the carder haga teed 
VL d ed a ; compared to a i ’s cable 
stretched from the ents of St Paul's steeple 
to the ground, running on his breast as if it had been 
an arrow out of a bow.” Of the like description were 
the exhibitions, of a juggler on: a rope stretched from’ 
pg gear age an Edinburg’ 
ed w the cross in 1598. | But these feats of address 
had frequently a fatal termination ; as’ that of ‘another 
from the battlements of St Paul's in the 


4 


of Mary; and as -at Shrew: in the year 
1739, where one, who was no mount, having 
successfully performed several tricks on ‘a ‘rope 


a Tope ex- 
tended from the of St Mary’s: Seen oggdhe 
daient tnadinthe river, whe aenirind ie Was 


dashed to pieces by the fall: nett: poos. ret 
of old, exhibited in-these i 3° elsewhere, 


chigea ath repented alineldan Gouaaselayte divinities pro 


vided with wings, flying to meet soverei rinces on 
their triumphal entry into cities; bat dhe thode in-whidh 
this was accomplished ismot‘deseribed) 4 


h, and fasten" 


“oe 


rm atrial 


<a = 


FLYING. 


During the darker ages, when the possibility of 
ial transportation was ascribed to necromancers, 
Roger Bacon, a man of the most comprehensive genius, 
“pees of attaining it by wings attached to a ma- 
ine. In his singular work, De Mirabili potestate 
Ariis et Nature, he uses the following expressions. 


Possunt fieri instrumenta volandi, ut homo in me- 
dio instrumenti revolvens aliquod ingenium, per quod ala 
artificialiter composile aérem verberent ad modum avis 


volantis. That is, it is possible to make a flying ma- 
chine, so that a man sitting in the middle, can, by some 
expedient, produce a eae! | motion, which shall oc- 
casion the percussion of artificial wings on the air like 
the flight of a bird; and in another passage, he ob- 
seryes, “ that a flying machine has undoubtedly been 
made in our own time, not that I saw it, nor did I 
know any one who had done so, but I am acquainted 
with an intelligent person who has conceived such a 
contrivance.” Though the is not. void of ob- 
scurity, by combining it with the former, the author's 
meaning may be gained. Bacon lived in the thirteenth 

e .. Not far from, the same period, and in the 
su ing centuries, we are told of a certain monk, El- 
merus, who flew above a furlong from the top of a tower 
in Spain. Another flight was attempted from St Mark’s 
steeple in Venice, 5 gg gatdedpeacsd. and by 
means of a pair of wings, a person Dante of 
Perouse, was enabled ge but while amusing the 
city with his flight, he on the top of St Mary’s 
church and broke his thigh, The subject of aérial na- 
vigation received still attention in the seven- 
teenth century, as the works of Lana, Hook, and Wil- 
kins testify ; and contem with them, one Besnier, 
a locksmith of Sable in France, obtained considerable 
effect from the aid of four wings. In the only imper- 


fect description of them ed, they seem to have 
been four r ‘aces, one at the end of each 
of two rods over the shoulders of him who used 
them, and ior two connected by a cord to his 


ancles, The inventor did not pretend that he could 
rise fim fae earth cgsxa Roneett lang. in. the air, 
from inability to give his apparatus uisite power 
and rapidity ; but he progressively availed himself of 
its aid to leap from a window one storey high, next 
from the peuiy Pr oes a whereby 
he passed over the nei ing leaving an 
elevated position, he could he a river of pat i 
eadth, or.any similar obstacle,‘ His first pair of 
ings were purchased by M. Baladin of Guibre, who 
bm with success. This was recent i 


tury, Bartholomew Laurence de Guzman, a Portuguese, 
contrived ‘some fries, machine, partly formed with 


to us, Bat while one set. of 


been 
mechanics mae leah encouraged each other with 


echanical oppepttan.; . 
ing how _mueh ft dhreratied 


469 


earth without intermission; while a third only displays 
its wings occasionally, and is as if propelled by another 
agent when they open or close. Bishop Wilkins, that 
ingenious aie! ag whose works are too little studied 
at the present day, judiciously observes: ‘‘ We see a 
great difference betwixt the several quantities of such 
bodies as are commonly upheld by the air: not only 
little gnats and flies, but also the eagle and fowls of 
vaster magnitude.” Many insects, even, some in this 
country, exceed the diminutive size of the humming 
bird, which is but an eighth of an ounce in weight. It 
is almost constants on the wing, apparently sipping 
with its tender bill from the nectarium of the flowers. 
An enormous bird, the condor of South America, is 


calculated to be 8162 times heavier: “ What an ama-~ 


zing disproportion of weight!” exclaims a moder au- 
than ‘yet, by the same mechanical use of its wings, 
the condor can overcome the specific gravity of its 
body with as much ease as the little humming bird. 
But this is not all; we are informed that this immense 
bird possesses a power in its wings so far exceeding 
what is necessary for its own conyeyance through the 
air, that it can take up and fly away with a whole 


sheep in its talons, with as much ease as an eagle would 


carry off, in the same manner, a hare or a rabbit. This 
we may readily give credit to, from the known fact of 
our little kestril, and the a ge hawk, flying off with 

, which is nearly three times weight of 


: : 
either of these rapacious little birds.” A calculation is. 


next made of the combined weight of the condor and its 
rey, which amounts to 20,405 times the weight of the 
umming bird, to be borne through the air. Probably 
the ay nad would have found similar illustrations 
among the more rapacious, winged insects, whose wings 
are less adapted for it. But he with another 
comparison, to prove that the length of the wings of 
birds is not augmented in Peepousee to the increased 
weight of their bodies, whence he infers the possibility 
of cons ing a machine with which a man should be 
sm oy “The condor carries ten stone with 
wings of 12 feet expansion from tip to tip. The hum- 
ming bird carries one drachm with three inches ex- 
pansion; the common wren is three times as heavy as 
the humming bird, and has but one inch more of wing; 
a pigeon weighs 16 ounces, which is 256 times as 
heavy as it is, and has only ten times more expansion 
of wing; the goat-sucker is 40 times as heavy, and has 
seven times the length of wing. Therefore, as a man 
weighing ten stone, and a machine to bear him two, 
oy exceed the weight of the condor and its prey by 

one 


part, and as the wings of the condor are about. 


12 feet ; sup we make a pair of wings of silk, one 
fifth longer een they are, which will be poh fourteen 
and a half, I am thoroughly persuaded they will be 


found. amply sufficient, as they will far exceed the pro-. 


gressive increase of birds wings.” 


Authors, have even speculated on the fashion and’ 


substance of the wings, and in general have’ concluded 
that they should be us to those of birds. Bishop 
Wilkins, after observing if there be any such arti- 
ficial contrivances that can fly in the air, then it will 
clear} fallow, that it is possible also for a man to fly 
himself ; and he recommends the wings to be formed of 
feathers, like those employed by, Dedalus, or else of 
one mantenrapted substance like those of bats. ‘ But 
now because the arms.extended are but weak and easily 
wearied, therefore the motions by them are like to be 
but short and slow, answerable;.it may be, to the flight 
of such domestic fowl as are most conversant on the 
ground ; and therefore. much more would the arm of 


Flying. 


Wiyeng. 


470 


aman, as being not naturally designed to such a mo- 


—y~" tion. It were, therefore, worth the enquiry, to consider 


whether this might not be more probably effected by 
the laboor of the feet, which are naturally more strong 
and indefatigable. In which contrivance the wings 
should come down from the shoulders on each side, as 
in the other; but the — — them should be = 
the being thrust out an wn in again, one after 
poy so as each leg should move both wings, by 
which means a man should as it were walk or climb up 
into the air.” In all ae —_ s, however, the idea 
of Ayi exertin ani ers alone on wi 
has _ Suntenatl ; though Che utunost euuiibdiice ef 
its success continues still to be entertained, and, as we 
shall immediately see, it has actually been put in prac- 
tice. The close imitation of nature, also, under the mo- 
dification required by the difference of materials, is in- 
variably to be preserved. : 

Among the most recent authors on this subject, may 
be named Sir Cayley, who endeavours to 
shew that there is nothing adverse to the soundest 
reasoning in ing to overcome thedifficulties which 
men experience in elevating themselves in the air. 
He shews that flight is purely mechanical, for by a sim- 
ple experiment in disposin fo 
angles to each end of a sed, and presenting an oblique 
surface to the air, this apparatus will of itself rise, when 
a rotatory motion is produced by the relaxation of a 

ing untwining a cord connected with it, and encir- 
ching the rod “« The flight of a strong man by great 
muscular strength,” he o , “ though a curious 
and creme? J circumstance, in as much as it will pro- 
bably be the first means of ascertaining this power, and 
supplying the basis whereon to improve it, would be of 
little use. I feel perfectly confident, However, thet thisno- 
ble art will soon be brought home to man’s general con- 
venience; and that we shall be able to transport our- 
selves and families, and their and chattels, more 
securely by air than by water, and with a velocity of 
from 20 to 100 miles per hour.” Bishop Wilkins, in- 
deed, was long ago so confident of success, that he an- 
tici the period when a person should as readily call 
for his wings to make weeny, as he then did for his 
boots and his horse. Sir George Cayley continues : 
“ To produce this effect, it is only necessary to have a 
first mover, which will more power in a given 
time, in Sha re to its weight, than the ani 8- 
tem of mu ” He seems to infer, that he has made 
experiments on a considerable scale; but we are not 
acquainted with their nature or result ; and we are pre- 
cluded from discussing his theories, by the necessity of 
referring to what seems moré decidedly practical. 

Just about the same time, Mr Walker of Hull, whose 
sentiments we have already quoted, directly proposes a 
machine whereby flying shall be accomplished ; and he 
maintains that he is the first person who has discovered 
the real theory of the flight of birds. “On corisidering 
the ae pers wee - ae that by means of 
a pair of wings a tail duly expanded in a ectly 
passive state, and aloft in the air, without any Peni 
metion, a bird procures a suspendin, wer, which 
counteracts the specific gravity of its , and pre- 
vents its being precipitated to the stone. But this 
is assuming too much ; for it is , that 
‘ ent mitment a oy of the win, 
in tly suspended motionless in the air, 
they would fal tothe earth without it. With respect 
to quill-feathers, which are here the prime : 
he observes, that, as they were intended to swim in a 
Suid so light and subtile as the air, it was necessary 


ur quill-feathers at right - 


u 
" ascen: 


‘tally e 


feet long, 
ee ee iad rete, what bated 


agents, ‘mit the passage 


FLYING. 


they should consist of the lightest materials imagina« 
ble. that being intended Pret upon the air with 
Srould poser tau ‘etrcngth wich lastly: oT 
should possess mu w 
was expedient, too, that the quill-feathers 
and open, to let the upper air pass through 
to facilitate their ascent when 
wards. It Mage _ that 

close together, formin, wing into a complete sur- 
face of ab, when they are by the rouscular power 
the bird forced down, in order to give a more 
hold upon the air below, and by their means 


bird up, Now, if we do but examine the quill-feathers, _ 


we shall as ay beng apgecro | 
elasticity, and vi ittle ific 

webs = broadet ‘oh one side the ak 
other, which causes them to o 
up, and to mgt as they come 2 
the pu ave ly i 
poh er ba ee gener 
tive state, it appears that flight is attained from the 
sistance of the air or percussion. ‘ When a bird, 
the power of its pectoral and deltoid 


into action, and strikes them 
periecty vertical direction upon the air below, that air, 


dws in 8 


re- 


pressed by the stroke, makes a resistance by 
Ine 


its elastic power against the under side of the 


ion to the rapidi 


of the stroke and the ¢ 7 


sions of the wings, and forces the bird upwards: at the © 


same time, the back edges of the wings 
weak and elastic than the fore edges, they 


the resisting power of the com air 
upwards 4 at: the same sak aaee acting 
them with its elastic power, and 


being 


edges, 
thereby causes 
jectile force which impels the bird forward. 
we see that by one act of the wi 
both buoyancy and S i t 
ced upwards, and the wings are in action, 
a and forced downwards, it consequen' 


scends. But the most im’ t use of the tail 


more — 
rushes 


; 


mn. "When the tail fs for : 
bird 
de- 


is to” 


support the posterior bh i of the bird, and to prevent : 


the vacillation of the whole. 
Fortified by these principles, Mr 

an a 

flying shall be attained ; and this is to consist of a case 


Walker proposes 
whereby, from the action of wings, © 


formed of light materials, provided with wings of the ~ 
requisite dimensions, to be put in action by a man sit- — 


ting, and as if rowing a The wings are recom- 

mended to be each about eight feet long when 
ded ; and fastened upon the top edge « 

car, with twa joints each, so as to admit a vertical 

ties saa al iatlied as aii SS ae 

man sitting and working an upright lever in 

of the car. A tail of seven or eight 


f 
z 


FB 
Fe 


to the 


der of the car, and spread out flat 
inthe same manner as we see the tail of 
siderable “ie Be porghn id to the structure of 

wings an , @ point never escaped 
torsthis thie euler; and Mr Walker p that 
ee doe: vids consist of six slips 
e, , und tapering to a point ; wra 
ee gin eee 

twine, an with cork along : : 
‘next to be covered with silk very compactly w 
and as impervious to the air as possible. This 

aie Ge fo SSpaesie CS ema 
of the air as ‘the wings move w 


come down, 
-feathers in 


‘i 


7 an we ny 


fn 
ae 


a = 


a 
s 
& 


i 


7 


s 


‘close together again as 
the same manner as the 


Es 


é 
a5 


BF 


> 


E 


; 


471 FOC 


‘a watchmaker of Vienna; actually realised the views of Flying 
the numerous projectors who preceded him, regardin A 


FLY 


+ et wowee fying squirrels, bats, butterfies, fying fish, the flight of men in theair, We regret that we can- Pochsbers 
&e, with wings formed of compact mem! sail fly. not present a description of his machine in detail ; but 


and ion. 
pb reaped 


regions, In soiging operation, he particularly di- 


action of the air 
wi « the air is struck by the wings, 


ashen Sor dwtstmgt oy.A Se ag caused, 

pansive power air acting a resisting 
fore aginst the back edges of the wings, to glide for 
ward in a right line.” We shall abstain from follow- 


2 
| 


than 60 miles in 15 minutes. 
It appears, that in the year 1808 or 1809, Mr Degen, 


in. river § 


it seems constructed on philosophical principles, and to 
operate in a manner analogous to. the wings of birds, 
while the effect partly resembles the closing of a para- 
.chute stationary on its descent. A frame is made, prin- 
cipally consisting of rods of some strong but light ma- 
terials, on which the adventurer stands in‘an. erect pos- 
ture. A heart-shaped wing, nine feet long, eight. broad 
at the swell, and terminating in a ‘point, proceeds from 
that part of the frame close to each shoulder ; and a 
fan-shaped tail, apparently connected with both wings, 
proceeds from d as far as their swell, » Each wing 
is concave like a parachute, and, by a series of cords 


~ from the extremity of the different. ribs, composing it,. 


can be suddenly contracted, so as to.give percussion 
agnipnt the air, and consequently by its resistance pro- 
uce elevation. It is not sufficiently explained how the 
i ph pe marae i ein aliges ed ; but Jhirto bene 
ferred, is is done by elevating, depressing, or re- 
volving a crank, connected. at each extremity. with the 
series of cords, which display or contract. the wings. 
M. is said to have mounted high in the air by 
the aid of his machine, and. to have exhibited a flight 
resembling that of a bird, not consisting merely in. as- 
cent or descent, but in real aérial navigation. | ~ 
We are hence entitled to conclude, that the elevation 
of man in the atmosphere by artificial wings, is not be- 
ond the bounds of possibility. Without indulging in 
fanciful theories, could it be reduced to practice, it-as- 
suredly would not be void of utility. @ reason why 


the invention of balloons has not hitherto been emment- ~ 


ly beneficial, arises from their unwieldy size,..which is 
an obstable. slinest ineupesile 9. gwcing. Utare.apd 
which leaves them at the mercy of the winds. 
be otherwise on the employment of wings, for a nar 
rower proportion could eserved between an oar.or 
a rudder, of whatever kind or description, and. the to- 
tal volume of the machine, than between the same im- 
plements and an inflated balloon. | Birds, however, 
present some physical A ised which man can ne- 
ver to imitate : ir muscular powers, their cor- 
poreal structure, and above all, their mode iration, 
are of a different nature from what.is witnessed among 
terrestrial somals,,, Hieneedt Fare pen ol stat she 
highest perfection of artifici t wo! a 
distant approach to the adptiaite prerogative which 
has been conferred on the feathered tribes. See Aulus 
Gellius, lib. x. cap. 12. Journal des Savans, 1678, 
p. 235, , Wilkin’s Mathematical Magic... Arch ia, 
We agp Grenie. vol. 1ii. ap pai Wal. 
s Treatise on. Artificial Flyi Si rge Cay- 
ley on Aérial Navigation, in Nicheloon's Somer mn 
xxiv. Annales des Arts et Manufactures, tom. .xxxi, 
Huber, Sur le Vol des oiseaux de proie,.. (c) 
FO. See Cuina, vol. vi. p. 243. 
FO-PEE. See Cuina, a vi. p. 219% rt 
FOCHABERS, is the name of a small town. in the, 
cone FORA, situated on the right bank of the 
pey, a few miles above its mouth, The town 
stands on a eae ground above the river, and consists 
of a square with streets entering it at, right angles. 
The houses are neat and well t, and the church, 
situated on the south side ics aA ae handsome 
building. A very large and elegant bridge, built of free. 
stone, md consisting of four eae i was latel 
thrown over the Spey at this town. The two middle 
arches have a span of 95 feet, and the other, two a span 


It might- 


is 568 feet. In the middle of the 
the building is an old tower 
in the 10th or 11th cen The 
is —_— — and if the A 
thriving state. An Account o, N= 
2 Provines of Moray. (j) 
Asrnronomy, Conic Sections, and 


tiquittes, 
FOCUS. See 
Optics. 
FOG. See Merronotocy. : 
FOGGIA, a town of Naples, in the province of Ca- 
pitanata. In ence of the destruction of the old 
town by an uake in 1732, the present town was 
built with great regularity and neatness. The houses 
are well built with white stone, and the streets are 
The granaries, in which the corn is preserved, 
are built beneath the streets and squares ; 
ithi with stone, and the orifices closed 
with earth and stones. On account of the insalubrity 
of the climate, the town is in a great measure deserted 
in summer, but in winter it is supposed to contain 
about 20,000 inhabitants. ( 2 
FOLKSTONE, the Lapis Populi of the Romans, and 
the Folcestane of the Saxons, is a town of Eng- 


land in the county of Kent, It is situated on unequal © 


ground near the sea, and consists of three i 
streets, built chiefl SS atyeed, te peiecioall 4 
houses, many of which are good, are principally t 
of brick: The church, which stands directly on the 
cliff above the town, is dedicated to St Mary and St 
Eauswith. Ee ee annnton ualaamiaee 
tower rising from erent phn 
Frosh Which epeing: pemnted arc es, with lain 


large piers, 
mouldings. The market-house has been recently built 
at the of the Earl of Radnor. A free school 


was founded here in 1674, for 20 poor children. The 
Baptists, Quakers, and Methodists, have each a meet- 
ing-house in the town. There is also a custom-house 

Ks oto enjors mete good came wie isn 
F joys a coasting ,and shij d- 
ing is carried on here to a considerable extent. é in- 
i are, however, Sr ed in fish- 

an 


ing. ak is of : nara’ jan ae 
mackerel, herrings, soles, whi' , conger eels, ice, 
cipally by The ~ "was aml, = ed pine 
eipally by jetties ; but it recently much im- 
proved. Before the town there is 1 anchorage, 


with eight or ten fathoms of water. Folkstone is a 
member of the cinque ports, and is governed by a 
mayor, 12 jurats, and 24 common councilmen, '&c. 
This town was formerly very large, containing 5 pa- 
rish-churches ; but the part of it has been car- 
ried off by the sea. About a mile and a half to the 
north of Folkstone, on the top of a high hill, is an an- 
cient camp, corm ing nearly two acres. The 
small of Sandgate, is about a mile and’ 
a‘half west of Fol eA martello tower lias’ 
been erected in the centre of the castle of Sandgate ; 
and at Shorn Cliffe, on the hill above Sandgate, an ex- 
tensive range of barracks has been recently built, In 
the year 1511, there were in the town of Folkstone, 


Inhabited houses ..........5. 765 
"GIRS eae ay 841 
Do. employed in agriculture ..... 23 

BE Se ais oes se OR 157 


FONDI. See Funor. : 

FONTAINEBLEAU is a town of France, in the 
—— of the Seine and Marne. It is beau- 
tifully situated in the forest of the same name, and 
consists of a princi i ‘al smaller o 
Fontainebleau is chiefly celebrated for its royal 
which is built at the south end of the towr 


i 
= 
a 
qine 


four distinct chateaus, each of which has a garden, 


contains no fewer than about 900 its, most 
which are fitted up in the host ipl 


Pope was 
I odes i 
abdicated the throne 


8 


fos 
e 
? 


woe 
aes 


in which Ponape 
> of France ; and | 
t before he set off for 
ai a6 x3 : 
? ese, 

cae Haart 
” foc beta 
. had not received 
ye since the revolution. The theatre is re 
. ibly e bai adorn th Bde aod geil 

° middle 


ad 


a 


forest of Fontainebleau is almost round, 
tains about 25,000 acres. It covers several small 
and plains, and the surface of these hills is covered with 

thrown there accident. Many 
Re se 


talent for until his twenty-second year ; at which 

TARAS ACCOM BUWEEY GFE i bo have besa Kinled 

the perusal of some of the odes of Malesherbes. His 
first essays he was in the habit of submitting to the 
judgment of a relation of his own, who encouraged him 
to proceed, : uently used to read with him Quin- 
ie ta an é- best ron oars yk on- 
taine also endeavoured to improve his genius, by an ac- 

aintance with the Frerichi“aiid ‘Ttalian writers ; ana, 
uthors, he 


n the works of the most eminent Greeks author 


drew many of those fine moral oa 
among his 


which he has inte ples. 

A desire of enjoying the conversation of men of let- 
ters induced him to remove to Paris, where the inten- 
dant, Fouquet, soon procured him a pension. He was 
afterwards appointed gentleman to the Queen Henrietta 
of England ; but the corte Oe of that unfo: 
princess put an end to all his hopes of court 


maxims, 


t. 


—_— 


ao tee 


‘Fontaine 


* oi 
—_—— 


FON 


Some time after that event, the generous and witty 
Madame de la Sabliere invited him to reside in her 
house, offering to provide him with an apartment and 
all necessaries. The invitation was accepted ; and he 
soon became so domesticated in his mp paniinens that 

» having once in a pet away er ser 
ea enes that she had an only her three ani- 
mals,—her dog, her cat, and La Fontaine., é‘ 
_ La Fontaine does not sppent to have any 
share of that lively sensibility, which has generally been 
considered as characteristic of the poetic tribe ; on the 


‘contrary, he seems to have been gifted with a very ex- 


traordinary d of apathy and indifference. Ir his 
conduct and behaviour, he was plain, artless, easy, open, 
and credulous ; he displayed no envy or ambition; he 
never took umbrage at any thing that was said or done ; 
and he lived long in habits of the most cordial intimacy 
with the most celebrated wits of Paris, He made no 

in company, but frequently exposed himself to 
icule, in consequence of his awkwardness ani ab- 
sence of mind. 

Upon the death of Madame de la Sabliere, with whom 
he had lived upwards of twenty years, he is said to have 
received very flattering invitations from several of the 
English nobility ; ut he was induced to decline them, 
in consequence of the liberality of the Duke of Bur- 
gundy, and the emulation excited'among his own coun- 
trymen byithe generous invitation of the English lords. 
“Although far from being either an infidel or a liber- 
tine, La Fontaine had lived in extreme carelessness 
with regard to religious concerns. However, when in 
1692 he was seized with a dangerous illness, the priest 
who attended him is said to have prevailed upon him 
to ress a ie piece, which was just going to 
be offered for representation, and to make a solemn 
apology, or palinode, in presence of a deputation of the 
members of the academy, for the publication of his 
tales. The singularity of his appearance and habits 
was such as to pass for stupidity among the vulgar, or 
with those who were not intimately acquainted with 
his character; The nurse, who attended him during 
his illness, observing the fervour of the priest in his 
exhortations to the sick man, exclaimed: “ Ah! my 


good Sir, don’t e him so ; he is rather stupid than 
wicked." He died at Paris in the year 1695. 
- La Fontaine is ly accounted one of the most 


original writers of France. His fables are esteemed as 
jae rye in that species of composition, and stand 
unrivalled by any writer of his own, or of any other 
« Ingenious thoughts are there unfolded with 
clearness and simplicity, clothed in 
at once easy and graceful, and adorned with t 
charms of a brilliant versification, while the most pro- 
found moral maxims and reflections are delivered in a 
style divested of tism, and seem to arise natu- 
rally and | t effort, out of the narrative. 
is tales, which are borrowed for the most part 
from the Italian novelists and romance writers, are 
nrg eps rid and vivacity ; but ae to 4 
regretted, that the subjects in are such as ad- 
mit of no moral application ; ead wie no art can di. 
Vest of a colouring offensive to delicacy. (z) 
_ FONTARABIA, or Fuenta Rabia in ish, and 
ri rapidus in Latin, is a town of Spain in the dis- 
trict of Guipiscoa. It was formerly called Ooaso.. It 
is situated in a small peninsula on the sea coast, on the 
left bank of the Bidassoa, and the town is built in the 
form of an amphitheatre, on a hill, which looks to the 
sea, on the south angle of the Gulf of Gascony, It is 


well fortified both by nature and art, being defended 
VOL. IX, PART IL. 


473 


_borde's View of Spnin, vol. ii, p. 349. 


FON 


by a strong fortress towards the sea, and on the land Fomtencile. 
side by the high mountains of Jasquevel. The har. “"\-——" 


bour would be good were it not left dry by the tide. 
Its position, according to trigonometrical observations, is, 
West Long, 1° 47’ 15", North Lat. 48° 21’ 36’. See La. 
(j 

' FONTENELLE, Bernanv ue rice De, a 
French author of considerable celebrity, was born at 
Rouen, in the month of February 1657, His mother 
was a sister of the famous Corneille; from whom he 
may be sup; to have inherited some portion of that 
literary genius for which he was distinguished. 

Fontenelle acquired the rudiments of learning at the 
school of the Jesuits at Rouen ; and at the age of thir~ 
teen, he produced a successful Latin prize-poem on the 
subject of the immaculate conception. At fifteen, he 
had completed his course of studies, His father in- 
tended that he should embrace the profession of the 
law, which he himself had prosecuted with success ; 
and Fontenelle actually pleaded a cause before the par- 
liament of Rouen. But the discipline and habits of the 
legal profession were not congenial with his easy and 
indolent disposition ; he resolved, therefore, to abandon 
these pursuits, and to devote himself entirely to litera. 
tare. With this view, he accompanied his uncle, Tho- 
mas Corneille, to Paris; and commenced his literary 
career by the production of a tragedy, which, however, 
was unsuccessful upon the stage. But he bore the dis- 
appointment without murmuring; and undismayed at 
the result of his first attempt, he turned his attention 
towards other subjects, in which he was better quali- 
fied to excel, 

The first preduction which contributed to bring him 
into notice as an author, was his Dialogues of the Dead; 
which, although written in an affected style, and ob- 
jectionable in many respects, acquired considerable po- 
pularity. His Letters of the: Chevalier d'Her**® are 
much inferior to those of Voiture, and might have been 
suppressed without any injury to his reputation ; in. 
deed, he never expressly avowed himself the author of 
these letters. In his Lelogues he departed from the 
peculiar style and character of that species of writing, 
and introduced ingenious thoughts and fine allusions, 
remote from the simplicity of pastoral life, 

The two works of Fontenelle which contributed most 
to establish the prputation of his literary character were, _ 
his Plurality of Worlds, and his treatise on Oracles. 
The A of both of these treatises was bor- 
rowed; but his luminous and methodical genius gave 
clearness to subjects that were previously involved in 
obscurity ; while the graces of his style, sometimes per~ 
haps a little too brilliant and flowery, rendered the 
principles of the abstract sciences acceptable to general 
readers, by bringing them down to the eygl of ordinary 
understandings, 

Fontenelle. a epi to have had a great desire to dis. 
tinguish himself as a writer for the stage ; and after ha- 
ving failed to obtain the success he expected from his 
tragedy, he attempted the composition of operas; but 
of all his dramatic productions, the opera of Peleus and 
Thetis, which was first represented in 1689, is the only 
one which had merit sufficient to preserveit from oblivion. 

While yet a young man, he took an active part in 
the'eontroversy which then agitated the literary world, 
respecting the comparative merit of the ancients and 
the moderns. Fontenelle declared himself an advo- 
cate for the latter; and his conduct in this dispute is 
thought to have proved an obstacle, for some time, to 
his admission into the Academy,—an honour which he 
at length obtained.in the year 169), During a pes 

So 


Teowmie riod of nearly 66 years, he contributed to su 


VF oxfarvhire. 
—— yy bit moral conduct, 
character. 


rOR 


i 
2 F 


lustrious body, by the 

and the splendour of his 
He was also admitted a member 
Academy of Sciences in 1697; and two years 
wards, when the constitution ‘of that learned 
underwent some change, he was clothed with 
», and became one of its 


celebrity of that 


bal 


2 
F 
: 
abe 
&8 E 


| 


re 
=F 


| 
| 


ided every kind of bodily and mental 
fatigue ; abstained from every sort of diversion that 


FOOT. See Mzasunes. 
FORCES. See Dynamics and Mecnanics. 
FORESTAFF, the name of a clumsy instrument 
a. exploded, for taking the altitudes of the hea- 
ly at sea. 
FORFAR-Suire, one of the maritime counties of 
1. Natural History—The county of Forfar, known 
also by the name of Angus, is situated on the east coast 
of Scotland, immediately to the north of the estuary of 
the Tay, between 56° 27' and 56° 59’ of North Latitude, 
and between 6° 14’ west, and 0° 46 east of the meridian 
of Edi It is bounded on the south-west and 
west by the county of Perth ; on the north-west by Aber- 
deenshire ; on the north-east by Kincardineshire ; on the 
south-east by the German Ocean, and on the south by 
the Frith of Tay. The line by which it is divided from 
Perthshire is very uneven, and extends from Kingudie, 
to the westward of Dundee, in a northerly direction to 
the source of the Isla, The division between this coun- 
ty and Aberdeenshire is chiefly marked by the Water 
shed ; the containing rivulets running northward 
to the Dee belonging to the latter, and the ground with 
rivulets running southward into the Esk or the Isla to 
the former. North Esk divides the lower pet of 
the shire from Kincardine. It contains 977.97 English 
we —apeancapmectenats Scottish acres, 
is county, possessing both maritime; inland, and 
Sp near mera variety of aspect and climate. 
igh grounds, among the Grampian mauntains, 
where the snow is seldom Jong absent.even in the sum- 
mer months, the air is cold and piercing. In the inland 


474 


FOR 

districts, the climate is mild and genial; and 
might be said of the places along the coast, 
not occasionally visited with easterly breezes, previously 
chilled by the cold of Scandinavia. Several registers 
the have been kept in rrp uaa 
county, in which the quantity of rain, and the, state of 
the barometer and thermometer have been recorded with 


accuracy. One of these s ‘at Belmont, in 
Strathmore, twelve miles north-west aha ar 
two miles distant from any eminence, indicated - 
lowing quantities of rain, in inches and decimals, during 
six years. “tah 1 
In the year 1790 sta) 5775 

1791 87.1 

1792 38.4 

1793 39.5 

1794 39. di 


1795 pein 
During the three first years of the preceding period, 
the following appears to have been the state of the baroe 


Mean height of the barom. in the year 1790 29.59. 
1791 29.61 
1792 29.59. 
Mean height of Fahrenheit’s thermom. 1790 41° 
5 1791 42 
1792 42 
Another register kept at the Crescent, half a mile west 


Inches. 
1790 Rain 22.27 Thermometer 51°. 
1791 24.8 48.5 
1792 34,12 48, 
1798 28.18 49. 
1794 30,44 52. 
1795 Ga 29. avs 46. 
Althou are many springs in , none 
of them i be considered a2 enna vatn either for the 
quantity of water which they discharge, or the mineral 
substances which they hold in solution. A few springs 
of the chalybeate kind are resorted to by labours 
ing under oo arising from debility « bith oe rf 
digestion. principal springs are, one in the 
bourhood of Montrose ; another at Wormy hills, one 
south-west of Aberbrothick ; and a third at Dumbarrow, 
in the parish of Dunichen. oF be" 
Formerly there were few in which lakes did 


not exist; now the number of these is greatly reduced. 
A few have been drained ahhinas tevingg oe Sees + 
of the arable ground ; greatest number, 
containing fine shell-marl at the bottom, have been drain« 
ed, in order to obtain that valuable manure. The lake 
called Lentrathen loch, situated amidst the Grampians, 
and in the neighbourhood of most magnificent scenery, 
is nearly of a circular form, about a mile in diameter, 
and yields to the botanist several rare plants, 
another of the Grampian lakes, is about a mile in 
and a quarter of a mile in breadth, In the 1 
parts of the county, we meet with the lakes of F. 
and Roscobie; and among the Sidlaw hills, those of 
die, Balshardy, and Pittendreich. These are well 
with trout, pike, perch, and eel. : 
The eee) rivers in this county, or qwalers as 
are provincially termed, are, 1. The North Esk. 
river takes its rise from Lochlee, whose wa’ 
plied by many small streams, which flow 


5 


i 


rr) B 
E| 
dz 
inal inane 


BE 


: 


—<——» ., §™=-.—_— 


Lakes. 


rw 


Forfarshire. houring mountains. It descends from the high grounds 

_ “-_~— with considerable rapidity, and, after having been joined 

: y several small streams, as the Mark, the Tarf, the 

i“ ‘est Water, and the water of Cruick, it empties itself 

; into the German Ocean, about three miles north-east of 

Montrose. 2. prints orarr wicca ree ade 

- mall Jake arising among the Grampians, fed by the moun- 

: Pceveuntive Gore Descending from the Grampians, 
“ 


by Brechin, empties itself into the basin at Montrose. 


these, an almost uninterrupted continuity. 
does not greatly exceed 1000 feet in height 
Tay. . It traverses the whole extent of the county from 


EERE 
ipie 
u 
3 
ap 
! 
iy 
ge< 8 
fifa 


i 
: 


HT 
i 
| 
E 
i 
Eee 


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Es 
( 

t 

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i 


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= oe 
‘BEF 


£ 
? 


FORFARSHIRE. 


475: 

very prevalent rock in this district. It rests upon: the Forfarshive. 
granite, and is fine-grained, compact in its texture, and 7 \o~ 
usually of a grey colour. It contains in several places ”"* 5" 
beds of hornblende rock. . Mica slate is by far the most 

abundant rock. The mica which it contains is termed’ 

sheep's siller. It seldom contains garnets. Granular 
limestone is by no means of rare occurrence; and were 

the Highlanders disposed to burn it, they would soon 

improve their pastures. Peat is at hand, and. answers 
well as fuel for the purpose. Clay slate occurs in the 

less elevated districts ; but in these strata no good beds 

of roof slate have as yet been discovered, owing probably - 

to want of skill and industry. These primitive rocks 

are traversed by veins of porphyry, consisting of a basis 

of compact felspar, with crystals of felspar, and grains of 

quartz, These veins are from 8 to 10 feet in breadth, 

and although occurring at considerable distance from-one 

another, yet they all observe the same direction. They 

stretch nearly from south to north. Lead glance has al- 

so been found in veins among these rocks. It was for- 

merly wrought to a considerable extent near the old cas- 

tle or Innermark, and yielded a sixty-fourth part of silver. 

In descending from the Grampians towards the valley of Transition - 
Strathmore, the transition rocks make their appearance. rocks. 
They consist of grey wacke slale, in which the shistose 
character is more or less distinct, and the imbedded 
grains of quartz more or less numerous. In this slate 
numerous elliptical masses of jasper occur, in some ca- 
ses extending to 30 feet in length, and 10 in breadth. - 
The slate likewise contains nests of slate spar. Compact 

occurs in beds of considerable magnitude, of a 
reddish brown colour, and a conchoidal fracture. Seve« 
ral varieties of trap‘ rocks also present themselves, under 
the forms of e and basalt. Limestone also oc= 
curs of a darker colour, of a less crystalline structure than 
the primitive limestones, and:is much traversed by veins 
of quartz and limespar. The-older members of this for- 
mation alternate with the newer portions of the primitive 
class, and constitute the fundamental rock of the flotz 
class, which we are now to consider. 

The fleetz rocks of this district, although they present Flat: 

variety of composition, may all be referred to the tocks. 

old red sandstone formation of Werner, as red sandstone 
isthe prevailing rock. The red sandstone-is, in some cases, 
fine grained, and answers for architectural purposes ; 
and, in other instances, it passes into loney or 2 
rock’ composed of water-worn pieces of the more an- 
cient strata, imbedded in a basis of sandstone, or ferru< 
ginous clay. The sandstone is frequently in the form of 
slates, or flags, and is much used for the roofing of 
houses and pavement. Limestone is likewise common in 
this district, and in several places is quarried, and burnt 
fer economical purposes, It is commonly in the form of 
limestone conglomerate, a condition which appears pecu= 
liar to the limestones of the old red sandstone formation. 
Besides these rocks, there are extensive beds of trap, 
provincially termed scurdie, under the form of green- 
stone, basalt, amygdaloid, wacce, clinkstone, felspar, and 
porphyry. These rocks are traversed by veins of lime- 
spar heavy spar, and frequently contain traces of 

ores, ‘These floetz rocks rest. upon those of the 
transition class ; and, at their southern extremity in Fife, 
support the strata of the coal formation. 

The alluvial strata, as may-be expected from. the va- Alluvial 
riety of surface, very different in appearance and strata. 
composition. On the summit of the Grampians, there is ~ 
either a light gravelly soil formed from the decay of the 
primitive rocks, or the moisture of the air in those ele- 


476 


Verfarbire vated regions has #0 far aided the growth of the tribe of 


—y—" nlants termed Musei, that extensive strata of 


Botany. 


moss 
have been formed even on the summit of the highest hills. 
This substance is likewise ‘common in the inferior dis- 
triets, in those places where lakes have formerly existed. 
As an article of fucl, in a country where there is no coal, 
it is of first-rate importance. Marl, principally of the 
kind termed shell marl, is very common in Angus. It 
is found in beds under peat moss in old lakes, and is ex- 
tensively employed as a manure. When daid on grass 
ground, it promotes the growth of clover, rye grass, and 
other nourishing plants; but when employed as a ma- 
nure for. raising grain, it is found to thicken the husk, 
of oats in particular, in a remarkable degree. The shells 
in the marl, are those which are still to be found in plen- 


aa 


are light, gravelly, and of a red colour. 


no county in Britain, where plants 
have been investigated with such laborious industry, and 
success, as the county of Forfar. It was the 
birth-place, and latterly the permanent residence, of the 
late Mr George Don, whose knowledge of the localities 
and habits of the plants of Scotland, and of Forfarshire 
in particular, was never equalled, and who added more 
new species to the British Flora than any of his botani- 
cal predecessors or survivors. From his list of the na- 
tive plants of Forfarshire, published along with the 
agricultural survey, where a scientific botanist will find 
a storehouse of facts, we extract the following obser- 
vations. On the mountains of Clova, the botanist will 
find a rich harvest of the rarest kinds of alpine plants ; 


the Sazifraga ifida, Ranunculus alpestris, Eriopho- 
rum gracile, nd ongpe.seant Hieracium divaricatum, and 
Potentilla Among the cryptogamous plants, he 
will find the Grimmia Donniana, (named after Mr Don, 


crista-castrensis, Riccia fruticulosa, and Jungermannia 
sealaris. On the sea shore, he will meet with the Ely« 
selum vari 5 

The zoology of Forfarshire presents fewer varieties 
than its botany. Mr Don has given along with his list of 
plants, a list of the animals of Forfarshire, which is re- 


was vague and inaccurate. Among the quadrupeds, we 
may mention jd, 9 to prove, that it extends far- 
i than Mr Pennant was aware of, 
for he restricted its northern limits to the river Tay. 
Among the birds, we may number the dottrel, (Cha- 
radrius morinellus,) which visits the f of the 
Grampians about the beginning of April, and continues 
about three weeks, before going to the fy ttre ge 
breed. It returns about the beginning of pimp ome 
after resting again for three weeks, it retires to the south, 
Sieeecde ee ee > 
Among the mollusea, we may notice the Unio mar« 
garitifera, or pearl-bearing mussel, as being found in the 
alpine rivers ; and in the rocks on the shore, the Mya 
suborbicularis, The sands of Barrie furnish the Echinus 
pusillus ; and the sea tathe adhering to the lobster cages, 


FORFARSHIRE. Bi: 


= 


7 


will yield the student-of ature the Sertularia li | Forfarshires 
trum and dumosa. Mie in 
2. Civil History.—In ancient times, this county was uni- History 


ted with the Mearns, and'seems to havereceived the name 
of Herestia from Tacitus, in consequence of the moun- 
tainous aspect of its northern boundaries, It was, , . 
disjoined from the Mearns by Kenneth II. about! 
year 838, and bestowed upon his brother A2neas ; and 
from this circumstance, it was termed Angus. . But as 
Forfar is the town, it is now more 

known by the name of Forfarshire. It is at present 
vided into fifty-six parishes, distributed into five ] 

teries, which meet at Forfar, Dundee, Brechin, 
and Aberbrothick. These five i 
with the presbytery of Fordun, constitute the: 


Tos cucmeepapath here held by chaf- 
je greatest part estates are : 
ter from the crown, and are termed freehold. In so Past 
cases, the property holds of some ietor or 

tion, and in this case the granter of - 
Pak wisi of the lands the vassal or 


3 
: 
i 
H 


Mr Headrick could obtain, it appears that in 1808, the 
gross rent of lands, woods, quarries, &c. in ‘the 
county, and including farms in the occupancy of 
proprietors at a reasonable valuation, amounted to » 
£208,924 15 3 
Estimated value of house rents . . 95,872 0 6 
5 wy Se , 
Total rent from fixed « + £304,796 15 9 


property 
The number of freeholders at present on the roll, Freehol- 
we olaneniie There are five royal borc — 
ORFAR, £, ABERBROTHICK, 4 
Brecuin. (Sce these articles.) Before the Union, 
sent one or more commissioners, ing to its 
dee have been united with Perth, Cupar in Fife, and St 
Andrew's, in choosing a tative ; while Aberbro- 
thick, Montrose, and f ; to Invers - 


where only four are j 
The population 
24,087 families, containing 45,461 
females, making a total number of 99,127 souls. “In the 
year 1811, the had ine 8451; and at 
that period amounted to 107,578. The cause of the ex« 
cess of females in the preceding enumeration, must be 
sought for in the numbers of young men who enter the 


. a 


FORFARSHIRE.. 


taking into account the numbers who are occasion- 
ally er OCA Mid SAoe Gail booed aad Ws ORO 


Number of farms whose yearly rent is under £20, 1574 
Dakoubesy ye £0 eR tebe tap 5} gk ss 

BDO tO L1LON ge ee ey? 682 
Da, from £100 to £300," ee gh apie 


- "Total number of farms, a 


¢ 4 2 4 . 


pre timer cares own) somarciy el bod 
which, when properly wrought, is no mean substi- 
tute for stone and lime. In general, however, ‘they'a 
built of red sandstone or whinstone, and sometimes r¢ 
ed with thatch, or blue slate, or sandstone | a 
farm of from 100 to 200 acres, there isa dw ~house 
built with stone and lime, of two stories, often and 
plastered on the inside. The offices commonly form 
three sides of a built of the same materials, 
of size cor to the extent of the. farm, The 
ordinary a lease is 19 years, and in some 
cases two years longer, ‘The rents, in general, are paid 
in money: where grain is paid in rent, it is usually con- 
verted into money at the fiar prices, In many parts, the 
farms are under the most judicious management, while, 
habits still preyail.. It would be difficult: to enumerate 
the different kinds of grain raised in the , any fare 
been here, and formed a considerable pors 
tion of the rent paid $0. sharkncien't thonasterscf tibeks 
by It has been known to weigh 17 stone 3} 
English, per boll. White wheat is the variety 
generally d; red wheat, although it yields a heavier 
crop, is more liable to disease. Spring wheat has been 
tried, but without success. Bear, here called Chester, still 
ae. stones 
Dutch per . meal 
and as pot~ bide 
quantities. Several kinds are cultivated, such as the 


5 

: 

g 
‘Bey 
af 


bol is 
hich are unfit fc 


: 
5 
: 
e 
i 
gs 
f 


r at Moi 


t= 
’ 


477 
trose, Panbride} Barry; and Monifieth. Faw is still vai- 


‘sed in the county in ‘considerable quantity, although not 


to the‘extent which might be considered expedient. Hemp 
is never even attempted. ‘The manures principally em- 
ployed ‘are, farm-yard dung, lime, marl, and sea-weed. 
The ancient breed of horses’ was the small sheltie or 
garrow, and this breed still remains nearly pure and un- 
mixed among the Grampian mountains, where numbers 
of horses are required to convey home from the moun< 
tains winter fuel, and to perform other operations where 
there are either no roads, or those very steep and 


breed 


pians, from four to six Scots pints.of milk each’ day is 
the usual quantity ; and, in the more fertile districts, 
from eight to ten pints is the general average. Sheep 
abound in many districts of the country. The mountain 
shéep; ‘in. an unmixed state, maybe found among the 


Culley, or'the'Cheyiot br 
oe ntry. At least two breeds of swine are found 
te, brn and ed as natives. Datbits are 


end “as thei mands. 
the stag still exist in the county ; and the 
er has protection in one park. 
The manufactures of this county are numerous and 
tant. Among these, the manufacture of linen stands 
in the a Seas ran iat apr apna eA 
millions of yards stamped annually, the greatest. part 
which is exported from the county... Dependent on. the 
manufacture of linen, are several extensive, bleachfields 
and spinning mills. The. county likewise possesses se~ 
veral excellent. harbours, as Dundee, Aberbrothick, and 
Montrose,. are two. custom-houses, the one at 
Dundee, haying the jurisdiction of the ports in the Tay 
up to Newbury,; and the one at Montrose has. the super- 
intendence of the port:of Aberbrothick. | To the port of 
Dundee 147 vessels ; to Aberbrothick. 56 ; and 
to Montrose 67. ~The whole tonnage of the county 
amounts to 21,859 tons. . : 

The coast of Angus abounds with every useful variety 
of esculent fish. ie cod, the haddock, the flounder, 
and turbot, are in'abundance; and yet the quantity ta- 
ken is by no means great. In the Tay, salmon are 
Po ok cdnsiderable numbers, and sent to the London 

packed in ice. © Lobsters are obtained on different 
parts of the rocky coasts. = 


Forfarshire. 


Live stock. 


Manufac. 
tures. 


Fisheries. 


There are many excellent roads in Forfarshire ; and Roads. 


there are abundance of materials for keeping them in re- 
pair. The only bridge deserving of notice is the one 
over the North Esk, which connects the parish of Mont- 
rose with the county of Mearns. It was built by sub- 
eg to which government granted Shi Jiberal aid. 

or farther particulars,; the reader is to the 


Rev. Robert Edward’s iti Angus, first pub- 
lished in 1678, and an i a ir | 1793... Co- 
lonel Imrie’s «* Section of the Grampians,” T'rans. 


- Soc. of Edin, vol. vi, The Rev. James Headrick’s Agri« 


cultural Survey of Angus; 1818, Dr Fleming “ On the 
Rocks near Dundee,” Mem. Wer, Soc. vol. ii. (J. FO.) 


Forfar. 
—_—— 


478 


FORF borough, the capital of the coun- 
wage oo stands a eeagihat ot 


writin ge respecting a parte gs tithes, &c, the pa- 
rish is designed Forfar Restenet, The latter is the name 
of a priory, two distant from the town, and for- 
merly surrounded by a lake, which is now drained ; 
to be expressive of the 
for which it was built, viz. as a safe repository 
charters of the of Jedburgh. 
In ancient times, Forfar was honoured with the resi- 
. The ruins of a palace, or castle, are 
on the top of'a mount, which rises about 
50 feet above the level of the plain. Here Malcolm 
Canmore held his first parliament, in the year 1057, 
immediately after the recovery of his kingdom from the 
usurpation of Macbeth of the castle, cut in 


the name of which is su 


miles eae the at A 
ice, whi ve Way under them, and’ shed, 
Their die were biterwatds fut and ig ascer- 


tained that they were the murderers of the king, 
were hung Git ptbets by the highway, "! >” 0 J 
During the usurpation of Cromwell, a detachment 


records. By that wanton deed, pate written memo- 
rial of its antiquities perished. The oe Premed which 


the year 1650 and 1662. The witch-bridle, as it is cal- 
i da npn. peg at di Aly. gh eh par: pd 
served. ep a Et ae og’s 

; e pikes were 


story of this borough, is, that it obtained 
an act of the Scottish bg re in the reign of James 
VI. changing the weekly market-day from Sunday to 
Friday. At what time it was changed from Friday to 
peg yi not known, 7 
ugh is governed by a provost, two baili 

twelve coe lors, aad four Ri Bell sete: Poe who rs 
present their respective mp All chosen 
annually, and the council mart pr 

nineteen members. In order to the election of tliese 
office- bearers for the year, some days before Michaels 


FORFAR. 


mas each magistrate names five 
four new deacons of craft elect, 
nineteen additional electors ; and by these — 
the new magistrates and council are chosen, It - 


of and often does happen, that the number of-electors falls 


short of thirty-eight, or twice nineteen ; because, if any 
of the old members die before the end of the year, and 
if one or more of the old deacons be re-elected, there 
are no substitutes for them on the new list. _ But if all 
the old nineteen be alive, and if four new deacons be 
elected, the number of electors must, by what is called 
the set of the borough, amount to thirty-eight, The 
twelve councillors may be annually re-elected ; th 
ost and bailies too may thus be members of coun- 
cil for life. None of them, however, can be elected to 
the office of magistracy oftener than three successive 
years in one series. But, after having been one year 
out of office, and returning to the rank” of common 
councillor, or private citizen, each may be re-elected 
aaa man he : wswaryt pekte oh 
. The coun the pri in conju with 
the town bre of Dundee, erth, pg ue and 
Cupar in Fife, of electing a representative in parli 
Went.” The vevente af ‘iosogiita from £ ye 
£1000, It is the seat of a presb , and of the 
eo ee lace where pa 
and cornmissioners ’ meet for transacting the 
business (of the county. — ‘On-a ite sadhana ee the 
town, several fairs are held throughout the year, which 


are well frequented ; the custom’ of which was many 


to Candlemas, a week 
free of custom, is held on the street every 
Wednesday, for the sale of fat cattle; and during the 
seed Wess coat ciel nite Ae tae ae the 

These tend to inc 


Eeveey:" Abdi the’ fear Thks, the ale uiieaes 
ee ety a 
ears pit ar tibet aftatly co Boeaiehe EE 


increase of the population o ; 
tory of the introduction of this manufacture phage) 
It was brought to Forfar by a ; who ' 


to market, made it into a 
web, and offered it to his merchant as a piece on which 
he was willing to lose. The merchant, who had been’ 
in Germany, “ag or, Sa the:similarity betwixt 
it and the fabric of aburg, and with difficulty pre- 
vailed upon the weaver to attempt other pieces of the 
samekind. The experiment, however, succeeded to his 
wish ; and a company was soon afterwards established 
at Arbroath, for the purpose of conducting the new 

from whence the discovery was brought 
late years, Osnaburgs, of the best qua- 
lity, denominated Strelitz, have been manu ed for 
the London market, with sheetings of all breadths, Bri- 
tish duck, Germans, &c.. The wee 2,500,000. 
yards annually, the average value of which may be es~ 
timated considerably above £100,000. 
Forfar has been long celebrated for brewing good. 
beer. About twelve years ago, one establishment was, 
formed, and afterwards another; for brewing porter, 


, who, with the — Forfi. 
e up the number of “VY” 


al 
a 


| Ae 
a , 


a ~ nae 


Dette: ae 


Bram Woon 


orise 
on 8 


—— 


FOR 


These have succeeded well. For two or three years 
indeed, on account of the high price of barley, 


thediima 


- Various other improvements have’ of late years been’ 
carried on, which have contributed to the embellish- 
ment of the town, while they evince the public spirit 
of the inhabitants. these we may mention a 
botanic garden, the work of the late Mr Don, 
who was well known, and justly celebrated in the bo- 
tanic world.*; One of his sons is said to inherit his 
nius, which had also received some culture attider' hiv 


in 1790, which accommodates from 2000 to 3000 hearers ; 
and last (1814) it was ornamented with a 

150 feet high, ich arrests the eye of the traveller in 
every direction, and is deservedly admired as a very ele- 
gant structure. The ion of the town and coun- 
ish is about eee eerie oes 


a 
8 
ih 

ll 
etal 


prosperity which 

ALP. 

FORF TURE. See Law. 

FORGE. See Iron. 

FORMIC Acip. _ See Cuemistry, 

FORMOSA, called by the Chinese 
ives Kaboski and 7 


a 
FE 
g 
3 
Z 
s 
‘ 
B 
E. 


i 


3 
= 


¥ 


HE 


i 
i 


479 


Japan, was wrecked on the coast, and brought the first Formosa. 


FOR 


accounts of the country to Europe. About the year 
1620, a Japanese squadron left a party on the island, in 
the view of returning to effect its subjugation ; but, in 
the mean time, a Dutch ship having touched there in 
its course from Japan, it ap to be so eligible a 
station for a commercial establishment, that they built 
fort Zealand in 1634, and thus secured ion of the 
principal harbour.” In 1661 they were driven from the 
settlement by the celebrated Chinese pirate, Tchin- 
tchi-korig, or Coxinga, (See ‘Cura, Vol. VI. p. 233, 
who made himself master of the western part, an 
held the sovereignty of the island during his life ; but, 
in 1682, his grandson Tchin-ke-sun, submitted to the 
authority of the Emperor Kang-hee ; and the island, 
since that period, has been tributary to China. By a 
chain of mountains running from north to south, it is 
divided into two parts, called the western and eastern 
inces, the latter of which is still occupied entirely 
y the native Indians, and the former contains the set- 
tlements of the Chinese. It is subject to the Viceroy 
of Fokien, but a governor with a large detachment, 
generally of 10,000 men, resides constantly on the 
island. Tai-ouan, the capital city and the seat of go- 
vernment, is sittiated on the south-west coast in 23° 
North Lat. and 3° $2’ 50" East Long. from Pekin. It 
place, full of trade, and equal to 
e first class in China. ama 
straight, about 40 feet broad, and some 
e in | 3 but they are badly 
ilt of clay and bamboo, 
account of the excessive 
heat of the sun, the streets are covered, during seven or 
eight months of the year, with awnings, which leave 
nothing to be seen but the ae on either side, in 
which various kinds of merchandize, ranged with the 
greatest order and show, present a rich appearance to 
; poe many) or The town has no walls or 
, unless rb ree, built by the 
protected by four i-bastions, may be 
: asa fort. The eat fe ite en- 
becoming daily more difficult. e city is 
in every necessary of life and article of traf- , 
i cher rigor: apr, hice and In- 
, and Eu ; 
as ion ln oy 


eet 


estern ince contains, besides the capital, a 
number of poss! why tate and populous villages, in: which 
the Chinese permit none of the native inhabitants to 
reside pos 3s them, except those who act in the ca~ 
pacity of slaves or domestics. It appears that the Chi- 
nese lation of the island would increase with great 
rapidity, i if the ment would permit free emigra- 
tion from other parts of the empire ; but ission to 
new settlers is with great caution, and only 
upon the cay ang of a considerable sum for the proper 
passports, reason is, that the Tartar emp 
sive of a revolt among their Chinese 
$ proximity of this island to China, 
would render it a favourable field for the operations of 
malcontents. The district, which the Chinese possess, 
consists of extensive and fertile plains, watered by nu- 
merous rivulets, which flow from the mountains towards 
the east, The climate is temperate, except when the 


ay 
| 


i 


FL 
at 


4 


thousand, in allusion probably to the number of small islands in its vicinity ; and Formosa was a 


mame given by the Portuguese, on account of, the beautiful appearance of the country. 


FORMOSA. : 
with as much certainty as a European sportsman.could. Formosa, : 


4380 


Formos. sun is vertical, and the air is serene and-pure, cooled 
~~ even in the hot season with constant breezes, The 


soil is in mountainous, but naturally produc- 
tive. Besides most kinds of grain, which it, yields.in 
abundance, there are found in the country the princi, 
pal Indian fruits, such as aranges, bananas, cocoa-pyts; 
guavas, papaws, pineapples; and amany, of those which 
are common in E.urope,. particularly peaches, apricots; 
figs, grapes, pomegranates, water melons; cinnamon, 
ar, pepper, camphire, tobacco, are, also among the 

= oe y productions of the country; and the moun- 
tains contain mines of gold, silver, copper, and sulphur, 
There is no good water to be found in the whole island; 
and strangers are said to suffer greatly from. its bad qua- 
lities. There are’few horses, sheep, goats, ar hogs, on 
the island ; but the inhabitants breed a great. number of 
oxen, which they train for the parpont of riding ; and, 
being early accustomed to this kind of service, they are 
sail to go very securely and expeditiously. Domestic 
fowls are reared in great plenty. The finest deer wan- 
der in large herds through the country. . Tygers, leo- 
monkeys, and every kind of game, abound in the 

ts; and the rivers furnish abundance of fish. 

The Indians inhabiting the western. oat are en- 
tirely subject to the Chinese governor, and pay a regu- 
lar cient grain. They compose about forty-five 
villages, most of which are found in the more northern 
quarter of the province. In each village is stationed a 
Chinese officer, whose duty it is to learn their/language, 
and to superintend the collection, of the impost;ibut 
these agents of the government often, act im such \a ty- 
rannical manner, as to occasion. the defection of the in- 
habitants, who have sometimes. been driven to unite 
themselves with the independent tribes in the eastern 
part of the island. Even those which are most \sub- 
missive to their invaders, still retain some of theit, an- 
cient institutions ; and in every village three ‘or!four 
of the most upright and intelligent old-mén‘are chosen 
as judges and rulers, who, have the power of determi« 
ning all disputes, and. disobedience to whose decisions 
would be punished by perpetual banishment. from the 
community. In these villages subject to China, and 
which are the most populous, there is a great degnee ‘of 
civilization ; and the houses are built con furnished .af= 
ter the manner of the Chinese. They are‘ clothed; with 
the skins of the stags, which they kill in hunting,; and. 
Wear on their heads caps of a cylindrical shape, made of 
palm leaves, ornamented with a succession of crowns 
one above the other, and surmounted with plumes of fea- 
thers from the cock or pheasant. The dress of the wo-« 
men exactly resembles that of the men,, ex that 
their clothes are longer, and their heads more, i 
ed with finery. But the southern or eastern, island~ 
ers are still in a most savage state ; and their habita- 
tions are mere earthen huts, without any piece: of fur- 
niture, having only a kind of hearth in the centre’ upon 
which they dress their victuals. They are remarkably 
dirty in their manner of eating ; and generally devour 
the flesh before it is half dressed. Whatever they pre< 
pare is placed ona plain board or mat; and having 
neither plates nor spoons, they make use of their 
for conveying it to their mouths. They have no! bets 
ter bedding during night than fresh gathered leaves; 
and no other covering through the day than piece of 
cloth, which hangs. from. their middie to their knees. 

They subsist chiefly upon rice and the produce of the 

chace. Their favourite weapons are lances, which they 

throw with the greatest dexterity and precision to the 

distance of 60 or 80 feet. They use also bows and,ar- 

rows, with which they can kill « pheasant on the wing 
1 


ey nn, 
ascribe to a custom which 

knees and int with a close 
14, but whieh is, more probably, owing entirely to their 
constant practice in hunting, and roy estimation in 
which the qualification. is Those who are most 
swift and skilful in the chace, are pamee 7 1 by the 
honourable privilege of having figures of flowers, trees, 
or animals punctured on their skin ; and. the more or- 
dinary decorations consist in wearing bracelets; or 
crowns made of shells and crystal, and in staining the 
teeth with a deep black colour. The matrimonial con= 
nections of these islanders are remarkably simple and 
unconstrained, especially when compared with: of 
their Chinese neighbours, and are left entirely to the 
choice and arrangements of the young people. When 
a youth has fixed his affections, he appears for several 
days with a musical instrument in his hand, hoveri 

around the place where the young woman resides. If 


she is pleased with his. qualifications, she comes 
forth and joins him, when they settle together their fu- 
ture union. They then give notice of their intention to 


their parents, who the marriage feast, which is 
always held in the/brinle’s habitation, with whom the 
husband remains during life. ,. He transfers his filial dus 
ties to his father-in-law, and devotes himself ‘to the 
support of the new family, of which he has become a 
member. Hence the natives ofFormosa offer’ vows 
chiefly for female children,: who» ‘their’ sons-ins 
law to be the support of their old age.. ‘These: 
-— . mph rs iy eae P| — 
ip, and as guided by the pretended predictions of a 
set of priestesses or female jug ; but other aecounts 
seem to imply, that they are not without some ideas 
the; soul's immortality; :nor'so deficient in ci i 
and, ingenuity ; and many of them are said to retain a 
considerable portion of Christian knowledge, which had 
been communicated by the’ Dutch settlers. There is; 
in fact, very little known ing the eastern, or;as 
it is sometimes called, the southern part of the island 
and its inhabitants; and the accounts both of the Chi- 
and Dutch writers are filled with stories. so obvi+ 
'y fabulous, as, to discredit their whole testimony: 
Some of these accounts bear, for instance; that one of 
the natives was seen who had a tail above a foot in 
length, covered with red hair, and n that of an 


ox, and who declared that all the inhabitants of the ~ 


southern districts were born with similar aj ; 
that the:men do not marry till they are fifty years of 
age, ate hoon are not suffered to oe 
ildren till they have passed their thirty-seventh year, 

andshould any of a we before that pe 
riod, the priestess is summ ‘to produce abortion by: 
ing on their:-womb. One of the most extraordina- 


ry of these:histories, and» which was afterwards acknows - 


ledged by its author to be a mere romance, was publish« 
ed about the year 1710 by the ae oe, 

In ponsequence, it is supposed, dhe 3 mines. 
in the mountains, nen ee across prriecnars ta 
island, it is subject) to ent quakes ; and, in 
the year 1782; one of cheec shoukietn attended with: 
so tremendous a hurricane and swell of the sea, as to. 
threaten the total destruction of the Chinese settlements. 
See Grozier’s Description of China, vol.i, ; Collection of 
the Voyages of the Dutch India , vol, vs ; 
Du Halde's: History of China, vol, ii, 5 niv. Mod. 
Hist. vol, viii, and x,° (gq) . 


: 


+ 


-“~ 


< temple Am 


Forres. 


FOR 


FORRES) a'town ‘of, Scotland, in the province of 
Moray, is situated on a rising ground, about a mile 
to the east of the river Findhorn, and two miles from 
are well built, but the town con 
tains no public buildings of importance. On the sum- 
mit of Cluny-hill, a quarter of a mile to the east of the 
town, a monument has been recently erected to the me- 
mory of Lord Nelson. It is a lofty octagonal tower, 
about 70 feet high, and having a base 24 feet in dia- 
meter, 1¢ ix eueniounted byw battlashetit'and a flag- 
staff. The castle of Forres was situated at the west end 
of the town. About a quarter of a mile to the north- 
east of Cluny-hill, on the road to Findhorn, stands the 
celebrated obelisk called Sweno’s Stone, which is com- 
posed wholly of sand stone, though it is said that 
there is no of the same stone nearer than fif= 
teen miles. It is about 23 feet high, 3 feet 10 inches 
and 1 foot 3 inches thick, and is said tobe 12 or 
below the « On itseast side,” says 
the author of the. ities of the Province of Moray, 
“are several divisions, each occupied by variously sculp- 
tured ornaments. At the top are a number of beauti- 
ful Gothic ornaments ; and in the first division under-~ 
neath; are nine horses, with riders, marching in order. 
In the next, is a line of warriors brandishing their wea- 

. The of the third are now much defaced. 
bee tee Boiach caoreea? leh, armed with spears, seem to 
eee elenuadte aekanes si Bho 

jes ap ing to be piled upon the t ivi- 
sion. ‘A body of horse in the fifth division, and 
these are followed by men on foot ; the first line having 

is 


horses seized, their riders beheaded, and their heads 


© 


broad, 
15 feet 


down, 
steps were lately built round its base, 
The Rey. Mr Cordiner, who has published an engraving 
of this monument, it to have been erected in 


of England, in 1002. Others have imagined, that it 
was erected in memory of the assassination of Ki 
DeGifeid tlle Gpinion id eobcelved to be strengthened 
by the discovery of eight human skeletons laid along a 
trench, in a little green mount close by the obelisk, 
to be the assassins of the king. On the decli- 
Hill, looking towards Sweno’s stone, 


of Forres is governed by a provost, 
elected 


nats ciate , who are an- 
nually ; it enj privilege, conjointly- with 
Inverness, Naim, and F , of unites 


ee wa me ~ a subscription 
now contains a considerable number of volumes.—The 


ty tecearara from the vi- 
cinity of Forres for nearly 20 miles upwards, is remark 
able for its fait tebuty; \ Fhehicihewad the 


the most rocky, and richly wooded, with every va- 
Gens, and height, and inclination Son #6 oF 


481 . 


FOR 


three miles below, the rock is sandstone on each side, 
and to this succeeds above gneiss and granite. The 
forest of Darnaway forms the chief part of this scenery 
on the left bank of the river ;*and opposite to it, on 
the right, are the properties of Relugas; and Logie, and 
Altyre. The first of these is matchless for its natural 
beauties, and has been adorned with sin taste.- 


Three miles north of Forres, close to the shore ai the’ 
nang 


Moray Frith, there is one of the best examples 
inundation of sand which is to be seen in the island. 
The sand drifted from the shores of the Frith above, 
by the’ strong west winds, is accumulated in hills of 
considerable size; forming a chain about a mile, ora 
mile and a half in length, and at some ee 
quarter of a mile The hills are often undergo- 
ing of form and height, but have not for many 
years exhibited any tendency to general diminution. 
About 60 or 70 years ago their increase was very great, 
and very sudden, the inundation burying completely, 

in the course of a few days, the estate of Cubin. 
Five miles east of Forres, is the heath which Shake- 
is sw to have intended as the scene of 


Fortaven- 


t first interview between Macbeth’ and the weird. 


sisters. 

There are few places in Scotland better adapted for’ 
a cheap and pleasant residence than this small town. 
Its climate is excellent; its markets are 3 it is 
abundantly supplied with a variety of fish, from the 
neighbouring sea’ of Findhorn, which is only five 
miles distant, and the surrounding country is rich and 
luxurious, and abounds in game. ~ ; 

The following is the population of the burgh and pa-- 
rish in 1811: ; 


Number of inhabited houses. ........ 672 
RAURITIAE 9 dfuge aie) hetinte thats <i = Wks ot eke SE 
Ditto employed in agriculture. ....... 108 
Ditto employed in trades, &c. -....... 295. 
PMN I 8 ohn ance nds0ce) ote . chy. ndi..¢7euncb eer A 
MONEE, Cis kina 4, 6th; tur adie ts oth aL 
Total population ..... 4.624054» 2925 
See Account of the Antiquities, §c. of the Province of 
Moray, p. 83. ° (j 

FORT. See Fortirtcation, and Forts, Vitrified. 


FORT-AUGUSTUS. See Inverness-sHirE, 

' FORT-WILLIAM. See Inverness-suireE. 
FORT-GEORGE. See InveRness-sHIRE. 
FORTAVENTURA, or Fuerre-Ventura, is the 

name of one of the Canary Islands. It is about fifty 

miles long, and from eight to twenty-four broad. The 
island is very low, and narrow in the middle, and is- 
almost cut in two by the sea. The ion south of the 
isthmus is mountainous, sandy, barren, ‘The por- 
tion to the north of the isthmus is: also mountainous, 
but contains several fertile and populous districts. The 

vil are here so numerous, t the traveller no 

sooner loses sight of one than he discovers another, 


incipal towns in the island are, La Villa, the « 


is situated to the north of the isthmus, 

and contains 100 houses ; Oliva, situated in the middle 
of a fertile plain, and containing fifty houses; and 
Tunche, which contains about 100 houses. On the 
east coast there are three small sea ports, called Langla, 
Torrefata, and Pozzo Negro. A great quantity of goat 
milk cheese is made in the island, which 50,000 
kids, each of which weighs between forty and fifty 
For an account of the history, > Rey commerce, 
and productions, of the Canary Islands, see Canar¥ 


Istanvs. The position of the western point of Forta: - 


182 
according to solar observations, is West Long. 


ling brid: 
Thence, 


little interru 
now named Frith of Forth,) is resumed down to Fife- 
ness on the north, and St Abbs Head on the south, 
where it meets the German Ocean. Between these 
two points the distance is between 35 and 40 miles. 
The direct course of this river is scarcely less than 
100 miles; but its sinuosities do not traverse a short- 
cr s than 200. Its depth from Stirling bridge 
to the mouth is from 3 to $7 fathoms, or more; be- 
tween Inch Garvie and the North Ferry it is 35; 
and somewhat further west, opposite to Rosyth castle, 
where the breadth is 3000 yards, it is 21 fathoms, 
whence it ually shallows upwards.* Part of the 
bottom is here covered with ‘sleech or mud 20 feet 
deep, deposited on freestone, The tide flows a mile 
above Strling bridge, or between 70 and 80 from 
‘the sea in a straight line, until it is interrupted by 
a rock across the channel, where stream tides rise 
five feet. It flows and ebbs regularly twice in twenty- 
four hours ; but the flood and ebb run about two hours 
Jonger in the middle than along the shore, and it rises 
at most about four fathoms in,a ‘stream. Besides this, 
however, there are i 
ties, above Queensferry, and particularly from.Culross 
to Alloa, or, beginning at the mouth of the river Car- 
ron and Borrowstounness, continue downwards, These 
irregularities consist in an intermission of the tide dur- 
ing the flood ; and before high water the sea ebbs. On 
the contrary, while the sea and before low water, 
the ebb intermits, and a flow commencing continues 
some time ; after which the ebbing is resumed until 
low water. This is seen during two hours, and the ir- 


regularity oceupies more of the river according as it, i 


iss or tide. These irregularities are well. 
mere ‘the nae of leakies. Ane 

¢ principal rivers tributary to the Forth are, the 
Goodie, rising in the Loch of Monteith, the Teith, and, 
Allan, above Stirling bridge ; and below it, the Dovan, 
Carron, Avon, Almond, Leith, Esk, Leven, Tyne, and. 
others. There is, besides, a communication, by means 
of a navigable canal, ne the river Clyde, which pre- 
Serves on intercourse between the east 
of Sato. and. west coasts 

t would take a long time to describe the natural 

productions of the Forth, and hitherto they have met 


FORTH. 


particular currents, or irregulari- b 


have accidentally strand- 


odtneonaalens 4s RIM We 
that five or six hundred years ago they also frequented 
this river. The porpoise is seen i 
in the water; one specimen of the | 
whale, was killed in 1815, near Stirling : the sun fish is 
occasionally taken; and the opah, or gold fish, has also 
occurred, But there are others, the constant source 


of valuable and productive fisheries ; such as salmon, 
mon is on at ing, W i 

all the. nei , and allows a ity for ex- 
Se ee 
ed at this part of the Forth, that the inhabi ‘of 


Stirling were, during a long time, ided with it at 
oaauinss thane einoaaer which became a 
particular eee nor is it long since it was al 
ed. Two ies on a smaller recently 

established on the south side of the river, at Abercorn, 
and near Queensferry, and their pee 


Vast shoals of herring resort periodically to the Forth, 
and afford employment to many hands in their capture, 
as well as ample subsistence to the poor ; but they are 
neither so large nor so much esteemed as those 

on the west coasts of Scotland. Nevertheless, their 


of the river KA six or eight miles above Queen a 
Haddock, cod, ee re fisheries, are 
lower down than Leith. Skate, flounders, and 


are common ; turbot is obtained in sufficient quantity 
to supply Edinburgh market at prices not immoderate, 
that is, from four to ten shillings, according to size and 
scarcity ; but most of it goes to London, Some time 
ago, contracts were made for turbot, at two shillings 
See 
it the sandy bays u 
ten aed Gan ht. This being ascribed to the un- 
skilfulness of the , an experiment was 
by others purposely brought from places noted for it; 


z 

| Hl 
tell 3 
gn FS 
ep eiee 
Loeira! 


35 
if 
HE 
i 
aE 
if 
i 
e3 P25 


| 


: 


is so in the metropolis, that 

appl ape ine hp. gto 
in ” 

pee ad nen umbers, they are sold 


FE 


per p A 
"Mony of the mollusca, rg besides the two latter. 
which we have alluded to, inhabit the Frith ; and pro- 
bably the majority are yet ; 
tinia, nereids, are seen in great variety and beauty ; 


learn from history, productions, 


Le < ma 


-% 


|B 


: 


FORTH. 
this very rich sort of ironstone, Pieces of fine jasper, Forth. 


| 


shells which may be recovered here. 

i ornithology ; for, except i 
resorting hither during winter, and in 
solan geese frequenting a small rocky 
Bass, there are no iarities. Few 

but on some of the rocks, and occa- 
the shore. 


a 
: 


SERS 
HE 
§s3,~ 


| 
a8 
Fr 
EE 


found alike on each side of the river ; 
of these are not only on the banks, but penetrate 
far under its bottom—so far, that it is reported the 
workmen from the ite coasts can hear each other’s 

i tne rhe sone macro eh preemie Be 
Neither is this so improbable as might 
appear ; for the coal workings 
said to have been carried two miles 
and 


Ht 


8 
Fags 


if 


who publi 


aSeeest Aa 

sail 
itt zB 
eetEt 

i ? . 
tales 
E 

ef 


Hh 
it 
# 
AI 
4 
HI 


e 
2, 


& 


ft 
ul 
au 


5 


Te 


= 
E 


i 
4 
i 
ie 
A 


é 


i 
ge 


483 


pebbles, granite, and petrifactions, occur,on many parts 
of the shore. 


There are severalrocks and:islands'scattered through- [slands. 


out the lower part of this river, where it has expand- 
ed into. a frith, of which Inch Garvey, Inch Colme, 
Inch Keith, the Bass, and the Isle of May, are the 
principal: On the top of the ‘first, which is: barren 
and rocky, stands a small fort, with two inconsider- 
able pieces of cannon, and one invalid soldier, who: is 
stationed there in solitude six weeks at atime. It was 
sometimes converted to -- state prison of old, but now 
belongs to a private family. This island, standing in 
the middle of a strait, between the Queen’s Cote, 
could effectually prevent any hostile approaches higher 
up the river. - Inch Colme, which scarce exceeds half” 
a mile in length, and is narrow, enjoys greater celebri- 
ty ; for one of the — of Scotland, having escaped 
imminent danger, w he found an asylum on it, 
shewed his gratitude to Divine Providence, by erecting 
a here in the year 1123. Its picturesque 
ruins are still extant. Soon after the commencement 
of the late war, in 1793, a battery of heavy guns was- 
constructed on Inch Colme, which, it was supposed, 
would command the eo rane Tse | the Forth, but no 
ity has been of trying their effect, 
which those who consider themselves well acquainted 
with the a ion of the channel have doubted. The 
island abounds in rabbits, and belongs to the family of 
Murray. Cramond Island, nearly ite, on the south 
side, is connected with the land at low water, but the 
access, unless in a certain direction, is very dangerous, 
from deep mud or quicksands. The island best known, 
at least to the inhabi aera a a is Inch Keith, 
which lies about half way between the coasts, and some- 
what eastward of Edinburgh. It is between two and 
ee circuit, of fertile ss and has always 
Circumstances have frequently render- 
deed this inconsiderable spot of importance, from an 
early date, either in civil or military operations. In the 
year 1497, when the venereal disease was making un- 
common ravages in Edinburgh, and was then, as in the 
rest of Europe, considered a pestilence, the magistrates 
directed that all infected with the “ grand 
” should repair to the sands of Leith, where they 
find boats ready to convey them to the island, 
*‘ there to remain, untill God should provide for their 
health.” In the reign of Edward VI. the English 
sent two expeditions equally destructive into Scot- 
land, when Inch Keith was taken and fortified. They 
were expelled by the French, who erected fortifica- 
tions on a seale, consisting of a strong tower 
on the highest ground, with an interior court, 100 
feet in diameter, as also an external wall of hewn 
stone, 20 feet high, and 9 feet thick, with Queen Ma- 
ry’s arms on it, and a motto sa vertue m’at- 
ture ; but the whole fort was afterwards demolished by 
order of the Scotish parliament. More recently, when 
a Russian fleet lay in Leith roads, during the war, 


’ there was an hospital here for their seamen; and at 


t it has a lighthouse for the safety of mariners. 

Bass isa lofty precipitous rock, with a conical sum- 

mit rising from water, within two miles of the 
southern shore of the Forth, near North Berwick. This 
isle, which is less than a mile in circuit, is accessible 
only by a dangerous and narrow pathway: formerly 
it was employed as a state prison, and a small fortress 
upon it surrendered.to Oliver Cromwell. It was held 
in property by.a private family, and purchased by go- 
vernment in the reign of Charles IL. ; but after most of 
the kingdom had submitted to the sovereignty of Wil« 


484 


FORTH. 


Forth. liam, at the revolution, the fortress was held out by a anita copes ae eee ee 


—_——— 


Trade and 
navigation. 


few of the abdicated monarch’s adherents, which pro- 
duced an order for its demolition on their surrender. 
The Bass is now in the hands of a eybj 
leased, for a rent which is indemnified by the innumera- 
ble flocks of solan geese taken annually on it, (see Bass). 
The Isle of May lies — saat ‘ero ——— 
is bly the largest whole, being nearly three 
snes in mans and is situated six or seven miles south- 
east of the town of Anstruther... It affords.good pasture, 
and has a pool or small lake of fresh water. Anciently 
this island belonged to an English monastery, for the 
monks of which, King David I. of Scotland founded a 
call or priory of the order of St Augustine, and there 
was also a dedicated to St Adrian. pow latter 
was uently resorted to in pilgrimages, an icu- 
pe rpatactor of nabs though not for that.rea- 
son only, as Andrew Weod of Largo, a celebrated 
Scotish mariner, held certain lands in Fife for the ser- 
vice of piloting James 1V. and his queen to St Adrian’s 
Ali shanes. twas oredind have drhinanlainat 
Charles I., which has un e many successive im- 
provements, and receives a duty from all vessels navi- 
gating the river. Both it and the island being private 
ys ox} ems! changed their owners, and having 
passed by iage into the Duke of Portland’s 
fami ane ae pu the Commissioners for 
a a ights in 1814, for L. 60,000 sterling, when 
affording a very considerable revenue. ; 
There are numerous towns and harbours along both 
sides of the river and Frith of Forth, where le and 
manufactures are carried on in various branches, Com- 
mencing with Stirling, where it is crossed by a bridge of 
four , the principal towns are G: outh, Bor- 
-rowstounness, Queen’s Ferry, Leith, Musselburgh, Pres- 
tonpans, and Dunbar on the south side ; on the 
north, are Alloa, Culross, Charlestown, Inverkeithing, 
Burntisland, Kircaldy, Dysart, Leven, Pittenweem, An- 
struther, Crail, with a few of lesser note. The number 
of piers and harbours is not less than thirty ; and some 
-of them of ive construction, such as‘Leith, where 
there are considerable wet docks ; there is a fine basin 
at Borrowstounness ; and at the most re- 
cent improvements have been adopted. But storms 
from the east, attended with a tempestuous -sea, occa- 
sionally damage the harbours. Excepting Stirling and 
Leith, few of the towns contain 2000 inhabitants, and 
several of them not half that number. The princi- 
pal manufactures are of iron, salt, pottery, sal ammo- 
niac, some bricks and tiles, and recently Roman ce- 
ment and alum have been fabricated at ‘the ‘village of 
Blackness. There is also linen made on thenorth side, 
along the coast of Fife, and. soap on the south side, 
Se me ate lime, and grain are the chief 
exports of nata acts: but foreign products are 
brought from the west by the great canal, and carried 
eastward ; and there is a-vast quantity of artillery and 
iron manufactures from the Carron founderi 
The vessels belonging to the different are mostly oc- 
cupied in the coasting trade, but whole fleets resort to 
the Baltic; several vessels belong to «the Greenland 
whale fishery, and a few are in West India 
traffic. In ent of the manu’ res carried on in. 
the vicinity of the river, cotton, linen, and muslin goods 
are exported, and some groceries, wood, flax, and other 
commodities imported ; to receive the duties.on all of 
which there are custom-houses along both sides of the 
river. The chief trade, however, is conducted on the 
same side with the metropolis, 
When the Romans invaded Britain, they found the 
northern parts occupied by various barbarous tribes ; 


, by whom itis + 


. 


ed a strong rampart, now called Adrian's Wall 
ethe Frith of Clyde to the 


: 
: 
8 
5 
2 
F 
: 
4 
E 
2, 


no strength, being commanded by several eminences. 
Nevertheless it has repeatedly been the ‘subject of anx- 
ious competition in the factious times of old, and is pre- 
served as a fortification by the articles of the Union. 
A more modern fort was erected between Leith and’ 
Newhaven, on the appearance of Paul Jones, a noted 


struther and Ely on 4 
boats began to navigate from Leith w , in 
the year 1814, affording a cheap and 


means 
of conveyance. But it has been proposed, at various 


tinnes,;th:dacilitete.. ther mockineinieliten: Anish 


i west 
still farther, by rendering the river navigable from Stir- 


ling bridge to Gartmore, and to in the different 
curvatures of the land to the east of Stirling by a 


ty a 
i idge, by boats ixty feet , thirteen 
wilecant decting theahines satiate oneal 
the navigation could be ied downwards to Alloa, 


twenty. 
vival doubtless have resulted by putting the proposal 
into execution, but it was in fad io 
‘by the canal /between the F and 
> 


a sity being experienced ok ' and 
of great ao cattle continually brought from 


the north of Scotland, it was thought that an eX« 
pedient would remedy these inconveniences, and it was 


is 8839 yards in breadth, was considered the most fa- 
vourable point for the south entrance; and the of 
water not exceeding thirteen fathoms anda ren- 
dered it erable aaee. _ between the Ferries. 
A long time was employ yy engineers in 

and boring ; but it appeared, on penetrating the bed 
the river, that a auficent rot eae nascar 
ed for the tunnel, which, conjoined w weighty 
objections, led to the dereliction of the project. See 
Siz Robert Sibbald’s Works. . Statistical Account, vol. 
vi. p. 21. Millar and Vazie on Tunnels. Knox's View 
of the British Empire.» (¢) itis 


te ae. 


ee ee ae ee 2 i Pe pera i et 


oy “485 


os PORTIFICATION, 


‘Fortifica- Davtecarcn is the science that teaches the best me- 
tion, thod of 
—— 


putting a town, citadel, or othermilitary position, 
in such a state of defence, asmay enable a small number 
within to hold out against the attack of a great num- 
besieged the best 


‘orce, or 
idity, it would have re- 
warfare, taking 


ed. In this way, a very superior invading might 
q be defeated, or at least. ept in check a sufficient length 
of time, to allow the i state! either to march its 
- own armies'to the point of attack, or to the as- 
pa nasa be ar ames e ow ar — 
support a weak neighbour i attacks of a 
Were the political divisions of the earth so 
that the weaker states should always have 
prog tal ivonetior deere tong ai &c. on 
rom teres thee RE ONE Ap COTO A 
bein some measure compensated by natural forti 
But as considerations aattes difesent kind 
regulated the ition of terri 


ions 
of defence ; and that the construction of these 
pmeor been considered as an object of the highest 
means of placing a weak 
i , whether its 


Thornant obdtons! codtherl ae protecting -an open 
most obvious m of ing an 
ountry from sudden invasion, would be to carry a 
_ wall round the whole frontier. Of this species of forti- 
fication, is the great wall that China from Tar- 
tary, and likewise the Roman wall in the north of Eng- 
land, built for the purpose of defending the southern 
Seat the island from the sudden incursions of th 
. But the: insuperab jection, in 
y ible to command the 


: 


means of raising such , it was soon found that the 
prmnce Fr ing such an extensive line rendered 
them little use. Such methods of de- 


infinitely greater 
venture to leave these places of in their rear, 
without the greatest danger of having their retreat cut 


off; and uently a country, possessing such for- 
tifications, could se be subject to sudden attacks. 
Nor is this the only adyantage that is found to result 
from such fortified places. By making them ts for 
arms, ammunition, and other military stores, they be- 
come the surest protection of established governments 

inst rebellion or any internal commotion. To the 
art of fortification, then, may perhaps be justly ascribed 
not a little of that peace and good order among man- 
kind, which would otherwise be sacrificed to the law- 
less ambition of despots, or the madness of factious de- 
m 


Fortifica- 
tion. 


It is impossible to say at what time, or in what coun- Ancient sys- 


try, men first began to construct fortifications. Ina rude tem of for- 
state of society, when weapons of attack were few and tification. 


‘simple, and when the success of war depended more on 
‘the physical powers, than ‘the skill of the combatants, 
little ingenuity would be necessary to render a place 
impregnable, whatever might be the force of the assail- 
ants, An earthen mound, a deep ditch, or a single 
stone wall, would probably be sufficient not only for 
eae a garrison against sudden attacks, but even 
for enabling it to hold out against a regular siege. How 
long the art of fortification continued in this simple 
state, we have no means of ascertaining ; but it is evi- 
dent, from various of sacred history, that it 
had made considerable progress in Eastern countries in 
the days of Moses, upwards of 1500 years before Christ. 
From these countries, it probably travelled to the 
West, where it received great improvements from the 
Greeks and Romans. By inventing new methods of 
attack, these warlike states obliged the besieged to adopt 
new methods of defence ; and thus while they exerci- 
sed their own ingenuity in the art of war, they called 
forth that of the nations with whom they contended. 
A single mound, or stone wall, was soon found to be 
her inadequate to resist the force of the engines 
with which they were assailed. The wall or rampart 
was accordingly strengthened by towers erected upon 
it at convenient distances, and from these the besieged 
were enabled to defend the intermediate parts of the 
wall, which they could not otherwise have done with- 
out exposing themselves to the missile weapons of the 
enemy. Besides these towers, the rampart itself some- 
times consisted of a double or even a triple wall. Of 
this kind were the walls of Jerusalem and Babylon. 
The most obvious method of assaulting a fortified 
place in rude ages, would be ‘to’ construct an earthen 


Ancient sys- 
tem of at- 


mound or counter fortification, from which ‘the assail- tack. 


ants could en with the besi on equal terms. 
This method of attack was probably coeval with the 
art of fortification itself, as from the passages of sacred 


\ history to which we have already alluded, it appears to 


have been common in Eastern countries at the time of 
the Israelites taking possession of the land of Canaan. 
The same method of besieging towns was adopted by 
the Gréeks and Romans. hey constructed their 
circumvallation of turf, and, in some cases, they were 
made double at an interval of fifteen or sixteen feet. 
The interior wall was intended to preserve them from 
the sallies of the besieged, the exterior to guard them 
against the attacks of those who might come to the as- 
sistance of the town, The space between the walls 
- or mounds was fer ay with tents.and lodges for the 
soldiers. These walls were surmounted with turrets; 


486 
Fortiica- after every tenth of which was a tower, extending from 
ties. wall to wall, and equal in height to the fortifications of 


—_—— 


Agaers of 
the anchemts 


Tetada 


Approaches. 


the town. After all, this method of attacking a place 
was better calculated to starve it into a pase 5 than 


to take it by force. 

Another, and perhaps a more expeditious method of 
attack, was by means of detached mounds or aggera, 
erected opposite the weakest part of the fortification. 
These era were constructed of all sorts of materials, 
as wood, stone, earth, &c. and gradually carried for- 
ward till almost close to the walls. The besiegers were 
thus raised to a level with their enemies, and sometimes 
succeeded in throwing bridges between the and 
the fortification, by which they stormed the place. Still, 
however, this m of attack was liable to a serious 
objection. The laborious nature of the operations ne- 
cessary in constructing even single and detached mounds 
or aggera, afforded the besieged time enough to strength- 
en such parts of their rampart as were threatened, and 
thus deprived the assailants of no inconsiderable — of 
the advantage to be derived from their works. The in- 
vention of moveable towers or turrets was therefore a 
very great improvement in the art of attacking. These 
towers were erected on wheels and rollers, by which 

could easily be moved from one place to another ; 
and, in point of size, were proportioned:to the height 
and strength of the place to be attacked. In their most 
improved form, they consisted of wood, and were so 
constructed as to be —_ down and carried about 
with the army as of the 

But the great alticulty of i: fortified places in 
ancient times, did not consist in the prodigious labour, 
so much as in the danger to which the besiegers were 
exposed in constructing their outworks, From their si- 
tuation, the besieged were enabled powerfully to annoy 
their enemies, with comparatively little to them- 
selves. Huge stones, and other heavy ies, thrown 
from the ramparts, became formidable and destructive 
weapons, against which the besiegers could find no pro- 
tection in the ordinary means of defence. It was to 
prevent the fatal effects of such weapons, that the testudo 
was invented. , This consisted of a number of soldiers, 

ed in different forms according to circumstances, 
but all holding their shields above their heads, thus 
forming a canopy or covering over those who were em- 
ployed in the works beneath. The testudo was also 
sometimes employed, for the purpose of taking a place 
by storm, when the garrison was not in a proper condi- 
tion to defend itself. In this case, the front rank stood 
upright, holding their shields before them ; the second 
held their shields above the heads of the first, at the 
same time cp a little ; the third stooped still more, 
holding their shields also above their hands; and so on 
to the rear rank, which was in a kneeling posture, thus 
exhibiting the appearance of a tiled roof. On this roof, 
another body of men was drawn up in the same form, 
and protecting themselves in a similar manner. A 
number of successive stories being. thus constructed, 
those that formed the highest were enabled to engage 
on equal terms with the besieged, and frequently suc« 
ceeded in getting possession of the place. 

In later times works were constructed, and attacks 
made on fortresses under the protection of covered ways, 
or approaches. These ches. were generally the 
work of great expense and labour, being guarded on 
one sitle, and sometimes also on the other, with a mound 
of earth, and covered on the top with skins of animals, 
rafters, or bundles of rods, called Jfascines. At the ex- 
tremity of the approach, was erected as close to the 


FORTIFICATION. 


walls a3 necessary, either an agger, or a moveable tower, 
according to circumstances. 

Such were some of the defensive works used by the ogo 
ancients in oe on a siege, or in making a sudden vegan al 
attack on a fortified place. their offensive weapons, the ancients, 
we have already given an ample account under the ar- 
ticles Arms and Artitupry, to which we refer our. 
readers. Of the methods employed by ee for 
destroying, and otherwise rendering unserviceable, the 
machines of the enemy, we have also spoken under the 
article Ancuimepes, where we took occasion to state 
our opinion with regard to the wonderful power ascri- 
bed to the mechanical inventions of that ee 
mathematician. We would only observe on Mining. 
the subject of ancient fortification, that mining seems to 
have been practised at a very early period, and with ~ 
considerable success, capndidlly in destroying the tow- 
ers and aggera of the besiegers. The earth under these 
works being excavated, the place was filled with com- 
bustible matter, and set on fire. The superincumbent 
earth was thus rendered friable, and sinking down, the 


; 
q 
} 
— were overturned. ats A 
e invention of , (anno 1330,) though : 
ultimately destined to produce a ner ert oe sys- fortihcation } 
tem of defending and ing fortified was not in modern) — 
immediately productive of this effect. great guns “mes. é 
began to be first used, they were so rude and unma« ‘7 
nageable, that the batteri — of the ancients 
long maintained their groun ven so late as the be- A 
ginning of the 15th century, few towns had been regu- 
ly bombarded, though artificial fire works had been 
frequently used, sometimes in the form of rockets, and 
sometimes fastened to birds tails, for the purpose of set- 
ting fire to such parts of the town or as were ofa 
combustible nature. It was a device of this kind, that 
proved fatal to the camp of the Austrians before Saaz. 

About the beginning of the 16th enter the use 
of great guns € more common, their ef- 
fects to be more apparent. The circumvallations 
of the besi gradually assumed the form of 
fortifications ; and forti places themselves under 
went a considerable change both in form and strength. 
We cannot here enter into a detail of these 2 
without supposing our readers to be acquainted with 
the caper ont of the art, which it is the object of this 
article to explain. It may, however, be d in 
general, that the use of modern had not of it- 
self the effect of shortening the duration of sieges, The 
advantages of great guns, especially men had ac- 

uired considerable dexterity in the ent of 
them, were no doubt very great to the besiegers ; but \ 
theyalso tothe besieged a powerful means of an- 4 
noying the enemy. Besides, fortified places were some~ 
times so successively at eae as for a long time. 
to defy even the force of the heaviest ordnance. A. 
wall at Magdebourg, received 1550 cannon shot with-. 
out sustaining any damage. The numerous instancestoo,. 
which history affords of longand unsuccessfulsieges, even . 
after the invention of fire arms, wnt Fn ooo 
tion was not more advantageous for ing than for - 
defending fortified . The siege of an important 
pene ane, Caclivent See : 
not successful on the besiegers, generally 
terminated in the loss ob the greater part of thee ary. 

Such was the state of fortification, when, towards Change in: 
end of the 17th century, M. Vauban effected a com the method! 
plete revolution in the art. This celebrated er of attack ine 
Invented a new method of attack, against which no troduced by 
mode of defence hitherto adopted has been able to hold Vauban- 


Use of great 
guns. 


FORTIFICATION. 


_ Rortificas out, Wauban himself indeed soon discovered the su- 
tion. 


>. pert 
2. wl during the latter 
: enn the equilibrium which he had destroyed. His 


"% 


¢ 


PLATE 

 CCLVIL 
ye distance from A to the 
_ Detaions. called the 


iority of his system of attack to that of his defence, 
; of his life, endeavoured to 


disciples, as well as those who differed in some points 
from him, continued to labour in the same cause ; but 
after all the and improvements which they in- 
troduced into his plan of defence, it was found, that 
ir Pe wera ing to counteract the power which 
had been put into the hands of the That 
was soon pronounced to be irresistible, and at 
the same time so regular in its operations, that the du- 
ration of a siege was calculated as easily, and in man 
cases as accurately, as a question in dynamics. Su 
calculations applied to ee ant of moral causes, 
may indeed seem very ; but so deeply have en- 
Pe tibe gales 3 reeabeirube: Asn oe it is utterly 
jor gr one id out against the modern system of at-. 
, that a siege generally terminates after a certain 
progress has been made by the besiegers, whatever may 


487 


be the means of defence which the garrison still pos- 
sesses. Such a system appears to be an agreement en- 
tered into among belligerent powers, to eliver up to 
one another fortified places at a certain price, and cer- 
tainly has a tendency to suppress that fortitude and de- 
termined spirit of resistance, which the history of an- 
cient, as well as of some modern sieges, has proved 
to be the chief cause of a long and successful defence. 
In the remaining part of this article, we shall endea- 
vour to lay before our readers a complete account of 
the modern plan of fortification, with the art of attack- 
ing and defending fortified places. 
shall take an opportunity of noticing the various im- 
provements which have either been pro , or actu- 
ally adopted ; and among others, the plan of defence 
recommended by Carnot, who has long been distin- 
ished by’ mathematical, political, and military ta- 
fore. and well known for ‘his famous defence of Ant- 
werp, in 1813. . 


Partl. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF FORTIFIED PLACES. 


SECT. I. 
Permanent Fortifications. 


‘irw: of Every fortified place is in the form of « polygon, 
ces. 


for- more or less 


according to circumstan 
be considered as chords of 


In Plate CCLVII. Fig. 1, is exhibited the trace of a re- 
gular fortification of five sides,in which DEFGH is call- 
ed the exterior, and KLMNI the interior polygon. The 

i of the exterior polygon is 


radius, from A to the angle of the 
interior the small radius. The contained 
between two radii, as EBCF, is ¢ a front of the 


tion is the about the angle of the polygon, as 
VUFZC. curtain is that part of the front which 
areca BC. In the bastion VUFZC, the 


he 


U 

of the omen or 
the face and the curtain is called the flock: el 
angle of the tenaille. When the shoulders of 

tion are built in the circular form P, Q, they are called 
orillons, or tours creuses. The distance between the 
angles of the flanks, as VC. is called the of the 


bastion ; and CM, or MV, the demr-gorge. coe, 
line, drawn from the saliant angle of one bastion to 


le of the flank in another, as FB, is called a line of 
defence. If this line be drawn along the face, and pa- 
rallel to it, it is called a razing defence ; and if the line 
make an angle with the face, the defence is said to be 
Jichant, or oblique. When the line of defence meets 
the curtain short of the extremity, the part of the cur- 
tain between that point and the extremity is called the 
second flank. : 
The whole circumference of the works about a town, 
as represented in Fig. 1, is called the enceinte, or corps 
de la ee . Other works have each a particular name ; 
but they are in general called outworks. The chief 


In this account we. 


Fortifica. 
tion. 


—_——_ 


Permanent 
Fortifica- 
tions. 


strength of the corps de Ja place, as well as of the out- 


works, is a mound of earth called the rampart, and of 
which the trace shows the thickness at the bottom. On 
ae of ot em git is raised e another mound, called 
parapet, for the purpose of covering the besi 
and their guns from the fire of the lett. Behind thin 
are two or three steps called banguettes, on which the 
soldiers stand when they fire over the parapet ; and be- 
tween these and the town, is a ed the terre- 
plein, of sufficient breadth for the movement of troops, 
and the conveyance of cav: from one place to ano~ 
ther. The rampart is generally lined with a wall, call- 
ed a revetenvent, on the top of which is a round 
the parapet of about two feet in breadth, the way 
of rounds. The sloping surface of a work is called the 
escarpe, if it declines from the place; and if it inclines 
towards it, the counterscarje. 
Before the rampart in all works, is a ditch called the 
fossé, made by excavating the earth for the rampart. 
Round the coun of this ditch, and at a conve-~ 
nient distance from it, is cut out a passage called chemin- 
—— age ‘be add . From the parapet that 
ends thi clines by a gentle slope to- 
wards the field, and is called the ma ¥ : 

The command of a work is its height above the field, 

or above some other work, and is not to be confounded 
with relief, which is the height above the horizon. 
When a fortification has only a partial command of the 
field, it is called a razing fortification ; and when it is 
much elevated above the ground, it gets the name of a 
. If any of a fortification cannot be seen 

from the parapet, it is called a dead angle. 

The profile of a fortification, is a vertical section of 
the works from the extreme boundary of the glacis 


Commas 


for 
erie facie baw The following were given 
Errard : 
Ist, That the saliant of the bastion should ne- 
ver be less than 60°, pag! s! rere ry. hen practicable. 
2d, Tiss, « Baska ae should be 
within musket ee meee viz. from 700 to 
90 he 


Sth, That all the works of a fortification ought to be 
ye oa in elevation, that the one nearer the 
place I be higher than the one before it. 
Notwithstanding the excellence of these rules, how- 
ever, the frace of was very defective. He left 
all the lines to be determined by the constructor ; the 
ee ats a ehegelst greubt, ous dca to be 
" on 1 was cult to tra- 
Tt was also too small, and rendered less eas cosy. fo 
be defended, from being icular to the face. 
i i these faults, by deter- 
the various with more precision, and on 
more accurate principles. The improvements which 


fallowed, were adopted partly in one country, and part. 


ve rise to the different me- 


in another, and pa 
Luni ees rench, Italian, Spanish, and 


Dutch. sl Bod, however, may be considered 


as essentially the same, the difference among them be- 
ing chiefl mn the saliant angle of the bastion, and the 
form of the flan 

Whatever pan of fortification be adopted, it is of 
im to observe, that all the works ought to be 
traced out in the exterior poly, If they are traced 
on the interior, the different one ig ke cae be ger 
mined with the same accuracy Se tige, Spire gs 
we proceed to lay down the Pathe vie toc most plied 
Sits pore of Gee aioe deaty 

The of the bastion should never be less than 
from 160'to 200 feet wide, so as to afford a free com- 
munication with the bastion, and room for meunting 
two or three guns. 

The length of the flank depends on the } of the 
line of defence, and what it is required to defend ; but 
it ou: t never to be Jess than from 180 to 200 feet, 
anid id be perpenticiiie to the thon which it be. 
tended to flank. 

The orillon should never be larger than to allow two 
ee Sech ame 2 be Pleeed pe fhe aoreced Pash, If it 
be more, it weakens the flank. 

To increase the offensi er of the flanks, 
have sometimes been p in vaults cut out of the 

rampart beneath, These vaults are called casemates ; 
but they have been objected to on account of their di« 
minishing the strength of the flank, their annoying the 
gunners with smoke, and To 


lensive 


orillons. In Sect ia elena ean be a foe 

pet, and the ammunition DB ages in a vault Lea, 

—- of the higher Compared with case- 

lower flanks are undoubtedly an improve- 

at the same time, they’ certainly diminish, 
degree, the effect of the higher flank ; 


FORTIRPICATION. 


and it may choesfernhedevinappwiennk: hov:ie far they: 


are, in many 
The saliant of mange ap as 
less than 80. and if it could be made to exceed. ~ 
90, it would ein arenes nae any mH 
Vv 
ston. The dunked age woul 


enlarged, on 
te toe eee se rar gh ata - 
greater distance from one 
The } of the faces is determined by 7y that of the. 
curtain and the side of the po polngie tv eg reenloy 
ought it to be more than $50; 230 feet. 
The curtain should never exceed 500 fet 
short. of 200, 
The depth of the ditch or fossé generally 
on the nature of the ground, th quant of ar 
wanhat in tec dente | res a be de-. 
niet ie circumstances, but t never to exceed. 
100 or 180 feet. The ditch always to be dry. 
we there are no ger paca es 
e covert way is can ee eae ene- Covert . 
my from approaching too near the ditch iyi 
them to be more. watchful in arding Seis wee 
while, at the same time, it les the 
more easily to defend their outworks, as well as 
lect their troops in safety when they intend to 
a sally. The covert way is pees oe 
of the ditch, and varies in breadth: 
according to circumstances, In all cases, 
of such a width as to allow (ren 
manceuyre without: 
fending it, In order to. give 
cation a complete pay ored of the 
which the plane of the latter males ie 
ought to be such, that if the eae 
would pass through the highest part bot! 
wethe epace A’ in the’ be sl Lense i 
space A’ in the re-entering | 
way, is, called a place of arms, ef which 
lines focaing: the saliant ne eh ate 
in length, in the salian 
covered way ae yee 
places were ound to -great use i 
covered way, but were soon rendered 
them with a ditch toon th 
vered way, and on the escarpe of that ditch construct 
ing a rampart for the defence of the»men within. 
this form, Phe sock in callethentioasyaanaier peer 
ADCB, Fig, 2. The ori A teepires of the demi-1 


In, taken. B ‘enlargin, ees 
ing * Senne to <2 more patensinely useful. 


orga 


Ha 


a 


to 


cure't 


E 


caiG a! 
-% 


_—- 


if 


i 
HE 
: 


i 
” 


2 
f 


7% 


x 
n@ 
¢ 

A 


we 


z 
? 


. 


Hu 


A) 
: 


Es 
a 


i 


- 
- 


§, 
15 


_ 


4 


4 
{i 
i 
& 


i 
&e 


al 
| nae 


cman » ng, glacis, vata prevent. the eretion of 
wor in two positions very v ‘or 
won ov antageons fo attacking 


an f sigs 


Some engineers have erred” 
lunes before the a better » from 


affording, 
the works. constru the ¢ 
the faces. and flanks. oie 

ble to several objections. 
tains, and even the 
munication with the 


have.accordingly been Completely rejected. 9 6) > 
¥ Fectibe ceaemeation tot. demi-lunes,. some have gi 

them their defence from the curtain, as ADC, Fig. 2. 
where EF, GH are from 48 to 60 feet, and the faces of 


= 


Prate 


 CCLVET. the ravelin 130 to 180. Others have taken the defence 


Fig. 2. from the orillons,as IDK, where the faces are from; 200 
to 230 feet. Sometimes also they have been construct- 
ed in the form LDM ; but all forms are inferior 
to what will be described afterwards. - ut 
Demi-lunes are surrounded in the same way as the 
enceinte, with a ditch and covered way, the former be- 
ing from 48 to 60 feet wide. 
Fausse- . A second enceinte, called the fausse-brave, has some- 
brave. i 


above, has undergone many changes, and received con- 
siderable improvements since the time of Errard. Of 


BEF 
He 
: 


1 the side. 
t to the line of defence, 
orillons, w are curved outwards, one third 


RESLPE 
PtepeeR 
ae 
re 4 
FE 
ae 
: 


possesses consi- 
over the method adopted by Pa- 
gan. sharon aa to local. circum. 
stances, as parts diminish with the side and angle 
of the The flanks have an advantageous po- 
baations are more spacious, 

VOL, IX. PART U. ; 


if 


FORTIFICATION. 


489 


» Vauban also!inttoduced a change in the construction Permanens 

- —— pb ok earth veined above the rest = 
‘the fortification, for the purpose, of! commanding a , : 

distant part of the field.’ Formerly these had been jy the in- 

placed in the curtain and various other parts of the for-, vention of 

tification, and were sometimes used for defending the cavalicrs. 

ditch. In these positions, however, they were found 

to embarrass the manoeuvres of the soldiers. Vauban, 

therefore, enlarged their size, and placed them in the 

bastions, whence they could more effectually. defend 

the curtain. They are traced thus; A parallel 36 feet 

from the interior of the t, denotes the exterior 

side of the talud or slope of the escarpe, and 18 or 20 

feet farther back, is drawn the fire-line or interior side 

of the cavalier, In small bastions, the talud is almost 

perpendicular, and the earth is prevented from falling 

down by a revetement. This revetement, however, 

ought in no case to be higher than the parapet of the 

bastion, that it may — ie o pect a 

the garrison may not be inj y the splinters. It is 

also a dianclviicbgae attending cavaliers of this. kind, 


that they ent the bastion from being intrenched 
farther . Nor is this defect remedied by carrying 
a as some engi have done, from the ca- 


valier to the bastion, and constructing a ditch before 
ba ey Aang iF am acorn as soon as a breach is 
made. A more advantageous method of constructing ca- 
valiers will be given in a subsequent part of this article. 

The improvements which Vauban introduced, were jn outworj:s, 
not confined to the enceinte alone. He also maie se~ 
veral advantageous alterations in the construction of 
outworks, though, it must be admitted, that he left not 
a little to be done in this way by his successor Carmon- 
taigne. The first outwork used by Vauban, is the te- 
naille aC t, Fig. 3. It is placed before the curtain, yention of 
and by a ditch sufficiently large to receive tenailles. 
the earth that may fall from the curtain, and which Prate 
might otherwise fill the terre-plein. Of course it, in a mah 
get entend on the use of the fausse braye, "8 > 

n his first illes, Vauban used flanks, as be, gf, 
th they were afterwards omitted. In constructing 
tenailles of this kind, h7, ef are parallel to the curtain, 
the first at 16, and the last at 60 feet distance ; a k, tl, 
30 feet from the flanks of the bastion ; a b, tg, equal to 
one-half of aC or ¢C ; and the flanks 6 ¢,¢/; parallel to 
those of the bastion. Having determined a 6 e, and tg f, 


in the in- 


pra ee emer St per and. at the distance of 
54 feet, akh 7 li for the interior side of the terre- 
plein. Thus the terre-plein of the faces and flanks of 
the tenaille is $0 feet, but that of the curtain only 18, 

In constructing tenailles without flanks, which are - 
found to be most advan’ » the flanks being easily 
destroyed, the faces a 4 and t g are continued till they 
meet opposite the centre of the curtain. By this form, 
the tenaille is not enfiladed, and the besieged may re- . 
tain it even after the fossé is taken. The form. would 
be still farther improved, if, instead-of forming an angle 
aC t, it were parallel to the curtain. It would thus af. 
ford a direct fire on the terre-plein of the ravelin, and 
a the ditch to be made larger. 

e tenaille answers several important purposes, It 
covers the sally ports of the curtain and flanks, by which of the tc. 
the besieged communicate with the ditch ; preserves a naille. 
communication with the ravelin, and secures the re- 
treat of those who defend it; protects the men in the 
fossé when dry, and the boats whem wet; affords a ra- 
zing fire on the enemy whem crossing the ditch, and 
covers the revetement of the curtain to a-certain height. 

Itis also of great usein case of a breach being attempt- 
30 


Advantages 


Be 
i 
i: 
: 
: 


Ati 
the 
H 


ff 
if 
Es 
ii 
i 
i 
gz 
:2 
Ee 


i faces of the ravelin termi- 
nate on those of the bastion $0 feet from the shoulder. 
The object in both cases is to 


3 
4 
: 
ry 
x 
] 


to be as acute as is consistent with the best 
defence. In Vauban’s method, this angle is always ob- 
of the ravelin’ was at first equal to 

side of the polygon. Finding, how- 
shoulders were very much exposed, 


‘he enlarged the angle by extending the faces of the 


in con- 
structing re- 
chuits, 


in the oo- 


ravelin to one third of the side of the polygon, and ma- 
terminate on the faces of the bastion 90 
feet from the shoulders. He sometimes also used flanks 
to his ravelin as op, epee — two sere 
taking gp equal to 42 feet, and po to 60. ese 
flanks, : ever, are of little use, as they are easily en- 
filaded by the enemy, and afford little protection to the: 


tain. 
Formerly the faces of the ravelin terminated on the 
counterscarpe of the ditch, in the re-entering angle of 
which a small harbour was constructed for the boats 
that were used to keep up the communication between 
the ravelin and the In this form, however, the 
back part was found to’be easily enfiladed, and now the 
faces terminate on the lines Am, Bn, drawn from the sa- 
liant angles of the bastion to the end of the terre-plein. 
As an inducement to hold out in defending the ra- 
velin, which is too frequently given up without neces- 
sity, Vauban constructed reduits within the ravelin. 
These consisted at first of a single wall, two feet thick, 
and from six to seven feet high, and were intended to 
cover the garrison in retreating from the demi-lune in 
case the latter were taken. were of the same 
form as the demi-lune, their faces being 80 to 120 feet, 
and their flanks, where the ports were, 30 to 48 feet. 


They were Teo from the terre-plein of the demi- 
lune by a ditch 12 to 16 feet wide. 


When large demi-lunes were invented, reduits were 
converted into second demi-lunes, having faces 100 to 
feet, and separated from the first by a fossé. This 

has found very useful in defending the 
as the passage of the ditch. The width 
of the ditch before the curtain is from 100 to 130 feet, 
round the bastion 100 to 110, and before the ravelin 

. The saliant parts of all ditches are circular, 
described from the saliant angle of the work with a ra- 
dius equal to the width of the ditch. 


with faces from 72 to 100 feet, and forming an angle 
with the covered way of 100 

— traverses Ses rare the covered way, 
w being enfiladed, and 
Semel cibaebtss thesoho ree dthomegta The 
traverses were perpendicular to the counterscarpe, and 


FORTIFICATION: 


distant from each other. | 


HUE 
apeehae 
Ht i 

i 


e 
2 
: 
| 


u e principal of these 
duit D, of which the faces rea ee rere 


tuse angle, and the flank v, prevented 
covered wag tolsitd fecin: bbs eiaiadeds 


also to take th in the na Enamel 

serve to take the enemy in the rear w! 

ing to ascend the breach in the demi-lune, 
velins might be still farther improved, 

ee eee faces ; but ved 

as that angle ought never to exceed 60 degrees, the the 

most advantageous form for a ravelin, is an equilateral 


triangle. The advantages of the ravelin, however, de- 
pend not a little on the angle of the -poly; The 
angle is, the farther will the ravelins extend 


andi for the illustration of-whidii Weanechiellyinduted 

to St Paul, the in of the French for- 

tresses. We say illustration, for the discovery, we be- 
particular 


a is due to Montalembert and Belidor, 

tter. ‘ : : 
The practice of enlarging the angle of the polygon 

has been by Et Pe engineers, not ‘only 

from the advan’ ition which it gives to the 

demi-lune, but because it is found to form the 


chief merit of the modern system of defence. on 


aw 


In Montalembert’s method there are no bastions, but: Montalem- 
angles; the former 60 bert’s me- 
and the latter 90 degrees. His lines of defence,. that’ thod. 


merely saliant and re-entering 


is the lines containing the angles, are from 800 to 550) 
eet, 4 


In the preceding part of this article, we have: con- Thickness 


sidered the trace merely as a suite of lines, without re- of the diffe’ 


gard to the thickness of the works which these lines re~' Tent works. 


present. We shall now proceed to lay down the di- 
mensions of Lae aR aT at been de- 
termined by the most skilful engineers. | 
The terre-plein of the rampart 
breadth as to permit the soldiers to manceuvre, and ef- 
fectually to resist all attempts to make a breach in it, 
at the same time if it be too wide, it is much exposed 
to the enemy’s fire, occupies more than can be 
spared from the other works, and ex~. 
pensive. . By some old engi it was fixed at from 
55 to 70 feet, a breadth impracticable, and in all: 
quantity of artillery be very small, guns seldom 
require to be removed from one place to another, thi 
x ara ein A piece of ordnance after being 
ged, recoils from 18 to 25 feet, according to its: 
calibre and the nature of its mounting. The breadth 
of the terre-plein, therefore, cannot be less than from 


ub 


ought to be of such @ Rampart 


* Soo aan 


Cavaliers. 


PLATE 


_ceLvi. 4 


Fig. 3. 


FORTIFICATION. 


Pree RRR HH eng besegie? 
rain lodging u it, the surface 
in should incline rita the town at-the 
rate of one inch-of | icular descent in every foot 
of breadth. It to be planted with rows of 
Bet ic sd Loin noeendemeee 
w ‘or : 
ie detect tha dom tis to be finished. towards the 
town by a talud or slope, not, however, so but 
that the soldiers may ascend it without being 
to go round by the ramps or- passages deasling. oP to 
the ein. Between the houses and ram- 
part, there if possible, to be a street 14, to 
20 feet wide; and if there is not space sufficient for 
this otherwise, the inner side of the rampart may be 
made more nearly perpendicular, and be su by 
a revyetement: It is always inconvenient to have houses 


ought therefore, if possible, 


Engineers have differed in opinion with regard to 
the construction of bastions, some recommending the 


* 
service. | 


it is 
on 
for 


i y lower. a aay depend 
said, afford facilities to the i or i 


a 


forming the escarpe of the faces of the 
bib His 9009 36 fort dissent, and GH 

coupures zm, zy are perpendicular 
and 20 to 50 feet’ distant from 


i 

gf 

F 

ty 

q 

i 

=e in g 
TEE 
ae eon 
iss 


fire. 

.. Another kind of cavalier called a barbette, is some- 
times constructed in the saliant angle of the bastion, as 
a, extending about 36 feet along the faces. The terre- 


= > 
iu 
= 
Fy 
i 
u 
i 
ae 
2§ 
Ps 


LPT 
Bae 
He 
‘ah 
Hie 
g@ 
ae 
TH 
fae 


491 


nature of the materials, The interior of the saliant Permanent 


angle is sometimes made circular, to admit a greater 
number of men than it could otherwise do. The height 
of the parapet above. the terre-plein ought to be 7 feet 
6 inches, andthe banquette about 3 feet ; that is 4 feet 
6 inches lower than the highest inner edge of the para- 
pet... When the banquette is higher than 2 feet, it 
ought to be provided with steps for the soldiers to 
ascend, . Its breadth should be about 4 feet, to allow 
two ranks of soldiers to act. As a banquette.is not on 
all occasions useful, it may sometimes be sufficient to 
have a mound of earth behind the parapet, ready to be 
constructed should it be necessary. 


Fortifica- 
tions. 


_ In order to give the fire of the garrison a complete Plonge of 


command of every on 
works, the parapet a slope outwards. To deter. 
mine this slope; which is called the plonge, is always a 
lem of great importance. If the parapet be too 
evel, the guns of the garrison cannot be brought to 
bear on such of the enemy’s works as are very near ; 
and should the slope be very great, it weakens the up- 
wer. pesto the parapet. The plonze, that is the verti- 
cal difference between the interior and exterior edge of 
the parapet, should not therefore if possible exceed 18 
inches, but, at the same time, it ought to be so con- 
structed as that the garrison may completely command 
the coyert way and glacis. 
The guns of the garrison are fired through openings 


of the field, and the enemy’s the parapet. 


Embra- 


in the parapet, called embrasures. These openings are sures. 


not made when the pet is at first constructed, but 
are generally left Pa tp out as the position of the 
enemy’s batteries and other circumstances may require. 
The form of embrasures has undergone various change? 
but that now generally adopted is from six to nine feet 
in width towards the eld, and from 16 to 18 inches to- 
wards the place. The best method of supporting the 
sides of the embrasures is by means of saucissons or 
large. fascines. .Wood and stone are sometimes used, 
but are dangerous on account: of the splinters. The 
part of the parapet between two embrasures is called a 
merlon. Revetements should never be carried so high 
as to interfere with the embrasures ; nor should trees 
planted near them, as the roots become very trouble- 
some. When, from a scarcity of earth, it becomes ne- 
to construct the yale ay any pot of the para- 
» it ought to be from four to seven feet 
ay Rise <a 
In former times, it was usual to carry a pa 
round. the outside of the pet, on the top of the re- 
vetement, from 6 to 10 feet wide, with a wall from 
three to six feet high towards the field, in which were 
loop-holes for the soldiers to fire through. This passage; 
commonly called the passage of the rounds, is now com- 
plats abandoned, having been found to afford. consi- 
able facility to the enemy in ing an assault. 
Guerrites, or small towers before the saliant angles of 
the parapet, for centinels, have also been given up. 
As a free communication among the di 
of the fortification is of the greatest importance, it be- 
comes necessary to have ramps or slopes, by which the 
artillery, Sc. may be brought upon the rampart, If 
the bastion be full, ramps in the gorge will be sufficient; 
if sane, one wil] be required at flank, at the faces, 
and also at the curtains. The breadth of the ramp may 
be from oh feet, Peay in a may oi and 
its perpendicular ascent, from 1. inch to 24 inches 
horlzontal foot a 
Souterrains, or caserns, are places 
the rampart, for the purpose of lodging the soldiers, 


Sssage Passage of 
the rounds. 


fferent parts Ramps. 


constructed under séuterrains, 


Gates. 


tive merits 
of wet and 
ary ditches. 


‘Caponniers. 
PLATE 
cc_Lvil. 
Fig. 3. 


Cunette. 


Bstardesux. 


Hig. 1. 


in height. They are shut by a draw-bridge, and also 
by a strong door at each extremity of the On 
the right and left of the , and within the town, are 
watch-houses for centi which ought to be shell- 
proof. Formerly, the bridges before the gates were of 
wood, but in the new fortresses they are of stone. The 
former had the advantage of being easily burned, in 
case of emergency. 

In those curtains that have no gates, there are sub- 
called posterns, which communi- 


works, The extremity next the field ought to be co- 
vered by a tenaille, or closed up by a very. gate. 

Engineers have differed in opinion with to the 
comparative merits of a dry and a wet ditch. There 


can be no doubt, that one capable of being made either 
dry or wet, according to circumstances, is to be pre- 
ferred: at the same time, it seems to be generally ad- 
mitted now, that a dry one is the -Aore etrnee cy 
particularly if the enceinte has a revetement. It not 
only enables the garrison to lend more prompt and ef- 
fectual assistance to the outworks, but it also encou- 
the defenders of these to main same A nari 
more obstinacy, knowing that they have a iy 
and safe swe oi of pros Here Besides, it is on- 
ditch that the garrison can make sorties, 
communication by means of boats being altogether 
unfit for rapid movements. 
In a dry ditch, the communication between the for- 


tress and the ravelin consists of a passage 6, Fig. 3. 
about nine feet wide, and inclosed by a on each 
side, inating in a glacis. A of kind is 


called a caponnier. When they have a only on 
one side, they are called half dupoahiensy" Both kinds 
are sometimes carried between the shoulder of the bas- 
tion and the ravelin, as well as between various other 
parts of the fortification, and are useful in defending 
the ditch. They are always perpendicular to the lines 
which they enflank. 

In moist ditches which are intended to be dry, it is 
frequently necessary to have a small ditch called a cu- 
nette, for carrying off the superfluous water. It is also 
sometimes used to prevent the enemy from surprising 
a work that has no revetement or wet ditch. “Tn thee 
case, it is 8 feet deep, and 12 wide. 

if a place be so situated, that a current of water can 
be brought through the ditch at pleasure, it gives the 
garrison a prodigious advantage over the besi ; 
obliges the latter to be very cautious 
ene tch for the purpose of making an as- 

In ‘order more effectually to inundate the ditch, 
dams-or batardeaux, a 6, c d, Fig. 1, are sometimes em- 


ployed. ‘They are constructed of stone, and of a suffis 


FORTIFICATION. 


the sl a be af prose Winans 
e sluices t to be w ' 
tardeau is constructed before the curtain, it 
communication between the and the ravelin, by 
means of a gallery in the interior, 
Tenailles are generally 50 feet in width, 

rapet on the escarpe, and a terre-plein of 25 

derneath, have posterns ‘to those in the 
rampart, in the outer extremity of which may be con- 
structed a convenient harbour t 


t of stairs. sali 
led simple when the interior | 
empty, and when they have reduits within. 
A simple Gerti-lone qoaslats 5° 9, paeee: oe eae 
part with a pet upon it. The width of this ram- 
part ought to be about 50 feet, which will leave 50 feet 
for the terre-plein, after a parapet has been constructed. 
The ramps of the terre-plein are in the saliant angle. 
Demi-lunes are sometimes furnished with posterns, 
which serve for a communication with the 
arms when the ditch is wet, and for sally ports 
the ditch is dry. erally in the 
angle. The of to have 
revetement with a small harbour, and ramps or stairs. 

The reduit of a demi-lune ought to have a ram 
of 50 feet wide, with a and ramps at the extre- 
mities of its faces. If the ditch before it be dry, it 
ought to be from 9 to 12 feet hi, 
enceinte. The stairs between 


Jiant 


not to reach to the bottom of the lowest, lest i. 
litate the attack of the enemy. The commur 
for the ison may be completed by wooden stairs, to 


trees 
formerly mentioned, with mths 


ther in the counterscarpe. To prevent the 
way from being enfiladed, the Pratis has a 
ode > ‘Traverses have in general banquettes, 
which the covered way is ded, and which are 
high as the crest of the glacis. Sometimes the ban- 
quette is carried across to the coun’ , leaving on- 
ly one at the extremity of the traverse next the 
rlacis. Th the faces of the ‘places OF uisind Mle axe 
ramps to facilitate the sorties, about 10 feet wide, and 
so steep as to prevent their being enfiladed. These 
snghe sfc thay‘ indy MO GABOONS a 
angle, where they wou too : 
passages from thie gates the glacis are from 1 
to 18 feet wide, the sides of the 

walls, and the whole 


is heing lined. wi 
so as nowhere to ex- 
pose the covered way. .* 


brine 


£ 


Simple 


dood to 


F 


part Dimension 


of reduits. 


It has been proposed by some to cover the glacis with 
stones, or plant it with brush-wood, to prevent the ene- 
my from making excavations. Perhaps the same pur- 
would be better accomplished by planting it with 
This last method was adopted by the French en- 

subsequently to 1792. Another improvement 
ey denartetitn Ceahs'ytacks is to round off all the 


ought to look towards the 
bastion, because, if it were on the opposite side, it would 
be to the enemy’s fire, whenever oan dae: 
session of the saliant angle of the ravelin. The com- 
munication between the covered way and the ditch is 
formed by ramps in the counterscarpe of the places of 
arms. 


Such is a general outline of a complete fortification 

ing to the modern system of defence. A fortified 
place, however, when finished, seldom presents so sim- 
ple a form as what we have now described, being gene- 
rally surrounded with a great variety of other outworks. 
The nature and use of these we shall now proceed to 
A tenaillon is a kind of couvre face A, Fig. 4. construct- 
ed on each sideof a small ravelin B, toincrease its strength, 
and cover the shoulder of the bastion. To trace a tenail- 
lon, ce the face of the ravelin, and, leaving from 
60 to 80 feet for the fossé, set off ab equal to 180 feet. 
On the coun’ of the bastion, set off cd equal to 
90 feet, and ab dc will be the tenaillon. Works of this 
kind are sometimes a little different from that repre- 


are in consequence seldom 
et been sometimes before 


the ravelin; but the 


PLATE 


iH por 
| aa 1, 


before th seteduidioeree: 
ph igh ct ce ehetthety gor tm 240 feet, and CDabout 


g 
: 
: 


it may 
with the covered 


A 


we ete eer ; 


Coun’ 


~ 


FORTIFICATION. 


493 


When there is a scarcity of earth, a ditch is some- Permanent 
times constructed before the covered way, or rather be-  Fortifica- 
fore the glacis, called the avant fossé. It is not, how- SS) 
ever, of much use, unless it can be made wet and dry ayant 
at pleasure, and is rather incommodious to the soldiers fossé. 
when making a sally. 

The avant-covered-way is a second covered way be- Avant- 
fore the first-or before the avant-fossé; but is useful covered - 
only in large fortresses, which have numerous garrisons. *Y: 

It is constructed in the same way as the first, care being 
taken that the fire of the latter is not interrupted b 
the former. The avant-covered-way communicates wit 
the works behind by means of bridges or caponniers, 
the inner extremity of which terminates in the places 
of arms. 

Fleches are works of two lines or faces, forming an fteches. 
angle, and generally constructed over saliant angles. 

ey are sometimes useful in covering a passage, but 
in ne they are incapable of making any resistance. 

unettes are works resembling ravelins, but consist- Lunettes. 

ing only of a parapet, placed opposite the saliant angle Prats 
of the cov way, as H and K, Fig. 1. If the cover- a 8 
ed-way has an avant-fossé, the lunettes are placed in Poel 
the fossé ; but if it has none, they are constructed at 
the foot of the glacis, as H and K, Fig. 1. When 
surrounded a ditch and covered-way, they form 
an excellent defence; and, by obliging the enemy 
to open his works at a greater distance from the place, 
they essentially prolong the siege. They are also uses 
ful in sorties. 

Lunettes ought-not to be placed too far from the en« 


ceinte ; their angles should be at least 60 degrees, that 
it sauyibe-defiesiod by guns; and the faces from 100 
to 200 feet long. are always of the greatest ad- 


vantage, when the angles of the bastions are very open. 
The most advantageous arrangement of lunettes, and 
that by which they best defend one another, is where 
the straight lines joining them make saliant and re-en+ 
tering angles alternately ; the saliant before the ravelin, 
and the re-entering before the bastion. In this way, 
too, the greatest number can be made to defend one 
bastion, all which must be taken before the bastion it. 
self be assaulted. Flanks of from 50 to 60 feet are ne« 

in lunettes. The angles of these flanks increase 
as that of the bastion diminishes, and vice versa. 

The communication between the lunette and the co- 
vered way, is by means of caponniers; but lest these 
rh subterraneous pas- 

of covered way, to the 
If the communica- 


tion is not covered, it enters the gorge by steps; if it 
is subterraneous, the gorge is and the steps 
are in the middle of the lunette. the terre-plein of 


the lunette is not higher than the ground, gorge 
by a wall with loop-holes, at least 
i The covered 


A horn work is ted by ABCD, Fig. 2, and Horn 
is constructed as follows. From the saliant ce works. 
the capi ing EF from 450 to 500 feet. hy Fig. 2 
F draw a icular BC, ing BF, CF each 


from 300 to 350 feet, and on this line construct a 
front, as on the exterior side of the polygon. Then 
draw the BA, CD directed to a t, about 30 
feet from the shoulder of the bastion. If aravelin abe 
is constructed before the horn work, its faces ought to 
be 200 feet. ‘The ditch round horn works is about 72 
feet. Various entrenchments, as Gand H, have been 


Permanett used to 


494 


crown works, but none of them 
have been of much advantage, — ’ 
Horn works are placed sometimes before the curtain, 
and sometimes before the bastion. In the former po- 
sition, they do not to be of advantage, as, in case 
of their being taken, the enemy becomes master of the 
whole front. Before the bastion any xi fay very use- 
ful; but in every situation they are liable to strong ob- 
jections, They require a great number of men to de- 
fend them—they form a saliant that is not easily sup- 
ported by other works—they present a straight front to 
the enemy, which is always weak, and they are very 
rouch exposed to an assault on their wings or faces. 
Crown-works differ from horn-works in having a bas- 
tion in the middle, as Fig. 3. In other respects, they 
are the same, and constructed in the same way. They 
are, however, liable to still stronger objections than 
horn-works. They are more expensive, and more dif- 
ficult todefend. They are therefore seldom used, un- 
less it be to cover some large and important position 
near the fortress, 
Detached and isolated works are such as are com- 
ly unconnected with the body of the place, and 
inte to or attack some distant position. 
Their form and magnitude differ with circumstances ; 
but they are always similar to some one or other of the 
works already described. 
Of the works placed in the ditches, or used as cou- 
ures and entrenchments, the most remarkable are 
Nfontalembert’s casemated caponniers, towers, 
and ravelins with ailerons. The caponniers are large 
stone buildings, with two or three rows of guns above 
one another, and between these rows loop holes, through 
which the soldiers may fire with musquetry. One half 
of the caponniers may be used as casemates, as the 
smoke is easily carried off. The whole is covered with 
a shell-proof covering. The angular towers, or fours 
angulaires, are round potas with a stair in the 
middle, and places all about it for menand guns. The 
sides are pierced with embrasures and loop holes, and 
the whole covered as the caponniers are, with a shell- 
proof covering. On the top is sometimes erected a 
watch-tower. Under the same denomination of works 
may be classed the English martello towers, consisti 
sometimes of several stories, with embrasures an 
loop-holes. The communication between these stories 
is by means of ladders. On the top is placed one gun, 
and sometimes more, the carriage of which moves on a 
pivot. The ravelins, with ailerons or orillons, do not 
differ from common ravelins, except that they are smal- 
ler, and have the orillons. The latter are. sometimes 
constructed of stone, but more frequently of earth, and 
are separated from the ravelin by a ditch. These 
orillons are of use in covering 
the bastion, when the ravelin is too small for that pur- 
But in every case it would be better to have a 
ravelin without the orillons, than a small one 


lrge gavel The orillons are in fact a sort of places of 


arms, which when taken, give the enemy the command 
of the ravelin. 

Of all the means of defence, none perhaps can be 
turned to greater advantage than water, when it can be 
readily commanded. An inundation, well directed, is 
not only a defence to the besieged, but may even be 


Sec 
too, of this method of defence, that it can be used wi 
out much expense, either of labour or ammunition. 


FORTIFICATION. 


the. shoulders of 


Casemates have frequently been resorted to as‘a cer- | 
tain means of defence ; but besides the general objec- 
tion that are expensive, it does not appear that 
they are so Ey eek eT The 
most useful works of this _are the double capon- 
niers, for the defence of the ditches, These are co- 
vered with a proof arch, and surrounded with a 


E 

z 
‘I 
a] 
is 


the 

To cover the gorge of a work, a wall is some- 
times constructed with loop-holes, and stairs behind it 
to communicate with the terre-plein. Perhaps the best 
defence for any , is a tower like Montalembert’s, 
or the English tower, as it serves not only to 


cover the work, but also to protect the men in retreat- 
ing to the garrison. ' 1 eel , 
en casemates are constructed, they ought : 
leant sigs font. jn: Tavighty: 0nd SS seenam 9d with 
loop-holes at the distance of e t 
give the soldiers the command of the nd immedi. 
ately under the work, and to allow the smoke to dis- 
perse, If the caponniers are of a considerable length, 
they ought to have traverses at short distances, or walls 
wi holes, that they may be more obstinately de- 
fended the enemy get possession of one extre- 
mity. te VWs hep * 
It was formerly observed, that at a early pe+ vpines. 
riod, salneo, ween abglaned leeibedaiioed decree 
ing Shp sawerasel as nee Re anaes 
| near the . After the invention of gunpowder, 


is made 
ed a mine, and a countermine when employed by the 
parece. The construction, however, is the same in 


“they ought 


a tay 29 FS age Aare yy en escarpe 


the earth about the others. ; 
Having pointed out the general disposition of the 


SP te. 


FORTIFICATION. 


different works with regard to the trace, the next im- 
( mi relief. This is done’ 


i 
f 
| 


8, 
~ 


is 
EB 


a5 


r 
i 


H 
iu 
4 
‘ 
: 
£ 
e 


_ To find the height of the saliant angle of the bas- 
tion. 


As the distance between the saliant angle of the 
bastion and the saliant angle of the place of 
arms 


To the distance between the angle of the shoulder 
eae reys third parallel before the demi- 
_ une :: 
So is the height of the glacis before the place of 
arms + 3 feet: 
To the height of the crest of the parapet at the sa- 
liant angle. 


The enemy’s third trench or parallel is generally at 
such a distance as to touch the exterior side of the 
glacis opposite the bastions and ravelins. 


aqie determine the height of the angle of the shou!- 


of the is: 

To the distance between the angle of the shoulder 
and the third in the ion of the sa- 
liant angle of the demi-lune : : 

So is the height of the glacis before the saliant of 
the demi-lune + 2 feet : 

To the height of the angle of the shoulder. 


eae nma: proportion thee and in the latter 
two feet, are od tothe hadche eee er ee 
glacis, that the fire of the body of the place may not 
injure the men in the covered way. The same is done 
in every other work, 


curtain is a s 
' of the flanks. It may be observed, however, in general, 


495 


The command of the faces being determined, that of Permanent 


the flanks is made the same. 
traight line joining the crest of the angles 


that two or three feet, according to circumstances, are 
frequently added to the command determined by the 


preceding rules. 


To determine the command of the demi-lune at its of the gorge 


The command of the Fortifica- 


tions. 


gorge, or the extremity of its face on the counterscarpe of the demi- 
of 


great ditch. 
As the distance between the saliant angle of the 
place of arms and the third parallel : Saute 
To the distance between the extremity of the 
'_ demi-lune at its gorge, and the same paral- 
‘lel:: j 
So is the command of the glacis before the place 
of arms + 3 feet: 
To the height of the demi-lune at its gorge. 


lune. 


To determine the command of the saliant of the of the sa- 


demi-lune. 


way to the third el: 
To the distance between the saliant of the demi- 
lune and the same lel: : 
So is the command of the glacis before the saliant 
+ three feet : 
To the height of the saliant of the demi-lune. 


When the command of the demi-lune is determined 
by this rule, that of the enceinte, as formerly mention- 
ed, requires to have two or three feet more than the 
above rules give. The command of the reduit within 
the ravelin ought to be three feet. 

The p' methods of determining the profile 
of a place, will in ordinary cases give nearly the fol- 
lowing heights: For the saliant angle of the bastion 
174 feet, and the shoulder 21 feet ; for the gorge of 
the demi-lune about 17} feet, and for the saliant angle 
144. The interior side, or command of the glacis, as 
has been already stated, is 7} feet above the covered 
way, and its declivity towards the field ought to be 
1 foot in 24, If the declivity be , it covers the 
enemy's trench or parallel; and if less, the covered way 
becomes 


liant of the 
As the distance from the saliant of the covered demi-lune. 


The revetement of the rampart ought to be equal in Revete- 
height to the crest of the glacis, and at least 25 feet ments. 


above the bottom of the ditch. This gives 18 feet for 
the d of the ditch below the covered way. Some- 
times the revetement is not carried so high as the crest 
of the glacis, and the above is planted with 
thorns, or defended by peliidee This is called a 
demi-revetement ; but it has the disadvantage of assist- 
ing the enemy in the escalade, and therefore ought not 
to be ado ded adios the ditch can be inundated with 
water. For the same reason, the revetement should 
not terminate at top, as it often does, with a derme or 
round way, which serves only to afford the enemy 
greater facility in fixing their scaling ladders. The 
thickness of the wall of the revetement should be at 
least 4 feet at top, and 5 if the height exceed 12 feet. 
At bottom, the thickness ought to be one-sixth of the 
height. To en the revetement, counterforis or 

buttresses of solid masonry, from $ to 33 feet thick, 

are built behind it, at the distance of from 10 to 15 feet 

between centre and centre, which support a consider- 

able part of the pressure of the rampart. When the 

ditch is dry, a row of palisadoes is sometimes construct 

ed in the bottom along the centre, 

4 


Pirate 
CCcLVHL 
rig. & 


To deter- 
Taine the 
relhef or 
uncren 
ground. 


to be considered as separate 
om le constructed by the rules laid down for that of 


oan. The profile of a place is represented in 


considerable i 
different works. The method now 
is as follows: 

A horizontal plane is su to pass through the 

i int of the d within the distance of 2400 
feet of intended enceinte. From this plane, which 
is called the plane of comparison, vertical lines are 
drawn to every remarkable point of the place to be 
fortified, forming as it were a chart of soundings, in 
which the of comparison represents the surface 
of the sea. verti lines, as in the case of sound- 
ings, are called coftes, their different lengths being 
marked on the plane. If these lengths differ no more 
than from two to three feet, the ground may be consi- 
dered as level, and fortified accordingly. If the ine- 

walities are greater than this, re must be had to 
them in determining the relief. 

From what has been already said, it may easily be 

ived, that the crests of all the parapets, on the 
same front of a fortification, terminate in a plane more 
or less inclined to the horizon, as the different works 
are more or less elevated above one another. In the 
same manner, the surfaces of all the terre-pleins, and 
indeed of any other corresponding parts of the works, 
lie in a plain parallel to the former, and as far distant 
from it as these are lower than the Bs ope Such 
planes, in general, are called planes of 
that which passes through the covered way, the pia 
of view or of site, because it determines all the others. 
The plane of view ought to have such a position, that 
it will pass from four to six feet above the highest point 
within 2400 feet of the front. As three points are ne- 
cessary in determining any plane, the three employed 
in this case are two in the line intended for the covered 
way, and one on the summit, or rather five to six feet 
above the summit of the highest ground about the 
place. If the line joining the two first points be hori- 
zontal, the cottes of the plane of view, or the distances 
of the different points in the plane of view from the 
plane of observation, may be found by the rules al- 
ready given for determi the relief of a fortification 
or leve d. If that line is not horizontal, the 
angle of its inclination is first to be ascertained, and 
from that the cottes may be easily computed. 

If an eminence running along a front be nearly of 
an or height, the front ought to be parallel to it ; 
but if the eminence is higher at one extremity, the 
front ought to be at a greater distance from the higher 
part than from the lower. 

If a front runs across an eminence, the of the 
front at the bottom on each side are to be covered b 
saliant works on the top of the eminence, and the whole 
front may then be constructed on one plane of view. 


If it crosses two eminences with a valley between, it 
will require two planes of view, always taking care that 
there be saliant works on the eminences, by which the 


enemy may be obliged to open his trenches at a greater 
distance. If the place be surrounded by eminences on 
all sides, each front will require a plane of view for itself. 


efilement; and ly 


convex towards the enemy, 
iat Oe doe be level and i 
one another. e cou ; 
be n ts-have sire ‘of lees thaws Ne 


Hl 
g, 


‘ 
eeH? 


to é 
junction of the river with other rivers—on 
eminences, or any other advantageous position. 
should also be taken to cover the sluices that 
constructed for inundating the country, when 
measure is rendered Fortifications should 


s 


E 


ie 


the frontier. But the side which chiefly demands the 
attention of the engineer, is the sea coast, which is al- 
ways more cme penetrated, and consequently requires 
the assistance of every advantageous position that can 
possibly be obtained. — sidan | 

The enceinte of a fortification may be a figure of’. 
number of sides, from a ards, the 
of the side in each being 


illy 
importance to determine 
the comparative merits of each. hoy ’ 

The square may be readily fortified, so as, by means The square, 
of ravelins, i and tenailles, to be equal- 

y strong on every side. But the garrison whi i 


capable of containing is com ively small ; 
scarcely possible to make it hold out a 
twelve to fifteen days. The same remarks are applica- 
ble to the pentagon, neither the one nor the other 
being fitted tor an important position. ae 

The hexagon is superior to either of the former. Its Hexagon. 
faces and flanks are sufficiently large ; it will admit of 
other outworks besides ae Ac, coun’ ds, 
tenailles, and will contain 2400 infantry and 100 ca- 
valry. It can only be used, however, in situations 
where assistance can be quickly obtained, as it cannot 
4 mae to hold out longer than from twenty-two to 

ys. 

_ The heptagon and octagon i adore. sive: Of Heptagom 
from 3000 to 3500 men ; and, by the help of outworks and octa- 
and mines, 
resistance. defence te lhe: : my extend 
from twenty-two to thirty-five ) an t of the 

“ from thirty ¥ to pial - 
e enneagon, decagon, and en , are Capable Enneagony, 
of containing 4000 or 5000 men; an equently, &c. 
from so large a garrison, can spare a greater tines 
the defence of outworks, than a polygon of fewer sides. 

If, with the outworks, they the advan of 
inundation, they may be considered as places of the 
first order. Under these circumstances, they may hold 
out from forty to sixty days. ~ 

Dodecagons and polygons of more than twelve sides 
are considered as the stro of all fortifications. They gon, &¢. 
contain a garrison sufficient to defend not only the places © 
themselves, but also the i them, as. 
well as smaller forts in If all the 


gon. 


passages leading to 
the neighbourhood. 


hat cing capable of a considerable 8™ = 
e 


The penta- | 


! 


‘* 


: ji 


i 


FORTIFICATION. 


enemy not be tem to attack them first. If 
eT As adh witllotaihaehs if not, 
it must have a revétement. The souterrains of the ci- 


rit 

= 

lie 

Fs 

iE 

= & 
ul 
Tia) 3 
HUGE 


497 


tified, and the entrance of the canal or river into the 

covered with demi-lunes, lunettes, &c. It will 

found most advantageous to let the river or canal 
issue from the place at the curtain. 

Ifa fortress be situated on a hill, the rampart should 
be constructed so as to enfilade the declivity of the hill 
as much as possible, dent of the outworks. 

ch fortresses are Kram esciowe but very strong. 

the situation of the place be in a moor, or ground 
any way i ble, it is still more easily fortified, par- 
ticularly if there be a command of wate A reser? el 
ceinte with demi-lunes before the gates, will in general 
be sufficient for such a place; but if there is a more 
easy access on any side, it is to be covered by stronger 
works. These ou’ s ought to have the gorge en- 
closed by a wall with loop-holes. 

When a fortress has a plain on one side, and a moor, 
height, or impassable marsh on the other, the side most 

to attack should be nearly a straight line, while 
towards the other may have a considerable degree 
of curvature. With to the works on 
each side, the observations we have already made will 
be found useful ; o 2 tiga ote pre 
can be given, a great must in e case depend 
on the skill and i of the i Fewite be 
observed in pithy hewetvte that ifications on un- 
equal eminences, or on eminences and plains, are al- 
ways disadvantageously placed ; but when it is neces- 
sary to construct them on such places, the side most 
— to attack should have as open bastions as possi- 
; and if such sides have eminences in front parallel 
to them, or nearly so, it will be necessary, in many 
cases, to oceupy vdeo niente by detached forts and 
other strong works. 

acengpA (ag Sees mn Aor sea coast, the side 

next the sea may against a coup de main, 
a single enceinte, or by strong detached woe Whe 
ha place in at a distance from the sea, but communi- 
cates with it by means of a long canal, forts are to be 
these are general ‘sloced Sa au vhde ake. 
are ly at the ends of dams or dikes, 
and so formed as readily to enfilade the canal or its 
bank. | If the forts ean be approached by vessels, they 
ought to be of , and the guns mounted upon 
them should be 36 They ought also, in this 
case, to possess the means of making red hot balls. 


SECT. IL. 


Temporary or Field Fortifications. 


Sucu is a general sketch of the modern system of 
anent fortification, or the construction of fortresses 


that are to be ly used as of i 
We shall now to consider most ved 
plan of field fortification, or the construction of tempo- 


rary works for protecting an army, or a detachment in 
the field. 


Permanent 
Fortifiea- 
_ tions. 


Fortress on 
a hill. 


In a moor 
or marsh. 


On the sea 
coast. 


As field works. are constructed of the same materials, Giewiiwe 


and intended for a time to servethe same 
tresses, many of the ~ cr 
in the construction latter, are applicable 
to the former. The —— of” each Saas Te an 
earthen mound, with a ditch before it, and the only dif- 
ference, therefore, between them, is in the form, size, 
and number of works. The first’ object in field fortifi- 
it Ig ERE os = mmr a 
most capacious at a given expence. ing de~ 
fence should be as much as possible employed, and the 
flanked parts within the range of musket shot, that is 
2 BR 


as for~ of field 
principles laid down above ¥o'ks- 


Fickt 
¥ ectifixa- 


tere 
—ye 


Piate 
OcLVIU. 
Pig 5 


The redan, 


Redoubt. 


The num- 
ber of mea 
necessary 
for different 
kinds of 
works. 


498 


400 or 500 feet. The. saliant, angles) are.always to be 

pong and dead angles, or points, that cannot be 

seen trom any other part of the work,.as much as pos- 
sible avoided. To render the faces more nearly paral- 
lel to the field, the saliant angle should. be very \ob- 
tuse, and its defence will be considerably improved, if, 
instead of furming an angular point, it be. truncated, 
rounded, or serrated, These diferent forms are repre- 
sented in Fig. 5. A, B,C. Saliants, like», where the 
faces cousist of a suite of small saliant angles, are useful 
in removing all unflanked angles; but the sides, form- 
ing each of the small saliants, ought never to exceed two 
feet ; when they are more than this, they, either weaken 
the parapet, or. they render it necessary to increase its 
chickeaee which both adds to the expense, and en- 
croaches on the room within. Perliaps, upon the'whole, 
the best form of a saliant is the circular represented by 
B. With these general remarks, we shall now proceed 
to enumerate the principal works employed in field for- 
tification, 

The redan is a work consisting, of two faces, like a 
demilune, sometiines also having flanks, in which case 
it is called a piece, , As the redan has an open gorge, it 
is easily taken in rear, and. is therefore never but 
to cover a road, dyke, village, castle, or other work. 

sree eo snes eonennennnerate 
ing a com enceinte, It is. generally triangular, 

aie or circular, and sometimes also a polygon. The 
form is seldom used, indeed, its angles being 
too acute, andthe within |too. small. ..'Phe.circu- 
lar redoubt encloses a large space, Lut is difficult to con- 
struct, and cannot be well fanked. The square, or pen- 
tagonal form, is therefore most commonly. used. 

As a redoubt is liable to be attacked.on. every side, 
its size ought to beso rtioned to the number of the 

arrison, that it may be defended on all sides at once. 

“o be sufficiently defended, a side. will require a man 
to every yard, and three ranks.of men. » The first! rank 
fires, the second loads, and the. third acts as a body of 
reserve. la 

The weak defence of such works generally arises 
from the net Capone of the men who are to defend 
them, an erefore great care is necessary in accom- 
modating the work te the number of the ison, A 
redoubt, whose side is about. 12, yards in length, will 
inclose 36 square yards, but will contain. men; enougly 
only for one rank along the parapet, and is besides much 
ex to the destructive effects of stone balls and 
shells. This is, therefore, the smallest redoubt that 
ought ever to be constructed; if the side be 14 to 16 
yards, the space within will be 60 to 80 yards, 
and will contain men sufficient for one ne ad 
serve. A side of 18 to 20. yards will afford room for 
144 men, being enough for two ranks, and, in general, 
the more the mY SYR ER the greater 
in tion will be the room. aff for the garri« 
son. This is to be understood, however, only of isola~ 
ted works, as those to which succours can be readily af- 
forded, <lo not require to be increased at this rate. If 
the side of the t exceed 30 yards, there will be 
accommodation within for 500 men, of which 384 will 
be sufficient for a complete defence. In this ease, there- 
fore, the redoubt may be constructed with flanks; and, 
if guns are to be planted upon it, it may also have out-. 

works, The general rule for determining the fire lines 
of redoubts, is to allow three men to eight square yards 
of interior room, if the garrison ex 
if less, one man to two square yards. Redoubts are of 
great use in preserving a communication with advan. 


Sorts. . Stay forts, or forts: ad tenaille, are such as form 


s 90 men ; but, . 


PORTIFICATION, 


ced posts, and defending a defile, 
river, a frith, or even the wings of an army ; 
are also very defective in some 
peer and ~ 
rapet. " may 
such a situation that their saliants 
A JSortin, or (field fort, resembles a redoubt, but is 
larger, and has a greater variety of forms. It is called 
a fort when isolated, and.a téte when the gorge is pla+ 
ced upon a river, defile, &c. When forts are not irre- 
gular, which is, however, in many: cases, the most ad+ 
vantageous form, they are either star forts or bastion 
a 
suite of saliantiand. re-entering angles. They 


Forts, 


Star forts, 


may be considered as polygons, whose sides are broken 
so as to form the re-entering angles. If possible, the 
saliant angles should never be less than 60 es, and 


the nearer they approach to 90 the better, asa rectangu< 
lar defence is always the best. .The brisures, or faces, 
forming the re-entering angle, should not be less than 
50 feet, nor more than 100. If they are longer than this, 
they require a numerous garrison to defend them, and 
it would. therefore be better, in such cases, to con- 
— a small fortress, especially if guns are to be 
u R ; 
Star forts are seldom constructed either in the triangu- 
lar or square form, a redoubt being almost always pre- 
ferable to either: Iiniabtriengle thete can be no bri- 
sures, in a square theirangles are 150 degrees. “A 
tagon is somewhat superior to both, the defence of its 
saliant _— being better, and the angles of the bri 
sure 182 degrees, » The hexagon is still better than the 
pentagon, though its saliants are by no means well de« 
fended, The eptagon has saliant angles of 128 des 
grees, and those of the brisures 112. This form might 
therefore be used with considerable advantage, were the 
construction not so difficult; the most convenient, how- 
ever,-as well as: the most advantageous polygon for 
works of this kind, <_< . The construction 
is made either upon the interior , by placing 
equilateral triangles on its sides, ph ae pp thee side, 
by means of the perpendiculars from the saliant andre- 
entering angles. vet Fo WEWO 
Bastion forts have frequently been ; but in 
eral they are inferior to star forts. The triangi 
ilf-bastion is peculiarly defective. They are 
to construct—the saliants are too acute and ‘ill-defend. 
ed—the faces of the demi-lunes are without any cover, 
and the interior surface is too small. The square half- 
bastion is little’ better than the tri , but it in. 
closes a larger When the bastions are full, the 
work may sometimes be very advantageous, and the 
construction is the same as in permanent fortification. 
In bastion forts the sides should not be less than 100, 
nor more than 200:yards, that the flanked may be 
within musket shot.:  P 120 yards is a mes. 
dium. | The best form of the curtain is to break it twice, 
by which a very advantageous fire is obtained.’ 
The principal things to be considered in field forti- 
fication are the nature of the ground, and the soil to be 


Bastion 
vf forts. 


used, the attack that is likely to be made, the relative 


importance of the place, and the number of the garri- 


son. 

When the place is to be defended against small arms 
only, the talus may be as steep as'possible, from the 
summit of the parapet to the bottom of the ditch; the 
base being equal to the height. ‘If guns are to be used, 
the slope should be , to make a better defence. 
The base, in this case, may be one-third of the height, 


The talus 
or slope. 


aus 


Fossé, 


FORTIFICATION. 


: 


fs 
Es 
R, 
: 


etre 
Ve 
i 
ll 

i 

] 


20 dS aban URE RI me 
ig the talus appears so easy or so. advantageous'as 

described, i y if ie has a ow of tees on 
the front, standing seven or eight feet above md. 
Sometimes it sites 


: 


G 


must be as little as possible, 
Lev close to it. | From. 10 to 16: inches of a 
be enough, and it ought to be lined with fas- 
boards. ‘or gazons. ‘7 7) 
behind the parapet, ina single work, 
be from two feet to two feet six inches broad ; 
but if the work has a curtain resistance, it ought to be 
4 in breadth, to afford a communication. It 
should also be from 4 feet to 4 feet 3 inches lower than 


a 
eo 


to the upper of the counterscarpe ; or if 
re tral yo tiger diecoenrae country, it 


foot, lest the ‘part of the should be too 
mioch weakest? (The to indeed, le of what is 


Fp the slope is to be reduced as much as pos~ 
sible. 


_ The thickness of a parapet depends on the purpose 
for which it is intended, and the edtinnss thane 06 


t against it. If it is only a temporary of 
pon bas edie 
in 


till reinforeements come up, tw 
ness will be sufficient, as it will, in all probabi- 
pre likely | Senaghned Saseans ation 
are ‘to! enemy, or if the 
work is to continue for any i saan! r 


) in field fortification, is 
‘not very deep, but Sap hinerents teitels i 

feet, and always 12 if possible. The talus of the 
fossé may be steeper than that of the ‘as the 
earth of the former possesses its natural adhesion. Of 


course the base of such slopes is ‘small compared to 


. Manner’as ‘to be ‘readily 


499 


of aowork is situated om! ground where ‘it is liable to 
be enfiladed, it must have traverses in the interior. The 
thickness of these traverses'depends on the attack which 
they may ‘have to sustain.’ If this consist of small arms 
only, two feet will’ be sufficient; but they will ‘require 
6 to rt Bd in as noe ers 10 ae to hold out 
against field pieces. ‘The talus must be as steep as ‘pos- 
sible, that So may occupy little room, taidtbe peeled 
the communication they ought to have eae through 
them. In every work, indeed, there should be open- 
ings from 4 to 5 feet, or from 8 to 9, according to the 
sizeof the-work, to keep up a free passage between the 
spo entrances must be 
as steep as possible, ‘they are ‘to be shut up with 
chevaux de-frisés, ’ branches, and other tarreines 
They ought also to” be ‘covered b 
them, 6 feet longer than their width, and from 3 to'9 
feet in thickness. This traverse has a banquette, from 
which 'the soldiers can fire on the enemy, in approach- 
ing it. Before these entrances, it is usual to construct 
a bridge, consisting of boards laid on scaffolds in such a 
removed or destroyed when 
necessary.’ ‘This bridge is about 3 feet wide in small 
works, ‘and 9 to 10 in works whose guns are mounted. 
The gorge of a work is always to be inclosed, at least 
allantois to prevent a surprise. 

If'a work is to be 


a traverse behind | 


ied for any considerable Corps de 


length of time, it should be furnished with a corps de garde. 


garde. In small works this may consist of huts covered 
with branches; but in larger places it should be of 
timber, and have if possible a. shell ‘proof’ covering. 
The exterior parts ofa fortification ‘may be increased 
and strengthened either by active or passive works of 
defence. A covered way, however, is in general of 
little use in field fortification. It is very expensive, it 
adds 3 to 4 feet to the height of the profile, weakens 
the rest of the parapet, requires a deeper ditch, and can 
be defended only by a large garrison, which, however, 
generally retires before the assault is made, and creates 
confusion within the place. When the work is pretty 


. lange, a covered way may be used, and then the crest 
its 


ought to be 4 feet above the horizon ; and 
if it be dug qut behind the glacis, the latter will require 
a banquette. The width of such a covered way i8 nine 
feet. Traverses are seldom used in the re-entering 
angles of the covered way in field works. If they are 
used it is to cover an ‘entrance, and are constructed in 
the same way as places of arms in permanent fortifica- 
tion.’ Such traverses, however, require a great coms 
mand. © The parapet must be at least 11 to 12 feet. A 
simple glacis therefore, is perhaps better, except in very 
large works. A second glacis, without any covered 
way, is of great ‘use in field works. Where it is used, 
the parapet will require only from 8 to 9 feet of com- 
mand, and the obstructions that may be laid in the ene- 
my’s way, are better concealed. ‘Such a glacis is’ also 


- of great advantage where ‘small works, as fleches, are 
-used, and may be successfully employed in producing 


little inundations, particularly if ditches are made in it 
at short intervals that cannot easily be pass It is 
always of the greatest importance, indeed, to have the 
fossé full of water. 

Of the various obstructions used to retard the ene- 


square or circular pits, six feet’in depth; and as much 

id diamneter, with a pole thetr centre: té'prevent their 

being a cover to’ the’ ey The ear dug out is 

heaped up among them, or dispersed around. Trappes 

de loups should always be hid by a glacis, and should 
1 


my, trappes de loups ‘may be mentioned.” These are jmPPes de 


Fougssses. 


Defence of 
the fossé, 


Palisadoes are obstructions that may be used at all 
times, but their advantage depends pally on the 


be substituted for branches, but they are more 
Tidleals sabe pearecet. 

Besides these, various other obstructions may be em- 
ployed to prevent or retard the enemy's approach ; as 


The fossé of a fleche poly gy Seago 
iers, or by pali three to four inches thick, 
| at the distance of every 24 feet, an opening like 
a loop hole, or a low palisade, which answers the same 
pespoas: The mone to the work apn, concealed 
from the enemy by the palisade, on one side projecting 
before that ae other. Such a Gadcantammes 
can only be used where a work cannot be attacked in 
its gorge. A stronger defence of the same kind, for 
the gorge of a fossé, is by means of two rows of pali- 
sades, at top by cross rafters, on which are 
mare fascines, and the whole covered with earth, 
ontalembert i 


are surrounded by an adlaitis, or by trai de loups, 
to prevent the enem hom approaching tem Simi- 
lar caponniers are in the saliant angle of the 


counterscarpe, ten feet distant from the ditch, which is 
— ~~ to favive feet in width ene the 
. with poles, boards, &c. The 
holes of these ca a oe 
glacis, and “forse towards the ditch is shut by 
ng palisades, are also surrounded, like the 
others, with e- loups, or an abattis, It may 
be observed of aesaneaion however, that they 
cannot be made to hold out long against a cannonade, 
and are therefore useful only. when that, is. not to be ex- 


FORTIFICATION. 


f 
| 
: 
: 
E 


retire, and whi 
contain. 
such time as assistance, or favourable terms of 
i i the fort should 
7 If the reduit rape vnigeen se mee 
no greater e, m to 

~ it be unade:of tiubier, 
loop-holes, by which the soldi 


F 

il 5 

Blilgiee 
Hife 


i 


angles, i rt of 
niers of wood-work. In the middle, where these capon. 
niers meet, this wood-work has two stories, with 
holes in the walls, All such works, however, being of 
wood, are easily destroyed... Sept 
The most advantageous kind of reduits are block- 


5 
A 


Block- 


houses. These have walls formed of rafters, from one houses. 


| 
il 


ployed. It is to be observed, however, 


= 
= 
Fe 
a 


the saliant angles ; and.that they may the more 
be bi t to bear on the ‘enemy, in whatever 
appr , they should be fired there en barbette; | 
is, over the parapet, without the assistance of 


Sometimes, however, guns will be more advan 
ously placed behind the embrasures, viz. to. a 
defile, or any narrow passage; and in this case it is 
proper to cover the artillerymen, in order to protect 
them from the enemy’s Fag who nwareappeech 
very near to the work, being covered by the ground 
and thus make 


be 


ty 
The fire of small arms should defend an 
every part before a work, and be directed in such a 
manner, that the enemy may every where be received, 
with the best effect ; and care must also be taken that 
it assist the fire of the great guns, The flanks are also, 


Defence by 
small arms. 


a 


i wt 


FORTIFICATION. 501 


Field most proper places for the small arms; but it be- the same as of the glacis of the covered way, if not _ Field 
Fortifica- ee eee de ctw ite tn defend edtir part of the - more than 200 yards distant from the principal work. Fortifice 
* tions. toreceive the enemy with a front fire, it will If, however, the principal work has a covered way, . 

bath Deel requisite to give the small arms a place all round this is to have a command of five feet above it; and) 
i place the most numerous consequently: the must have from eleven to 


a parapet,’ but particularly to 
of Ren et the fanks. 
TP the valiant angles, thé serrated form of the faces is 
the most advantageous ; but the faces of the small sa- 
liants should never be larger than for two men, or at 


most for three, one of which is to be placed in its sa- 


twelve feet command above the field. Should the prin- 
cipal work be an outwork, then that which covers it 
must have a command of at least twelve feet above the 


field fortifications varies therefore considerably from ie 
t fortification ; it being in the'former 521 and of 
from five to six, and in the latter only two to four feet. permanent 

The! reason’ of this is, that the enemy can attack’ the fortitca- 


of the engi- him always to be at least seven feet lower than the 


simple method is requisite for determining 
this relief. But it will frequently be found impossible: 
to give such a relief as may have been determined 
upon, and in this case a more advantageous one ‘is. 
be chosen, and preferred to a great command. By 
is means, field works can. be made much stronger 

ical; a parapet, than bya defilement artificially chosen; as in permanent 
, be higher. If the fortification, and which is still more difficult:to 
i i be executed than that given by. the above rules: 

in the » or which can- Works near- 


Works which are 
ind, must be at least 300 an emi- 

distant from any eminence which commands it, if only "°° 
small arms are to-be feared ; but if cannon are employ- 
ed, it will be » that the distance should be ati 
least 900 yards. : 

’ The defilement of a work, which is open in its gorge, 
if it ke necessary to place i 


as, for instance, an outpost. No 

i less than six 
y to any distance behind, it 
6inches. At this height, how- 


to a sound jugdment, must de-~ 
relict for any work. 
i have 


ground; 
eS, Pal ong ueonaye bigherdrige ge naphalinand yresal 
or 6 feet 6 i below the crest of the covered way. 
This command may be increased to six feet, and even 
to7 Piesbae, Mt Yo te be inedlo very large. The 
should always have five to six feet command 
covert-way, and the crest of its glacis ; there- 
covert-ways will not be of any usé¢ where 
pet cannot be at least 10 feet hi A simple 
nd a field-work should never have less than 
command below the that the enemy 
same advan 


arms in its re-entering angles, then 
e the same command as a covered-way, and 
parapet as much above it. 


is is to have at least five feet less com- 


Defilement”’ 
it nearer to a mountain than of such 
300 yards, is determined as follows :—Poles four feet “OS 
six inches in length are erected on the highest visible <1 arms. 
summits of the mountain. The points which it is re-. 
quired to cover by the intended work, are then mark-: 
ed, and poles erected at them of such a height:as that: 
their tops shall just be within the command of the pa- 

— These poles being united at top bya cord, the 

iant and re-entering angles of the work are deter-- 
mined, and poles erected at each, of such a length that: 

their tops'shall be in a line, with the cord and the poles. 
on the mountain. The height of these. last poles will, 
give the height of a work necessary. to have a given: 
command over a given place near.an eminence. After) 
determining the defilement of the in this man. 
ner, the tops of the poles along the line of fire of the 
parapet are united by a cord, and wherever the line of 
this cord is below. the plane of defilement, it: is ele-. 
vated by means of poles. 

In the same manner the defilement for works to re- Against ar- - 
sist artillery is determined, if the heights are not above “srs. 
900 yards distant from it. This will always be most 


Hi 


Pa 
3 


¢ 
i 


F 
~~ 


i 


eet 
not 
the 


Ee 


i 
g 


2 

: 
F 
F 


b 
Fe 


l 
i 


L 


Hy 
Es 


ne 
FEE 
if 
a 


E 

= 
fe 
gE 
By 
ot 


difficult.where the visible heights are situated on one 
side of the fortifications. _ In this case, after fixing the. 
plane of defilement of the parapet, it will still be neces. 
sary to determine a traverse, and its plane-of defilement,. 
that the face may not be taken in: rearor im flank by 
the eminence near it. The most »convenient situation: 
for such a traverse being chosen, the plane of defilement 
is to be determined in, a manner similar to that de- 
scribed above, so as to cover every part of the works at 
such a height as may be . » The traverses are 
at the same time to.be so.chosen as always to keep up. 


502 FORTIFICATION. 
Viehd froe nication, it bei essary that no if it has to act at another place, while a part of the 
Kymatee of aherdefunen of the-works be qbetracted. - The tr frontios tu ts be wall cieselictt ax emily psoa aie Penn 
tees verse is always to be determined at first, where two tance from its frontiers in an open ; if it fears 


—"Y"" planes of delilement are necessary ; but, where all the an ettack from © superior enemy; itt fe toelkan’ $8 ’ ; 


works can be laid down according to one plane of de- make its retreat in sight of a superior enemy ; and if 


filement, the parapets are determined, and then, at an army besieges a ot 
distances from them, the place forthe traverse To cover a , every obstacle that can be pro- Frontier 

ts and afterwards constructed from this point cured, as well as every thi Potters mc om 

to the saliant angle of the work. a line, ought to be em The use of lines ©" 


A work may have only one re-entering or saliant has by some been recommended, by others it has been 
angle, or it may have several such ; the plane of defile- consi eS The former, however, ap- 
ment, however, remains always the same, as described _ pear to be right, in as far as the lines serve to protect 
above; but care is, in this case, to be taken not to in- and to inclose a country. ; 
jure the flanking defence too much, and also not to —_ Such lines as serve to protect a frontier, extend from 
make the dead angles too large. Several planes of de- te amir Atesertevinniis tenes | or where the 
filement will, in this case, frequently be ras height line can be apprised, and 
Inelosed works commonly require an enormous t 
to cover the men in them ; and as this can seldom be ‘ é y 
allowed in field fortifications, traverses are generally impediments to obstruct the enemy’s advancing, should 
preferred for this purpose. in such cases be made use of. hag 

Position of In this case, the position of the traverses is directed To whole parts of a frontier, fortified places, 
pean inoudnansinuhonn is se or fortresses, are the most effectual; but where’ 
at the same time to cover . The there are none, towns, and other places com- 


greatest 
nearer the traverse is towards she couieiansiaieel ' manding the roads, the rivers, and the vallies, by which’ 


possible; and therefore, i ! i i ed 
several heights, the traverses wi each other. fitted up like block-houses, and all other I 
Workseur- The most difficult case is, when a work is situated of defence, should be used. Sometimes houses must 
rounded by in a tunnel, or every where surrounded with command- be pulled down, and outworks constructed, if by these 
eminence. ing heights. In this case a block-house, or a corps de means a town can be rendered stronger and less open to 
garde, is to be constructed in the middle of the work, attack. > sani : 
which is secured from balls, and which, at the same —_ Intrenched camps near the frontiers differ very much’ Jntrenched 
time, serves asa traverse for the men who defend the from permanent camps and frontier posts, having no’ camps, 


work, or to secure its interior parts. habitations for the troops in them, and being only in- 
Intrenched Lines or works connected with each other, and form- tended to'serve for a short time. They rally con- 
lines. ing intrenchments, should always be strong enough to _ sist of works constructed like field forti 3; but, 


sa o i mt, — a is to perros = 

arranged accordingly. sui eights, therefore, as do not allow the enemy to approach. , oa 

occur, are either to be occupied, or the position is Tétes-de-ponts, or bridge-heads, are smaller or larger Tetes-de- 
to be somewhat altered, which is in general easily fortifications, raised before a bridge inorder to cover it, pots. 
done, as the engineer will not be so much restricted Small tétes-de-ponts consist only of a single redan, as 

on any given place as in permanent fortifications. ABC, Fig. 6, the sides of which are favourably flank- Prater 


resist ; and therefore, if they are not above that the be tenable as as , they « 
eh ee 


the lines always remain commanded, advanced works always to be ‘constructed that the enemy ma: 

on these heights are of the greatest use. not attack them ; that the which they cover may 
Worksina Should a valley between two nies require to be not be by him ; that, while attacking, 
valley. fortified, strong advanced works will be advantageous. he may be in flank.. These works frequently re- 


If, however, the valley is very narrow, the line may quire a considerable space, either to contain divisions 

have very sali oe ights, and be frequent- of an army retreating by them, or to covera 

ly broken ; but if these lines do not cover the places of the river or its banks. Large tétes-de-ponts are re- 

peer mmr fore oye nvm ee : in Fig. 7. and still larger in Fig. 8. Téles- Fig. 7. 

and constructed at places as may be deemed ne-| $ must always be well enflanked towards the pj, ¢, 
: , enemy by the other of the works, and ought al: 

The next im it point to be considered, is the’ to have a proper ing fire of their own, The en- 
application of the works to the field. Small works and trances to them should not’ be too small, to retard the 
single posts may be established by officers of infantry, movements of the troops ; but they should be well de- 
but large and composed works only are to be directed fended, so as to deter the enemy from approaching 


quiing Soo- An army may be in want of fortifications in different An army which is weaker than that of its enemy, 
Ufcations. eases, viz. if it has to cover a large part of a country ; must sometimes either maintain its position, or secure 


FORTIFICATION. 


Field its moyements by the aid of fortifications ; and, in this 
ortifiea- Case, whole lines, or connecting works, are te be con- 
gues |, in which advantage is always to be taken of 
the natural impediments offered by the ground, so as 

“to these works as much as circumstances 


- 


ay . 
= those which are connected, and which form whole lines, 
are also of use, where any place is to be covered by a 


connected line ; and, in this case, it is more advantage- 
ous than works, The latter possess these 
advantages, ver, that they allow. the free 


movements ; they do not require so many men 


or even three, be formed of them, and then they 
allow:a s than connected lines.. The 
to be in ing lines, is that which 
most: the use of all: kinds of fire-arms; 
different figures ; 


PLATE 


Different engineers have proposed 
' ecLvin, but what to us the most advantageous, is that 
ees 
) Of detached d works possess in many cases, as we have 


works. already said, advantages over connected lines, 
and are. in times ly Where 
a part of a country, however, has been com) ly in- 


closed i 7 a 
F good profile, made as strong by the impediments of’ 

| Redoubts. ground as ‘circumstances itd permit. Of 
works, three lines of redoubts are the most advan 
as th 


il 
Fie 
: 
H 
i 


Fortification — Should it that a small post is to be defended 
sess otsuek of tho -dcmngy tnt 


: thei ir ; 


508 
and, if possible, strengthened by fortifying it. A single 
house, when it has no stone walls, may be fortified in 
the following manner: The walls may be strengthen- 
ed by boards in the inside, or by rafters applied as in 
blockhouses, or, if these are’ wanting; by making a 
ditch round it, and: using’ the earth'to strengthen the 
wall. The doors and windowsare fortified with boards, 
and barricaded. Loop-holes: are “every where made, 
but in such a direction that the enemy cannot reach ~ 
them with his firelocks; so as to fire into the inside of 
the house. If there is no ditch round it, other impedi- 
ments are to be made use of, to hinder the enemy from 
approaching close to the wall. The roof is broken 
down, and all combustible matter covered with earth. . 
and rubbish, to defend the house from an attack from 
above, which might otherwise be executed by lad-« 
ders 


Field 
Fortifica- 
tions, 


—_———_ 


~ Im a stone house, the walls will generally be strong 
enough, or, if not, they are to be p as above. 
The same is also to be observed respecting the windows 
and the roof; and, if possible, it is to be made shell 
proof from above. The doors are either barricaded, or 
defended by a tambour constructed before them, to have 
a flanking fire. 

A church-yard, a farm, or an estate, is fortified in a Ofachurcl:- 
similar manner; but, if surrounded by a wall, either yard, &c.: 
loop-holes are made through it, or, if too high, a kind 
of scaffolds, called ech ages, are to be erected, ser- 
ving for the soldiers to stand upon while firing. The - 
church, or the building‘on an estate, are then erally 
used as a corps fet hee and made'shell proof, Fy kes: 
ing down the and the uppermost story, and using 
it to cover the . ‘The doors, and particularly 
the corners of the wallsround such a place, are gene« 
rally covered by tambours ; but, if time its, Hees 
niers, and other impediments to the advancing of the - 
enemy, are made use of. The street, and es, lead- 
ing towards them, are generally made impracticable 
by old or broken carts, harrows, boards with nails, 
wheels, &c. All the houses in the neighbourhood, 
which may. be advan for the enemy, or which 
may favour or cover his approach, are levelled, and the 
rubbish of them used to strengthen the walls. The - 
trees, near such a place, if , are hewed down or - 
sawed off, that even not a single rifleman may approach - 
covered by any of these parts. 

A small, or country town, if surrounded by a wall, is Of a small - 
fortified in‘a similar manner ; but echafaudages are ge. town. 
pm used behind eaten = i some nage ay 

iers are oyed, one firin loop-holes 
and the other man walls. : 3 

Guns are placed wherever their fire is of the best ef- 
fect. The are barricaded, and covered by impe- 
diments which hinder the enemy from advancing there 
to attack them ; besides this, they are covered by tra- 
verses, and a flanking fire is established before them, 
if possible. Only such parts of the gates as are essen« 

ially to be open for the communication are 
not barricaded, but strongly defended. Every thing 
is to be done that may render the interior communica- 
tion better and more easy, by means of sufficient pas- 
sages ; but, on the contrary, every means is to be used 
for obstructing the enemy’s advance, 


- 


5Ot 


Aviack and We come now to the Second Partiof Fortification, viz. 


Drefence of 

Vermasent 

Fortufica- 
tom 


—\y— 


Different 
methads of 
attacking 4 
fortress. 


By surprise. 


the attack and defence of fortified and shall con- 
sider this part of our subject, like the former, under two 
heads, Permanent and Field Fortifications. 


SECT. I. 


Attack and Defence of Fortresses. 


Ix former times, there were six different methods of 
attacking and defending a fortress, viz. 1st, By artifice. 
2d, By a surprise, executed either by a secret under- 
Toodien between the paeenete the stupidity of the gar- 
rison, or by masked soldi $d, By force; as the es- 
calade, the attack demblée, or the attack d’enfulte, 
4th, By inclosing the fortress all round with soldiers, in 
order to take it by a greater force. 5th, By famine; 
and 6th, By the attack in form, or a regular attack. ._In 
modern times, however, a place is generally attacked by 
the following methods : 1st, By surprise; 2d, By an 
attack or escalade; 3d, By starving it out ; and, 4th, Phe 
regular attack, or strong bombardment. Of thesedifferent 
methods, circumstances must determine which is to be 


ed in one way, which it will be found 
; and, therefore, it is not 


se 

fossés, the revetements of the ram 
position of the commander, the o' 
which the i in him,—how the fortress 


hours before dayli i 
is to be given, » 28 
secretly as le, to Bp digs Vigemy 


nothing may be wanted, 
retarded in its operations from ums 


If a secret understanding with any of the garrison or 
the inhabitants can be , it always be very 
~ RY, So 

entrance into the place. It is ible to la 
down general rules for this part of the subject ; nor A 
it necessary, as accident, and the circumstances of the 


FORTIFICATION. 


to gain a se- 


moment, will instantly point out to the xperien 


a 
an intended surprise changed to a at- 
tack. An open attack can onl - if the 
fos ofa fortress eal passed, oF if in it 
is not deeper than from four to five the re- 
vetements are not more than, twelve feet above the 
bottom of the fossé, and if the is not al- 
ways on the alert, so as to direct the fire of guns 
mounted on the flanks against the assailants. Should 


calade, other impediments may easily be cut off. 
Thorns, however, and bushes, are ae 
and requiré a considerable time, if they are planted 


e sy ae 

ae . 
yen ae 
i a 


sees et a ‘ 
Pant Il. ON THE ATTACK AND DEFENCE OF FORTIFIED PLAC 


Es E 
rs 
a 


ue 


A Sot 


FORTIPICATION. 505 


scapEs, may be more easily, as well as more effectually, Attack and 


observed with respect to the movements of the troops, 

aoubenery Sonate have’ wrath rm canapeene 

been at~ 

tack is to be undertaken, the troops assemble, and march 

» to the covered way. pono Bepmmrsenternd 
obstructions, 


removed the other ns, and’passed the fossé, the 
te eronalnamiroue mere serene A 
number of men then mount by them, sufficient to make 
prisoners of the , at one of the gates, which is im- 
mediately openéd to a reinforcement previously posted 
near it. This is by a larger foree, the other 
gates are thrown , and the town taken possession of 
in a similar as by a surprise, described above. 
a eee eon ee 
boats, with ladders called sambukes, it will be almost im- 


possible to effeet an escalade. The garrison 


He 
i 


to know the real point which it is intended to attack, and 
se srr tac these ine a use, as are 
also several attacks at the same time. is equally 


ait 
at 
ze 


. The mode certain methodol forcing a fortress to sur- 
render is by famine; but it isvat the same time the most 


tedious, especially if the place is well supplied with 


visions, and if it is situated near a river, The taki 
a-fortress in this 


' army from forming a connected circle. 


: we km meng tarp Y Remar 


blockaded, even by a small corps, than a fortress situated meow ree 


in an open country canbe by a large army. 

A town partly surrounded with water cannot be block« 
aded, unless the blockading troops command the water, 
whether it be the sea, a river, or a lake: In this case, a 
Sotijuyund frequently's feet; wilbbe mecetsary to blocks 
oa the place from the water sie a 
To assist the means of consumin enemy's provi« 
sions as soon’as possible, a eicnlber dupont is frequently 
of the use, as the enemy’s magazines andstore4 
houses may thereby be set on fire, and the’ inhabitants 
exposed to much danger. The habitations of the garri« 
son will also be rendered unsafe, and the soldiers expo« 
sed to constant disturbance and fatigue. 

A bombardment is most advantageously made by-more- 
tars of a large calibre, and at great distances, with shells 
of 12 inches diameter, and guns, with red-hot balls. 
The shells used on these occasions should be filled with 
combustible matter, so as to set on fire the objects. near 
which they e. For the same » fire-rockets 
may also be used with advantage. Whatever, indeed, 
threatens to consurhe the place, must operate as’ an in- 
ducement to the garrison to surrender, particularly if 
their provision be destroyed. This may: sometimes: be’ 
effected by spies, or some other secret means, which: of 


' course decides the fate of the place. It ought always to 


be remembered, however, that the siege is carried on, 
not as against an inhabited town, but a military post, and 
therefore the inhabitants are to be spared as: much as - 
possible. At the same time, it’ must be acknowledged, . 
that this is more the: business of the besieged than of the 
besiegers. 


The attack in form, or the regular attack of a fortress, By the at- 
begins, as in the last case, with investing, ‘or inclosing it ‘kin form, 


with troops. This investment is particularly necessary 
to cut off the communication between a fortress «and its 
army. Some towns, however, cannot be invested com~ 
pletely, as, for instance, when a fortress is situated on the 
sea, and possesses a greater naval force than ‘the besie~ 
gers. In this case, such a can al ‘receive suffi< 
cient reinforcements, and this alone will very much re« 
tard the siege. Those fortresses are also with: 
invested that are situated on the bank of a large’ river, 
the conflux of two rivers, in the middle of woods -and 
hollow ways, at a certain distarice from ‘them, or in genes 
ral ow ground which in any way’prevents: the’ besieging: 
It is also very: 
difficult toinvest a fortress covered by a large army, or 


by an entrenched camp. In this casey the i are 
miy has to ocetipy a very large s by:which ‘its force 
will be more dispersed, and driven back bya con 
centrated attack from the 


A fortress can either be invested by ‘the army which: 
is to carry on the siege, or by a-corps sent forward: bes 
fore that army arrives. This will frequently be of great 
unless the fortress is covered by’ an: army,” 
which of course must be! driven back before the siege’ or 
the investment can take place. It is always to béobser« 
ved, however, that the investment of a ‘fortress, ‘or the 
movements and preparations for besieging ity are to be 
“prepa~ 
sete dipbusse TRON Reyer jg em or te. 


Ni 


informati 
mS Previoat tab couaiedsoiend Pu yet of pr peheng 
gait Clie ary to ascertain not orily the hie siege, 


strength of the garrison, but elvo the troops which itimay 
mecesaty 10 oppose inthe neighbourhood, inorder tn 
determine the strength of the corps necessary to invest 

This ought never to be so numerous as. to 
impede the celerity or secrecy of its movements ; but at 
time it must be sufficiently, 


Sw ea 
may be opposed to it. besieging 
corps must also be proportioned to the nature of) the 
If the country be open, a greater quantity) of 
i required ; but if inelosed, the principal 
. This corps is to march without 
heavy baggage, that it may. move with expedition ; 
octur from its marching in too 
large a body, it will often be necessary to divide it into 
several columns, which are all.to rendezvous at a certain 


ment of the enemy. peas a anenanaaae 
appointed place, small parties are sent towards , 
tress, to bring away or destroy all kinds of provisions and, 
that the enemy may not profit by them... The: 
same is also to be observed with regard to the cattle, and, 
every thing else which may be of any service to the ene- 
my. If, at the same time, reconnoitring parties can be! 
of use, they .are to be sent out ; as also parties to drive 
back any reinforcements that may be sent to the enemy. 
Should a fortress be situated on, the sea-shore, a fleet will 
also be»necessary to blockade it; and, if possible, . this 
must be some days previous to the investment, in order 
that the fortress may be inclosed every where, as soon 
as the troops arrive. , 
The corps which previously invests a fortress, should 
be careful in preparing the best position for the large ar- 
my, as well as endeavouring tog gain all possible informa- 
tion respecting the place, in rah nnsep thing may 
be prepared by the time that the army arrives. . If, how- 
ever, the army be sent directly, it will be the business of 
the commander himself to choose the most advantageous 
position, and to obtain as much information as can be 
procured, 
As soon-as the investment begins, the engineers are to 
be employed in collecting information respecte 


. ing the exterior ground surrounding the fortress, as, well, 


Plans of 
the ground. 


as itself, Y ri I yrrrt 
All drawings which, may. have been obtained of the 
fortress and the country, round it, are compared with the 
impanres or corrected by ac-, 
the fortress can be procu-, 
red, the works, as well as the surrounding, country, are 
surveyed, in which each, engineer has his,own work to 
finish. If instruments, as rulers with diopters, boussoles, ; 
sextants, theodolites, and plain tables, can be used, the. 
survey will be executed with greater accuracy ; but where, 
these are not to be had, a single instrument for taking the, 
— angles will answer the purpose, and the rest may - 
be filled up by the use of the camera lucida, and by te-, 
lescopes with micrometers, as will be explained in ano« 
ther place. Plans of almost eyery fortress may now be 


plans are corrected by actual.com: bs 
themselves. All cane poe rr 
flanks, the faces, the curtains, the dimen- 
fossé, and all the outworks, are taken aS OX=— 


FORTIPICATION. 


- commander, as well as the quantity of .its/provisi 


i 


actly as possible ; and, if necessary, an engineer is 
into the covered way, pacer nies cious fae 
in this respect. Spies may frequently use for thi 

+ instructed, . 


purpose, and from them, after,being i by ; 

the best information. may be tis also necess == 

sary to ascertain the disposition bie ee een aia penn 

in order 
di- 


stores of every kind, and, where they are e 
to know to what part the fire should be. i 
rected, or rendered of no use to the garrison... W : 
who have assisted either in building or repairing a fore. | 
tress, can give valuable information to.a I mn 
and therefore every means should be tried. to discover 
them, as the intelligence to be gained from them cannot 
be obtained from any other quarter. | 6 ¢0)4 5 os 
The camp of the army is to be regularly inspected, in Communi- 
order that every possible improvement may be made. for cation be- 
the greater security and convenience of the troops., — 
magazines and stores of materials and instruments Re» of the army. 
cessary for the siege, are to be made at different places, 
that the enemy, by their position, may not discover (to, 
what part of the fortress an attack will be directed. In 
entering upon a siege, the principal object of the come 
mander is to see that a good’ communication. is kept up: 
between all the parts of the army, and that the necessa- 
y anew have been ar areata Care is to be taken. 
that t bridges are sufficiently large, and, if possible, 
there should always be two together, one of which may 
still be of use, even if the other should be damaged. But 
in the eonstruction of these bridges, the besieging army. 
should endeavour, as much as possible, to place them out 
of the reach of the enemy.) 20) yh ee 
Should an army of the enemy be exp the country, 
round the camp is to be fortified, if it appears advan-, 
tageous ; but care is to be taken not to inclose the army, 
too much, lest its movements should by these means be. 
embarrassed, Single but strong forts appear to be far 
more. advantageous than any other, and are, “>. 
more frequently adopted...A besieging army may. also Army of 
be covered by an army of observation, or a corps, whose, observation. 
business it is to watch the enemy’s movements, and ei- ... 
ther to protect the besieging army from an attack, or at. 
least to give timely information if an attack is to be exe, 


i. *¥ ‘ i 2 ” 
Circumstances must determine, whether the army of 
observation, or the besieging army, should be the strong~ 
er. If the army of the enemy is numerous, the army of 
observation is to be the larger. In most cases, however, 
it should, in the first instance, be the smaller, as it may. 
easily be reinforced when necessary. _ Besides, the be- ‘ 
sieging army must never be very weak, lest it should fa-. 4 
tigue the soldiers toomuch,and expose them to the attacks 
of a numerous garri - To defend them from such an 
attack, strong but inclosed works, which cover each other, 
‘may be raised round the fortress, especially in such places 
as secure the communication with the different parts of. 
the army, and, at a conyenient distance for mounting 
Tneseree ts fe ; _cstiaietine it Posi 
ia ents for a si a most important. Position of 
consideration is to determine the cotton of depots and depots. 
military stores. These should never be at so great a dis. 
tance, as to produce any inconvenient delay in procuring. 
the necessary supplies, of which) a sufficient. quantity, 
must be collected before the siege commences... The first, 
with every thing necessary to render it effective, the are, 


t 


+L 


me 


Se ocala ae ce a = 


vt 


FORTIFICATION. 
my must be amply provided the moment it has taken up 


its The that be in any 
3 position. ne Aor 
vtebich bell be considered afterwards, 


—— Next to ordnance, fascines, or rods and brambles for 


Necessary 
stongg. 


ud 


fascines; are peculiarly necessary. Theseare ei- 
ther 8 or 12 feet long, and serve to construct parapets, 
traverses, &c. and sometimes also to fill the fossé, in or= 
der to pass it. The great number’ of fascines generally 
wanting during a siege, may sometimes be procured near 
it : they” be: by: land 
its neighbourhood, may 
or water to thoes planes, lieve the-depotd of these aud si 
milar materials are formed. 


are constructed. atom Ran NS BE 
deacarswtere dha tar -excavations © 
, which are to’ be made over 
ly necessary in many cases, to 
have blinds and moveable parapets, forthe purpose of co 
vering the men who use small arms.’ 
gilihthe tonatmuntion+of. eardy-works,a. great variety of 
tools are necessary, such as shovels, spades, fascine 
knives, saws; hatchets, iammers, drills, &cvand of course 
@ sufficient number of these must be eae 
zines or depots: 

Thapshkal artillery'ie:pinced as close:to'e fbetrece de 
possible, always taking care that it be not molested by 
the enemy's fire. The most advantageous position is 
when it is covered by a height, or rising ground, and at 
the same time well protected by the troops from the sal- 
lies of the and the attack of an army; to relieve 
the fortress... Theypark of artillery is always to be placed 
dn a certain ‘order.».'The -heaviest guns should be sta- 
‘tioned in one or two: lines,:the mortars and howitzers on 
each side of them, and: those \of light. calibres at’ the 
the hr a article belonging to each piece, inclucing 
se pean yi tn Ar tte tteaaly sameincel 


hind it. an wntve at i) & TAT OF 

The | where the fireworks are prepared, should 
not be far distant from this park, and the park:must be 
_ as closevas. ible to that side where the attack, or 
where one of the attacks, is to »be made. 


however,it may be placed before a different front of the 


- fortress from that which is to be attacked, in order the 


better to. hide the intention of the besiegers, or to take 
of a more favourable part of the ground. 
iebamichteriesdhcuthe chats oftuerpettior' 


the reception of the ammunition, or of the powder in pare 
ticular, are to be made so as to keep the powder dry, 
and must So aie ie a 
ee i Sagntrt in fine weather, may be open« 

for the free passage of the air. — ‘The powder is to. be 
Oc ag , under which the air may pass free, and 


in Srele oni chasiny i Seeeuteianes 
4$ ammunition chests on the 


keer epaempareleetee pertivectneti a 
where the attack is to be made, that they may 


wood of this kind is to be’had in 


507 


easily be conveyed wherever 

rea however,'to- deceive the enemy, or for convenience, Defence 

pd aria et ae oa 1 conveyed: ‘to another front ; 
‘on these occasions, It is 

not ner poopie placa ata tie alia sated 

pot, or too near storehouses, lest they should all be de- 

stroyed, and their destruction oecasion damage to the 

storehouses also. 4 

Sometimes wail somietimes only a 

ditch, is construeted round the depots ; wana they os 

as round the powder magazines, sentinels are placed, = 

ee strangers or suspicious persons at a distance. 

pe tools and'sand bags, or similar stores, may be 


; 


_ kept at the depots’ of materials, but if possible under shel- 
: are ove or other circumstances, sap ton por 


they are wanted. —Some- Attack and 


a 


== 


per dinite oftthe'front to be attacked, will principally Front to be 
be determined by the knowledge that has been procured ttacked. 


fromthe’ surveys, the weakest being always the most as- 
sailable.' That side generally . is considered to be the 
weakest which is: commanded: by eminences, or where 
the rampart can be hit at a great distance, where the 
terre-plein is very narrow, the bastions small, the con- 


_ struction or trace imperfect, the defence injudicious, the 


outworks*weak, the ‘covered way. easily taken, the fossé 
small andnot deep, the revétement damaged, or not of 
stones);wilrere ‘there -are-no-thines~and “where ‘the be- 
neo works cannot be commanded. 
ith regard to the surrounding country,” wnttye fain’ 
and open ground sloping towards the fortress is dha! ad« 
vi Avstony soil particularly retards the siege, 
as also moorish In these situations, the attack 
ie wees advance witha very =— front, which-is cer 
nly very: disadvan Hollow ways, hedges, 
walle, or similar objects, may serve also to cover thé’ bes 
sieger's works. | «If ‘a:country be rather low, it is of con- 
sequence to*know ‘whether it can be inundated, which is 
a very ‘serious disadvantage. | The side of attack’ also, in 
some méasure, depends.on the manner in’ which the ord 
nance und’ fascines canbe transported ‘The fortifications 
and»their strength, ‘however,'-generally determine ‘the 
Sap. pment eres ane csmaneS tr not very unfa~ 
vourable. 
The next thingewbe considered ‘is the plan of the at- 


Plan of*ate 


tack, which ought'to be such, that all the works shall be tack. 


conducted regularly, and as few as possible constructed; 
so that the fortress may be taken in the shortest’ time. 
All this is the business of the officer who is to conduct 
the siege, and who ‘is always en to direct and céns 
troul every thing on’the side of attack. The works'cons 
structed by the besiegers as a defence from the fire of the 
fortress, are in general called trenches: Of these there 
are different kinds, as approaches, parallel batteries, and 
traverses, 
A 


enemy in order to cover them. The direction of these | 
works is towards the place, but generally ign ‘so that 
they always’ approach the fortress in such a manner, that 
none-of them:can be’ enfiladed. They’ are-represented 
A, A, A, Fig. 1. 


pproaches are excavations about 3 feet deep, and 10 Approaches 
to 18 feet wide, the earth of which is thrown towards the oe 


Parallels are also excavations, about Piate 


3:to 34 feet deep, and 20 to 30 feet “7 the earth of CCLIX,, 


which is thrown towards the enemy." They are construct- 
ed parallel to the front of attack, as B,'B, B. ' Behind 
the parapets are made banquettes, for the soldiers tg stand 
upon, as lin other;fortifications, ©" © 


Fig. 1, 


|, oF to cover troops. si 
Cavaliers of the trenches are traverses 10 to 12 fect 


3 
| 
: 
F 


5 
& 
& 


it, in order to enfilade the covered 

drive its garrison out of it. There are steps 
which to 
oaches and paral 
the capital, and its prolongation in the 
principal line for the construction of alt 
plan of the fortress, these capital lines 
first parallel Jaid down at about 600 


.. 
b 


FF 
iy 
i] 


E 
E 


ang 
i 
| ere 
Rs 
Ey 
= 
7 


3 


is next determined, in such a manner, that the 
its zigzag are as near to the capital line as pos~ 
and that they form the shortest unenfiladed way to 
parallel. The nearer the trenches come to the place, 
eee ees ea ee 
proaches ; but the longer time will be taken in approach- 
the fortress. Tine pest of the a which is 
the most distant from the fortress, is called the tail, and, 
on the contrary, that which is the nearest to it, the head 
of the approaches, “3% 

The first and second parallel, when a fortressis not very 
priate Strong,’ are generally like those represented in Fig. 2 ; 
cCLIX. but if the polygon which is attacked. -be well fortified, 


5 rE 


Form. 


Fig 2 Fig, 1. is preferred: ‘The third parallel is generally con- 
structed at the foot of the glacis, and a fourth is some- 
times also necessary, 

Different The figure of the parallels, as well as the approaches, 


kindsof bat- being thus laid down, the places of the batteries-are next 
tcries. determined. Thereare three different kinds of batteries, 


viz. and breaching batteries. 
The former serve to dismount or so to damage 
them, or the parapet before » that they must be 


vation, by which the shots roll the inside of the 
parapet. Breaching batteries serve to make breaches in 
a work, or to destroy a part of its revetement, rampart, 
or other inclosure, in such a manner that it may be ate 
sa 8 and mounted ae little or no difficulty. 
ricochetting batteries are erally placed at the 
first or second parallel, in such a manner that they may 
enfilade the faces and flanks of all the works on the front 
which are attacked, and even some of the next, as also 
the covered way, and the works situated before it. They 
are therefore constructed in their prolongation of these 
lines. The dismounting batteries 
ead 9t;the second and thind paralioles or. between beth; 
and are parallel to such works as they are intended to 


annoy. 

hyn aheeneal wate ote 
; are sti when 

crest of the covered wa nee oa — 


possible, ing batteries serve to enfilade the 
lines, in the prolongation of which they are placed. This 
consists in firi saacenasoblonarie i ele- 


angle of theglacis, about | 


FORTIFICATION. 


ved toweninsbe wowing If possible, a a a Ra, a 


remains 24 hours in the trenches, and is 


to be as numcrons as possible; and 
tice of every shot of the garrison, 
secure himself. Ca 


of the trenches is commanded by a bu 
this, the major of the trenches has the ‘immediate 

intendence of them, and of the police there. He shews 
each battalion its place, and gives every: commander his 


of 
ton, 


proper instruetions.. He generally has two to four as- . 


sistants, and is always accompanied 
a pend Fit Pa 
market, to order the provisions, and to see & proper 
of cleanliness is observed in the trenches.) 
All works which are to be constructed in one night are 
previously determined, and. i ions given, 
est possible dispatch.» The engineers, and all overseers 
of the workmen, are therefore in particular to be well in- 
structed. t ' 7% 4 ie “ears 
The first part to be executed in the plan of an attack 
is the opening ‘of the trenches, which is done as follows. 
The workmen, and the men ordered to cover them, or 


ied by some orderlies, to 


~san Son 


the 


afterwards the guard of the trenches, are to-collect inthe 
most secret manner, in the evening, at some place not 


far distant from that where the attack is to be made. As 
soon as dark, about 200 to 300 of the best men are sent 
towards the fortress to draw a line, or to compose a chain 
of posts parallel to the front of the attack towards the 
fortress. After these soldiers, who must all be men jin 
whom the confidence can be placed, and who are 
to be cautioned not to make the least noise, and to see 
that-no one shall desert, follow the engineers, each at 
the head of a file of workmen. ee 
another, observing | strictly the movements of i 
neer, who marches on the line which is to be years 
his file during the night. Rg) vraag wT 
The workmen being thus conducted to their stations, 
and his as~ 
Each 
been 


ways to be taken, however, that there be not so many 
men as to cause confusion, and therefore it is better to 
employ no more than are absolutely necessary. All the 


FORTIFICATION. 


‘employed in this undertaking should be perfectly 


At “men 
ce Of healthy, that they may not by coughing, or any other 
= noise, alarm i ordi They are ave tb be ace 


tions, ‘companied too, by the necessary number of officers and 
Ne Vion-comininsioned” officers, to keep them fn order.” As 
wire’ tollécted in the the engineers 


have no difficulty in finding his way, 
the lines tobe dug out are sly marked byacord pas- 
i fixed in the lines at con- 


“ , as well as all the engineers, may be better able to 
fad vals Way, costae men are placed at certain dis- 


with advantage. 2 . 

AS soon as the guard arrives at its post, or in the line 
which it is to occupy, it pushes a sentry towards the for- 
tress at every 10 paces, or even at a smaller distance, if 
necessaty, who lies down, in order to observe every 
thing that passes in or near the place. ‘The bulk of the 
aha tapes 


such a distance that it may advance 
the first notice or alarm. 


Tyere 


z 
i 


leave his post, on any pretence whatever. Should the 
enemy, however, have a large garrison, and hazard a sor- 
worker Way be’ Eroaghr heck 1o the places: Shere they 
may to the places where 
were collected, or to a proper distance, while the sued 


509 


of the trenches advances to oppose the enemy. ‘In such Attack ana 
‘eases, cavalry to cut off the enemy’s retreat should al- erred of 
ways be ready. The workmen never should be allowed yorance” 
to disperse, but always be kept in order ; and disobe- — tions. 
dience should be punished on the spot with death, if né« —-~—— 
cessary. Strict discipline, added to a conciliatory mode 

of informing and instructing the men in their duty, will 

be of the utmost advantage, and is never to be negleéct- 

ed. The workmen who come at day-break, and even 

some of the guard of the trenches, may be usefully em- 

ployed in completing either the communication or the. 

parallel begun in the first night. The next morning af- 
ter the opening of the trenches, the engineers inspect it, 
and observe whether the enemy can enflank it. Where 
this is the case, they order a traverse to be constructed, 
They also see, that in the parallel the banquettes for the 
soldiers to fire irom are properly constructed, and that 
the crest of the parapet is as nearly of the same height 
as possible. 

As soon as the first parallel has been finished, the ri- Deena 
cochett batteries are constructed. These are placed ei- Geoitions tae 
ther in, before, or behind the parallel, according to cir teries, 
cumstances. 

The space between every two guns is generally 24 
feet ; and between the mortars, about 15. Thedepth  , 
of the batteries is from 80 to 36 feet ; and a powder-ma-« 

e is behind them. son 

Sah ws eat are kacet wi tia wii “ach he 
mortars in the middle. ides the ricochett batteries, 
others are constructed to fire at the magazines of the fors 
tress, in order, if possible, to detroy them. Such bat- 
teries also may be advantageously constructed, even be- 
fore the trenches are opened, on heights commanding the _ 
town ; and mortar-shells filled with combustible matter, 
or red hot balls, as well as fire-rockets, may here be of 
great use, in obliging a fortress to surrender long before 
a breach has been made. A battery in the parallel, 
however, is constructed in the shortest time, and there« 
fore often the best. Its construction is as follows: The 
parallel is made equal in width to the depth of the bat- 
tery; the platforms for the guns are laid; the’ inside of 
the parapet is finished to the height of the soles of the 
embrasures, and the embrasure ; then the parapet 
is finished, and afterwards also the embrasures, which 
generally, as well as the interior talus of the parapet, are 
lined with fascines. The batteries for mortars have no 
embrasures, but are lined like those for guns. The pa- 
rallel is in this case conducted round the battery, viz. be- 
hind it, in the same manner as ‘PARALLELS are built. The 
battery has generally a parapet, either at its flanks, or 
before them, but none behind. 

A battery before or behind the parallel is dug out, in 

ite a different way. The inner talus is determined at 

at a proper distance from the parallel and fascines 
being laid down to mark it out, a ditch is dug out before 
it, and the parapet constructed in the same manner as 
directed in field-fortifications, observing the above rules 
with regard to the construction of the embrasures, The 
two wings or flanks of sach a parapet are joined to the 
J, and serve to secure the communication with it. 
At the back of these batteries, generally behind a small 
traverse, a powder-magazine is constructed to contain 
ammunition enough for two days, or about 200 shots for 
each gun, and 150 for each mortar. 

The men employed to construct such a battery, should 
be acquainted with the work. These batteries being al- 
so constructed during the night, will hardly be complete 


Tt will be also an advantage, if these batteries can be 
regularly traced, and constructed by such a number of 


may as be fully employed during the time they are 


hours, this will forward the work very much, and consi- 
derably lessen the time usually required. 

Oper ing of As soon as the ricochett batteries are finished, and al- 

vee rieoshett 50 the first parallel, the fire of these batteries is to begin. 
Not a gun, however, is to be fired from any of them till 
they are completely finished, lest they should attract the 
enemy's fire ; as this would molest the workmen, and on- 
lygive rise to confusion, which might occasion the total 
struction of a battery, or the dismounting of its ord- 


same time from one battery, that the enemy may always 
be in a state ofalarm. The artillerymen on one battery 
are divided into certain parties, one of which always 
serves the guns. An officer has the inspection of each 

: , to observe its effect, to correct its levelling, and 
to make such repairs as may be readily done at the mo« 
ment, but which, if neglected, might lead to more serious 
consequences. Every officer, therefore, is to be made 
answerable for the effect, and the accidents in his bat- 


tery. 
Approaches Alier finishing the parallels and the batteries, those 
peep! places on the parallel are to be determined from: which 
i the approaches shall commence. An opening is then cut 
in the parapet of the parallel where the workmen are pla- 
ced to cut out the approaches, covered in a similar man- 
ner as in the first night. The soldiers serving to guard 
these workmen are, if necessary, covered by woolsacks, 
which they carry with them, and which, being about the 
height of three feet, will cover a man completely. 
— pa The second parallel is constructed exactly, in the same 
aie manner as the first ; but the work being much more dan- 
gerous, from its being nearer the fortress, it.ought to be 
executed with the greatest possible secrecy and dispatch. 
If any part of the parallel has been left unfinished during the 
night, it should be done the following day, or, at farthest, 
in the course of next night. After this, the approaches 
towards the fortress are continued in the same manner as 
before. Poy ye 
If any point peculiarly favourable to the: construction 
of ni batteries should occur, advan is to be ta- 
ken of it, even in preference to those which it had been 
previously proposed to raise. All sallies made by the 
garrison are to be met by the guard of the trenches, while 
the cavalry is endeavouring to cut off the enemy's re« 
treat. The guns on the batteries should always have 
grape-shot ready, and as soon as an attack of the enem 
is perceived, should be fired at those parts against which 
the attack is directed. 
er agh es In order the better to observe the motions of the ene« 
diemounting Y? the ground before the parallels should be illumina- 
baieries, ted either by fires, or by light-balls. The third parallel 
is the next part to be constructed ; or if it lies too near 
the enemy, the dismounting batteries are first to be con- 
structed. The proper situation for these is either before 


Third pa- 


FORTIFICATION. 


they are completely ready in ¢ 
spect; but when once opened, a. constant. 
be kept up, and the guns should be. fired. 
time, in order to cause as much confusion as. 
the place. 


‘ie 


As the construction of -works between the.second, pa- Nature 


rallel and the place is very dangerous, an ingenious. mee raed 
thod has been devised fox covering. the workmen by “?? 7 
This consists in placi ions 


means of the 


sappe, viz. the flying sappe, where all the baskets are ™ethods of 

placed at once by a number of men, and then filled as xappem 

soon as possible; the half sappe, where all the baskets 

are placed at once, but filled successively ; and the com 

plete sappe, where the baskets are placed successively, so 

that the man who places one. fe cones by ats Fes 

ceding one, or by a large bag, or a basket full of e 

rolled before him, Instead of the basket, or sack full of 

earth rolled before the men, a blind or board resting on 

two small wheels, with a thill, is made useok,. 
The flying sappe may be made by common wor 

and also the half sappe ; but, in. cting the com« 

plete sappe, men called sappers must ade RA who 

are particularly acquainted with this business. Of these 

men, asappe will require fi Se itn teenie 


the baskets, and partly fills them with earth, he 
digs a ditch behi sham 108. es deep, and two wide. 

He also places small bundles of rods, fascines, or sand< .._. 
bags, between every two baskets. The cgotaie af 


low him en’ the fosse half a foot in depth, and. 
much in 7 These four men take each others 
successively, and are relieved every two to four 


new ones, This work can be conducted by night as.¥ 
as in the day-time ; but not more Soa, ties oe 


: ; 20 to 30 
yards can be completed in one day... 


- 
wit 


core pa eames er 
‘shed by thei ‘ve denna ed and kinds of 
the pansies ype The first has baskets filled with ‘Ppes- 
earth, or a parapet, only on one side; the second has a 
parapet on both sides ; and the third has not only a pas 
rapet on both si also a shell-proof covering. 

The the simple sappe has been al 
explained. The sappe is constructed, by mak 
two simple ones le each other ; and ieanrent 


iy is generally deepe 


good phcten ea cng which at the 


is not constructed, but Perallel 
parals not used. 


The third: 


5 


vis 


FORTIFICATION. — 511 


approaches = 

mer by the flying sappe, and the latter by the ordinary 
or double sappe, as i above. If a third anda 
fourth el are constructed, it is usual to fix there 
the dismounting-batteries ; but if the third parallel is 
at the foot of the glacis of the covered way, part of them 
is before, and part behind. 

_ Should it be found useful to remove the ricochetting- 


hatteries nearer to the are placed on crot- 
chets, or half parallels. If a fortress has lunettes, no 
fourth parallel will be wanting, but a will 


vered on them by a parapet. When it is necessary, 
however, that the sappers should be better 
and when only a few works of the fortress are dis- 


a fourth or a place of arms 
the saliant angles of the covered way, will be requi 
Dismounting- ies, too, may sometimes be too dis- 


A common covered way may either be taken by an 
assault, or ly by the . From the 


& es 
Ht 
ae 
: + ie 

q g5 

a 
F P33 
geass 
aT858 


begun i 
simple kind of cavallier of the trench is used, ha’ 
only one row of i Trenaivsabséier thatteher. 1. Xe 
mount these parapets, stairs are raised behind 
are 

| against t or 
fut agli, mont the of the sappe being 


vered way, Fk ar 
As soon as the attack has arrived at the saliant ; 
the cavalliers of the trench are to be constructed, to 
the number of at least three pair. As soon as these are 
finished, they are filled with soldiers, who keep up a 
comptanns Sire slong Sie eavered way, S0:0e to prevent 
Mig nena remaining there with safety. 
Foe agg ayers ey co my coun 
Cov: 2 are not 
arate 
in e before the 
places of arms, If the enemy be tea eempete 
Places of arms, +e is to be driven out by stone mortars 
and _But if this fire should not induce him to 


quit the places of arms, and if they are very strong, Attack ang 
and not to be taken without a breach or an opening Defence of 
made. in their rampart, then breaching batteries must. Fermanent 
be raised against them. These are made like the dis- ““ions. 
mounting batteries, but more covered from the enemy’s ————~ 
fire either by traverses or higher oe : 
If the place of arms can be atta by rise, this. by surprise, 
may be done as soon as the sappe along the palisadoes.of 
the covered way, or lodgement on the crest of the glacis, 
is finished, Milita nde one is ascertained that none of 
the enemy are hidden beliind the traverses in the covered 
way. The place of arms being taken, it is usual to con- 
struct a lodgement there, or a place where the soldiers 
may be covered from the enemy’s fire, and can oppose to 
him a front along all the works. Another me a ig 
ing the covered way is byassault. This, however, can< 
not be undertaken till all the guns in the fortress are si- 
lenced, and the enemy’s works there can be assaulted 
without making a breach. But as the assault is generally 
attended with a considerable loss of men, a vigorous 
attack on the covered way is mostly | pg How- 
ever, when it is determined to bring the siege to a con- 
clusion in a short time, or when the works of the ene- 
my are say. Lagasse and when the chance of success is 
probable, assault is to be undertaken. This attack 
is usually made by volunteers from different regiments, 
and their way is cleared by pioneers or ters, whe 
nea dlomaihe i and remove all other ob- 
stacles. When such an attack is resolved on, it is to 
be made at day-break : he pana are cut down, 
the soldiers enter the cov way, put every one they 
meet to the sword, and proceed di to lace of 
og bag a agg emp a is can — 
yy surprise, it is always more advantageous, e 
m7 ype gah ch ag wine ppd ey 
sible, and covered with fascines, wool, or sand-bags. 
Wool-sacks certainly are of the greatest advantage here, 
as they may be easily conveyed from one place to ano- 
ther, and form a good parapet for the fire of small 
arms. 
If the sappe on the glacis, along the palisadoes, or Lodgement 
the Iplaadiet oak the wed of Vis erence wn » has not ° the co- 
yet been made, it must now be done. attack Vert ¥#y- 


As soon as it becomes light, these men retire into 
the lodgement, if it be ready ; if not, to the next part 
of the trench. The lodgement is finished, if pos- 
sible, the next day, if the enemy’s fire is not too de« 
structive to preyent the workmen from going on. ‘ 
To prevent accidents, the men who storm the co« 
vered way are to search for the heads of small mines, 
and if they discover these, or any other contrivance 
invented by the enemy as means of annoyance, they 
ge Reda oye Pape by mines being th 
e- a covered’ way, by mines e 
most tedious, is only to eye nee oy ae hla 
thods fail, or when the enemy uses mines also, way by 
The mines must, in this case, be so constructed, that mines. 


_ the largest globe of compression may easily burst, and 
1 


512 FORTIFICATION. 
Auack and that a proper tunnel or excavation may be made by it bags and wool- are here also of considerable advan« 
Defence f for constructing a lodgement. tage, and where are to be had, they should always. 


— a The first method of attacking mines, is to make 
— enn be acaake , ofabout 
——> 4 feet square, and when this has been carri 


depositing the charge 
filled, blocked up, and fired. Experi 
guide in determining the powder to be used. 

In this manner the work proceeds, till it arrive near 
the covered way. As soon as a tunnel of a mine is 
formed, a t is directly made there, that the 

may vance and take possession of it, and thus 
oulaip opines the fortress. If some of the ene- 
my’s mines and wells are met with, or if his miner is 
heard, a mine is directly to be filled and burst, before 
he has time to do so with any of his. But should the 
miners be by the enemy bursting his mines, 
new ones must be which there is reason to ex- 
lp be more successful, as the enemy will then 
ve no more mines at his command. 

If the miners should chance to meet those of the ene- 
my, a subterraneous ent will ensue, in which 
smoke-balls, for producing a poisonous and suffocating 
smoke, may be of use. If they succeed in driving the 
enemy out of the mines, a large one is to be made, and 
the whole blown up as soon as possible. In all cases 
it will be necessary to keep the most accurate drawing 
possible of the progress of the mines, executed from 


surveys. 
If one of the enemy’s wells be discovered, it is to be 
filled at certain with quantities of meee these 
are to be blocked up properly, and the whole exploded, 
in order to form a |} ent or an approach, which, 
after bursting a mine, is finished by the sappe. In 
mining, it will sometimes happen that the ground is 
not firm enough, or that springs are met with, and that 
the miner is unable to proceed, in which case new wells 
are to be dug out, as before. The depth of these wells 
should, if possible, be 20 to 30 feet below the ground. 
Large mines are always very advantageous for the be- 
sieger, as they favour the construction of lodgements ; 
but small mines, which are not seen on the'surface of 
the ground, are of the greatest advantage to the be- 
sieged, as they are of no use to the enemy, but serve to 
destroy his works, and to obstruct his advances. 
The mines used to take the covered way may also be 
spies in destroying the traverses, and even the places 
arms, 
As soon as the covered way is taken, and the 
ment on it finished, the construction of the breaching 
batteries is begun, and, if possible, in such a way that 
the angle of the shoulder may be struck by the balls in 
a dicular direction. But if this cannot be done, 
and if the front has a large demi-lune, the breach is to 
heh cangapen: 10 to 15 yards from the angle of the 


The breach in the ravelin is made so as to destroy the 
intrenchments formed on it, at the same time that the 
breach is made ; or if this is not possible, the breach is 
laid 10 to 15 yards from its saliant angle. 

Breaches in counter- 
are laid as in the demi- 


SulbMerrane- 
our cogage- 


sochisy, 


Destruction 
of the ene- 
my’s mines, 


Breaching 
batteries, 


; The breaching as well as the dismounting 
batteries are constructed by the aid of the sappe, in a 
manner similar to that before described. t sand. 


» lunettes, manteaux, &c. ' 


batteries is as soon as they 


be used, ese ae tei 
never poibedls oe may not be -—— 


covered way is to be formed by the sappe, and 
that the way to the fossé is , either by a 
raneous passage, or by the double and covered 
When the subterraneous passage is formed, it is to” 
lined and covered with wood, and carried on to the res 
vetement of the counterscarpe. This is pent either : 
by a small mine, or by piercing it, and making an en- 
trance, which is to come about two feet above the sur= 
Sees Cetin Sas6 eee 

‘ossé. 

he passage over the fossé is differently constructed, 

ing to the nature of the fossé. A dry fossé may the fossé. 
be by a double or by a covered sappe ; a 
fossé, where the water does not flow,  tasciad Geen 
and a fossé where there is a current, by a kind of fascine 

ater 


The sappe over a dry ditch is made, as 
above, either by mines, or like a double or a covered 


The dase over a: wet dikcty "tard alee aatiied 
rerit, has two 3 one at each if the enemy's 
fire is to be feared in passing the even though 
all his guns at this time should be ed, or at 


pamela. on oat attacked side, hts is 
ly and successively constructed, by forming 
layer of fascines, and ieunaidhs them with earth, Sod 
continuing with this tll it be sufficiently high, then 
t is constructed, a new begun, and ’ 
wk vi veods thus till tha wicks ielaioonis ii 
A ‘over a fossé which has a current, is more dif. . 
ficult. The first thing is to try w 
commtoe the water let off. 
e, the 
tervals are filled with fascines, the upper 


- 
>. -. 


i 


can be assaulted, ’ f 
cumstances allow it, the outworks are either passed, or 
the bastion and the outworks attacked e same 
time. As soon as a practicable breach has been made 
in the rampart, a sufficient number of volunteers nek 
sault the Mest bee in 8: 


this purpose to ace . 
company the soldiers who make the assault. 


FORTIFICATION. 


' If this lodgement be practicable for receivi iy 
it is directly to be occupied, and this ‘het ascieats : 
day-break at latest, that the men may not suffer too mu 

tions fom the fire of the eye iatel! ap ee ro 
\—————_ ments are most expeditiously formed sand-| 7 
How to be Wr paekeals Woo be repulsed, if the lodgemen 
ae to 5 t nm or if the t 
renewed if has not been made in such a way as to be occupied by 
fal at first. the men, and if they have been compelled to leave it, 
the attack is to be renewed as before. If any - 
hensions are entertained of the enemy’s mines, it will be 
to send the miners to lay amine and to burst 

it, in order to form the in 


eit» anil 
Preset 


Permanent 
a ‘Forté 


thus rendered assailable. ‘But if neither of. these be 


ing is allowed, heavy. contribu- 
ised, and divided among the sol- 


Capitula- 
‘tion. 


articles in the treaty 
inventory made out of all stores, provisions, &c. 
possession farther 


7 

i 
‘i 
{ 
es 


8 
5 


LEPEET? 


In this case those parts must. be attack- 
can be taken of ravines, hollow 
circumstances, 


of structed as betore. 


513° 


places to bombard the fortress.» This is also to be done 
from several points, where the fire can reach the for- 
tress, in order, if 
provisions there. ; . tions. 

Fortresses situated on a stony or rocky soil are difi- ~~ 
cult to be attacked, and the works round them: can on 
only be constructed by.earth or wool-bags, and by fas- *"* 
cines, 

Should a town have a citadel, it will be necessary: to Case of 2 
consider, before commencing the attack, whether the j,.9 4 cit- 
eitadel or the fortress is to be assailed first. Ini all gel, 
cases where the citadel commands the fortress, and 
where it will not be much more difficult to attack it 
than the town, the first efforts should be directed 
against the citadel, and not against the fortress. When 
a fortress is to be attacked in form, the operations-ma 


Attack and 
Defence of 
Permanent 


possible, to destroy the stores and ‘yortifica. 


they frequently be shortened, by forming a brusque attack, Brusque «‘- 


or beginning with the construction of the third paral- tack. 
lel as the first works of the trenches, and: afterwards 
making a communication from that to the camp. The 
attack proceeds then regularly, and ricochett batteries, 
as well as dism ing and breaching batteries, are con- 

The last method of attacking a fortress: is by tirail- Attack by 
leurs. Batteries are constructed at a great distance, trilleurs- 
and mounted with mortars and guns of large calibres. 

As soon as these batteries have begun their fire, a chain 
of tirailleurs is formed all-round the fortress, who ap- 
proach the works, covering themselves by the excava- 
tions and elevations of the ground, or by the pits, 
ditches, hollow ways, ravines, trees, houses, walls, 
hedges, &c. &c. From such places they fire at every: 
one who appears on the rampart, or any other of the 
enemy's works. The tirailleurs should always take 
aim, and avail themselves, of every circumstance’ that 
may direct their fire with effect. In general, they have 
little to fear from the fire of the garrison; but, if neces~ 
sary, they are still better covered, by giving them wool~ 
bags, or by constructing a parallel fr them, and also 
b pelene their operations with a brusque attack. 
irailleurs always ns rape the fortress by de- 
grees, and inclose it as mueh as possible, until the co- 
vered-way can be taken by storm; and the attack is 
Uheewepie continued as circumstances may require. 

The men ordered for this attack are to be properly 
instructed in their duty, and besides, rewards are pro- 
mised.to them on their executing it completely. ey 
always retire at night, or when dark, and reappear be- 
fore day-light, in order that their fire may begin with 
the dawn of day. While this attack of the tirailleurs 
is going on, the ordnance also endeavours to annoy: 
the enemy ; and ricochett batteries may be constructed 
to assist the others. These, however, may be brought- 
closer to the fortress, to increase their effect. This me- 
thod of attack was first practised by the French in the 
revolutionary war, with great success; and, combined 
with the attack in form, it certainly does appear well. 
ag pax to force an early surrender. 

ving traced the progressive ations of the be< Defensive 
inate te the first opening of the trenches-to the measures 

pane of the place, Ha ag now to consider the om by 
ensive measures adopted by the garrison. es 

A fortress, where a siege is to be expected, should “” 
always be put in the best possible state.of defence; by. Prepara- 
repairing all the works, placing the palisadoes, con- “OPS '°" * 
structing the necessary traverses, , in short, ne. >e* 
glecting nothing which may render it stronger. The 
ravelins should have reduits and weak fronts, strong 
places of arms, and lunettes, all of which are to.be ex- 

sr 


: L, 


514 FORTIFICATION. 
Avmek sed ecuted before the siege commences. A sufficient quan- prise, as the may collect there, and act against Attack and 
Detenee of of ammunition, ordnance, materials for repairs, and the enemy with more ity, and with a greater Defence of 
= soitiary stores, is also to be provided. Embra- chance of driving him Besides, the Pe 
Fortifes- . ° ° ’ 
toms. Sues are to be constructed, and ordnance partly «town by a citadel is of verylittle useto the “tions. 
—— riounted. Powder magazines are to be formed in se- enemy. But should a have place, all the wy 


are 
be constructed. These consist of buildings of wood 
composed of two walls, which incline 
each other, covered with earth, so as to be shell- 
the ends by traverses. Some- 
i these blindages are only of one such 
inclined wall of wood, co with earth, in which 
case se pene towards a rampart or a traverse. Some- 
times old buildings, the roofs of which have been bro- 
ken down to make its upper side ar er serve as 
places where the garrison reside with safety. Only 
; stone-houses, however, are chosen for this purpose. 

Inhabitants The inhabitants, unless their loyalty be suspected, 
bow ta be are to be divided into parties, and em as circum- 
stances may require. The surrounding country is to 
be vekdined as level as possible, that the enemy may 
nowhere approach covered. The bri round the 
town are to be destroyed, and every thing removed 
that might contribute to keep up a good communica. 
tion among the besiegers troops, that they may have to 
Provisions "@Place it before the siege begins. Sufficient quantities 
to be colle. Of fuel, and provisions of every kind, are also to be 
collected from the neighbouring country, and patroles 
or parties are to be sent out to observe the enemy's ma- 
neeuvres, Among the different corps of the army sig- 
nals are agreed upon, so that, if any troops should ar- 
rive for the relief of the place, the garrison may be able 
to communicate with them, and act in concert. Mes- 
sengers and spies are also engaged, to procure informa- 
tion of the enemy’s movements, and to keep up a com- 

Sidhe teats 
Precautions In order to guard against a surprise, most unre- 
sgainst@ mitting vigilance and stbéntioh are absolutely n : 
“apess: Each must have a full and perfect knowledge of as 
duty, and the place he has to command. As soon as 
the enemy is within 36 miles of the fortress, —— 
patroles of cavalry are to be sent out, to gain hourly in- 
telligence of his movements. The gates should never 
be opened before daylight, nor a number of men al- 
lowed to enter at once. The guards of the gates should 
be Se “id night. P... channels, s, &c. are 
to ept shut up. Every person w out or in 
must be strictly te and carefull Spatial par- 
ticularly the deserters of the enemy. Should a conspi- 
racy ve biog stare in the town, inhabitants are to 
be m and disarmed, and all ings are to be 
di Strong cavalry patroles should be constant- 
ly sent through the streets. The garrison must be kept 
in good spirits ; and, if ible, after great fatigues, 
some extra allowance, either in money or otherwise, 

scsten Glee ~ be made bere 

datieane e quarters men belonging to one troop 
yore tp should av be close together, that they may easily 
collect ; and the commandant should frequently make 
trials of their watchfulness, by giving false alarms, and 
keeping them constantly on ‘their Wear taking care, 
Meuisltas however, not to fatigue or harass them too pone. and 
pelssur. mever suffering any neglect of duty to pass unpunished, 
Prise, A citadel is always very useful in the event of a sur- 


troops are to collect at the spot fixed on, from which 
to join on the to be defended. As 


soon as the greater part of is collected, de- 
tachments are sent to the streets to 

the enemy, and. particularly to reinforce the to 
prevent a greater number from ing the town. The 


thing, 

fore the necessary instructions are to be previously 
given, that every one may know his place and his pro- 
ater Ay Te at lbp rae In an open attack, the Open at 
efenders have t advantages over the assailants, and ‘ck 
these being duly considered, and ly represented 
to the garrison, be contribute to increase its 

irit. such an attack is expected, great care is 
reconaty ‘aitasicing the meek: Sulieiead a " 
both with regard to the works that t to be defend- 
ed, and the number of men requisite for that purpose. 


of ee ee See Lt whee oema ier 
thrown in that ion, w enemy is per- 
Coie) he seeehhe Spey Sy eres nd 
As soon as he arrives in ¥ grenedes, Resistance + 
prepress Seeneee wae we avs 
attempts to mount ener tee wees other ent points, 
envy helio, a0b-46-ber oe over the parapet 
him ; and should he arrive, bayonets must be used. If 
he succeed in getting possession of the rampart, he must 


these also l, the streets are to 
be defended, and finally the iven for retreating 
pods dhe 3 which should be done with the greatest 
possible ns oe 
The defence a blockade, consists in Defence 
plenty of stores and and magazines where a 


The garrison besides should have safe habitations ; and 
sometimes sorties or ge peed ae 
or larger ies, against enemy, 
him, Lr seers he rovisions, (Td hawreviee, theoe sale - 
lies prove unsu ‘ is to be taken that 
the enemy does not penetrate into the fortress with the 
who make the sortie. 7 ae ‘ea 
e defence of a place against an attack in form, is —, 
subjected to greater difficulties. The first thing neces- form. 


FORTIFICATION. 


Same 


ome 
ment, those who may act contrary to the orders which 


nthe i then properly divided, that no part 
 Distribu- is vided, no 
“tion of la- ssappincver enbets Anleat ev umilorgoithien ssheaher's. end 
_bour in the peyer should too large a number be ordered on duty, 
garrison. —_ unless the fortress has a very numerous garrison. A 
5 journal isto be kept, in which every circumstance that 
; sioameealins ite ieaphicdiy sd ts 
— enemy’s 
inf the ene- guar meal teks dal aptectescs, are to be 
Legal received with a discharge of grape-shot or balls. This 
$ , however, in case of ther approaching in parties, 
: sor tbaetindee gk eaintonla ee ee 
s single man. Small calibres are generally i 
purpose, to ent the from becoming ac- 
quainted sheen : 7 
pikecnetgiagel before the covered way, The com- 


eee wt ree 
! i " arearstorabees 4 
reoke-bells of various Kinda, Yoo as do conbess sireined 


> sete armen a mah ti 
f them as can be enfiladed. In the beginning of the 


"attack suddenly with great noise. They then 


‘farther away from the fortress, In 


515 

are rather to be withdrawn than destroyed ; but if one Attack and 
of the enemy’s batteries can be dismounted, all the force Defence of 
is at first directed against one merlon, and then against "e™ns2e"* 
the others successively. tone. 

Such parts of the fortress as have been damaged must ~—— 
be repaired during the night, that they may be in a 
P state for service the following morning. 

id the enemy’s el come so close to the co- Riflemen 
vered way, that the fire of small arms can reach it, rifle. how to be 
mapa hy agen aa ee lil 
ma Ss, partic y when the en. 
pes or officers appear. The fire of the om 
should also be directed against the head of the trenches, 
or where they are not quite finished, as also where bat- 
teries are to be erected. 

For the same purpose also, small pieces of ordnance, Counter ap- 
and in particular small mortars, placed in the saliant proaches. 
angles of the covered way, may be used with the great- 
est advan Counter approaches are sometimes used ; 
but certainly they are of no peanti it helps ridiculous 
to su a garrison can, with any advantage, be- 
sie, the army by which it is itself besieged. sy 

nother means of defence against a siege are sorties sorties ox 
or sallies, for the purpose'of ring provisions, open- sallies. 
ing a communication with the army, or attacking some —__ 
of theenemy’s works. They are undertaken some- 
times before, and sometimes after the place has been in- 
vested ; and they differ in the strength of the parties 
yed, poncntah to the object in view. 
ies against the enemy at some distance from the pjstant 
fortress, are sometimes liable to be cut off, and there- sorties. 
fore only to be undertaken when the retreat can be se- 
cured. As such sorties also generally cost a great many 
men, they should only be undertaken whenthere is a fair 
prospect of obtaining some particular adyantages, and 
where the garrison is so strong that a sufficient num- 
ber will remain to defend the fortress properly. 

Sorties which require a strong force, should never strong 
be undertaken unless they have a particular object. in sorties. 
view, and then they are to be made by a sufficient num- 
ber of troops to execute it without difficulty. Particu- 
lar circumstances sometimes determine a garrison to 
make a sortie; but it is never in this case to be 
done if the men could afterwards be of greater service 
in the defence of the fortress, What relates to the exe- 
cution of these sorties, the nature of the ground, and 
the different movements, will be farther illustrated 
neal Se candanieial made by parties of 

sorties are ly by ies of about Small 
20 to 30 men, who secretly leave the covered woke une Sortics. 

0 
every thing i be the tenon oe geben." 
them, spike up the enemy’s guns, overload them, &c. 
for all which purposes rr ae provided with the ne- 
cessary assistance of wor , tools, and materials, 
taking care always to retreat as soon as the enemy’s 
reinforcements arrive. These little attacks are parti- 
cularly useful after a mine has been sprung, before. the. 
garrison of the trenches has recovered from its fright, 
and order restored. 


The most advantageous time for attacks is mid- post time 
night, or towards morning; when the tr in the for sorties, 
— are still fatigued by their labours during the 
ut no sortie should be made with two large a force, Sallying 
lest the enemy meanwhile make a successful attack on a. 


force has been drawn 
the num- 


another part, while the 
f An general 
ber of men employed in a sortie should never exceed 


long. 


516 


Avack and one half of the 
Defence f make a sortie 


Small garrisons should never 


enemy's works, particularly during the night, and to- 
wards the head of the in order to prevent him 
i i A tone the covered way. If 


there i 

made on the covered way, it will be advan 
place a greater number of soldiers to defend it, as also 
to make small mines under the traverses, and even un- 


has to construct his 
hearths of mines should be 
the re-en 


; angle. If the ene- 
garrison cemyry by covered way, and 
one traverse to the a ead ae 
the mines are sprun y> 
the glacis. But if the enemy has 
isorderly manner, he is to be attacked, 


of arms, as well as some 
small guns will always most beneficially 
direct their fire upon the enemy, and be particularly 
useful in taking him in flank, or in firing at him when 
advancin 


Counter- 
anines. ways be 
If the enemy should not begin to mine, the ison 
must endeavour to spring theirs under some of his 
works, parti ly his batteries. This will retard not 
‘only his advancing from the third parallel, but also 
force him to commence mining. The most favourable 


to mine and to dig a well, 
ere oe ey eee 
di ing a mine w it. .This is as 

fen e can be discovered. athe 
How to de- e-near approach of the enemy’s mine some- 
werk danatios Setetied by yhickajiarieens: tu Oa Greend 
proach of | and scattering a few peas on its top. If the miner be 
near, his digging will communicate a tremulous 
motion to the drum, and of course to the peas. When 
prem r-edbealad epi yabaoe i Ve? Regs 
sprung. If the enemy’s well is discovered before the 
countermine is , the former may be filled with the 
“poisonous smoke of fire-balls. The miners ¢ al- 
wares Oe oes istols, to defend them- 
selves should they fall in wi Sinn of the tnieaiet In 
this case subterraneous fortifications will also be ne- 


cessary. 

If there be any small works in the saliant angle of 
in these. the covered way, they will keep the enemy at a cer- 
Hants of the tain distance as as they can be occupied, and 
on. therefore this is'done til he is vesdy to:aseatht it, anid 

even then they are not to ‘be left, unless it be found 
i ible to defend them. 
n avant-fossé that is full of water, is frequently of 


the enemy's 
mine. 


labour is u in constructing 
with water. great use, er fe par of the defence of fortress. The assault here P*™ 


Should the covered way be. 


’ where the water can be let in and out at 


to be, to make a sally after ing a mine, and to de- 


FORTIFICATION. 


i as as there are’ ‘to en= Attack and 
Syne ee ae oe So oe or es 
A second covert way, parti eee 
Se enemy sontirthass Whigary ‘irda detning er wage 

the enemy some ; it, care 
is to be taken that’ tt io not curpriaall wher oorate Sonnet o- 
way. 


should be directed principally 


induce the enemy to believe that many of the guns are 
enemy cov , and is 
endeavouring to construct his eheraoe to ef- 
fect his passage over the fossé, the that have been 
ed are to be opened upon him, and an unremit- 
ted fire kept up as long as they are fit for use. 
Such works as have sustained much i 
ways to be repaired with all possible di 
nance is to be planted behind them to be ready 
Pop team: pratt sr ph ew meeber nrtee rotor: 
will be necessary first to spri mines there, in or- 
der to throw him into conoahene and then to attack him 
and drive him back. i 
The defence of the fossé is the next most essential Defence of 
part ; but cannot be of long duration, for if the counter *% f0ss6- ~ 
scarp is lost, all is lost. Still, however, a'gun, or seves 
ral riflemen, will be of the use to hinder the — 
passage of the fossé ; and sallies’ also may be made if 
the ditch is dry. If the fossé be wet, fire-machines will 
be useful to set the fascines of the enemy on fire; and 
the 
enemy may be for a considerable time. Even 
when he thinks hi master of the fossé, his works 
be destroyed by a sudden inundation. The besieged al- 
ways Teuiin cinanemntarenomdaen 
their works, as confusion is likely to take place. In su 
circumstances too, a sally may be suce ; 


The defence of the outworks, after the has Defence of 
made a breach, is either on the top of the utworks 
breach, or from the work in its re-enteri mans + 


men, are to molest him constantly. are also to 
be sprung under his lodgement, or any work where he 
has constructed a an attack being always 
made upon him after every explosion. 
oe pg ner ee ema 
begins a subterraneous war, must be opposed as 
merly directed. — waits 
be tiled, A retool steven ethvtodtiios ' 
may be |, as we i i 
ps Me, and his miner be killed b : and shells 
thrown in the fossé, or by others hung before his well, 
and afterwards burst. ; . 
If, after the enemy has taken an outwork, he can be To 
again dislodged, ali endeavours must be used for that Meenemy: 
; and to effect this, the most probable appear 9 work. 


his communication over the 


FORTIFICATION. 


Attack and ray be sustained, when a strong section is to be had, 
efence of or when there is a retreat to a place, where the garrison 
nay wait till a convention be concluded, or succours 

ive. Sometimes, however, circumstances do not al- 
ow the garrison to wait an assault, and, in this case, 
the commandant capitulates, either to save the lives of 
many, or to prevent the inhabitants from being plun- 
dered. When the defence of the rampart is resolved 
on, the same rules are to be observed as in the defence 
of outworks. 


Defence a- Circumstances must determine whether the enemy is 
gainst the to be in the breach, or attacked from the sec- 
—— latter is to be unless there is eve- 
; reason to believe that the former will prove success- 

“a? 3 at the time of the assault may sometimes 

be useful; but is always in such circumstances to be 


assault, and when every thing has been sent 
Ghd thes ehahdl te txGope ene toreithctesir to it; taking 
care that the enemy does not enter al with them. 
Rather than run any risk of this, indeed, part-of. the 

beat 


prisoners of war and the deserters are, if possible, 
kept; but are also sometimes delivered up to the enemy. 
The magazines are either emptied and destroyed, or de- 
livered up. The works of the fortress, and the keys of all 
le care One gate is generally i 


517 


who are set at liberty as soon as the capitulation is ful- Attack and 
filled. The non-execution of any of the articles of ca- Retepra.ot 


pitulation on either side, will only cause reprisals, and" poritica- 
these frequently are attended with bad consequences. _ tions. 
To prevent this, every thing is determined as minutes —-\— 
th = possible, and all articles are then strictly ful- 


Various methods may be employed, and in some ca- Methods of 
ses successfully, for obliging the enemy to raise the forcing the 
siege, particularly if the garrison acts in conjunction Sie" '° 
with an army. The army may in these circumstances ,jege, 
either attack the enemy, or cut off his provisions and 
succours, which seldom fail in forcing him to raise the 
siege. The army may also attack either the besieging 
army, or the corps of observation ; but this should al- 
ways be done with the knowledge of the garrison, in 

er that it may act in concert. 

Sometimes a siege may be raised by the exertions of 
the garrison alone, as by sallies judiciously conducted, 
and mines well applied; but by whatever means this 
may be effected, the garrison ought to make sallies du- 
ring the night in which the besieger withdraws his ord- 
sons, Be purpose of annoying him as much as 


possible. « 

Should a fortress be attacked by éiraiileurs, as was ex- Defence s- 
plained in enumerating the different modes of attack- gainst ti- 
ing. a fortress, the best defence will be made by smal] leurs 

ns placed in the most saliant of the works for 

i shot. Riflemen will also be advantageous- 
ly employed in attacking them, in the same manner as 

attack the fortress. When, however, whole troops 
of the enemy’s men are ived, guns of a small ca~ 
libre, charged with grape shot, are chiefly to be de- 
pended upon. ‘In other respects, the detence is the 
same as has been already described. 


SECT. IL. 
On the Attack and Defence of Ficld Fortifications. 


Tue attack and defence of field fortifications, is nei- Arrange- 
ther so difficult nor so tedious as that of fortresses, ment of 

The arrangement of a whole fortified line is as fol- Toops ™ 
lows: The camp is generally about 400 paces from the = 5 ho 
lines. The works are usually occupied two men deep, > 
or with two rows of soldiers ; the reserve is placed about 
100 paces behind it, in order to give support wherever 
it may be gue ie py battery, as well as each 

ttalion, has its icular place assign- 

ed toit. As eye as the Mitte 4 fired, pas pe 
must repair to his post as speedily as possible, com- 
pletely armed, and ready to act. , 
ope secure the fortifications from a pn, he light 

‘antry posts are about 5000 paces before the works. &c, 
If, however, the country is i |, or woods are near 
them, the chain of these is thicker, viz. about 
from 500 to 2000 paces distant from the works, - 
Among these posts constant patroles are sent round. 
If the enemy be close to the works, at least one-half of 
these posts must always be under arms. During the day, 
the same is to be peer vest By, Ae teas and some~ 
times also by all the men ina arrival of the 
Pei is generally known 


’ 


, as in the case of fortresses, 

eserters, spies, &c. When the enemy approaches, 

the outposts are to engage him, and to keep him as 

long as possible at a distance, that the troops may have 
8 


Attack and 

Defence of 

Field Forti. 
Costner. 


— 


Tefence of 
ungle forts. 


False a- 
Tunns, &e. 


Attack of 
fortified 


Lines. 


Order of the 
atubck, 


518 


time to form. The works are then quickly occupied, 
the artillerymen having previously made themselves 
Sibveny trad Oalv an ecbetnannet anal > 
may level their guns accordingly. guns 
che uitiantangies fh their Gow po cues te Miso annul 
is within reach. If a few guns, advancing, can 
take a part of the enemy’s force in flank, it will be of 
great consequence. The infantry begin their fire when 
the enemy is at about 300 paces distant. As soon as 
he comes sufficiently near the works, the $s are to 
be dismounted, and their places filled up By infantry. 
But if he should advance to the ditch, artificial fire- 
works are made use of ; and if he ascends the parapet, 
a brisk fire must be kept up, followed by a charge with 
the bayonet, and the first rank standing u the para- 
pet. Should the enemy have penetrated in any part, 
the cavalry are to him he forms. The 
reserve must now pay the greatest attention; and the 
horse artillery, as soon as the enemy has 4 
will be of great use in throwing him into disorder, of 
which the cavalry must take advantage. In the mean 
time, the infantry forms, and returns to the attack. If 
the enemy sbould be compelled to retreat, he is not 
to be pursued too hastily, lest, by rallying, he should 
pote in entering the interior intren ts along 
with the troops that retreat thither ; but the ordnance 
must at this moment play upon the enemy with all pos- 
sible vigour. 

The defence of single forts is almost the same as 
above mentioned, except that the isons have to 
encamp in their respective forts; and that the single 
fe ear. 4 ver gem ordnance as well as by the 
infantry, being drawn up in line behind them. 
The artillery is —e wherever the principal attack 
is made, and must be employed with the utmost ef- 
fect. Should the enemy be repulsed, or be thrown in- 
to disorder at any point, the cavalry suddenly advances, 
charges directly, and pursues, but always keeps closed, 
and in good order. 

If the attack of the enemy should be undertaken in 
the night, then the country round the fortifications is 
illuminated by light-balls or by fires, for which purpose 
wood must previously have been brought thither. 

The troops should always be acquainted with what 
they have to expect from the works, and how they can 
turn them to the best account in their defence. The 
moment of the attack is intimated to them, as also the 
danger to which they will be exposed if should be 
defeated ; and, on the contrary, how much they will 

in if victorious. Convince a soldier that his honour 
8 at stake, and the work which he is to defend will be 
easily fortified. 

To keep the men always on the alert, a false alarm 
may sometimes be given ; but care must be taken that 
this is not too ently resorted to, lest they neglect 
to be prepared when a real attack is made. 

The attack of fortified lines should not be underta- 
ken before an accurate knowledge has been procured 


: of the works which the enemy has constructed to op- 


pose it. The attack, as before observed, is most advan- 
tageously made an hour before day-break. Thie forti- 
fications should, if be taken in rear, by going 
round them, which may be most favourably done by a 
night-march, provided there be no danger of mistaking 
the road, which might lead to great confasion, and dis- 
astrous Consequences. 

Each attack is to be made in a column. The first 
are the grenadiers or volunteers; then a number of 
armed workmen, with shovels, fascines, woolsacks, lad- 


FORTIFICATION. 


ders, &c. for filling 
pet. “After the Ww 


second the Gute , Fie 
iar of cavalry artillery to support the whole.” Be- 2-\—_ 


attack, a feigned generally under- 
taken to mislead the enemy... ‘This Lacon 


the weakest points, are 
time, in order, as much as possi 


the attack, and fire. 
peer at ered 3 their fire, while 
commence 

workmen fill the fossé, and make it pr 

as the grenadiers cominence 
the fossé, the infantry also r 
counterscarpe. After the fossé is 
ments in the berm are removed, and the 
saulted at once, If the assault 
valry and more infantry directly follow, and form 
hind the to attack the enemy wherever he 
pears, and to increase the disorder caused i 
troops. The guns of the fortifications are 
povbeceion yiew bran eam yy, re 
preserved, and room made for a e 
trate, and attack with more vigour. ‘ 
Should detached works be attacked, there should be 
many columns of attack as there are works to be at- 


i 


z 


FRE 


ze 
i 


E 


4 
He 


Should artillery support the attack, it advances to 


tack is made. 

The attack and defence 
i and the 
chosen as the weakest points. 


cab onbpifler-oofinant 
pe es er a ue welt 
Vigilance, some outposts, ent patroles, are 
the best defence against a po vate oe it is expect« 
ed, one half of the men must always be under arms, 


Fortifications situated on rivers may be attacked:as Attack of 


deseribed above, but what relates to the manceuvres 
and previous movements, will with) 

be introduced under the article Taerics. _ A house or 
a small estate is most attacked by an 
howitzer or a piece of ce, as if struck by a 
single shell, it will be foreed tq surrender. If sucha 
house has no flanking defence, it may sometimes be set 


singe forts are conducted Attack of 
iant angles are always “gle forts. 


fortifica- 


tions on ri+ 


greater propriety vers, &c. 


Perhaps a secret entrance, or ladders, may be 
and are to be applied if circumstances will per- 
© pre tnd ating salt petite lle 
up very long. Even if pene- 
‘one part, he may be again repulsed if not very 
or if his succours do not arrive in time. 


more circu to it are to be ta- 
and are 
works are to be oc- 


manner, that each ma 


to be 
SOR er nees Mannan WeeksaedS lee efend. 
* . 


fe 
ia 
| 


ek 
a 

i 

; 

i 

tr 

28 

f 


i 
: 
el 
. 


z 
<= 
& 


; 


FORTIFICATION. 


519 


render of the town. In all cases, however, the retreat Attack and 
of the enemy is if possible to be cut off. —— 

A most advan s attack of such a town is made “sions. 
by tirailleurs, in same manner as has been explain- —— 
ed in the Section on the Attack of Permanent Fortifica« 


tions. 


Sketch of Cannor’s Method of Defending Fortified 


et. 
Places. 


From the account which we have now given of the 
attack and defence of fortified places, the reader must 
have observed, that when a fortress is regularly invest- 
ed, however strong it may be, its fall after a certain 
iod is consi as a matter of course. The maxi- : 
mum of that period we formerly stated at 90 days. In Duration of 
the actual state of things, however, it seldom exceeds * sate ‘aa 
the half of that, and even this is considered a good Vivica, 
defence. In proof of these remarks, we subjoin the 
calculation which Vauban gives of the duration of a 
siege, supposing the place to be strongly fortified and 
well garrisoned. 
Days: 
From the investment of the place till the open- 
ing of the trenches . . 2. 2 se se . 
From the opening of the trenches till the attack 
of the covered way 22.0 55. 8) 
The attack and capture of the covered way . 
Passage of the fossé of the demi-lune . . . 
Making a icable breach in the ravelin 
Taking the reduit of the ravelin . . . . . 
Passage of the great ditch commencing before the 
2 ea Senge dae tel ig 
aking a practicable breach in the place . . 
Defence of the breaches . . 1... . 
Surrender of the place after capitulation . . 
Negligence and errors of the enemy . . . 


Total . . 


We have already observed, that the application of such 
calculations to the operations of moral causes, may per« 


at first si absurd. Itis to be remem 
a ower tet Bien the superior force which the be- 


siegers can always command, it is impossible that any 
place can hold out for an indefinite period. It seems Laws tecog- 
reasonable, therefore, that certain laws should be esta- "ised by na- 


SHV OP MLO 


efea: 


blished nations with regard to the surrender of si the 
fortified places, in order to prevent the obstinacy of ap weer 


an individual being the cause of an unnecessary effu- pieces, 
sion of human blood. Such laws have accordingly Sounded on 


been generall ised, and those who ere in the above 
their defence of a pace, after it ought by these laws to > wa 
surrender, are considered as having deprived them- 

selves of the pri ted to prisoners of 

war. A modern writer on fortification, M. now Count Carnot re» 
Carnot, has, however, advanced a very different doc- jects these 
trine, _ Retsoning on that fundamental principle of mi- me 
litary discipline, that every soldier ought to die rather 

than give up his post, he maintains, that such calcula- 

tions as we have detailed above, are erally false, 

only to crush 


condemns every thing that tends in the slightest de« 
to depress or extin these. Such reasoning, 
ever, would scarcely be entitled to notice, and cer- 
tainly would never contribute, in any essential degree, 


inary way, 
silenced, and the fall of the place m 
out with shewing how the 
be retarded. This is pri to be done by 
lar sorties, so contrived, that the sallying force 
s be greater than the force to be attacked. 
ies commonly made in the t system of 
fence are too to be effectual. are . 
ways made at same points, where; 
the enemy is always prepared to receive so 
that, before they can succeed in destroying any of 
the works, they must combat a superior force. But 
by contriving to have a great number of points from 
which sorties can be e, the garrison may have fre- 
quent opportunities of attacking an inferior force, so as 
to insure success in destroying the works intended, 
without sustaining any considerable loss. By these, 
frequently repeated, the enemy’s p' is retarded, 
iseien are harassed, and he is bliged to employ a 
much greater number in defending his VERWE as it 
is only by a very strong guard at every ib int 
of stiack, that he can protect rs it ie ay 2 
the disastrous effects of pene pn $2 piiys should 
he beventen enasgh. 7. Fe cient 's on every 
part of his works, by crowding great numbers into one 
place, he only exposes them to a more certain destruc- 
snd vertical tion, from the immense number of vertical fires ( feux 
ares. verticaur), which form the second, and indeed the prin- 
cipal I parts of Carnot’s method of defence. These con- 
sist of mortars of different calibres, elevated at an angle 
of about 45 degrees behind the parapet, and covered M 
blindages. In this way, the guns themselves, as we 
as the men who work them, are completely protected, 
both from the direct and ricochet fire of the enemy. 
When used, they are loaded with a sufficient to 
carry the shot to such a height, as that, by its descent, 
to prove fatal to the 
the effect produced by 


follow ; he 
enemy 


gs 


tion. 
Commence- The vertical fires are supposed to commence only 
=f prog when the enemy opens his third parallel, as the distance 
ious to this would render their effects less certain, 
‘rom this period till the opening of the breaches, the 


ggg tye tes 
to be 100 yards from 
i e ravelin, 
of the exterior side of the polygon 360 
ld occupied by the besieging army will be 
nearly. 36,000 square yards ; but, in eetow to calealake 
on the, miatmum effect of the fire, call it 60,000 yards. - 

It is now. necessary to ascertain how much of this 
space is actually covered by the bodies of the men who 

act as labourers and of the besi works, The 
penis. of, Sse men is generally estimated at’ a. 

Nomber fourths aang tees, ath pogo being foun 
sontained in too weak for resisting the sallies of ieeoae Sup- 
what space, posing then that the garrison consists only of 4000, 


FORTIFICATION. 


the guard of the trenches will 


be 
$000 men will be spread over the surface of the ground 


occupying the avenues or passages, ; 
ofthe squere sochh, dae nied 
of one man to 20 square yards. sth -geteindenli 
Let itnow be su that a man’s 
horizontally covers one square 


thus be uired to cover completely a square 
But it has already been calculated that there is 


he 


: 
: 
; 
J 

a EFF 


g 

ry 

j 

E 

A 
a 
: 

as 

Bg 


Sn we ee dere 


so situated as to fire along the capital of each. 


mortars, as formerly observed, are 


45°. 
to prevent the collection of smoke, and 
with a small fossé to secure it from the shells 
fall near it. ' 
To estimate the effect of each piece 


pound, may be 
is, each mortar, at, a single shot, will discha 
600 such balls, being 3600 from the whole. But it has 
been shewn, that out of 180 balls, one may be supposed 
to strike the enemy ; therefore at each discharge of the 
six mortars, twenty of the besiegers.will be put hors de 


It remains now to inquire how many rounds may be 
fired in the of 24 hours, the fit beig continued 
during the night as well as the day. ‘These, ata mo- 
derate calculation, may be rated at 100, which allows 
nearly a quarter of an hour to each round. But at 
every discharge 20 of the besiegers are disabled ; there- 
fore 


; but these avenues, 


in 24 hours, 2000 men will be destroyed or rens- 


Number of 
rounds in 
one day. 


ph ee eee 


. FORTIFICATION. 


Carnot’s dered unfit for daty.. In. the course of the ten days 

of then, between the opening of the third parallel and 
effecting:a breach in the: rampart, the besi will 
Effect inten Sustain a less of 20,000 men. But if the garrison con- 
days. sist only of 4000, the whole of the besieging 


ii 


Advan 
tthe sje. fortified place, whatever be- its size, if defended in this 
tem in way, can be taken by any method of attack presently 
point of in use. Nor is the certain destruction of the besieging 
economy force the only advantage of this new method. Econo- 
my, both in men and money, is another and a powerful 
recommendation in favour of the system. The garri- 
son is neither exposed to danger, nor harassed by a la- 
‘borious defence. A few companies of are 
alone requisite, who can carry on their operations with- 
out any d from the enemy’s fire, and without any 
interruption from dismounted guns, or broken carri 
se bulk of the garrison have nothing to do but 
pay SSS = moment for making a sortie; 
y thus obliging the besiegers to keep strong guards 
gy render the vertical. fire more effec- 


f 
ii 
a 


the total effect would be the 
the 


some of Ang of his system, 
shew, that it is only by adopting it 

the the modern systems 

defence can be turned in favour of the latter. The 


Ey ctl 
if 


. 


40 


on 
six or seyen weeks, and, in most cases, does. not ex- 
tw 


ii 


Hl 
- 


3 
R 
be] 
5 
= 


521 


limited period-of defence i8 to be ascribed, he thinks, Carnot’s - 
partly to the impossibility, in the present system of oo ot 
defence, of mounting artillery, so as not to be very soon USSU: 
silenced, and partly to’ the want of such a method of 
firing as can reach the besiegers behind their intrench+ 
ments. Both of these desiderata are supplied by his 
method, which-he then proceeds to vindicate from some 
objections that have been started against it." These ob- 


jections areas follow : 


1st, That the balls recommended are not large enough Objections. 
to produce the desired effect. 

2d, That the besiegers would avoid the fall of the 
shot, by keeping out of their reach ; and, 

3d, That the method recommended would consume 
a great deal of iron. i 

answer to the first objection, he observes, that Replies. 

there is nothing unreasonable in supposing that a square 
piece of iron, of the size of a pigeon’s egg, should, in 
descending through 120 feet, acquire velocity sufficient © 
to killa man. But should this be questioned, he ap- 
peals to the example of the ancients, who with their 
slings, which carried toa much less distance than mo- 
dern swivels, and with balls much lighter, easily killed 
or maimed their enemies. 

To the second objection he replies, that it can only 
be worthy of refutation, when it has been shewn that a 
ety: army may take a place without approaching 
it. 


On the third, he remarks, that for the very same rea- 
son a garrison should not use artillery of the common 
kind, use it will consume a great quantity of lead. 

But the force of the objection is still more completely 
removed, when it is remembered that stones may be 
substituted in the place of metal balls. 

. The ingenious author is not satisfied with replying 
to objections that have actually been made against his 
system ;—he also anticipates others that might be ad 
vanced, oa bere ier in particular, oe it would be 
i ible for i to approach the place un-~ 
rearey rotection of Siinisave hocense it anld be 
impossible for them to find either time or materials for 
the construction of such works; and even if they could, 
the slightest sortie from the garrison would throw them 
into confusion, and destroy in a moment the fruits of 
their long labour. 4 

But it is not only before a breach has been made that Advantage - 
this new system of defence can be employed. It is of the sys- 
equally effectual in resisting an assault, provided there %™ ) ' 
be an interior intrenchment between the rampart and Ss cuh 
the place, when a few mortars have been mounted, and 
reserved for the moment of the attack. At this mo- 
ment, the garrison is to retire from the breach, and the 
mortars of the retrenchment are to open at once with a 
discharge of balls or stones. The consequence of this 
must be total destruction, or at least immense loss, to 
the breaching party. Should any of them in the mean 
time gain a footing on the jt aly they must be in 
great confusion, and may therefore be easily dislodged 
with the bayonet, the garrison taking care to attack 
them the moment the fire ceases. , 

Such is a bork outline of me apt ane . pro- pry mesg 
posed by one who appears to haye devoted the efforts of of Carnot’s 
a anal mind, and the labours ofa long life, to the ame - 
improvement of a science. interesting above all others to 
his country, but which military men, in general, have ‘ 
been too ready to regard as incapable of farther im-~ 
provement. In comparing this system with what is 
still commonly Teestteres Fe is impossible to avoid being 

u 


. . 


difference in 


the besiegers, 
sive operations. 

In ing the various kinds of projectiles that 
engin uote debeiiog a place, Carnot also recom- 
artillery in certain circumstances, but 
i should not be fired through embrasures, 
are mounted on the faces. Instead of 


these he proposes 
bags of earth, to be 
ery is to be with- 


drawn, Grenades, he thinks, might also be used with 
great advantage, and even in some cases the manubalisia 
and jon of the ancients. There is still another 


be so completely soaked, as to put a stop to their work. 
“ It would not be difficult to conceive,” says Carnot, 
“ that this idea was every where turned into ridicule. 
ye was however cope by a 1785, to put 
to the test of ex t, t experiment, 
to de ter me of the — makers, com 
pletely succeed The sappers could no longer 
their ets; the earth was converted into a liquid 
mud, which slipped from under them, and of which it 
was impossible to constract any intrenchment. Yet, 
notwithstanding all this, the experiment has never been 
followed up ;—a proof that it is not always sufficient to 
have experience, reason, and even the good of the state 
on one’s side—the inertia of indolence may resist all 
these. Perhaps an age or two hence, some extraordi- 


~ nary events may shew, that the idea is neither extrava- 


it 


gant nor absurd.””. We should not be rised if the 
sentiments which Carnot has expressed with to 
Jomariére’s of defence, are hereafter found to be 
strictly applicable to his own. 

As might be expected from what has been already 
stated, present construction of fortifications is, in 
the opinion of Carnot, extremely defective. Of these 
defects he has given an enumeration, and has also il- 
pat them at considerable length.—They are as fol- 


1st, There is no provision made for covering either 
the artillery, or the garrison on duty, from the fire of 
the enemy, mete wp oie ina the guns of the 
fortress are generally dismounted in a few days. 

2d, There to “ne interlel Wakl or detrenchment;: « 
that whenever the besiegers make a successful assault, 
the place is in their power, and the inhabitants exposed 


to 

Bd, communication between the different parts 
of the place and the outworks, is too difficult for the 
prompt execution of any necessary movement. As an 


’ 


FORTIFICATION. 


improvement in this respect, Carnot proposes, 

cond na ee there — 
tle slope or glacis, from covert 

fom of the fossé, so that if i cayeliges 

session of the former, the make 


i 

{| : 

if 
fee iH 


i 
: 
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it 


2, 
= 
i 

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ty 


4th, The covered way is not constructed 
swer the purposes for which it isintended. | 
1. To tolkect the Secs thetuandgbe 
ance of the place. 2. To form the 
for a sortie. 3.To serve as advanced 
venting surprises. 4. To cover 
revetement of the works: And, 
cond line of fire to the enceinte. 
our author observes, that the covert 
pacers trina 28 the field, it is a 

Ity for the auxiliary troops to 
wer they can enter and even 
tered it, if they consist of cavalry or artillery, iti 
difficult to find admittance into place. 
same reason it obstructs, rather 
particularly if the sallying force consists 
As to preventing ises, it is, in its 
of very little use, as besiegers ina 
nutes; make their way over the pallisade, by m 


covering the revetement of the works, it might 

ful, if its peop hi than the revetement ; " 

it is well that, in the greater part of modern for- 

tifications, this is not the case; and, with regard. to its 

aifordi pen cane ert abe Capen abr pre arto 

the are alwa a parapet, the ra- 
“ shede ont hoot bache 


fie 
33 


g 
s 
F 


f 


: 
; 


ty 


yen: of dabaielaaaieinaesant 
greater cs of wood than can in most cases be pro- 
cured: And, tiar’s 


12th, It exposes the soldiers to severe and incessant 
labour, without the possibility of their obtaining ne~ 


The great length to which this rtisle: has already: 


a 


oat 
— 


- 


FORTS, VITRIFIED. 523. 


Vitrified extended, prevents us entering’ so largely, as we should 


otherwise have done, on the system which we have now 


_ ——\~—" endeavoured to’sketch. From the preceding observa- 


pm erties: 


tions, however, our readers will readily ive, that 
the work is not unworthy of its distinguished or, 
and that the principle which it unfolds is iarly de- 
serving the attention of engineers. 

See'Vauban, T'raité de l Altaque des Places. Carnot 
De la Defense des Places Fortes, Paris, 1812, &c. a 
| See Minrrary Arcuirectune for the subject of Cas- 
trametation, and other topics connected with the pre- 
ceding article. 

FORTS, Vrreirrep. The lation Vitrified Forts, 
has been given to certain or vitrified masses of 
stone, which were discovered on the tops of some hills 
in the north of Scotland, about the year 1773 or 1774, 
by Mr Williams, a mineral surveyor, who published an 
pee Cebandeatie Mine, thay copied 

‘ora i time, the attention 
of some cf the first uit ebaitticke and gave exer- 
cise to the ingenuity of antiquarians. Various conjec- 
tures and theories were announced ; and some went so 
far as to conclude, that nothing short of volcanic fire 


owing to an idea, that their origin was involved in 
impenetrab naednainedare seemed to be no 
prospect of the | world coming to an agreement 


of opinion, it is certain, that a long time has 

eihiee' thin lel of rencarchi hen been a 
curiosity apparently been asl H 

quavertagheyoraow dine i y aiff 

easily damped ; and we shall consider ourselves fortu- 

nate, if the brief notices in the present article shall 

lead to a more and accurate examination of the 


ten on this subject about thirty years and publish- 
ed intheTransactionsof theRoyal Societs cf Edinourgh,) 
«how curious it is, that the same appearances to diffe- 
rent observers, lead to the most ite opinions and 
conclusions!” Whaling of Opinions wher sometimen 
be owing to the different degrees of attention which 
have been bestowed on the facts, and their relative con- 
p< weal in that he ain te ’ 
ned a ; is: to view e 
thing with av Bydyohiel dea cally hal accohld wich 
his own fancy, to the entire exclusion of the views of 
others. But circumstances of importance often escape 
the most accurate observers, and lie concealed till ac- 
eident leads to their discovery, or till unbiassed obser- 
vers remove the tions, occasioned by fondness 


the structures in question |, or su the 
application (ever wae take) spe ery to 
has: arisen 


Shape acl irae pie opps oe 
( ce of the 
Vitrified masses, from the want means to trace 
their first origin, It has fallen to our lot to diseo- 
‘ver such means; and having been so fortunate, we 
have some hope of being able to reconcile many opi- 
’ which at seem to be very site, and 
‘to open a’ path which may lead to the For thi 
purpose) we shall begin by the facts which 

Ives to our view, mining the 

of Dow Crerer in Ww 


we think, the true origin of the vitrifications, which Vitrified 
speculation, has been found, _ Fors: 


have occasioned so m' 
We trust that it will appear evident, that making sig- 
nals by means of fire has occasioned not only the ap~ 
pearances in Dun Creich, but those on many other hills, 
and has probably been the origin of this singular me- 
thod of cementing stones, if indeed it was ever resort- 
ed to for pu s of architecture. : 

Near Creich, in the county of Sutherland, a ridge pro- 
jects into the Frith of Dornoch, terminating in an abrupt 
precipitous hill. This ridge lies nearly east and west ; 
and from the summit there is an extensive view of the 
sea, and the country towards the east ; and of the valley, 
containing the Dornoch Firth towards the west. - The 
access to the top is by no means easy, even where it is 
most practicable. Round the edge of the summit there 
is a ram: 


the remains 
It is about thirty feet square, the walls being three feet 
thick, but not now more than four feet high. On the 
outside of this building, as marked by the letter B, is 
another rampart of loose stones, which is probably the 
remains of a structure intended for the same use, but 
which has been exchan for the more substantial and 


’ convenient building within. C is a well, which has 


been filled up. There is a very spring of water 
on the outside of the rampart, on the south side of the 
hill. D marks a line, on which there is a mass of stones 
bearing abundantly the marks of’ fire, and which we 
traced across the whole summit. The surface of the 
hill within the outer rampart is uneven and rocky ; and 
that part of it which is crossed by the vitrified mass, is 
rather lower than the eastern portion. 

The line D being the only one which is vitrified, no 
marks of fire appearing any where else, is a striking 
and important fact. This line extends from A to B on 
the sketch (Fig.3), passing over the 
in the only direction in which a range of signals could be 
made, so as to be distinctly seen further up the country. 

To be satisfied of the reason why the signal fires 
should be kindled on, or beside a heap of stones, we 
have only to imagine a gale of wind to have’ arisen 
when a fire was kindled on the bare ground. The fuel 
would be blown about and dispersed, to the great an- 
noyance of those who attended, The plan for obvia- 
ting the inconvenience thus occasioned, which would 
occur most naturally and readily, would be to raise a 
heap of stones, on either side of which the fuel might 
be placed to windward. To account for a large extent 
of vitrified matter, such as that along the line D, it is 
only necessary to allow the inhabitants of the coun 
to had a system of si A fire at one end, 
might denote something di from a fire at the 
other, or in any intermediate part. On some occasions, 
two or more might be necessary, and sometimes 
a fire along the whole line. 


It is evident, that the le who formed the struc- 
ture on Dun Creich, had no idea of spplying, fire for 
the of strengthening the ramparts, and had not 


en the hint aff them by the effects of the 


even 
i fires. Hence we consider the at 
oe ica vir 


this place as demonstrative of the fact, 


cations have been occasioned by the of signal 
fires, to warn the inhabitants of the of an ere- 
my, or to convey the orders of a chieftain to his depen- 


dants. It too, that such signals have been common 
after the use of lime mortar was known, since we find 
on this hill the remains of a building constructed 


of loose stones, marked on the plan (Plate Puare 
CCLX. ig-1.) by the letter R. A, marks the site of CCLX. 
a building constructed of stone and lime. "i 


of the hill, and Fig. 3. 


Pirate 
ccLXx. 
Vig. 2. 


with it. This may have served the double of 
a watch tower, and the habitation of the people who 

the stati the valley 
the remains of an old castle, with which the station 


was ly connected. While on the top of Dun 
polo pete pe us, that marks of fire would be 
found on a hill, which obstructed the view of Dun 
Creich from Strath Carron, a valley which branches 
from that of the Dornoch Firth. We went to the 
and found several masses of melted stones. A few miles 
th rock occupies an angle 
formed by the river Carron a tributary stream, are 
the remains of a fort, built in the circular form of the 
Duns, (or Danish, or Pictish forts, as they have been 
called,) with distinct traces of ditches and earthen ram- 
rts in With this also, the signal station of 
Dun Creich ma have been connected. 

Ww ~ nothing similar to Dun Creich, or 
other vitrified forts, has been observed farther to the 
; though it is probable something of the sort 
may exist at the head of other firths. The next we shall 
take notice of is the first we meet with to the south- 
ward, and is situate at the head of the Cromarty Firth. 
The name of the hill is Knock Farri/, and it is one of 
those which arrested the attention of Mr Williams. It 
is about two miles from the town of Dingwall, in the 


county of Ross, and forms of a double ridge, which 
bounds the valley of peffer on the south, and se- 
parates it from the v. of the river Conan. The 


ascent from the east west ends is comparatively 
easy, but the sides of the hill are very steep. From 
the summit there is an extensive view pap tchin of 
Cc , and of the adjacent country ; and the hill of 
Cote Mock nau teense, pecs age Rese ars 
trifications which have been described by Mr Tytler, 
is distinctly seen.. The flat area on the top isa 

deal inclined towards the west ; its length being about 
135 yards, and its medium breadth about 45. Round 
the area, and close to the edge of the hill, we find 
masses composed of stones cemented together by melt- 
ed matter, irregular in their positions and size ; and ex- 
tending at each end about 50 yards from the area. 
The vitrification is every where superficial, extend- 
ing but a very little way among the stones. There 
isa apnaiditablo quantity of rubbish seen in the cuts 
which Mr Williams caused to be made across the 
area in different places. This rubbish appears.to have 
been collected for the purpose of extending or forming 
the area on the top; and it would seem much la- 
bour had been bestowed in accomplishing in this man- 
ner what might, apparently, have been effected more 
easily by cutting down of the summit. On the plan 

Plate CCLX. Fig. 2), A, marks the cuts made by Mr 

illiams ; B what seems to be the vestiges of a hut, 
sud G sho pamela Oa Osis Rae SNE OE Eee 
ing rain water ; for there is no appearance rin, 
water ieonlag Gls bay pat of ie bal wep aan id 
sures nearly an English acre. This station may have 
been chosen to give warning of the approach of ships 
up the Firth of seoeucle aad wea weobekt gps coe 
post of the castle of Dingwall, Guay. bh i 
of the Earls of Ross. 

To account for the vitrification appearing all round 
the area, we have only to refer to our supposition of a 
system of signals, the shifting of the wind rénder- 
sae srceeary. te change the e on which the fires 
were to be lighted. vitrified masses appear in 
many instances to have been displaced ; and one fact 
eccurred to our notice which ascertains this displacement 

$ 


FORTS, VITRIFIED: 
ond a doubt. Qe tiatthing belome scan SiaaaY Vitrified — 

side of which was considerably inclined, we observed — Forts. 

some melted matter that had run down and consolidsted “V"™ 


a al posit cers ‘oat ken iaestetnay 4 
inal position, would have i 5 
Shey tereat right angles to the indlinndiwiiriedeusften: 
Many fortuitous ee may have ee 
to uce the present irregular appearances. #t can- 
psy t,hseen eS ee 
with as much regularity as the nature of the materials — 
would allow, both in order to render it more durable; 
and to make it serve the purposes of defence. _ For we 
re gone htm suet ee 
signals, was ren su strong to resist 
attacks of an enemy, We do nh however, consider 
that any appearance on Knock Farril indicates the fu- 
sibility of the stones having been used for idati 
theram DrAnderson was mistaken when he 
in the 6th vol. of the Archeologia, that the vitrifications 
are to be seen only on the outside of the ramparts of 
Knock Farril. e mentions, however, the fact, that 
on the hill called Top of Noth, in Aberdeenshire, the 
vitrification is only on the inside ; which is a very sa- 
tisfactory confirmation of the idea that it has been pro- 
duced by si fires. Had the outside of the rampart 
on Top of Noth been vitrified, we might have been 
warranted in concluding that fire had been used to 
strengthen it. Had the inside been vitrified with this 
view, it is impossible to conceive that no attempt was 
made to cement the outside also ; sincé in every struc< 
ture for defence, however rude, we find the strongest, - 
and not, as in this instance, the weakest, part opposed 
paleradie: mye of an enemy. On some hills, 
apparently intended for defence have been id, 
where there are no appearances of vitrification. In. 
such instances it is probable that the stones will be 
found not to be of an easily fusible nature ; if in reality, 
no vitrification can be found, on accurate search bei 
made. This last remark is occasioned by the di 
Cane ee ee ee ee ae . 
one of the stations the great chain’ 
eecaped the notice dé Mr T. 
Nimmo, civil engineer, and late rector of the 
at Inverness, ; 


. was 


FORTS, VITRIFIED.” 


tioned by Mr is noticed ; and it is added, * that 
a similar tower is in the same direction, contiguous to 
the house of In ; and that the tradition of the 


vargarry. 
country is, that those hills were watch towers for giv- 
ing signals upon the approach of an enemy by large 


It is about seventeen years since the writer of this 
article sug to several persons whom he accom- 
in their visits to Knock Farril, which is near his 


cemented by the fusion of a part of the materials, there 
no reason whatever to doubt it. 

it is not whether a wall can or cannot be con- 

structed of fusible materials, ore is the question ; 

appearances which now present them- 

selves justify the assumption that they bad such an 

— We have already le, who 

seen the possibility of heat being applied success- 

Creich, had 


on both sides, or throughout, So as to indicate a regu- 


deed, a regularity in the form and manner in 
which the ramparts are laid down, and which has been 
guided by the shape of the hills: but ing else than 
in the mass of which they are formed. We 
‘of all those we have seen, and of a variety of 
which we haye read. We often. find 

masses of melted matter of a breadth far exceedi 
can 


i 


iPLETE 
fH 
| 


rEEtH 
U : 
ree 
nt 
bios 
BA 

Ff 


i 
i 
2 
ee 
Hi 
1 


it 


525 


such marks were discovered by Mr Nimmo, on the ‘Vitrified 


only part of the hill where signals could be made, so | 


as to connect the great chain of posts extending from 
coast to coast ; and along this chain it has been found 
necessary to make use of hills on both sides of the val- 


Jey, inorder to complete the communication. Here, 


then, is another instance in which the fusibility of the 
stones has not suggested the idea of strengthening 
walls by means of fire. But we have said enough on 
this part of our subject. 

Mr Tytler has accounted for the present irre 
distribution of the vitrified matter, in a more simple 
and in a more i ious manner than Mr Williams and 
Dr Anderson. He sup; that the cause of the vi< 
trification is to be fi , not in the mode of construct- 
ing, but in the means employed to demolish the ram~ 

; which, according to his theory, were originally 

ilt with stones intermixed with wood, thus present 

ing to an enemy a defence easily destructible by the 
application of re. 

t is difficult to find any reason why such structures 
should be made, at a time when the effects of fire upon 
wood must have been as well known as at present. At 
a period when it was the only fuel made use of or 
known, little ingenuity was necessary for gr kd 
that any structure made wholly or partly of wood, 
could easily be destroyed by fire ; and the people must 
have been very silly indeed, who were incapable of 
foreseeing that the ingenuity of their enemies might 
enable them to find out so simple, and, to such fortifi- 
cations as Mr Tytler has constructed for them, so for- 
midable a w . It was ec teart fare such a strucs 
ture should be only once destroyed by fire, to prove to 
the inhabitants the frail nature of their defence. And 
if their enemies were expelled, it is natural to suppose 
that they would have renewed their forts, and con- 
structed them in a different manner, so as to resist the 
attacks of fire. But nothing has been found indicating 
any renewal of the fortifications. That a rampart may 
be constructed of stones and wood, which not be 
liable to destruction by fire, and that such ramparts 
have been formed, there is no reason to doubt. But, 
in the case before us, it is necessary-that the quantity 
of wood should have been so great, as to admit of fire 
being set to it easily. If Mr Tytler’s conjecture be 
right, we ought to find the melted matter i 
indiscriminately every part of the rubbish. But the 
vitrification is only superficial, extending but a very 
little way among the stones. 

These few considerations, together with what we 
have already stated in favour of another, has induced 
us to reject Mr Tytler’s hypothesis. On the whole, 
we are of opinion, that the antiquity of these structures 
is by no means so great: as that which has been attri- 
buted:to them. and that they have served as beacons to 
castles in their vicinity, the remains of which are, in 
almost every instance, to be found. 

We allow that, while these hills were chosen for sig- 
nal stations, they were also used as places of defence, 
And, indeed, it would have been strange if posts of 
so much im, had been left without the means 


without the possibility of his being annoyed from them; 
or if there was any risk of his progress being inter- 


Forts. 


Vitrified 
boats 


526 
rupted, the situation of the hills would render it easy 
for a small party to coop up the garrison. But as an 


always endeavour to approach unseen, 
and to prevent the country from being alarmed, these 
stations would undoubtedly be objects of attack ; and 
henee we should be warranted in supposing that they 
were, to a certain os fortified, varen were the ap- 
pearance of ramparts less unequiy 

Nor are we disposed to deny, that, in some instances, 
the fusibility of ane 8 have been cw: me of 
to assist in stren ing ramparts ; no- 
thing has yet occurred to our observation, or in the 
course of our reading, which we consider as carrying 
with it any thing like demonstration, or even the sug- 
gestion of any such method of constructing them. 

Our object, in this article, being chiefly to excite cu- 
riosity, and to induce such of our readers as may have 
an opportunity of visiting these curious remains, to ap- 

ly, on the spot, the different hypotheses which have 

stated, and to favour the public, through some 
channel or other, with the result of their observations, 
we shall now proceed to point out the situations of 
some of the most remarkable vitrified forts in various 
parts of Scotland, besides these already mentioned. 

In Kirkcudbrightshire, 


enemy wou 


ire, about half a mile S, E. from 

the church of Anwoth, is a steep rocky hill about $00 
feet high, which has been fortified on the most accessi- 
Sepleg apresdeeet: coped Ghababees he davai 

ces t ves, as 

by the Rev. Hugh Gordon. “ The which forms 
a level area, 30 paces long and 20 broad, is nearly sur- 
rounded with an irregular ri of loose stones, inter- 
mixed with vast quantities of vitrified matter. The 
stones, consisting of the common blue schistus of the 
country, have been softened, twisted, and partly fused 
by the fire. These heaps of loose stones and vitrified 
matter are scattered irregularly over the top of the fort, 
and exhibit no nee of having ever formed a 
continued wall. e. vitrification is only partial and 
superficial, and seems to have been the accidental ef- 
fect of fires kindled on these high rocks, either 
for some estic purpose, or for signals to,alarm the 
country on the of an enemy. It was former- 
5 hese that these vitrified forts were peculiar to 
ode of the island which is north of the Forth, But 
ides the one described above, there are two others 

in the re be and they all command a very extensive 

of the sea.” 


In the island of Bute, in the parish of Kingarth, there 
is a vitrified fort; and in Cantire, at the entrance of 
the bay of Carradale, on a small island, vitrified masses 
enclose about a rood of We believe that some 
others have been observed in Argyllshire, particularly 
one on the hill of Dunskeig, which commands the en- 
trance of Loch Tarbert. On the same hill, ramparts 
are seen constructed with dry stones, without any vi- 
trification. 

In Perthshire, the hill called hill, in the parish 
CY eee ified with particular 
care, Playfair thus describesrit : “ Its summit was 
levelled into an area 180:feet long, and 72 broad. A+ 
round the area, a mound of earth was raised from 6 to 
OS cae 20 StS Reodhies top. On this mound 
a wall of freestone was built, without any cement what- 
ever, The foundation of the wall was of 
rough granite, and still remains. It is of same 

with the summit of the mound; but the hei 
of the wall cannot be known. Gordon's estimate of it 
is very erroneous, Among the ruins there are several 


FORTS, VITRIFIED. 


ploces of vitrified stone; but these vitrifications must 


Bere 


if 


the hill gently slopes, there is a ditch10 
and 12 to 16 feet below the foundation of the 


¢ 
i 
Ze 


it 
i 
i 
a 


3 
E. 
; 
5 
E 
e 
Es 
F 
- 
iF 


i 
i 
i 


ly vitri 
2 am aster wall.:tho debtudiaeaiierhieida 
feet lower than the summit of the mound. T 


; 

i 
j 
i 
ate 


ige of a well within the fort; but, westward, 
ge basis of ne mound ee ipice, there 
was a pond or lake, recently up 
nants im. thet neighbourhood, About a 
mile eastward, on the declivity of the hi 
some.remains of another oval fort, of less extent than - 
the preceding, consisting of a strong wall and diteh. 
Tronlition says that there was a subterraneous commu- 
nication between these forts, which ismot improbable.” 
attention 


fied that it must have been used as a bridge ; but he 


afterwards decidedly says that the approach to, the fort 
was on the north-east side, while bridge is at the 
south-east extremity. We are inclined to)think, that, 


The vitrifications on the. hill called Top»of Noth, 
have already been noticed, on: account: of their bei 
found insi _® fact con- 


to have Leith of 
“ The summit, on all sides, presents to a person whoap- 


FORTS, VITRIFIED. 


Vitrified waned mound, or pile of loose stones, of 
_ Forts. porsarsr te shapes, few of them larger than a 
Ym" man may lift with both hands, though some few are 


= 


7 


ont 


ten times that bulk. When you get on the top of this 
mound, or enter by an ing in the east end of it, 
you discover that it does not consist of a of such 
stones'so as to make a large cairn, but that is an 
area of grass ground in the middle, which may be 

60 yards long, by 25 wide. The mound of stones 
which surrounds this space has, on the inside, the ap- 
ofa thick strong wall that had for a long time’ 

in ruins. The height of these ruins above the 
inner area is pretty uniform, and may be from 9 to 12 
feet. A slight inspection discovers, that what has the’ 
appearance of a ruinous wall, has never been connect- 
ed together by any cement, as nothing of that sort can 


: 
: 
: 
: 
FE 
i 
z 
a 


sentderhaiel ies totaal vs davinden ct wakes waite 
by the force of fire in various degrees.” 
the same county is the hill of Dun o’ Deer, in the 
vale of Garioch, on which there are also vitrifications ; 
as on Dun Creich, the remains of a building con- 
structed with lime mortar. This toweris of larger di- 
pacer oy a oti , than that on Dun 
Creich, ‘being 60 feet square, and the walls about 12 


of which have been used in its con- 

is cireumstance, however, does not mili- 

inst the supposition, that the hill was used as a 
i -station after the tower was built. 

About four miles east from Forfar, is the castle-hill 
of Finhaven, the vitrifications on which have led Dr 
Anderson to compare them to the effects of the fire in 
scanmtanaidealtockgtniahes-aecte wetec he’ ara 


the fire. : 

The walls in some parts of this fort have been laid 
bare, so as to appear at east ten feet high. We have 
no ion of the vitrification. Dr Ander- 


that the wall had been built previously to the applica- 
tion of fire, in whatever way that may have been made. 
The stones are in courses, and banded, as we have been 
informed by the Rev. Dr Jamieson, (to whom we are 
an teures state respecting this fort), 
and Seam hiaye Beet #ery nequatty and i lar~ 
ly affected by the fire, and many of them not at all. Se- 
ven or varieties of stone appear to have been made 
use of. there been an intention to vitrify this wall, 
the most fusible stones would to have been se- 
lected ; but instead of this, been placed in the 
wall indiscriminately with others. We have already re- 
oo ore Nwethenen ins seem, in some instances, to 

n taken to irregularities in the ground, 
in B00 for a level area GiTik eau Our informa- 
tion ing this fort is not so clear as to enable us to 

whether the unusual height of the wall can be 
accounted for in thisway. Fordefendinga fort from with- 
in, a rampart of less height would have been sufficient. 
There are several cross walls on this hill, and the ves- 
tiges of outworks ; and altogether it seems to offer much 


527 


satisfaction on a careful examination. We regret, that Vitrified 


to some of its peculiarities, 
us to visit the castle-hill of 


our information, in 
came too late to 
Finhaven, before it was necessary to send this article 
to the press... It is said, that between this hill and that 
of Laws, already noticed, there is another fort, which 
completes the communication over a very wide extent 
of country. By keeping in view the idea, that signals 
by fire have been in use at the period when these for- 
tifications were constructed ; and looking around from 
the summit of the hills on which they have been pla- 
ced, for hills similar in situation and shape, cu-- 
larly at the entrances of vallies, or on ridges which in« 

the view ; many vitrified forts will, we confi- 
dently expect, be discovered, and communications far 
more extensive than any hitherto observed may be tra~_ 
ced. As the repulsion of foreign invasion was an ob- 
ject of interest to the country at large, hostile tribes 
and clans would naturally unite for the common defence ;) 
and, as their Scandinavian neighbours were in the ha- 
bit of frequently molesting them, no plan for alarming 
the country with the utmost celerity appears so natu- 
ral, or so effectual, as the lighting of fires. 

A few miles from Fort-William, in the parish of Kil- 
malie, is the hill of Dundhairdehall, the summit of 
which is surrounded by a vitrified mass of stones, 
. This hill commands a view of a great part of Mamore, 
and the whole of Glen Nevis. It is extremely proba- 
ble, that this was the signal station of the ancient castle 
of Inverlochy. In this opinion the writer of this ar- 
ticle was confirmed by Dr M‘Knight, who visited this 
hill, and who mothers TH his a struck ~~ the 
probability of conjecture, in the account he has 

iven of "Ben Nevis in the Memoirs of the Wernerian 
atural History Par 

In the valley of the Beauly river, in Inverness-shire, 
about two miles north-west of the church of Kiltarlity, 
is a vitrified fort, called Dun Thionn. It is circular, 
and about thirty yards in diameter. 

The latest writer on the subject of our article is 
Dr M‘Culloch, who states his opinion in a memoir, 
published in the Transactions of the London Geologi- 
cal Society. He adopts the opinion of vitrified forts 
having been constructed as places of defence, by ce- 
menting the walls by means of fire ; and rejects, ina 
perem manner, the opinion which we have at- 
tem to defend, viz. that the origin of the vitrifica- 
tions is to be found in the practice, universally em- 
ployed by our ancestors, of alarming the country, when 
threatened by invasion, by fires lighted on conspicuous 
situations. 

Dr M‘Culloch has guessed, by pacing, the dimen- 


sions of the of the vitrifications on the 
hill of Dun Mac Sni paidee { ryote vt Pearly 
of the ruins of Beregonium. He acknowledges, that a 


great was concealed by being covered with sod, 
ernick’ he had no means of onivng: yet he has 
given a plan of an extensive and regular set of inclo- 
sures, He has not favoured us with the shape of the 
summit, on which the position of the vitrified masses 
observed elsewhere always depends; but, from the 
shading of his plan, we may presume, that the inelo- 
sures stand on different elevations, and that those ele. 
vations command a view of different portions of coun- 
try. It is stated, that the portion of ground inclo- 
“sed is in length about 200 yards ; whereas on the plan 
two inclosures are marked, one 56 paces long, 
and the other 37. One side of the latter appears to be 


Forts. 


Born. 


—\— 


as the edge of the hill at both 
sides, There is a third inclosure, 30 paces The 
want of a vertical section, or a drawing of the hill, pre- 
vents us from Prom rpg de pei a et 
title to set aside t fires having been 
the cause of the vitrifications. facility with which 
our author makes room for his own opinions, may be 
seen in the following sentence: ‘ The supporters 
of this opinion have asserted, that they (the forts) 
always occupy the highest elevation; and that ma- 
ny of them are so placed as to be ‘visible from each 
other, This is not true.” The vitrified forts have 
never been asserted to occupy the Aighest elevation. 
and we cannot discover where Dr M‘Culloch could 
find such an assertion to have been made. We do not 
remember an instance, in which there is not much 


on sp wae immediately contiguous to the hills on 
whi vitrifications are found. It has been assert- 


But this is very different from the highest elevation. 
That many of them are so placed as to be visible 
from each other, is known from the testimony of se- 
veral writers, and is consistent with our own obser- 


vation. 

The rock of which the hill in question is formed is 
limestone ; and Dr M‘Culloch very properly infers, that 
the stone of the hill was rejected, on account of the 
effects of fire upon it, and that other stones were, there- 
fore, collected in the vicinity. He supposes, that a 
trap breccia, found in situ about half a mile from the 
iat, was chilly: vancda seal on account of its being 
fusible. Yet he states, that only the foundation of the 
wall is cemented er by melted matter. . The 
masses of this rock are said to be rare on the plain 
near the hill; but it cannot be inferred from this, that 
they were not found in sufficient plenty at the time the 
rampart was constructed.. The building of the ram- 


occasioned the present scarcity of i 


thost 1 
aaaser this kind om the plain, But this is compara- 
tively unimportant, since we- have vestiges, in various 
places, which demonstrate the great labour which the 
ancient inhabitants of the country bestowed in collect- 
ing stones of particular sizes and shapes to suit their 
a, The vitrification extending, according to 
‘Culloch, “in no case more than a foot or two 


from the foundation,” does not, in our opinion, exhibit 
any sign of intention to construct a vitrified wall ; and 
the e of the fire a ing, in this instance, to di- 


minish upwards, is precisely what we should expect to 


be the consequence of lighting signal fires against the | 


rampart in the manner we have supposed. 


he reason 
why the i 


ing-stone is the prevailing material, ap- 


pears in its being more easily broken into pieces of a has 


convenient size than any other stone, and more eusily 
quarried (if quarrying was necessary) than the hard 
primitive rocks. 

From what we can collect out of this description, we 
are inclined to think it possible that a rampart of loose 
stones has been constructed on the vitrified mass, 
which is described as the foundation. Should this 


it will be an additional proof 


conjecture prove correct, 

that the fusibility of the materials has not always been 

made use of for the of cementing them. In- 

deed Dr M‘Culloch comes nearly to the same conclu- 

sion, as he has found it necessary to state the following 
which appears to us a very lame apology 


FORTS, VITRIFIED. 


partial neglect of 

tained its requisite height ; nor is 

is should aoehara Bene 

dition of cold stones, after a firm, 

obtained.” We do not see why i itri 

fied stones should be firmer than the. solid limestone 

rock, on which they are placed, Dr ‘M‘Culloch. ob- 

petpdin fs: “repented apiations ae en 

a y 3 an ob- 

re sap sh doa 3 pn pe meen a 
fires. We cannot di , along with our au- 

thor, any analogy canes aes we have 
censide: and the eplayed. Sosa 

mud walls employed in Hindustan. .. rtp Ate 

ing we consider as very different things. In regard 

to the plan which has been supposed to have been fol- 

lowed in constructing vitrified walls, and which is. 

proved by our author, we have only to observe, Gitithe 


tap paae weeny rat rpoincigne ny rae n get pe i 
ly be produced between two walls built of sods, 
any thing else, which would prevent a proper current 
of air from passing through the fuel. To us the ana- 
logy tothe glazed wall of Gatacre House in Shropshire, 
iy remote. , sera eT» 

e hope, by the time we come to the article. Virai- 


FIED Forts, that we shall have it in our to throw 
some additional light on this obscure subje , 
marks in this article, particularly those. on Dr M‘Cul- 


loch's memoir, shew how difficult itis to arrive at any 
opinion at present ; to us it y= 
dent that, to whate ose the ay of some stones 


been derived, 
really the fact, that w: ere built in 
it is remarkable that no trace is left by which we can 
determine the method which was followed in thei con- 


e y 
| seeey in favour of this mode of building. can 
presence of great varieties of stones, 
afew of which are fusible at a hi and 
of charcoal, which indicates com~ 


Society of Edinburgh, vol: 
Scollénd, im. Memoi 


ii. 
emoirs of fi oy ns ian Nat. His, 


FORTUNATE Ictanps., See Canany Isurs. » 
FOSSILS, See Mineratocy and Perriraction. 
FOSTAT. See Camo, p. 214, pigs 


FOU 529 FOU 


_ Fortrose © FORTROSE. See Ross-suine, 4259687,3227. Itis equal2V+4VI, bywhich itmay Fourth. 
a. FOULAH, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, connect« be tuned. —— 
Fourteents Minor (14), the octave or replicate of 


“Fourteenth, elieneietind, from which it is distant about 20 miles 


It is situated in North Latitude 60° 4’, and West 

2 1° 45". It is about three miles long, and one 
ene etl bedeervrben ce mens and pre- 
senting to the-ocean.several precipices. from 800: to 900 


- feetiin height. Thepesia rope bende hcp tiatiel can 


be taken in calm weather only. During 
foam and _ and the island is then inaccessible. The 
rocks are gneiss and mica slate, supporting horizontal 
beds of sandstone, slate, clay, and clay-ironstone. In 
the cliffs of sandstone, innumerable multitudes of sea- 
fowl hatch their ~ When approached in a boat, in 
the breeding season, if any noise is made, the old birds 
leave their nests in such numbers as ‘aby stom ampom 
Here the different kinds of gulls. resor 
the stormfinch (Procellaria ) 2 glen 
oe may be found ; and in the corn-fields 
saute caland. the voice “of the Jand-rail proe 


othe inhabits, east ap egg eagron 


oe ie se i ey 

Pato oe, In order to toy 

ws nc os oe eng ie mow igh presi 

be expe, Zaaayof tae a enturous natives 

Wein ete ey on = 

is matter o} tation, 

stage often be‘Heard to boast that they are 

the descendants of those who have gaen afore, or of those 
who have perished among the rocks. 


shore were pointed! out to the 
writer of this article, where these melancholy events had 


, The ‘island is ‘seen in clear weather from the Orkneys, 


and hence is with probability, to have 
inal Thule of Tatoos . 


rOUTeee tee See Essex. 


tenga op Fo pe eo 
tion,” practical tuners of organs and 
ft aj, by th b gt eg a eeace 
yy their an ce 

the others” above and below them are means 

FP aan many tuners are in the habit of Jaying:their 
Savon,» they call it, hatyroess shel’. thet fa below, 
and that which is above the Tenor-cliff C ; but we prefer 
the octave above the latter note, and te this octave Ce, 
are the tables of beats for different systems calculated, 
that are given in our work ; the lower note making 240, 


and. complete vabrations per second. (2) a 


F ERING. Verertnany Mepicrne, 
FOUNDERY. See Iron and Gunnery. 
FOUNTAINS. See Hypropynamics. 
FOURTEENTH, ee ee (14')} in 


Music, » is an interval, whose ratio is =. = 1131 B+ 


22 m, and its log. =.4436974,9924. Iti amped. 
2V-E0, by which its _be-correctly tuned. | .. = 
-Fourteentu or (XIV), cary sie 
SS nga 
- = 1167 = + 23 ee 101 m; and” its Tog. = 
VOL. IX, PART 11. 


the minor seventh: its ratio is 3° = 1120 + 22f+ 


97 m, and its log. =.4490925,3112. Itis=V+-3 4ths, 
whence it may be tuned. ie(@) 

FOURTH, in Music, is the numeral designation of 
an interval of four diatonic degrees, or literal gradations. 
Of these fourths, the different writers on music a 
mentioned a considerable variety, and by a still 
er number of — as follows; (see PLatE 
Vol. IL.), viz 


| Bearing Fourrn of Holden: its ratio is ~~ a 
240,060766 = + 5f+4+ 20m. See Lesser False Trumpet 
Fourtu. 


Comma-deficient Major Fourru (IV‘), has the ratio 


—_ —" =, = 2905 + 6f+425m; its common log. 


is = .8573324,9643, — 473982 x VIII, = 26.4442 
xe; =IV—C,=44+d5, =T+2t, 3T—2e, 
=VS~c, =25ce+ 155 46f, > 67+ 138 €+ 
102: it is also = VI—3, by which means it may be 
accurately tuned. It is the grave major fourth of Max- 
well and Liston; the sharp fourth, or the greater fourth 
of some writers; the sw fluous fourth of Chambers 
and Marsh ; the dow t tritone, and the tri- | 
rama of Wale, 


tara sti Minor Fourtu (4), has the ratio 
ere = 2482 4 5f 4 21m; its log. = 


8804562,9528, = .897117 % VII, = 22.15811 x ¢; 
=tuc, =Iv—P, yt t =2t4+8, =21¢ 
+ 122 ers & ates 
$ 4ths — —.h oR i tet Be tant It is the 
deficient fourth of Holden, the lesser fourth of Holden, 
the grave minor fourth of Liston, and the superfluous 

Comma-redundant Major Fourtn (1V’), has the ra« 


-. 512 “2. 
tio 99° = 30 = = S124 6F+ 27m; its log: = 


-8465424,3266, = .509772 x VIIE, = 28.44493 xc; 
er =4+P, =V—L, =8T, =3.P4 
3 445 4+2c, =27 c+ 1524 6f, an f+ 
1p 12/; itis alto & 3V—3 4ths, and so 
tuned. i ss Wacvion the acne peaien data otidanen 


Comma-redundant Minor Fountu (4°); its ratio is 
Oa a, = 265 2 + 5 f +4 23 m; its log. = 
.8696662,3150, = 432958 x VIIT, = 24.15811 x C; 
440. =IV—S H1143; = 1X—V1, = 10—7,=3-47, 
=2 at a t+S, oe Has ay c, =23 rae 12 5 

is also =2V — 


redundant 
of Gelileo, and the greater fourth of E 


| Deficient Founrst ‘of Holden, hay” the va 88 a 


wis 2:4:6 £4:8hen- See Comma-deficient Minor 
Fourts. : 
x 


> serth 
_—— 


' =T+3S—t, =16c4+6243f,=8 


FOU 
Diaschisma-excessive Minor Fountn (4°"); has. the 
131072 _ 2", = 266 2 + 5£+ 23m; its log. 


imi ci 
= 8691751, 2437, =.494583 x VIET, = 24.24895 x C; 
+ <a +ze—J, = 1V4C Poe La V—2L, 
=2)4 =SP42L, —2304195 4 SE ice 9 
soGail a, it is also = 5 V—6 4ths, by which 
may be tuned. This is the ing or wolf fourth, 
when 11 fourths are tuned in 5 octaves, or it is 


=5 VilI—11 4ths. 
Diminished Founrn of Bemetzrieder; its ratio is 


ose = 1962446417 m. See Least fat Fountn. 
Diminished Fourtu of some writers, has the ratio 
Ao, = 207 2441418 m. See Lesser flat Fourtu. 


Diminished (major) Foun ; its ratio is = 265 
+5f423 m. See Comma-redundant minor Fountu. 

Diminished (minor) Fount of Tartini, Chladni, 
Marsh, Liston, Sc.; has the ratio =>, = 218 4 4f 4 
19m. See Extreme flat minor Fourtu. 

Double deficient fiat Fourtu, has the ratio —— 
196= +4f+4+17m. See Least fat Fourtu. 


Double diminished minor Fourtu ; its ratio is eae 
5 


=m” = 182243 f +16 m, or as a regular interval 
= 181.858201 2 4+ 4f+ 15m; its log. = .9105187,9731, 
= 297249 x Vill, = = 16.58587 xc: 46nd, lv. 
—$—25, =34£, =35+¢, =V+E—II, = =T+t+6, 
+10€+472: 
it is also —6438—2 III, = =Xili—s fi by ei of 
which it may be tuned. interval also been 
called the extreme ‘inainished fourth by Chambers, 
and it is the enharmonic-excessive minor third. 


Double minor Fourtu (2 4th); its ratio is 2 = 


508 5410f+4+44m. See Minor Seventu. ay 
Extreme diminished Fourntu of Chambers: has the 
visio 68° = 182548f416m. See Double dimi- 
nished minor Fourts. 
Extreme double sharp minor Fourtu (eitay i its ra« 


256 
tio is 376’ = ST T+ 7F 429m. See Extreme sharp 


6561 
sig?” — 


major F ounta. 


Extreme flat major Foortu (p IV); has the ratio 
5, =254 245 £422 m. See Minor Fourtu. 

me age Pourtu (4) of Liston, &c.: 
its ratio is — =o = 218 +4 4f+ 19m; its.log. 


— = 
=+8927900,3035, =. = 19561435 x VIIL, =19.87198 xc; 


pond =IV—3—I, =243, —9—VI, =10—VI, 
=s =T+28 Teche Stitt 262 ft 
pices: it is a =6—III, 

by either of which it may-be tuned. It is the dimi- 


fourth of Tartini, &c. the flat (minor) fourth 
see wre; tote esiexceie ae i 


530 


ajo) Foorsn (Vo Lions ha valle 7m 


FOU 

mean-tone 
Extreme ( 

the ratio SO, = p= 987 24764 29m; ; its log. 


= Ronee ee x VII, =30.641154 xc; 
=1V4 pare fp = V—E, =2111—S, 
=ll428-4 + cab insentma/ 4st 
122; it is alo=— 31 

tuned. Iti likewise the redamdant (major) foursh of 
Liston, and his extreme double sharp minor fourth. .. 


Extreme sharp minor Fourtu (X 4): its ratio is %, 
= 3012 + 6f + 26m. See Major Foor. 
False Fourtu of Chambers; has the ratio > = 
30126 £4 26m, See Major Fountu. hi 
Flat deficient minor Fourtu; its ratio is = 
207: +4f+4 18m. See Lesser Flat Fourtu. 
Flat Fourts of Holden; has the ratio ale 


221.947209 f 4 19m, andits ee hs 
In the incongruous oy te oi Fan i. 


Flat relpaant great rd Fours (pb siacsaereaeaaae 
mio naes4ar+ im See Extreme fat mix 
nor Fourtu, beheld wage 

Grave Fourtu, of ‘Holden ; feare the emg orm 
240.060766 © 4 5f-4.20m.. See Lesser false Founre. 

Greater Fourtu, or sharp fourth, has the ratio 
= 30154 6f 4+ 26m. See Major Fourts. 

Greater Fourtu, of Holden; has the ratio 22 w= 


055 4+5f+4+ 23m. See Comma-redundant ‘sninor 
Fourta. 


Greater Fourts, of some writers ; its ratio is 28, 
= 2902 + 6f4 25m. See Commacdeficient major 


Fourts. 


Cie ale Fourtn, of the trumpet (sf); has the 
ratio £=, = 260.89592 2 +5f4 euie yack 


aed 


' .8716815,2274. 


Greater false Four, ofthe iinet (oe eds he 
the ratio =, =281. 1020403 + 6+ 24m, and its log. 
is .8616973,0183. 


Greatest sharp Fourtu: has’ the zation 
3124+ 6f + 27 m. St Cina tj 


Fourtn. 


lepeyns Fourtn, of Good and Gregory: Iu the 
4 
ratio Poor = =228 5 + 4f + 200m; its] 
-8878851,0560, = 3724368 x Vinh = 20781186 x Xx C: 
=4—), =IV—2S—z,=2004 8E Je 
47+ 12€ + 82; it is also=4 4ths— 4 III, byw 
pare a 3 ik oie ae eee 
mitone, = 


; 


i 


FOU 531 


oo Least flat Fourtn, of some writers; has the ratio 


6561. ss 
B19? 25 ——196 4-4 f+417m; itslog.= .9035800,9412, 


= .3203038. x VUL = 17.87198 xc; =—4—'P,= 
V3 — Pj =lV — = —T, =Ill ~5,=845—s, 
=T +4 2L,= P+8L,=2t4+2S—T,=—t+S+L, 
=17e4+ 92 44f,=47 +9€ + 62; it isalso = 
5 VII— 8 V, = 5 4ths —3 V,. by which it may be 
tuned. It. is the diminished fourth of Bemetzrieder, 
the double-deficient flat fourth; and the schisma-de- 
fective major third (III, ) 


Lesser False Founvu of the trumpet (aq gr &e. ) 


has the ratio 25, =240.060766= +5f + 20m} its log. 
== .8819006,8792, =.3923175 x VIII, = 21.89039 xc. 
It is also the.bearing or grave fourth of Holden. 


Lesser Flat Fount, ef some authors; has the ratio 


os Spr = 2TE + Af + 18m. Its logarithm 


or" dinisiosess, = = .338224 x VIII, = 18.87198 xc; 

=4—5, =IV—25, =HI+€, =3+L,=V+€—3; 
aor Tew aes mies =t-+, hae 

= =IV—t—z,=18c49544f,—4/41 

ay i t is also =3 4ths—V i by i my 

eae It is the grave extreme flat 

ap A) oer sing pe Nr gee! of er) fourth wri- 

deficient minor fourth. , 


w= cae Rete ii has the ratio 243 43 ous 


320° — 


+ 5f421m. See the Comma-deficient Minor Fourru. 


Fourtx (IV), or Greater Fourth, has the ra- 


oe = pep = 901E 4 6F 426m; its logarithm 


9374,6454, =.491853 x VIII, = 27.44423 xc; 
es, =II+T, =V—S,=5—€;: it} = =II+TII, 

2, =VII—4, =VIif—5, =I1x—6, =X—7, 
Tomas arate, = ae EUR. ey 
+5, =25459+ =26e+415E = 6f/ 
SUC aE Ee it is equal V4 if III — 4, by whi means 
‘it may be This interval is also the 


extra sharp tine forty the sharp four the re- 


of Euler, 


pg 2T+4t,) or tritonus, Mr F. Webb says, in 
icon,” app fiend hy yet 

= 

ry 


octave, or isotonic minor fourth, which 
ce te os in the difference 
bene in each case. _ 


, Major Founru of Hussey and Webb, has the ratio 
[> = 297.060766 = + 6f + 26m, and its logarithm 
fa ee they also denominate it a sharp 


‘Majer Woostee of; Siltipi tap, “thnentio oe 
307.53967 X+46f+426 m, and its log. =.8487323,2467. 


— Minor Fount (6), Himetlv ae Sahin Fourth, is a 


‘concord, baving the ratio, = 2542-45 £4. 22m; its 


Jog. =.8750612,6339, =.4150974% VIII, =23.15811 


‘it is also =6—3, = VI—III, =VilI— 


. Sharp Fourtu of Holden; has the ratio 


FOU 


X ¢, = 254.921293 x E,=1.2892244 x IIL, =1.5778829 _ Fourtin 


x 3d; =IV—S, =3+t, =III1+S, =5—S, =V—T; 
=2+IIl, =IV—I,=5—2, =V—II, =7—4, Vul—IV, 
=8—5, =9—6, =X — VIL; =T4t+8, =2T+L, 
=T+t+L-+<¢, SU Eee OAS o =23T—1 4d, 
=22c+5r42E, = 22c412E45 $12E 495: 
ty either of 
which its tune may be examined and adj usted with the 
t exactness, This interval is the diminished 
ma najor) fourth of Liston, and his extreme flat major 
urth (pIV); the quatre of Euler ; the diatessaron, or 
tetrachord, of the ancients ; and the epitrites. It is the 
al. Ip of ‘the three Concorpant Elements, 3d, IIId, 
4th ; see that article. It may be twelve times re- . 
peated, or tuned in succession, in five octaves, (11 4ths 
+4+4d=5 VIII), before falling again on the same note, 
or near to it, which is not the case with any other con- 
cord, except its complement the major fifth. 
Minor-comma defective minor Fourtu (4) ; has the 
- 512 23 
ratio 675° — oS = 2445 4 5f-+ 21m; its log. = 
-8799661,8814, = 3.987441 x VIII, = 22.19905 x c: 
=4—€, lV, =HI+5, =34+8+5, =V— 
28, =542=—S; =1+ Ill, =IV—2, =VIU—5, = 
X—8;= 2T4t_S, —2T +3, =21c+4 13=45f, 
=5 11€492: it is also = V-+ 2 U1 — 2 4ths, 
rE it may be tuned. It is the redundant (major) 
aaa of Liston, and his extreme sharp (major) third, 


Redundant Fount of Chambers : has the ratio aa nn 


265 + 5f+4+ 23m; see Comma-redundant minor 
Fourtn. 
Redundant (major) Fourtx of Liston, has the ratio 


375 = 8372 +7 f+429m. See Extreme sharp (major) 
Fourtn. 
Redundant (minor) Fountu ; it ratio is © 


iB = 3015 
+2) 6f+ 26m. See Major Fourtu. 
Schisma-excessive minor Fourru (4*) ; has the ratio 


is 
ses unk a ete hob Bde Shams. tee, Tog, = 


Jo9ss’ — 37.5’ — 

-8745711,5626, = .416665 x VIII, = 23.24895 xc; 
=4+42, =IV—L, =V+=—T, =II1+P, =3T—S, 
=22c4 13245f, =5f412€+4 102: it is also = 
ay III — 4 4ths, hore it may be tuned ; and if 
Feira kn tenor-cliff C (of 240 vib. jit will be found 
sharp therewith 1.08387 per second: its length 
sing ring -7491541. It is the minor fourth in 
pean s Temperaments (see that article), and is 
equal CE’X, and to fourteen other intervals on Mr 

Liston’s Eunarmonre Organ. 

$2 


Sharp Fourth, or Greater Fourth ; its ratio is B= 
801546f+426m. See Major Fourrn. 


Sharp Fourrn, of Bemetzrieder ; has the ratio aa 


= 312546 f + 27m. See. Comma-redundant major 

Fourrn. 

pe 

1 

$14.947096> 4 6f+.27 m, and its log. = .8450980,4001 : 

| Aad pane , and the lesser fifth of Hussey and 
el : 


Sharp aa of Hussey and Webb ; has the ratio 


FOW 532 FOX 


&, = 297060706 2 4 Gf 4 25m. See their Major 


Fovartu. 18 
Sharp Fovurtn of some writers ; has the ratio 5— 


= 200 2 + 6f 4+ 25m. See Comma-deficient Major 


Fourrn. 


Superfuous Fourrn of Bemetzrieder ; its ratio is 


aa = 31254 6f4 27m. See Comma-redundant 
major Fourtn. 


Superfluous Fourtu of Chambers and Marsh ; has 
the ratio 1°, = 2002 4 Gf4 25m. See Comma-tef 
cient major Fourtn. a 

Superfluous Fountu of Chladni ; has the ratio=, = 
901 = 4+ 6f+4 26m. See Major Fourtn. 

Superfluous Fountu of Galileo ; has the ratio =°, _ 


265% 4+ 5f+4 23m. See Comma-redundant minor 
Feurrn. 

Temperaments of the Fourtns, in galery tempered 
douzeaves: these are the same, ‘but wi oy signs, 
as those of their complemental fifths, respectively, 7. ¢. 
if the fifths have flat temperaments, the fou will 


have sharp ones, and vice versa. Thus, if eleven of the : 


fourths in an octave are alike tempered, the remaining 
one or wolf temperament will be = d— the sum of 
these 11 fourth temperaments. 

The eleven tem ents of the fourths, are each, 
= }c— } temp. Ill; 


ch is a large oiling, and seems to have been 
erected about the time of Edward IV. ‘It has a large and 
two smaller aisles, and a handsome tower on the west. 
The market-house is large and spacious, and over it is 


a neat town hall, some time ago by Philip Rash- | 


leigh, Esq, and Lord Viscount Valletort, who then re- 
presented the burgh in parliament, The town also 
contains two good free schools, an alms-house for eight 
decayed widows, and a poor’s-house. “The ancient 
mansion, called the Place, or Treffry-house, is situated 
on an eminence on the north side of the church, ‘and 
though now in a state of decay, has once been a hand- 

The erste pat of the. inhabitants of Fowey |are 
connected with fishery. More than 28,000 
hogsheads of fish are annually brought into this port. 
The harbour is now by two small batteries, 
and by St Catherine's fort, which stands on the summit 
of a magnificent pile of rocks, that bounds one of the 
creeks of the river. This’ fort was built by the towns- 
men, in the reign of Henry VIII. On sides of 
the river Fawy, the scenery is extremely picturesque. 
TE sates ere Coveposes ok © Tate Disien one ane” 
~~ jet quartz. The ruins of two square 


stohe to exist on the rocks on i o! 
teohartoan ete preeee iN SSIES, 
The following is the statistical abstract for 1811, ins “-Y—” 


cluding the town and parish; 
Mata howe nes oJ vo 227° — ; 
me oh aS obama mee See i - 380 d 
Ditto employed in agriculture,..... 50 | J 
Ditto employed in trade and manufactures, 75 t 
Males, CCC Vo ss eer TO DRL Pe Y q 
4 


pre Penarth me eee 765 ‘ 

: ‘population i yp 0% ear irens ee ARR ents . 

mill; 50°07 7", See Pelywhele'a History of Cormall 

mill, a. s Hi: ; 

Maton's ,Obserualions-on the Weblera path de and the 

Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii. p. 410. ‘(v) 
FOWLING-Prece. See Gun Manuracrory., 
FOX, Cnartes James, second son of Henry Fox, 

Lord Holland, and of Lady G. C. Lennox, was born on 


extremely i in his and to have been 
gratified Saran tt bemona tonto whimsical or ca 


equer, A goer) pees de “of 
‘ F ih a t 
North and Mr Fox, ‘whio had yoy 


most determined enemies to each | 


\ 


Fox. 


FOX. 


in a vote, declaring the terms of pacification inade- 
quate, the treaty was condemned by Parliament, and 
he administration consequently resigned. A new ca- 
binet was formed under the Duke of Portland, and 
Lord North and Mr Fox became joint Secretaries of 
State,—a coalition, which some have considered as fix- 
ine sp on the political character of the latter; while 
have marked it with high approbation, as,a laud= 

able suppression of party feuds for the good of the coun- 
try. It was certainly, at the time, somewhat revolting to 
the moral feelings of the nation, and served to uce 
a deep impression of the insincerity of public men, The 


only transaction of im during this administra- 
tion, was the India Bill\of Mr Fox, which he intro. 
duced with great ability, and which the House 


of Commons by a strong majority. It was represent- 
ed by its naryoomire asa wise and s.rescue of the 
natives ia from oppression ; but was censured, 
on the other hand, as not merely an unwarrantable vio- 
lation of the India Company’s charter, but also asa 
measure full of to the constitution, inasmuch as, 
by lodging the who eof India in a few per- 

sons, 12 produced a of political influence, which 
might be equally cious, whether it was added or 
opposed to that of the crown, Some suggestions of this 
nature, privately conveyed to the royal ear by a 

out of administration, ‘caused its failure in the ee 
of Lords ; and a new administration was formed under 
Mr Pitt, in the face of a majority of the House of Com- 
mons. In consequence of a dissolution of parliament, 
many. of Mr Fox's friends lost their seats in the 
ae gs pet ee pyrene ye Westminster was 
made the ect a severe scrutiny, of 
which be oul id 


\ chiefly t 
harass the ministry, yet neither can it be denied, chen in 
te. He 


| 
: 
i 
: 


observed by the other coun« 
try, He condemned also the propositions for assimi- 
lating the commercial ne tary for England and 
Ireland, which nothi tthe jealousy of politi- 
cal independence in the latter have 
enabled the opposition to set aside. He resisted es- 
pecially the regency bill, during the king’s illness in 
1788 ; a question in which the two great political lead- 
ers of the country seem to have, in, some , OX. 
changed political principles. It was | by Mr 
Fox, that the two Houses of Parliament hail no other 
power than to declare the Py Hg vacancy of*the 
throne, and. that the Prince of ‘ales had then an un- 
questionable right, without any limitation in.the pre= 
rogatives of ty, to assume the vacant place. Mr 
Pitt protested against this doctrine, as little less than 


“ treason against the constitution ?’ and maintained the 


533 


right of Parliament both to appoint a regency, and to 
limit its powers, as circumstances might direct. He 
admitted, indeed, the expediency of nominating the 
Prince as , and of leaving him unfettered by any 
council ; while Mr Fox also conceded the adjudication 
of the Prince’s right to be the privilege of Parliament. 
It is scarcely possible to avoid the conclusion, that each 
were in some measure, perhaps insensibly, sway- 
ed in their political views, by their own a sions 
and ex i ~The bill was suppo only by a 
small majority; but the king's recovery happily pre- 
vented ail farther discussion of its principle, which is 
perhaps one of the most delicate that can be publicly 
itated. 
aes Fox displayed all the vigour of his talents in 
ing the trial of Mr Hastings ; and it is worthy of 
remark, that the second article of the charge, of which 
he was the mover, was admitted by Mr Pitt as con- 
taining matter of impeachment. He succeeded also in 
resisting the design of the premier to prevent, by an 
armed mediation, the occupation by Russia of the con- 
uered territory between the Bog and the Dneister ; and 
thus probably saved the country from being involved in 
an expensive and unwarrantable contest. In a few in- 
stances, these rival leaders are found to have concurred in 
supporting some of the most important measures of fi- 
nance, and most essential principles of the constitution. 
Mr Fox su Mr Pitt’s motion for reforming parlia-_ 
ment; b ishing 36 rotten boroughs ; and approved 
of the bill for establishing a sinking fund. On the 
other hand, he received the concurrence of the minis« 
ter in his declaratory acts for asserting the right of ju- 
ries to judge in cases of libel. But the most gratifying 
instance of their agreement appears in the measures 
which were proposed for the abolition of the slave 
trade ; and, throughout the whole of this cause, so in- 
teresting to humanity, the character of Mr Fox is 
placed in the most favourable point of view. He en- 
tered, from the first, and with the greatest ardour, in« 
to the condemnation of that infamous traffic; and, 
without waiting for any enquiry into its accidental bar« 
barities, or its impolicy, wished, as every man 
of right feelings must have done, to denounce it at 
once, as, in every aspect, iniquitous and inhuman, He 
was one of the many excellent and enlightened indivi- 
duals in Great Britain, who hailed, with friendly feel- 
ings, the rising liberties of France in the commence- 
ment of the year 1789; but it has been considered as in- 
some measure de from his political sagacity, that 
he did not sooner detect, in the progress of that revolu- 
tion, the principles of anarchy with which it was fraught. 
It was in the year 1790, inva debate on the army. esti~ 
mates, that French revolution was first noticed in 
the British Parliament; and Mr Fox having expressed 
his approbation in eral terms, Mr Burke took oc- 
casion to point out anime which it threatened to 
regular governments... This drew areply from Mr Fox, 
guarding his commendations of the French patriots, 
yet differing from the doctrines of his friend ; and, 
though speeches were full of strongly compli- 
expressions, a separation was unequivocally 
implied between these two eminent characters, who 
so long pursued their political career as the most 
faithful associates. Even in a-succeeding session .of 
Parliament, after the King of France had remained 
another year as a prisoner in his capital, Mr Fox is 
understood to have characterised the revolution in that 
country as a stupendous and glorious edifice of liberty, 


Fox. 


534 FOX. 
Fox. erected on the foundation of human integrity; and laws, against special 

—yY"" though he subsequently qualified his paseo. A by ance to these bills evidently rested only upon his disbe- 
limiting his a to the destruction of theab- lief of those seditious desi 
solute monarchy, yet his lan unfortunately con- which could alone have rend: Ls 
veyed to multitudes, who revered his authority, or who although future events, cularly the confessions of 
wished to avail themselves of his name, a sanc- O'Connor, have proved is tr 
tion of French principles. He was very far, however, ble practices, where Mr Fox had no suspicion of their j 
from being a republican theorist; enti Sngning par- being entertained ; the same discoveries rite ywnld : 
tiality to the French revolution may be bed to his 5 with par- 
general love of political freedom, his naturally ardent pen seers Fy any revolutionary B 
feelings, and particularly to his extremely i- fav was the impression made by his speeches 
cious disposition, which may have led him to confide in partiornant te. that: periess: ot Sette eeeee et 
too much in the good intentions of the first revolu- in 9 Noe a ee the 
tionists in France. When, in 1791, the French mo- _ list of privy i ; 
narch was cormmitted to custody, and preparing for hand, was his disapprobation of the 
trial, Mr Fox expressed in Parliament a wish to mter- by the ministry, that, yoo Jed the 
pose in his behalf, by some declaration “S of hi i his 
of the House ; but afterwards concurred with Mr Pitt 


in abstaining from all interference, lest it might serve likely to benefit his country. He b gee however, 
only to exasperate the National Assembly. In 1792, in his place, in opposition to the triple assessment bill, 
when seditious societies in Great Britain were corre- the incomeand tax, and particularly the Union 
sponding with the National Convention, and the Alien with Ireland, which he condemned principally on the 

ill was proposed, in order to provide against Jacobin ground of its being effected by means of influence, and 


Socrecrntinatymcenersscnpetiontinngpes. liswas conslenditiaes Senin aan 
utionary measures as e e was i wn retirement 
a sees uired ; and, while he execrated the date of coptivental aides) dal wat seaae »po 
murder of Loui XVI. he resisted the ions for every motion, which favoured the opening of negoc 
rechi dec chasecnight tealegslelGcguen’ io mceaeetiog « somtiaiegrene in aaeaae 
principle, whatever might as in ing a iati to the le 
ST appe ies: Coates ahyech ves es eee pepe rma cig as Grand Consul, « sued 
ternal government o! country. to the King ngland, inviting jation ; and, 
When a message from his Majesty, on the 12th of though it has since been admitted by those: awho: 


February 1793, announced the im; t intelligence, cur in Mr Fox's political views, that the a — 
that the French convention had declared war against Coe eat Piss ot tk cael Ran 
Great Britain and the States of Holland, Mr Fox, French Chief, was extremely correct, it is impossi- 


while he still insisted that the conduct of the British _ ble to vindicate the lofty tone and irritating proposals 
government had not been sufficiently candid and con- expend ii she. snares ie, ee rn 
ciliating, was willing that the address from the House Mr i ’s administration the 


to the Throne should convey a ise of support peace of Amiens in 1801, Mr Fox, 8 consistent 
inst every hostile attempt of France, and in such pressing the spirit of pacification, joi with | 
exertions as might be necessary to procure such im approving, or rather accepting 
terms of pacification as might be consistent with the that could have been expected. 
honour of his Majesty's crown, the interests of his _we may regard the war in its commencement, 
people, and the security of his allies. There can now scarcely be denied, that Mr Fox faithfully pointed | 
little doubt, that it answered the purposes of the se important errors in its progress, and in many 
despotic rulers who successively directed the mili respects gave good advice to his country. But his in- 
energies of France, to involve the nation in war with variable and inveterate opposition to almost every mea- 
foreign powers ; and that their triumphant troops could _ sure of the administration, occasioned 
scarcely be termed a nation of freemen resisting the which he uttered to be heard by 


Hu 
iE 
SERss 


= 
2 


eon of es et ae oe pat that Mr ee ed ay a 
‘ox’s predictions, ure e ition against war in 1802, ‘ox great eloquence 
them, approached very near to the actual result. His support of peace; and must be allowed to have shewn, 
forebodings, however, of the ruin of the British con- that, however clesniger. geste of compitint 1 
stitution, in consequence of the suspension of the the conduct and designs of the French ruler, the 


Seay “ee, chamaiag aes af she tines ae pete government, the prime minister announced his in : 
ently conformable to the spirit of our constitution, tion to withdraw from office ; and Mr Pitt recomm« 
which supposes parliament to provide, by temporary ed to the king the formation of a ministry on the broad. 


* The great question in the origin of the war with France, is this, whether the | to which this country was 
inpaoed fom ths hontle ecmteachatonte and views of the deck g were sufficiently’ pe yar to warrant our 
ne affine: them; and whether the wisdom of preparations was or was not the declaration of 


of France. We refer to the speech of Mr Pitt in the House of Commons, on the of February 1793, and t 
of Mz Grey the House of Lords on the 2lst of that month, as containing an authentic view of the arguments of both partiem 


but the mind of the sovereign was decidedly 
Git Lled Geet cancinned in oppovii 
0 , continued in ition. 
Pitt, however, cd ar oan diffieult 
country at that time, his Maj 
ve testified any reluctance to Mr 
tment as forei of state; who, 
now advanced in years, and ining i 


was made the 


liament; and 
such a measure, i 


right of 


FOX. 


535 


hopes of accomplishing much as a public leader; andit Fox. 

is probable, that the prospect of being able to conclude “"y"" 

an honourable peace with France was one of his prin- 

cipal inducements to accept the anxious and arduous 

station of a British premier. The negociation for this 

great object, the last act of his politi life, commenced 

in 1806, and originated in his indignant rejection of a 

proposal to assassinate the Emperor of the French. As 

a basis for negociation, he recommended “ a 
honourable for both parties and their allies, and 

calculated to secure the tranquillity of Europe ; and, as 

a more specific ground of the intended treaty, the 

French government verbally agreed to the principle of 

uti possidetis, But new objects of ambition arising to 

the French, and the health of Mr Fox rapidly declining, 

they departed from their verbal essions, and, with 

many compliments to the British Secretary of 

State, and a little rudeness to the British plenipotentiary 

at Paris, terminated the negotiation. 

We have been unwilling to interrupt the preceding 
sketch of Mr Fox’s public career, by adverting to the 
history of his private life; and there is little space left 
for more than a few slight notices on the subject. The 
i habits of his earlier years were not forsaken 
in bustle of political contests; and, at one period, 
involved him in the greatest ig gn Ma 80g from 
which he was saree by Dea? iptions of - 
friends, upon the iti wi wing hi 
attendance from the gaming table, His better judg- 
ment seems to have condemned the immoral courses in 
which he engaged 


recurred to literary pursuits and epistolary composi- 
tions. Even in his youth, when the marriage act was 
under the consideration of parliament, he gave a public 
testimony to the miseries of a dissolute life; and, on 
the lax mod ss: the French philserph: 
e rench p) : 
deficient, therefore, in ice, in a:.dugees 
not to be justified, and particularly to be lamented in a 
character so distinguished in other respects; he ought 
not to be regarded as having been, upon principle, a 
mere dissipated man of pleasure. His marriage, which 
was first announced in 1802, though said to have taken 
place in 1780, may be considered, it has been justly 
observed, as ‘* a homage which he paid to virtue;” and 
his later years were hs spe with little interruption in the 
simple enjoyments of domestic life, or in an assiduous 
attendance on public duty. When residing in his favou. 
rite sat oa St Anne’s bil, ap ney a“ 
biographers, he usually rose before eight o’clock in the 
morning ; breakfasted, and read the newspapers ;_per- 
‘used some Italian author with Mrs Fox ; t an hour 
or two in study ; sat down to a frugal but plentiful din- 
ner at three or ; drank a few glasses of wine, follow- 
ed by coffee ; relia eclodiyeete tll tontivne: employ- 
ed ore in reading, or listening to the i 
of history, till near ten ; and concluded the day with a 
gag of fruit, or of something equally trifling. 
residing in town, he generally went to his office 
at elevyeno’clock, where he remained until three ; and, 
as long as his peak Ses continued to bestow 
the most punctual and active attention upon his du- 
ties, frequently even directing in person the more mi- 


586 


nute transactions of his department. About the end 


—v—" of May 1806, his health was visibly affected, and his 


disorder was to be of a ical nature. 
On the 7th of August, he underwent the operation of 
tapping ; and, for several days after, was considered to 
be im a very hazardous state. He requested to be re- 
moved to his residence at St Ann’s Hill; but with dif- 
fieulty reached the house of the Earl of Devonshire, at 
Chiswick, where a second ing was performed on 
the Soth ‘of August. After the operation, he expe- 
rienced a temporary revival ; but, in.a few days, every 
hope of his recovery vanished, and his friends were 
permitted to take their leave of him. During his ill- 
ness, he is said to have expressed an anxious wish that 
he might live to witness the abolition of the slave trade; 
and he left it as his dying charge to his political friends, 
that they should persevere in their efforts for the ac- 
complishment of that glorious object. In his last mo- 
ments, he put the hand of Mrs Fox into that of Lord 
Holland, and then, om his own upon theirs, “ God 
bless you,” he said, “I die in : I pity you.” 
These are reported to have been the last words which 
he uttered ; and he expired on the 13th of September 
1806, in the 59th year of his age. 

At a time when even Mr Fox's nearest relatives and 
warmest friends have declared that insuperable objec- 
tions exist to a memoir of his life, it is no easy to 
offer even an obscure and unpretending sketch of his cha- 
racter ; and, were there not some approved and experi- 
enced guides to point out the leading marks, we should 
never have attem the outlines of such a portrait. 

Mr Fox, in his Pie was rather under the mid- 
die stature ; and, though celebrated for agility in his 
youth, was of a ulent habit during the greater part 
of his life. His chest was capacious, his shoulders 
broad, his hair dark and thick, his complexion dusky, 
his eye-brows black and bushy, and his countenance, 
especially in the course of argument, peculiarly ani- 
mated and expressive. 

In his political life, he had been so constantly and 
eagerly en in compassing the overthrow of mi- 
nistry, that he will bly appear, to every indiffer- 
ent observer, more in the character of a determined 


-leader, than of an enlightened statesman ; and pec 


yet it may be doubted whether his ardent attachment 
to the political body of which he was the head, did not 
as much from the warmth of his friendship, as 
the spirit of party. This consideration may at 
least account as honourably as most others for the un- 
questionable fact, of his having consented, in the‘course 
of his public career, to join every one of those whom 
he had systematically opposed ; and which, though it 
will not exempt him from the charge of inconsistency, 
po Mcce a his name from the more heavy re 
of insincerity. He was almost uniformly the undaunt- 
ed champion of constitutional freedom; and. it can 
scarcely be doubted, that his resolute resistance to the 
slightest encroachments of government may have often 
acted as a salutary restraint. Yet, in some instances, 
he was opposed not merely to the popular cause, as in 
the case of Mr Wilkes, but even to the principles of li- 
berty, as in those of the Regency Bill, and the admis- 
sion of the Chief Justice into the cabinet. As a speak- 
er in Parliament, Mr Fox stands in the first rank ; and, 
though originally ar, of Mr Burke, he soon dis- 
played more comm ing oe He was more ve- 
hement in manner, more forcible in —— more 
consummately master of the science of debate. He 


FO X. 
sometimes hesitated in the commencement of a speech, Foxe. ; 


frequently indulged in digressions, and 
even in repetitions, or gave loose to a flow of penal 
declamation, instead of senatorial -; but he 
was always fluent when his ‘were roused, and 


was able, with the utmost skill, to tread back his step 


when hard pressed, without ante ie from an ; 


untenable position, or to return unnecessary 
digression. Whatever became of lis subject, he bent 
his whole force to trample down his enemy ; and exer- 


cised a degree of talent in parliamentary warfare 
has never rivalled: He was equally aa. 
perplex his adversary by ingenuity, to overawe him by 
violence, or to overwhelm him with a torrent of elo- 
wentabuse. He is acknowledged to have been 
liarly successful in reply, never failing to take advan. 
tage of the concessions or ctions of his oppo- 
nents, and to turn upon them with their own weapon, 
« T knew him,” says Mr Burke, in a papi wats 
subsequently to their tion, “w was 
teen; since which time, he has risen by slow 


ety 


4 
mimo wi 
* 


orig 
ccorayn 


life, Mr Fox’s reel attractive ; 
he was at all times plore the sl of 


ly cnatadiateon’ but even: somewhat inactive in con- 
versation. His superiority was never felt, but in th 

instruction which he imparted, or in the attenti which 
his generous preference usually directed to the more 


when it was not repressed’ by modesty ah sen 
was delightful. The try, perhaps, of no m a 
wit had so unl It 


it. His literature was various and elegant. In pe § 


etry, from the vulgarity snd ersten cf 


refuge in 
business. His own verses were and leasing, 
might have claimed no loi se Pion Shh 
the French call Vers de Socicté, He died polit 
conversation, and never sly took any p 7 
; part in i 
Perhaps a meas more s dyads 
pression e by amiable ‘his character, 
han Ghe wondsiot Ie Backs, whe, in January 1797, 
them had — a 


pipes ne, a left os doubt of their heart. 
sincerity. From these ities of his private, as 
well as from his public character, it probably arose, 


: 


* 
4 


FOX 
Fox.  « Letter to the Electors of Westminster,” published in 
aeegeet 17095 the composition of which he is understood 
ome canta ke aered oebediclenahelsttenticks:; his correspon- 


writers ; afew 
Memoir of his 


of the Reign of James II.,”? left unfinished, and 
published after his death, remain'as monuments of his 
istingui talents, and testimonies of his relish for 
To the introductory chapter, 
to the last mentioned work, 

we must refer our readers for more minute information 


determinate. ~ aparece, aa 
admirers, who much of his i , during 
the last eight years of his life, who a his sick- 


bed, and witnessed his last moments, positively affirms 
Mr Fox’s belief of Christianity, and denies othe alight 
heard him utter a single expression, or give ight- 
cat indieation of doukt or disbelief of ite truth, At the 
same time, while he describes Mr Fox’s whole demea~ 


nour during his pai Snes eerie te tree reer 
not of stoic i patient resignation to 
Divine Providence, he has not recorded any direct al- 


one of his friends, «* What do-you think, my Lord, of 


the state of the soul after death ?” and to have 


* ed to observe, ‘ I should have believed in the immor- 


ed; but how fac when bo me eo 
capacity This, however, 
boon by Chretien” ‘One is certain, that both 
in private life, and whenever he touched upon religious 
fe con kal meeps een used the 
of reverence, and shewed.that he sacred the right 
of private j ent in 3 avoided giving offence 
to religious or eyen , and testified 
pect to every scruple onthe subject, which was 
tral cone conscientious. ‘“ On the score of ” says 
Mr ' who describes Mr Fox’s demeanour in his 
Sat at apn oh Spal 
tolerate, w ied to ition 
on sacred matters, but was truly denignant, for he con- 
Sielateathigy andthe ade pomaaaanr of siphons 
p> possession 
es ce eeruee to bs sontioelea by 
did not require the permission of others for this mental 
enjoyment, and that all were entitled to honour the 


Sein to Mr Fox’s History ¢: 

‘To Memoirs of the latter Years of Mr Fox ; and 

Tife of Mr Fox, in the Christiaw Observer, vols, vi. and 
4) ’ : 


‘VOL IX, PART I. 


537 


FOX 
FOX Istanps. .A great chain of islands stretcltes 


across that part of the North Pacific Ocean bounded _!*!nds. 


by the peninsula of. Kamtschatka on the Asiatic conti- 


nent, and that of Alaska in North America. The first jyistory, 


of — a the west, was disco ee in me — 
part. eighteenth century, by Capt. Vitus Behring, 
a Dane dn Hiss Rowsiath Aorsicuertl suatrind after him ; 
and the second, twenty-seven miles from it to the east, 
was called Copper Island. Both were greatly fre- 
uented by the Russians, on account of the valuable 
obtained from the animals of the surround- 

ing seas; and a company of adventurers from Kamt- 
ochatha having prosecuted farther discoveries, ascer- 
tained, in the year 1745, that other islands lay farther 
to the east. Having wintered on one of them to kill 
sea otters, they continually. advanced farther on; and 
after various successes and discomfitures, at length, by 
means of intermediate islands, reached the American 
continent. This chain was known by different appel- 
lations bestowed on certain groups of it, which the 
progress of discovery proved were only a short way 
detached from the rest ; and they were in general divi- 
ded into the Aleutian, Andreanovi, and Fox Islands: 
but late navigators are di to include the whole 
chain under the name of Aleutian or Fox Islands ;,while 
it is sometimes proposed, though without any apparent 
good reason, to except Behring’s and Copper Island from 
the number. It is not difficult to anticipate, however, 
that this separation will soon be abandoned. The Fox 
Islands in position resemble a circular arc, extending 
from 165° to 195° of longitude east ; the’ most south- 
ern i lies in about 58° of north latitude, “and 
the most northern, at each extremity, in 55°. These 
islands are of all different sizes, below 104 miles in 
, Which is that of Behring’s Island, and are 
divided by channels of very unequal width. —'This last 
Fain iles from the harbour of St Peter and St Paul, 
in Island, which is mountain- 
ous, and twenty-five miles long, lies due east, and is the 
first of the Aleutian, or Fox Islands, ly so deno~ 
minated. Attoo is 60 miles in length, and 188 miles 
Copper Island: Next is me twenty miles 
distant, and six in length ; then Buldyr, an oval rock, 
six miles by ten, distant 70 miles; and so on, regarding 
the rest, to Omnak, Oonalashka, aes next 


. and Oon 
to Alaska. Some of these islands are disposed in clus- 
ters ; and the number of the Fox ‘Islands was 


to receive accessions: In the year 1795, a i 
ing obscured a rock which was the favourite resort of 
the Aleutians in their hunting excursions, thirty miles 
north-west of Oonalashka, they found the sea, on ap- 
proaching it, in a state of ebullition, and vast quanti- 
ties of vapour rising around. Concluding that it was 
haunted by evil spirits, no one would again venture 
thither during the lapse of five years, when a few more 
Sefict fee Shey tn we eke i 

up, re and smoke 

a crater in its seoeinits In the year 1806, this island 
had aug to about twenty miles in cireuit; lava 
frst ab to relade landing om that ptr ie 
as to landing on parti ide. 

There are pris: couke ‘oohaanadh: tis allir lth’ sitet 
these islands ; and Gthden, nee Rebireaatidire sind 
are now quiescent. Earthquakes are common from 
such subterraneous fires, and the concussions are violent. 
Huts were geet tea 1802, when a long-extin- 

¥ 


538 


Fex guished voleano in Oonalaslika began to burn, and the 
‘vaeds flames from the new erupted island ceased; but they 
=r" were renewed soon after. The Fox Islands are of bar- 
ren aspect ; the mountains are conspicuous, being in 
general high and conical, and covered with snow during 
& great portion of the year. Nothing is produced in the 
whole course of the Aleutian chain, except low shrubs 
and bushes. There are no trees ; but, to compensate for 
this defect, recourse is had to drift wood, often of large 
size, floated on shore from America and other countries 
by the tides. The lower vallies produce abundance of 
fine gtass, but the islands are destitute of cattle; and 
there are different indigenous roots, as also potatoes, re- 
cently introduced by foreign settlers, which afford sub- 
sistence to the inhabitants. Berries are collected, and 
laid up for winter provision. 

‘Considerable variety of fish frequent the surrounding 
seas, such as whales, salmon, cod, herring, and holibut, 
of such enormous size as to weigh several hundred 
pounds. These are not common food, but they are cut to 
pieces in the water when caught, from being too heavy 
for the frail canoes of the natives. On their first dis- 
covery, the Russians found innumerable phoce, from 
which they obtained valuable furs ; and for many years 
they continued to kill thousands of sea otters, whose 
skins bore a high price at that time, and still higher 
now, because, from unceasing. pursuit, their numbers 
are wonderfully diminished. Not above two or three 
hundred are at present taken annually, whence their to- 
tal extirpation ina short time is anticipated. But others 
are of even greater importance to the inhabitants, which 
are as ardently sought as the sea otter is by strangers. 
Of one particular seal they eat the flesh ; oil is extracted 
from its fat, which serves to illuminate and warm their 
huts; thesinews are fashioned into thread ; clothes, shoes, 
and household utensils, are made of its skin ; its paunch 
blown up, is used for holding liquors ; and the cesopha- 
gus is fashioned into boots, impenetrable by water. 
Nor is this all, for the thin membrane of 'the entrails is 
converted to a substitute for glass, in admitting light 
to their subterraneous habitations ; and the whiskers 
are com into plumes for ornamental head-dresses. 

The feathered tribes, particularly the aquatic kinds, 
are also numerous here, such as wild geese and wild 
ducks, which are caught in spring, and salted for win- 
ter provender. Some of the rocks afford a retreat to 

and anks during the breeding season, when their 
cae are collected and preserved for the same purpose. 
les, partridges and buntings, are among those found 
always on shore, and there are some species migratory. 
Quadrupeds. W the Russians first discovered the Aleutian 
chain, they obtained the skins of foxes still more easily 

than those of the sea otter, and yearly carried away 

many thousands. These animals were so abundant on 


Fish. 


Birds. 


Foxes and mice are peds 
which the later visitors have observed here ; but set- 


and to impart ay Saenger fla to the 
The same has been the case with poultry fed on dried 


_ the substitution of coarse cotton, or sail-cloth, - 


FOX ISLANDS. 


fish, which the a likewise attempted: the fat 
becomes oily, a soft and spongy. i 
The natives of the Aleutian Islands sre-of middle —~— 


Pox 


the eyes black ; and the hair, whichis strong and wiry, 


to a club on the back of the head. The latter are rather 
handsome, and very complaisant. Both sexes, unlike 
uncivilized nations, are clean in their ; and their 
features, which are strongly marked, have an agreeable 
and benevolent expression. ro : 7 

It is si , that among greater part, if not ; 
all the savage tribes with which wae pr are ac- T#toving. 
quainted, some artificial disfiguration of the 
accounted a oe Aleutian females — 
tattooing, icularly of the upper lip, neck, arms, 
chin : rvs are made nas at and a of 
coal-dust or charcoal rubbed in. By this means, while 


the bluish tinge, exhibit the ce of having ac- 
quired one. Sut from chief neslin ecttlens explain. 
ing to the younger females, that they do not 
esteem these sree ee as oan Sabet to prreee beau- 
ty, tattooin rat t into di 
a is eam, dre the decline. However, they still prac~ 
tise a custom much more tedious and deforming, in the 
perforation of the under lip, into which bones suspe 
ing beads and other tri are inserted, » the 
whole are retained by a kind of button in the inside of 
the mouth. Here, in like manner, the settlers have 
found means to signify to the Aleutian females, that 
their beauty is not embellished by it, and the custom ~ 
is daily decreasing. The ears of the women are per- 
ft all around with holes, to which beads are sus- 
pended ; and the nose of the men is likewise perfo- 
rated to receive a piece of wood or bone the size of a 
small quill, to which strings of glass beads are hung 
on solemn occasions. hep nd seg 
There is little*difference in the external ing of 
either sex, the upper garment being a kind of or, Dress. 
surtout, called parka, made of seal-skin, and formerly of 
that of the sea-otter, or of the skins of birds. Though 
simple in form, it is often neatly and vari orna= 
mented ; and the sn 
leather, ingeniously w or dyed ‘of gaudy colours, 
or long white goats hair, brought hither as an article of 
trade from Siberia. So much care and attention is_be« 
stowed on one of these frocks, that sometimes a whole 
ear is occupied in completing it. The Aleutians have 
ides a kamleika, or rain garment, made of the en« 
trails of the seal, oe we priests 
stance, excludes water ; and although pieces 
are only three inches broad, the whole are so 
united, that the kamleika, though exposed.a whole day to 
rain, is never penetrated. Seoertaan eat 
Aleutian costume is now undergoing some py 
th, "One ot 


the most important parts of dress is a wooden hat fa- 
shioned so as to project over the eyes like an umbrella. 


The material composing it is not extremely scarce, 
but difficult to be formed into with the rude 
and imperfect tools of the isl . After obtaining 


a thin plank, by laborious reduction, its ends are drawn 
together, and secured with tendons, an ion al< 
ways difficult and of uncertain success, Jt»is then 

: 1 


Marriage. 


ustoms. 


FOX ISLANDS. 
ochre, which is procured from the 


painted with red eure 
different voleanoés, and ornamented with ivory, glass, 
or above all with the bristles of the beard of 


addition to their rarity, 


four: and a recent r acq ; 
ith the whiskers of 37 sea-lions, 


ce 
ii 
Hy 
in 
Hi] 
ae 
a 
as 


te 
- 
i) 
} 


LRT 
ree 
at 
a 
fib ee 
nt 
Hier 


li 
ti 
L 
; 
t 


i 
, 
Vi 
F 
E 


yiteiy 
We 
i 

: 


HH 
i 
i 

| 


( ated schopans, and w 
ve ever been taken to diminish 


i 


numbers; > - 


e 


it in their canoes, and watch the Reems rai- 


539 

The Aleutians dwell in excavations of the earth, the 
sides of which are lined with beams or poles of dritt- 
wood washed ashore, inserted to support a roof formed 
of similar materials. These, excavations are from 20 
to 40 yards in length, and between six and ten in 
breadth; earth is thrown over the roof, which affords 
a soil for vegetation, so that after the habitations have 
stood some time, and are overgrown with grass, an 
Aleutian village bears no imperfect resemblance to an 
European church-yard. _ Fifty, or even an hundred and 
j individuals, dwell in the different divisions of the 
hut, which is lighted by a small window covered with 
the membranaceous intestines of the seal, or with dried 
fish. skin ;. and into which they descend by an aperture 
that at the same-time gives egress to the smoke. But 
little cold is felt within, and their habitations. are sel- 
dom heated with fire. . Travellers affirm, that they are 
so warm that the inhabitants sometimes sit naked in 
them. Their different divisions are made by partitions 
of seal skin. 


Fox 
Islands. 


Dwellings. 


As the chief subsistence of the Aleutians is derived Canoes. 


from hunting and fishing, a large portion of their time 
is detaedae tants pursuits ; and the greatest display 
of their art is in the construction of their canoes and 
wi . The former are remarkably neat, consisting 
of a wooden frame covered with leather, and in the 


. -inside is a hole to receive the body of the navigator sit- 


ting, around which a seal skin is so tightly drawn as to 
ude the water. In general, this vessel contains only 

sometimes two, and rarely three. The 
of the first is about eighteen feet, the breadth 
nearly two feet, and the depth eighteen inches, lightly 
yet ly.made, and capable of withstanding a consi- 
derable sea ; insomuch, that an Aleutian, in moderate 


one 


discovered), the Aleutians follow: 
near 
rows 


faint with the loss of blood, they revisit the spot fre~ 
quently in the course of the day, until at length, find~ 


is determined by the point of the w which occa- 
sioned the mortal wound ; a fact not t to ascer- 
tain, as all their implements have a i ' mark. 
But the Russians always elainy half of the whole fish. 


These darts, which are about four feet and a half long, 
are feathered ; some are coloured red, some black, and 
fashioned differently for the different animals against 
which they are to be directed.. They are thrown with 


dou 
alerts 
—— 


Monufec. 


ire. 


Amuse- 
meats. 


Population. 


FOX 


much force and ision, along a small board held ho- 
rizontally, to the distance of sixty yards. They have 
likewise lances, bows, and arrows; but warfare among 
them is now unknown. 

The Aleutians shew much neatness and dexterity in 
their different works. Besides the fabrication of arms 
and baidarkas, the men occupy themselves in carving 
diminutive figures of terrestrial or aquatic animals from 
the teeth of sea cow, which are much harder than 
common ivory ; and the women are engaged in making 
fine mats, little baskets, and pocket-books of straw, 
particularly during the long winter evenings. The lat- 
ter are woven hee ee “apree Bho 
such symmetrical figures, might be supposed 
the work of European artists. also dye various 
ornamental substances, as straw leather, of fine 
and florid colours, with very simple materials. 

Though reputed savages, the Aleutians are far from 

ing deficient in capacity; they are mild, pette, and 
hospitable ; and, in their intercourse with Europeans, 
are diligent and submissive ; but, if roused by offence 
or maltreatment, they become rash and malevolent, re- 
gardless of all danger, and even expose themselves to 
certain destruction. 

Dancing to the tambour or dram, with an accompa- 
niment of pebbles rattled in a blown bladder, is here 
a favourite amusement, which is free from those lasci- 
vious gestures usually seen among barbarous tribes. 
Both sexes, clothed int their beat attire, with richly or- 
namented head-dresses, join in the dance ; but the masks 
which they formerly wore on such occasions are said to 
be laid aside. An amusement am the young men 
of the island of Tanags, consists iu Lobping from the 
skin of a large sea lion held up and stretched out by some 
of their companions, from which they spring to an asto- 
nishing height. Their love of snuff eats is very 
strong ; and they will be content to labour a whole day 
for a single leaf of tobacco, which they contrive to grind 
to powder, adding a mixture of ashes and water. 

si decom of the Aleutian chain had a very 
siderab 


5410 


%8, 


FOY 


merly, on arriving from Ochotzk or Kamtschatka at For, 


any of the inhabited islands, the Russians were accus- 
pena doar rrrres = Pees errs as for 
security ; but now assume possession of a village 
as if it belonged to themselves ; distribute their traps, 
to be employed by the men in catching foxes ; select 
such women as p them beet ; and exercise a most 
despotic sway over the whole. Yet the state of their 
hunters is ted as very miserable. 
en 


and 

much exposed to the ravages of the , that not many 
“See Forster's Vi 
= the mes s Nags nea renee edn 
, vol. ii. ; Billing’s ee stronomi- 
ition ; Langedlort?s oyages and Travels. (c) 

FO See Huntinc and MamMatta. a; 
FOYERS, Fatt or, a celebrated and most beautiful 
cataract in the Hi pmb ee is situated 


mantic seat of Mr Fraser of Foyers. p fitasi= 
This cataract is about a mile from the brink of the 
lake, the banks of which rise so sud jer- 


1 below. The chasm, or gully, into which it descends, 
is of a circular form, about 50 or 60 feet diameter at the 
; its sides are wooded and and formed 


fall, is a projection of rock, which, 
e of the river, extends across it 
the directl 


H 
i 


a 
8» 
i 


iu 


; 


their “¥ 


FRA 


“Royers, rent of air is forced up from the bottom, and seems to 


the water, .as it pours from the rocks: or the 


“——" bushes on their surface, and to raise’ a cloud of spray 


into the distinctly visible’ at- the distance 
of 10 or 15-miles, and not less in height than 600 or 700 
tly, on such 


ing the cataract, is pretty nearly that of porter 
Ce ee ris E coiae dal ence te 
than it flashes of the most brilliant 


many 
It is worth any person’s while who inspects 
fae and its scenery, to arent the bt ie 
, about 100 ; down the river 
Ser MaE Vis "Gil hace tos eantered the ctoosbied on 


the ity of 
attending particularly, for several morro vega Ai 
of the Fall of Foyers. alt? 
FRACTIONS. See Arczpra ARITHMETIC. 


Fraction, Greater (F), in Music, is an interval 
and so the i i Mr Mar- 
maduke Overend: its ratio in numbers is 
Ee 4,946 ,832,462,181,867,513,427,734,375 o£ 839,513 
pa 4,951,760,157,141,521,099,596,496,890° Ps eae 


concordant i 
27 4ths — 12 V—13 III, by which it might, 
ing to theory, be tuned ; above the tenor cliff C, of 


541 


FRA 
Fod+2f =6€ — P —z 
t “k =- oOo —2r—5z 
For + m-f =o —2f—9= 
=R + d —5r =e —fe—5z 
=8r-4- m— = c.f —1l0s 
=42-4- m-—% =d—f —i1lz 
=€.42f—Sy = wr —2f—l45 
_ =c + m —? = Sar SE 
=1llz+2 m—? =26—S—5z 
_ =1524-2. m—D = 3E—S—5r 
=o +R —7 =f- 3 —5= 
. 27543 m—3 Fot4+d—8c—Sz. 
=16S4+ £/ —9T =t+16S— S —9T 
=17S8+2S—10T =t+16S—S —10T 
=2t +15S—10T =2t+16S+ 5 —11T 
=T+d —9c—5z 
F-=R —5= =T+d —10c—5r 
=VIII—13 5 2F= 3 — 3f 245 
F=€ —f—5E 12F=58ce —571s—12f—41m 
= € — xy—65 
=€—f-9r 3F= f 44d 
=3€ — f—45 7F=}7R—¥ 


Fraction, Medius (d), is an interval, so named and 
marked by Dr J. W-Callcott (in the Overend MS. vol.ii. 
. , 50,000,000,000,000,000 


2°6,5*7 : 
rr =r—3 f4-m, = VIII-612—.4447360 x =, 


the error, insome cases, of its artificial comma 1 ; its 
common log. = .9997260,8915, = .000909912 x VIII, 
=.05077095 xc, = .5588795 x 2, which last is its re« 

ar value in our new notation. In tuneable intervals 
it is = 18 V4+2 VIII —17 VI, = 17 3rds4+-3 V—15 
4ths ; and above the tenor-cliff C (of 240 vib.) it beats 
15142 1’, or 15% beats in 100”, by which it may 


be ; 
Its value in all the other intervals of our Table, are 
shewn by their symbols, as follows, viz. 


nes. 7 d= 9— a = 
=F+42 = O— 4f— 95 
=€—3y = 9— fé8yx 
= c— $f—105 
d= 2+ m—3f = d— 3f—ils 
1054 m—sy = D— fe— 8x 
= 354 P—4 = r— 4h 5 
= 6247€—3 f = rm f— 8 
= 8c+ R—t = &— % 
= 9c+ R— T =2c— S— R 
=10c+ R— T = f— 2ce— By 
=S— I 8y 
d= R—2@r— = =L— J— 8x 
= R—2f—5z = S— S— 8x 
= R— r— = P—4D— £ 
= €—3f—9r = P—49—175 
= €— R = j— P— 8x 
=S€—f/ —2r ‘ 
Sey 
2d=3—7 f—242 = aa m 
= ;€—32— f 
d=} F—f =2;€+22— 


Fraction; 


FRA 


__ $50,283,905,890.9097,963 _ Bh ee 
= "450,559,962, 787,040,600’ = Gage? SOTEt 
in the new notation by z, f, and m. Itis =VIII+612— 


85395446 x 2, the latter term the error that 
may arise from considering the arti, comma of this 
interval to be 1. Its common log, = .9999266,5010, 
= .0000738,4990 x XVII, =. x VIII, = 


VIII +-4104.029, = .01359582 x ¢, =c +73.551994, 
= -14906096 x =, (which last is its regular value in the 
new notation,) = = + 6.681770, =19.03501 x m, =m 
05253478. In tuneable intervals it is 21 4ths + 
2TLl—16-V, = 24 4ths—14 V—2-8ds; and) above 
the tenor eliff C (of 240 vib.) this interval will beat 
as an im unison, .04054 per 1”, or near 4,', 
times in 100” ; but neither of which, or any other known 
method, except perhaps in the higher octaves, seems 
ogee’ this nearly unappreciable interval. 

equations exhibiting the value of this interval, 
in terms of all the others in our Table, Plate KXX. 
Vol. LI. are as follows, viz. 


f=4F-—id = _R—d—5s 
= reer 

=ljr—} fe $f=5 r—2 fe 

= 2r— =4+R—5 fe 

= 3r—2y = 24+ m—d 
= 5r—2R = RE re Tz 
= xy-3= = R+ xo 8&8 
= 4y—S fe = R+fe— 9 _ 

= R+ fc—l0z 

f=  >+4 m—F => we2F—24> 
= 242r— 0 
= 6=+4+ m— Tf=- 32 d—245 
= Rpere Ht ait av ‘iat e 
=e fe+ m—p fH 4 R213 

= 2p ec nate ' 
=" R4 Re: =1PR-17 fe’ 
= 2+ 5-44 =3 R-5x 

= 224 P—sdt = f-41z> 
= 4x4 S64 = 5 fe—4 fe 

= £&+9—_D = fo-5 

=. #+.9—_* =1hfe—2h-x% 

= c+ o— & = 

= s—3d 

f= €—. R— 4 : 
= €— F— 92 f= €4 R-—? 
=. o— ik fa =2ce+ = 

= % =3c4 1r-/ 
= co R—5E = 3+ os 
= c— F—10 =S+ o—L 
= &— R-— 62 = F+ 32—L 
= 4— F-liz = €4 34—L 
= D— d— 2 = €4 4a—P 
= D—_c— SE = P+ oS 
= D— €—42 =26410S—9S8 
= e— d— $= =25S o—T 
= mm Co 4 = 7t+ 5S—9T 
= wr €—.55 : 

= f—2d— = 

= f— §&—4> 

= f-—2€—_5 

= f—-2m—252 

=2f/— S— 32 

=mef— L— 4x 

! 

sf= F—d 

= R—5> 


542 


Feetion. since been. made the middle term of Farey’s Notation 
““Y" of Musical Intervals, (see that article). Its ratio is 


FRA . 

= S—5m—572 ry Ye het 

= P—5t— 8r = nai, lie 

= P—Sim—582 mf pat 

= Lae fete 

= _— + : rh aay 

=> te x => oi. 

Seay ati 

= T— fc—10c en ee j f 
4 f= r—} fe * = an Ws al? ta 

= Jr—d> =p fce—B tons 

aS; Sr at gle 


FRACTURES. | See Strcery: > 9) 6 ooh 

FRAGA, the Galica Flavia of Ptolemy, isa town of 
Spain, in the kingdom of Arragon. ’ It is situated.on 
the left bank of the river Cinca, which bathesits walls, 
and is built between two ins, partly on the de- 
clivity of each. The streets) are steep, narrow, and 
crooked, and are wretchedly 


8000.. East 
Laborde’s View of Spaing vol. ii,.p. 246. (w), 
FRAMING or Timser. From our. Treatise on Can- 


pENTRY we have made a reference to the present head - 
for an account of the principles of Framing ; but having _ 


inted in receiving the article, we must.re- 


been disaj : 
to the article Roor. See also Jornine. 


fer.the 


FRANCAIS, Port be, is the.name of a bay on ae 
the north-west, 


bour on eoast, of America, situated in 


in La P 


CAV. name 


; 


tm he —~~, 


) SAS. 


} 


t Roetent Ginx. comprehended the whole country bes 
TISOr7- ween the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Rhine, and the Ocean ; 
it was therefore of greater extent than modern France, 


seen of as it existed previously to the Revolution; for to the 
Gaul. dominions of that kingdom must be added, to form an 


accurate and complete estimate of the size of ancient 
Gaul, the duchy of Savoy, the cantons of Switzerland, 
the four electorates of the Rhine, and Pe 
Liege, Luxemburgh, Hainault, Flanders, and 

Gaul was added to the dominions of the Roman empire, 
principally by the valour and talents of Julius Cesar ; 
but it was not divided as a portion of that empire, till 
This monarch introduced a di- 


states. |The colony of Narbonne gave its name 
to the sea coast of the Mediterranean, , Pro- 


colony of Lugdunum or Lyons 
on the country between the Loire and the Seine, which, 
however, was originally denominated Celtic Gaul. Be- 
yond the Seine the Belgic division lay: this portion- of 
Gaul, in more ancient times, had been bounded only by 
Rhine ; bata time before the conquest of Gaul 

CG a 3 


assaulted by 
of part of Gaul, 


a small 

: the 

Ppeonen of Clots, ion Ssh, oC tape, Knee mentiones 
Even before this conquest, they 

ion in 


Shy 


FRANCE. _ 


tary’command was a buckler, on which the princes of 
this race were elevated: and the royal fashion of long 
hair was:the exclusive mark of their birth and dignity; 
while the rest of the nation’ were obliged) either by law 
or custom, to shave the hinder part of the head, to comb 
the hair over the forehead, and to content themselves 
with.two small whiskers.. The Franks were distinguish« 
ed from the inhabitants of the country in which they had 
now fixed themselves, by their lofty stature, and blue 
eyes ; by their close apparel ; their weighty sword sus« 
pended from a broad belt); a large shield ; and their ‘ex 
pertness in running, leaping, swimming, and darting the 
javelin or battle-axe with unerring aim. 

Of the particular circumstances attending the extension Clovis. 
of the. conquests of the Franks, little is known: their A: D. 481. 
regular and connected history begins with Clovis, in the 
year 481. This monarch atchieved the conquest of Gaul, 
by the defeat of the Roman governor; and by his mar~ 
riage with Clotilda, added dy, of which her father 
was sovereign, to his dominions, . Clotilda converted her 
husband to Christianity, and the conversion. of his sub= 
jects followed. Clovis conquered Aquitaine, bit retain- 
ed it. but a short time; he died in 511.’. In the last 
year of his reign, .he reformed and. published: the Salic 
laws: a few lines of these, which debarred women from 
inheriting what were called’ the Salic lands, have been 
applied as precluding females from the succession to the 
French throne. 4 

The successors of Clovis were in Gente weak and Mayors o, 
wicked, till, on the death of Dagobert II. 638, who left the palace. 
two infant sons, the sovereignty was taken from them by A. D. 638. 
the mayors of the palace, who were the first officers of 
the royal household. This office, from a al di 
nity, became hereditary in the family of Pepin Heristel. 
His son, Charles Martel, succeeded to the power of his 
father, though he still retained the name of mayor of the 
palace. He delivered France from the ravages of the Sa- 
racens, by a dreadful battle, in which they were utterly 
defeated, fought between Tours and Poictiers, A.D. 732. 
His grandson, Pepin le Bref, removing from the throne 
the Merovingian race, assumed, by the authority of a 
papal decree, the title of king, and reigned for seventeen 
years with dignity and success ; the founder of the second 
race of the French monarchs, known by the name of the 
Carlovingian race... In his time, the monarchy of the catoyin. 
Franks was divided into two large districts, Austrisia gian race. 
and Neustria. On his death-bed, he called a council of 
his grandees, and, with their consent, divided his domi- 
nions. between his two sons, Charles and Carloman. 

Carloman dying a few years after, his father, Charles Cha»to- 
succeeded to the undivided sovereignty. . This monarch, magne. 
so honourably known in history by the name of Charle- 
magne, reigned 45 years, during which period he extend- 
ed the limits of his empire beyond the Danube; subdued 
Dalmatia, Istria and Dacia, all the barbarous tribes to 
the banks. of the Vistula, made himself master:of a large 
part of Italy, and attacked the Saxons, Saracens, Buiga~ 
rians and Huns with success, ‘The Pope first crowned 
him King of France andthe, Lombards, and afterwards 
Emperor of the West. He had no fixed capital, and even 


History. 


544 
Mistery. in his lifetime he divided his dominions among his chil- 
ro dren: he died A. D. 814, in the seventy-second year of 


his 
gin of Inthe time of Pepin Je Bref, the system of annual 
peckasnants i ts, held first in March, and afterwards in May, 
been established or restored. ordered 
these assemblies to be held twice a year, in spring and au- 
tuum. The business of the first assembly was to prepare 
and digest what the second was to enact into laws. Of 
this assembly he constituted the people a part, so that it 
consisted of three estates, The ign never was pre- 
sent, unless to ratify its decrees. In this reign also, the 
kingdom was divided into provinces and districts ; the 
latter were under the superintendance of royal envoys; 
chosen from the nobles and clergy, who were bound to 
visit their territories'every three months, and to make 
their reports to the sovereign at the general assembly. 
Lonis le Of all 
Debensaif® bonnaire survived him, who was consecrated Emperor 
A. 0.818. and King of the Franks, at Aix la Chapelle, A. D. 816. 


Having very imprudently divided his territories, very 
soon his succession, among his sons, they made 
open war against him, and he was compelled to surren- 
der hi a prisoner to his rebellious children. His 


spirits were thus broken, his health decayed, and he ter- 

minated an inglorious and turbulent reign, A. D. 840. 
Lotharius, his eldest son, was =~ ae ret but the 
quarrels among the brothers, whi even in 
their father’s lifetime, rae continued. fide seg. in 
conjunction ‘with Pepin his brother’s son, took up arms 
sguiiie th tw Uther dood of Louie, Cacia! the ld, a 
son by a second — to whom Aquitaine had been 
given, and Louis, who had received Bavaria from his fa- 
ther. ‘A dreadful battle was fought at Fontenay, in which 
Lotharius was defeated. A council of bishops was ims 
mediately held ; Lotharius apne and grant 
rors were itted to rei > on condi- 
peeing te mel gpm 
rius, however, contrived to accommodate matters with 
his brothers in such a manner, that they to a new 
Division of division of the empire. By this division, A. D.'843, 
“a snets, the western part of France, called Neustria and Aqui- 
en taine, was assigned to Charles the Bald. Lotharius:re- 
tained the title of Emperor, with the nominal sovereignty 
of Italy, and the real possession ‘of Lorraine, Franche 
Compte, Provence, and the Lyonnois'; while the king- 

dom of Germany was allotted to Louis. FIM 

On the death of Lotharius, Charles the Bald assumed 
the empire, having it from the Pope, on con- 
dition of holding it from the holy see.. This prince was 
the first of the French monarchs who made dignitaries 
and honours hereditary : he died by poison, after a weak 
inglorious reign, A. D.877. During ae the 
Normans, who had first made their appearance in’France! 

in 843, sailed up the Seine, and burned Paris. 
Bald was succeeded by his son Louis the 
Stammerer, who, after reigning only about two years, 
ueen Adelaide t. He 


leaving his 
was succeeded by Louis IL, and Carloman II. his two’ 


marriage. On the death of these pri 
Emperor peepee Fat, ‘son of Louis 
rance. He disgraced 
ely the Normans; but this 
disgraceful, but impolitic, for it 
fresh incentive to emadetibn. Paris 
time, 


z 


not 
served only as a 
a 


"s lawful sons, only Louis le De-_ 


FRANCE. 


Count Eudes and Bishop Goslin, A truce was concluded, History. 
but the Normans, after leaving Paris, besieged Sens and ““Y—” 
was deposed by an assembly of the states, who conferred 

the crown on Eudes. His title to the throne, howev 

path e 1 oe by a great part of the states 

rance, who, on the contrary, their allegiance to 

Charles’ the Sipley!son:-of Lacis 


nye a reign was by no means’ 
tranquil, the nobles aspiring openly at independency, 
d body “of ie feollourt in-tha 


and 
, 

: midst. 
ol Sheet Intersil diaotdens the Normans gained a perma 


in mar 
iage. The new kingdom was called Normandy, of which’ 
Rouen was the capital. ro ented 


‘Charles 
endeavoured to gain the assistance of the of Nor- 
mandy, and the Emperor of Germany ; but beii 
trayed, and thrown into prison by the court of Vi 
dois, he died there in 929.. yes Gos J 


of Charles, who had taken’ 
this circumstance he was ‘surn: Stranger. 
When Louis was called. to the throne he*was 


as 


‘only 17 


: but, of 
led to make peace with his vassal, and to confirm 
the’ ' of Laon, which comprehended almost the 


are 
Ph) 


i 


er. ste! 


a 


~~ 
France) seized "the ercwn on the death of Louis V.3 
and, as he possessed the dukedom of France, which ex- 
nded as far as Touraine, and was also count of Paris, 
and in possession of large territories in Picardy and Cham- 
ne, while the royal domain was reduced to the cities 
of 1 and Soissons, he in fact brought more strength 
to the crown than he derived from it. Though the right 
of succession bel ‘to Charles, Duke of Lorrain, uncle 


: J stor 
Hugh Ca- 


=o 


Hhetina.- In order to establish the 1 in his family 
during his lifetime, he associated his son Robert in the 
government of the kingdom, and prudently vested him 


with those insignia of y which he denied himself, 
Tedt SA AALS Gasp’ ibee Wid “ald been very lately 


being defeated, he was made ‘by. 
ee ee 


excommunication, that’ he was abandoned by all his 
courtiers and his servants, except two, who threw to the 
dogs all the victuals their master left, and purified by 
fire the vessels in which he had been served. The king, 
alarmed either at his spiritual punisiment, or at the com- 
mencing commotions in his kingdom, at last’ divorced his 
wife, and married Constance, ter to the Count of 
“Arles. ~The last of his reign were rendered very 
unfortunate by the disorders of his‘family. His eldest 
son Hugh, whom he had associated in the sovereignty, 
was ; and Constance, who’ was an imperious ter- 


magant, wished to her younger son Robert on the 
thtoriey but the Iifig. by the advice of his parliament, 
‘confirmed the succession of Henry, his eldest surviving 


son. In the midst of these disorders the king died, in 
A.D. 1031, and was succeeded’ IL 


Bhi; 


rting the rights of her son Robert. Henry re- 
‘some ‘time, but at length was obliged to take 
with Robert; Duke ‘of Normandy, received 


t sent an army 
France, while the king and royal party invaded it on ano- 


ormandy 
' Soon after Henry was restored, the Duke of Norman- 
dy made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem ; and, dying before. 
hus r , there was a dispute. Y succes~ 
sion to his dominions. His natural son had been 
ed by the nobles, before the of Robert ; 


and his guardianship was entrusted to the King of France 
and th Duke of Bretagne. A sen as the death of 
Robert was , the. nobles broke out into. 


VOL. Ix, PART i 


‘ 


FRANCE. 


545 


persona! quarrels, whieh the Duke-of Bretagne in vain History. 
endeavoured to appease.’ Under these circumstances, the 
King of France had an excellent opportunity of display- 
ing his gratitude for the favours which he had received 
from Robert ; but he seemed rather willing to deprive 
his infant son of his inheritanee,\by invading Normandy. 
Not finding, however, the conquest so easy. as'he ex- 
pected, he reassumed the appearance of friendship and 
ity, united his forces with those. of the ‘young 
e, and the malcontents were totally routed ‘in. the 
battle of Val de Dunes, A. D. 1046. D364 4 

In 1060, Henry I. was succeeded by his son Philip I. ; phitip 1. 
and about six years afterwards, William, Duke of! Nor- A. D. 1060. 
mandy, successfully invaded England. Philip was only © 
eight years old when his father died, and remained under 
the guardianship of Baldwin V., surnamed the Pious, 
Count of Flanders, a man of strict honour and integri- 
ty, till the year 1067, when Baldwin died, having, just 
before his death, concluded an offensive and defensive al- 
liancé between the crowns of Scotland and France. 

Philip incurred the excommunication of Urban IT. by 
his marrying Bertrand de Montfort, Duchess’ of Anjou, 
while her husband and his q were both alive; nor 
was the excommunication taken off till the death of the 
Pope and the Queen in 1097. Philip, however, though 
relieved from his domestic troubles, was exposed to the 
rapacious power of his nobles, who insalted him con- 
stantly, and cut off entirely the communication between 
Paris and Orleans. In order to remedy these evils, Phi 
lip associated with him his son Louis. This prince was _ 
active, vigorous, erous, affable, and free from most 
youthful vices. soon perceived the full extent and 
the exact nature’ of the dangers which surrounded him, 
and that nothing could be-‘accomplished by force. He 
therefore kept continually in the field with a small body 
of troops about him, whom he employed against such 
nobles as would not listen to the dictates of justice and 
equity ; he demolished their castles, and laid waste their 
ground ; and by these measures, and by compelling them 
to render restitution to those whom they had pillaged, 
he restored order to the state, preserved the monarchy 
from subversion, and gained the affections of the virtu- 
ous part of the nobility, and the reverence of the peo- 


In 1108, when he was 80 years old, he succeeded his Louis the 
father. From his great size in the latter part of his life, Gross, 
he was called Louis the Gross. Soon after his corona- 4 0. 1108, 
tion, he engaged in a war with Henry I. of England, 
the particulars of which will be found in our history of 


that ki “After the peace between these monarchs, 
which took place A. D. 1128, Louis devoted himself to 
the ion of the internal management of his king- 


dom: He re-established the commons, or third estate, 
which had’ long ceased to exercise its privileges ; he en- 
franchised the villains, or bondsmen; diminished the 
‘authority of the seignorial jurisdictions, and sent com- 
missaries into the provinces to receive Mr ane re~ 
dress wrongs, and encourage appeals to the royal judges. 
‘In the midst of these wise lations, his ebbehaye =. 
pulency on a disorder which terminated in his 
‘death, in the 60th year of his age, and 30th of his 
reign, A; D. 1187. 
Lonis VIL, surnamed the Young, to distinguish him Louis the 

from ‘his father, was 18 years of age when he ascended Young, 
the throne. He was of a devout turn of mind, good= 4 ?- 1137- 


natured, and easy in his-temper ; but jealous of his ho- 
3z 


y cmsgarig The chapter of Bourges, having 
be to the court, he or- 
a ch rr, a th caer 


ve rise to Aart ven 
pagne, and set 

to which the inhabitants of 
The effect of this was 


visit the Holy Land, in, order to expiate his 
To this project he was further incited say ah 
abbot of Clairvaux, who had been selected by Pope 


enthusiasm of she; 
Louis from, this enterprise. 
niences’ that, would result. from ‘it, and the 
which the king would be exposed ; but Bernard, oad 
other hand, made himself answerable for its success, and 
extolled it with an enthusiasm that passed for inspiration. 


Before his departure, however, the king had the good . 


sense to name Seiger minister to the regent, whom he 
in charge of the kingdom. 

‘Embarks in ch was the rage for.the crusade in France and Ger- 

a crusade. many, at this period, that Louis reckoned in his army 
70,000 men in complete armour, with a very great num- 
ber of light horse, besides infantry; but this force, 
though doubled by what the Emperor of Germany. brought 
along with him, was. rendered of little or no benefit to, 
the cause in which they were engaged, by its vey. num- 
bers, and if the total want of order and discipline. The 
Emperor of Germany fell into a snare. set for him by 
the Sultan of Iconium; and the same misfortune soon 
afterwards befel Louis. He met likewise, with another 
calamity still thore grievous, and ‘which gave him more 
uneasiness than the loss. of his army; for his queen 
Eleanor, whose affection and zeal led her to embrace the 
cross, and accompany him into Asia, was suspected of 
an amour with the prince of Antioch. His 


marriage and 
with her had been entered into contrary to the advice of 4 
Seiger; and, after the death of that apg es ! 


convinced of the soundness of his opinion by the 


of his wife, divorced her, and restored abi die ro- whi 


vinces of Guienne and Poitou, which he had received 
with her.in marriage. Eleanor, soon after her divorce, 
married Henry Plantagenet, Dake of Normandy, who, 
the following year, became King of England, under the 


name of Henry IL The remainder of Louis's, reign i 


oe ee ERG 


presents nothing worthy of notice. He 
relled with Henry II. of England; but 
were soon made up. in 1179, he made his.eon’Phi 
who was then 14 years old, be crowned at Rheims; 
the following yea he did of «payee, athe 


age of 
yee 1180. Philip IL, who was afterwards surnamed Augustus, . 


A.D.1 


PRAWN CE, 


on account of his 
of Flanders, He tpetived 


= 


# 


cess. 
by some of the. 
je frsg Faye ay but hi 
use his intreaties to these nobles to 
of the church, Haididsae 2M * “y € 


: ae : 


vages ; and at length found 

the necessity of, canis sihae speuge 

Bee eecenes: t thei 

Philip next attention to the ext 

pton of the bg who, under the name of Roti 
infested France, setting at nought vil and 

clesiastical power. In one battle he destroyed 7000 | 

The gral shih id exits hilip’s, fay Quarrets b 

ther and the King of England _ st d 5 , 

couraging tiful behaviou 

wards their father. : 

gree quieted, by the death of 

for the ee i “gbasden Pht however, 


her 
asa hy apparent. to 


ay Eee ‘ 
found himself obliged, at eel defend 


dominions aon Expose and his own son. _ Being un- 
‘sponte 15 srneee od t0pay Si ek a compen for 


however, Poin felt h himself Fa i “hs ith of 
Fesens which took place A. D. ject of a 


hour 3 SH gain entertained. 
cheetah et 1pel 


Bath ce a 


pis an 
after snilitary, glory. 
their religious and 


had been so. unsuccessful, it necessary to ar Land, 
road ; me SE es Dts sry ya ‘me 
priigaats io ns ng 
by means of their wer, t preserve an. 
7 ar ia tr their wn stat om 
a ome reps ays d 
,000 


Ae th ae 
ey : 


a i Pi 


Louis VIII. 


and 1X. 


A. D.1223 
al 


ry 
ef 
e 


4 wlohe, 
PES wt. 


d entered into a treaty with John, his. perfis 
ver. As soon as Richard recovered his’ free- 
turned his thoughts towards vengeance on Phi- 
t the latter gained several advantages over his 
opponent; and these two princes continued to harass 
each other, till the death of Richard; A. D..1199.. John, 


Guienne. FGI ge) MSHS ei) a4 bed be HOO r 
In 1213, Philip was chosen by the Pope to carry into 


meena ofa; dreadful eontest, the Pope persuaded 
John to hold his inions as a Sondasery abating tt 


with 
village 2 
amounting to upwards of 50,000 men, was met 
that of Philip, which was rather inferior. A dreadful 
was fought ; the Emperor and his allies were route 
|, and $0,000 Germans are said to have been slain. 
r this victory, Philip entered Paris in triumph; the 
Flanders and Boulogne, his prisoners, gracing 
Pa Peoraet odes iicenitiogy, the tats 
15, i total 
their liberties, their possessions; and their lives, in 
the ‘proceedings of John, offered the 
son. of Philip. Louis accepted 
3. but disgusted the people 
his own countrymen, so that, on the 
the Barons ing to acknowledge 
the authority of his son + Louis was to 
2 ary oa ra amen ee ilip 
aving the kingdom ‘rance twice'as) as he 
pec bs VILL reigned but abo ; os . 
is VILLI. rei, but about three years, the 
part of which was chiefly spent in a crusade against the 
Albigenses. He was succeeded, A. D. 1226, by his son 
Louis IX. called Saint Louis, then only 12 


FPR HL 


the 
by his partiality 


years of age. Blanche of Castile, the Queen-mother, had 
been shone J the minority of her 
son, she the ambition ofthe powerful and tur- 
bulent barons, by her and, firmness. . As Louis 
advanced to i character developed it- 


form, This turn of mind was strengthened by a dangers 
ous illness with which he was attacked ; or his heated 


' 


FRANCE. 


— 


547 
imagination made him fancy that he heard a voice ftom 
heaven, commanding him to:shed the blood of Infidels. 
Accordingly, he made a vow to take the cross, and spent 
four years in preparing for his expedition. He entrusted 
the government of the’kingdom tothe care ‘of: his mo- 
ther; and at;last, every thing being arranged’ A. D; 1248, 
‘he ‘sailed: for) Cyprus, accompanied» by “his “queen, « his 
three brothers, and almost all the knights) of France. 
From this island, he proceeded to Egypt, instead of go- 
ing directly. to the Holy Land ; and, in 1249, he landed 
with his army near the city of Damietta.. Soon after 
wards, having received a reinforcement from France, his 
‘army amounted to! 60,000 mens But this expedition 
-was as unfortunate as those which had preceded it.) Near- 
ly halfthe French troops fell a prey to sickness'and de+ 
-bauchery:, 'The rest were defeated by the Sultan’ of 
at Massoura; where’ Louis, two of his’ brothers, 


~ and all/his nobility, were taken’ prisoners ; his third bro- 


ther having been killed by his side: The Queen ‘of 
France had been left in Damietta; this place was besie~ 
ged, but it made a gallant defence, till.a treaty was con~ 
cluded with the Sultan, by which it was given up in con 
sideration of the 
the ransom of the r prisoners, Eouis,.notwithstand+ 
ing all chance of success had long been at’ am end, was 


History. 
> 
s 


His expedi- 
tion to 
Egypt, 
A, D. 1249. 


Battle of 
Massoura.- 


Kings liberty s.ahd a Jarge sum paid for* 


still so bent on fulfilling his vow, that he set outfor Pas 9»: 
lestine, where he remained four years, without being able 


to accomplish any thing. In the meantime, the affairs 
of France were in the greatest disorder, in consequence 
of a monk having; collected upwards of 100,000. men, 
under the pretence: of leading them to the assistance of 
their sovereign.. This) multitade robbed and _ pillaged 
wherever they came; nor |werethey di without: 
considerable difficulty. In’ 1258, the Queen-motherha- 
ving died, Louis returned to France, where» he ‘reps 

the evils occasioned by his absence, and atoned® for the 
folly of his crusade, by his zeal for justice, his wisé laws, 
and his: virtuous example. He established, ‘on ‘a ‘more’ 
solid basis than before, the®right of appeal to the royal 
judges ; prohibited’ private ‘wars; substituted juridical 
proofs, instead of those by duel; and rescued France 
from the exactions of Rome. In his transactions with 
other sovereigns, he was also highly praise- worthy, and 


Louis re- - 
turns to 
France, 

A, D. 1258. 


consulted the real interests of-his' own kingdom, while - 


he behaved with justice and moderation towards them: 

He ceded Rousillon and Catalonia to the King of Arra- 

gon, in exchange for the claims of that monarch to some 
3 


King of England to renounce all claim to» Normandy, 
Maine, and other forfeited provinces, by restoring to him 
Querci, Perigord, and the 
ration, that he was chosen, A. D. 1264, arbiter “between 
the King of England and his barons ; and his sentence, 
though rejected by Leicester and his 5 was undoubt-4 
edly that of justice as well as wisdom. In one instance 
he was deserted by his love of justice. He itted a 
crusade to be preached in France against the: King’ of 
Sicily, in behalf of his brother, who had no right to that 
throne. Soon after this, A.D. 1270, he prepared for 
another holy war. His object: was now the conquest’ of 
Tunis, or the violent conversion of its'sovereign to’Ohris- 
tianity» The. Infidel rejected, the: alternative: but the 
French army, soon after its landing, was seized with ‘an 
epidemic distemper, of which Louis himself, and one of 
his sons, as well as numbers of his:troops, were the yic- 
tims, A.D, 1271.. b Taibo at 


in Provence and Languedot, and persuaded’ the 


imosin, Such was his modes - 


548 


History. Philip IL. surnamed ‘the Hardy, succeeded to the 
mum rir throne when he was 25 years old. Had it not been for 
® A.D. 1271, theassistance afforded him by his uncle, Charles of Anjou, 
he would have found it impossible to have extricated 

himself and the remains of his army from the Infidels ; 
but he having defeated them, concluded a peace for his 


nephew, on the favourable conditions that the King of 
Tunis should pay him a large sum of money ; Charles 
himself the ancient tribute due to him as King of Sicily; 


that the Christians in Tunis should enjoy the full exer- 
cise of their religion ; and that the prisoners on each side 
should be exchanged. Little of moment occurred after 
Philip's return to France.. In 1274, he declared war 
against Alphonso of Castile; on the subject of the suc- 
cession to that crown ; but the war soon terminated with- 
out producing any event of consequence. Philip's cha- 
racter led him frequently to engage in enterprises with 
great alacrity and zeal ; but he had not sufficient firmness 
to persevere in them. He was much under the influence 
of the Pope; and to him the papal government’ was in- 
debted for the Venaissin, which they retained till the 
Revolution. 

Philip naturally took great interest inthe affairs of his 
Sicilian uncle, Charles Duke of Anjou, King of Sicily. «And this 
Vespers, _ leads us to notice the Sicilian Vespers. The inhabitants 
A. D. 1982, Of Sicily, when Charles governed with more strictness 

than policy, resolved to rid themselves entirely of the 
French. They were farther excited to revolt by Peter 
ILL. King of Arragon, who laid claim to the throne of 
Sicily, and promised the Sicilians his assistance to expel 
the French. On the evening of Easter day, A. D. 1282, 
the massacre began. . Not a Frenchman was spared. » Pe- 
ter arrived ; was crowned at’*Palermo, and Charles was 
compelled to abandon the island. ‘The Pope, however, 
embraced the side of the latter ; excommunicated Peter, 
and gave his kingdom to Charles the second son of Phi-~ 
lip. The King of France immediately prepared toesta~ 
blish his son on his new throne by force of arms ;:but he 
was not successful, and in 1285, as he was returning 
from this expedition, he died at Perpignan. Letters of 
nobility were first used in France during this reign. 
They were granted to Raoul, a goldsmith. This, how- 
ever, was only a restoration of the old custom of the 
Franks, who were all esteemed equally noble. “A dis« 
tinct and privileged nobility first arose at the close of the 
second race of kings. 
Philip 1V. Philip was succeeded by his son Philip IV. surnam 
A. D. 1285, the Fair. The first object of this monarch was to coms 
fer all differences with his neighbours. To this step 
was led by the derangement of his finances. Al- 
though in thus settling his differences, he was much in- 
debted to Edward I. of England, yet he ungratefully, as 
well as are ag soon afterwards engaged in hostili- 
ties with him; he also rashly attempted to gain pos- 
session of Flanders, which had joined England. But in 
this envérprise he was unsuccessful ; though it cost him 
muely blood and treasure. ‘These events, however, were 


of trifling moment, compared to the quarre] between him 
Quarrely and the Pope Boniface VIIL. a man of a turbulent dispo- 
a the sition, arrogant, and overbearing. | He had _ prohibited 
Pope. 


the ‘clergy from granting any aids. But Philip, bei 
equally determined to secon his: own power, a biing 
Moreover very poor, resolved that the clergy in France 
should contribute, equally with his other subjects, to the 
i of the state; and he resolved not only on this, 
but also forbade them to send money abroad without his 


FRANCE. 


permission. ‘This gave rise to the quarrel b 

niface and the king. The former was by no means 

posed to yield; on the contrary, he appointed as his le 

gate to the court of France, Bernard Saissette, who had b 

rebelled against the king, and who on this, as well as on 

account of ‘his disposition, Boniface must have known 

would be particularly obnoxious to him, This legate 

fully acted up to the orders of his master ; he braved 

Philip at his own court, and threatened him with an in- 

terdict. Philip was so much under the influence of su- 

perstition, or so afraid of the impression it might make 

on his subjects, that he did not bring the legate to trial, 

but contented himself with delivering him into the hand “ 

of his metropolitan. On this the Pope, en |, issued 

a bull, declaring “ that the Vicar of Christ is vested with 

full authority over the kings and kingdoms of the earth; 

and at the same time, the French clergy were ordered to 

repair to Rome, Philip commanded the bull to be com- 

mitted to the flames, and the bishops not to leave France ; 

and he seized the possessions of those who did leave it. 

In this state of things, he had recourse toa most politic 

measure. He assembled the states of the kingdom, and 

they disavowed the claim of the Pope, and recognised 

him as an independent sovereign in his own ki . in 

Having proceeded thus far, Philip resolved to wi 

war against Boniface ; but the Pope was not intimidated. 

He displayed great coolness and courage. Having been 

insulted, ae nee in his own territories, by a band of 

desperadoes hired at the instigation of Philip, he was so 7 

imuch uffected that he died in a'féwdays,| Jetediet XT. 

his successor, a mild and good man, took the interdict 

off Philip; but this Pope was too and wise for the 

age in which he lived. He was taken off by poison A. D. 

1305; and his successor Clement V. being a French- 

man, and entirely in the interest of France, fixed his 

Fesidence in that kingdom. Philip being now at peace, 

turned his attention to the internal affairs of his king- 

dom. Supreme tribunals, called Parliaments, were in« 

stituted, and. the commons, or estate, were for- 

mally admitted into the assemblies of the nation. So wis politi- 

far his measures. were wise and) popular; but, in what cal and fi- 

‘the finances, they were of an ©; charac- nancial 

ter. The royal treasury was exhansted ; and, to remedy ™**“"* 

this evil, the nominal value of money was raised. The 

dilapidation of his finances led the king also to adopt 

another measure still more unjust. The Knights Tem- 

plars, ‘a religious and military order, had ea cape 4 

possessions in almost’every part of Europe, but iale 
in France. In consequence of the severity of the taxes Knights — 

which Philip levied, a sedition arose in Paris; the Knights Templars, 

Ter were accused of having fomented it; orders 

were issued that should all be committed to prison 

in one day; absurd ‘and enormous crimes were impu- 

ted to them. They were ‘put to the rack ; confession 

extorted, or forged confessions imputed to such as were 

firm ; and at last Philip succeeded in destroying most of 

them, and in obtaining possession ad their aaa ’ Soon ¢ 

after this disgraceful proceeding, A. D. 1814, Philip again : 

unsuccessfully attempted to ies Flanders to the crown 

of France; and his death is supposed to have been in 

a great measure occasioned by his failure. : 

He was suceeded by his son Louis X., surnamed Louis X. 
Huten, who was scarcely seated on his throne when he A.D. 
ordered his: prime rye 3 Marans. to + oern un- 
der the pretence of his being guilty of magic, but, in 
reality, that he might gain possession of his wealth, 


however, being improvident, soon spent the 
he had thus unjustly acquired; and he ‘was 
‘to satisfy his wants, to extort money from the 
levy a tenth from the clergy, to sell their 
camped Mo Bias GF be me? 

mains ; and even to i f them to as 
wished to continue slaves. Thus the king’s avarice, or 
igality benefited his ‘subjects. It is remarkable 


2F 


ms 


mhost bea ohilganem, otter of money concerns; and Charles 
ing discovered that they were gui of extortion, as 


of 
took 


% FeaR 
fi 
Qs 


FRANCE. 


ot 
‘ te 3 i reign. , a chan 
tion o parliament, by 
ne’ citizens. It was also in this rei 


* Raoul, whom he ord 


549 
both the itors endeavoured to strengthen them- 
selves by alliances. In 1346, Edward invaded France 
with an army of 30,000 men, and Philip advanced to 
meet him at hd head of 100,000. On the 26th of Au- a 
gust, in that year, the famous battle of Cressy was 

ight, in which the French were defeated with great 

ater. In 1347, Edward took San $ e in a5 
following year, he returned in triumph to England, 
having concluded a truce with France. In the midst 


History. 


The of his misfortunes, Philip had the satisfaction of seeing 


Dauphiny annexed to the crown of France, the last 
Count of that province dying without issue ; having ce- 
ed his territories to the crown of France, on the con- 
ition that the eldest son of the French monarch should 


assume the name of Dauphin. Philip died in 1350, 


of 57, worn out with distress and anxiety. 
took place in the constitu- 
incorporation of the coun- 
sellors named j Ss, who had formerly been taken 
exclusively from the noblesse, and the counsellors na- 
med %, who had been taken from the class of 
that the famous tax 
on salt, the gabelle, was im , or rather established 
and augmented. ; 

John, the eldest son of Philip, succeeded to the John, 
throne; but an act of injustice towards the Constable 4- D. 1350. 
to be beheaded without any =» 
form of trial, rendered him soon very unpopular. Of 
this, and of other circumstances, Edward IIT. took ad- 
vantage ; for Charles, King of Navarre, setting up a 
claim to the throne of France, Edward tens Be to 


’ support him. In this emergency, John convoked the 


states-general in 1355, who agreed to a levy of 30,000 
acts, edad 100,000 other troops, ati’ to a subsidy 
to Se them. At this assembly, a decree was pass- 
ed, no proposition should be admitted without the 
unanimous consent of the three branches or their depu- 
ties. Thus, the third estate, which hitherto had been 
too much and'too often the slaves of the nobility or 
clergy, obtained their due share of authority. In 1355, 
Edward invaded France in, and sent into Guienne 
the Prince of Wales, who gained so much fame at 
the battle of C On the 19th of September in the 
following year, this prince was again successful, at the 
battle oictiers, in which the French were complete« 
ly defeated, and their king taken prisoner. John was 

treated with great attention and generosity by his ca 
tor, who, having concladed a truce for pate pies broug: t 
him over be, age In ge eh the nH Men 
of their m , the le of France were plunged 
into the grea’ i and confusion. The Dau- 
phin, indeed, assumed the management of affairs, but 
is authority and influence were not sufficient to restore 
tranquillity ; and, as he was totally destitute of sup- 
pies, he found himself under the necessity of convo- 
‘ing the national assembly; but that body, instead of 

ing his administration, seized the opportuni 

to limitations of the regal power. Paris itse 
was entirely under the dominion of the provost of the 
merchants: the dauphin was detained in a kind of cap- 
tivity. In the midst of these disorders, the King of 
Navarre, who had been thrown into prison by John in 
the year 1355, contrived to escape, and put himself’ at 
the of the malcontents ; but his conduct was so 
atrovious, that even those who had previously favoured 


* his claims, now forsook him, and resolved to strengthen 
. the 


er of the dauphin. For this purpose they ral- 
Shed Weed him, and the provost of the merchants ha- 
ving been slain in an attempt to deliver Paris up to the 


Riomery, 
—\~— 


A. OD. 1564. 


ie tite 


pl us 


550 
King of Navarre, that eapital returned to te aliegionans 
and France began again to assume the form, enjoy 
the advantages of a government. During these 
disturbances, Edward was restrained by his truce from 
taking advantage of them; but no sooner was it ex- 
pired, A. D. 1359, than he invaded France with the 
whole military force of England. In 1360, he,conclu- 
ded an advantageous treaty of with his prisoner 
King John, who thus obtained his liberty. On his re- 
turn to France, however, finding that his nobility were 
by no means disposed to allow him to fulfil his 
ments, he voluntarily came back to England, where 
died at his lodgings in the Savoy, 1364. 

John was succeeded by his son Charles V. surnamed 
the Wise, an epithet which he, well deserved, by the 
prudence and policy of his conduct: his first care was 
to repair the losses which his kingdom had sustained 
frorh the errors of his predecessors: and haying been 
made too sensible that recent calamities of France 
had, in a great measure, s from. the captivity and 
absence of the batmape oh Tega +; pares pares 
to appear personally at the of his armies, es 
was resolved to suit France, if possible, a match for 
England ; but, in order to do this, it was necessary not 
only to restore tranquillity, and to introduce order and 
economy into all his internal arrangements, but also to 
bring under subjection, or weaken the King of Na- 
varre, who, from the vicinity of his dominions, had it 
in his power always to prove a restless and formidable 
opponent, Against him, therefore, he first turned his 
arms; and he soon, principally by the valour of Ber- 
trand de Guescelin, one of the most accomplished ca) 
tains of the age, obliged him to sue for peace, A. D. 
1365. He next settled the affairs of Bretagne. Thus 
having succeeded in these enterprizes, he turned his 
attention to the immense number of military adven- 
turers, who, having followed Edward into France, had, 
under the name of Companies, become a terror to the 
peaceable inhabitants: these Charles soon found were 
too numerous and formidable to be reduced by force ; 
he therefore had recourse to policy, _ Alphonso XI, 
King of Castile, was succeeded by his brother Peter I. 
surnamed the Cruel: against him, Henry, Count of 
Trastamara, took up arms ; but being obliged to flee into 
France, he obtained permission. from Charles to inlist 
the companies in his service. They readily embarked 
in an enterprise which promised them ciahonneal and 
booty ; and thus Charles freed his kingdom of t 
adventurers. A's soon as Charles was: satisfied of the- 
internal peace of France, he directed his thoughts to 
the reformation of the coin: he likewise lessened the 
taxes, encouraged agriculture and commerce, and em- 
bellished his capital. In the midst of peace, however, 
he was still oust ag war, and anxious to wipe off, 
the disgrace which successes of England had in- 
flicted on the arms of France. An opportunity soon’ 
presented itself: the inhabitants of Guienne, oppress- 
ed by the taxes of the Prince of Wales, to. whom that 
province had been given by his father, laid their com- 

laints before the King of France. The Prince of 
ales was cited,to appear to answer these complaints : 
he answered that he would certainly come to Paris, but 
it should be at the head of 60,000 troops: but he was 
no longer that Black Prince, who performed even more 
than he threatened; he was worn out both in. body and 
miind by sickness. In 1369, war was declared, The 
French were successful, Charles, relying on his supe- 
oy pronounced a sentence of condemnation against 
the Prmece of Wales for his contumacy in not appears 


FRANC E. 


died in 1380, after a reign 
to his subjects, With respect 
are some curious particulars 


wise and virtuous man, After dinner, he gave audi- 


. 


bis garde. p Oe , return, the queen b t in his 
children, whom he interrogated respecting their pro-_ 
walking, he 


gress in education. In winter, instead of. wal 
employed himself in reading the Holy Scriptures. He 
took little supper, and went to bed early, Though he. 
spent his time at home in this plain and simple manner, . 
abroad with iderable degree _ 
of dignity and eriont before his subjects he was 


rep £18100) 
Is 


aah: 


more 


following year, ted let 
citizens of Paris. _ This privilege baat fe ha till. 1577, 
when it was restricted to the provost of the merchan 

and_a few others. It was entirely suppressed in 1007 
and re-established in 1707; and again supp in 


he 


V7 Beran reel ; sacabeth sneenmatieel tenilas deine 

Charles the Wise was succeeded by_his eldest son Charles V1. 
Charles VI. a minor: a few years before his death, 4- D- 1380. 
Chaves thinking i probable that sould Tear his son 
very young, d the ordi se, which fixed the majori- 
ty of the French King atthe age of 14. Charles VI. when - 
he mounted the throne, was 13. _ His uncles, the Dukes, 
of Anjou, Berne, and Burgundy, differed respecting 
the regency; but it was settled by those to whom. 


daeh 


rie 
oom of yecovered, His mad- 


FRANCE. 


t se, ana his general imbe- 
1 pelente, on a ain imbe. 


jpse was occasion 


with rosin, powdered over, while 
Combustible habit of one of eid 
ptally set on fire: the Bains Slain : 

‘some of the others, and the king was Nagel 


the 
Dukesof of Orleans, the ki 


Burgundy thority, hot so inuch on his relationship, as on the in- 
Or- “fluence which the duchess had over Charles’s mind, 
even’ in its most violent and disordered state. The 


great height ; but at last, A. 
ROM cae ta ee persuaded to enter 
gu amity, -17 : 

But the Duke of Burgundy was meditating treachery, 
jen wh ori for he bired 


every mod 
Butchery in 


carpenters ;—the fate of the capital de- 

id ey il 
During’ Jamitous state ance, En 

frained from invading her, till Henry V. ascended the 


was obliged td return to England 
sid ey: time 


ie was enabled to accomplish, 
of some qi rrels in lp batt 
was seized by him ; the dauphin 


difficulty; and t numbers of 
ere butchered. By this time 


~ seeured to the 


TU 
Naru a 
irene ae Hm file? Boo- 


551 - 

as the dauphin heard of this treaty, he assumed the History. 
‘style and authority of regent, and:appealed to God and 

his sword for the maintenance of his title ; but being 


‘unequal to his adv: , he was obliged to avoid a bat- 
tle. In less than two months after the death of Hen- 


d ‘ty V. A. D. 1422, Charles VI. terminated his unhappy 


‘life; and the dauphin was crowned at Poictiers, 


(Rheims being in the possession of the English) under 
“the name of Charles VII. ; 
This sovereign was very popular in France ; and the 


Charles 
VIL. 
A. D. 1422. 


“situation of that kingdom required the exercise of all 


‘his talents, and the influence of all his popularity, On 


‘the Duke of Bedford was successful. 


‘the other hand, the Duke of Bedford, the regent durin 


the minority of Henry VI. was a man of great talents 


“and prudence, and fully sensible of the difficulty of pre- 


“serving a newly acquired kingdom against the legiti- 
“mate sovereign, so well beloved as Charles was. At first, 
He defeated the 
French, and their allies theScots, in 1424, in the battle of 
Verneuil ; but his next enterprize was destined to pro- 
duce the ruin of the English, and their expulsion from 
France, by’ means so extraordinary, as in that age uni- 
versally to be deemed miraculous. In 1428, the Duke 
of Bedford tindertook the siege of Orleans. The affairs 
of Charles seemed desperate. He entertained thoughts 
‘of retiring ‘into the remote provinces of his kingdom, 
where the influence of his Queen, Mary of Anjou, and 
‘of his mistress, Agnes Soreille, who lived in perfect 
amity with’ the Shen’ changed his mind; and he 
declared his resolution to perish with honour in the 
“midst of his friends, rather than yield ingloriously to 
his enemies. In the meantime Orleans still held out ; 
and the Maid of Orleans appeared, who, by inspiriting. 
her countrymien, and appalling the English, obliged 
the latter to raise the siege. This extraordinary wo- 
“man had promised not only to raise the siege of this 
“city, but also to crown Charles at Rheims, which ‘was 

in } jon of the English. As soon as she had 
achieved thé first part of her prediction, ‘she insisted 
“that the King should march against Rheims. She was 


Maid of 
Orleans. 


“obeyed. Charles ‘set out for that city at the head of 


‘12,000 men, and scarcely perceived as he passed along, 
that he was marching through an pet country. 
Every lace ior its gates to him, and Rheims sent 
him its keys. He‘was accordingly crowned there King 


“of Francé with’ the ustial ceremonies.’ Soot after this, 


the Maid of Orleans was taken prisoner, and condemned 
burnt for sorcery and magic; but she had already 


OR cis recovered the King’s affairs; and the Duke 


1 
: theit possessions ‘on the continent except Calais. 
~’” Charles now had time to direct his industry and judg- 
“ment, to remove the numerous and v t 
“which 'Fran¢e had been ‘so long e 


of Bedford dying soon after, He 
weak prince, was obli 
from France, the 


7 Viswho was’a very 
to withdraw his forces éntire- 
nglish Being ‘expelled: from all 


Charles's 
wise plans. 


ressive evils to 
He restored 


“the oo course of public justice ; introduced order 
mito the 


2 


Spee ay of Francs ~ but hrs 

¢ King of England, and he received the © 

_, Princess Catherine in marriage, A.D, 1420. ‘As soon ~ Discontented ‘at court, he' retired into his province of 
. ‘ H : S af. ints > uv ‘ Ss , 


finances ; ~ established discipline among’ his 

“ 3 Tepressed factién in his court ; revived the lan- 
guid state of agriculture and the arts ; and in the cou¥%e 
of afew years, rendered the kingdom flourishing’ with- 
in itself, and formidable to its neighbours, In the midst 
of his’ and wise administration, Charles was 
ince was possessed of spirit aiid Courage ; 
qualities were tarnished ‘the roughness 


of his manners, and the savageness of his disposition. 


“extremely troubled by the conduct: of the Dauphin. 


in 

¢ him ; afterwards he concluded the treaty 
~ of Troyes, with the Queen and the Duke of Burgundy, | 
Ayn ths tacuibtal’ 9 the taeour Le, 


1) 


552 
Himery. Dauphiny; but wnderstanding that his father =)". 
Sm ee + eetee be : > ‘3 waned 
net toiacin: he ek Wire ie 
the Good, Duke of Burgundy, wno witingty gave him 
an asylum, but would no means encourage him in 
the seditious ; which he entertained against his 
father. When the latter heard of the where his 


son had taken refuge, he observed, “ The Duke of 
Burgundy is nourishing a fox, that will eat out his en- 


trails.” But in fact, the Dauphin was the cause of the 
death of the king ; for the latter being apprehensive that 
he would poison him, refused for several days to taste 


any food, and being thus overcome with hunger and 
in, he died in 1461. 
Louis XI. ¢ Dauphin, under the name of Louis XI. succeed- 
& D. 1461 ed his father. His first and leading object was to - 
dize the monarchy, by d ing the power of the no- 
bles ; but the latter took the alarm, and armed to defend 
their privileges. The King also armed. The battle of 
Monteleri was fought 1465, which decided nothing ; 
road oma concluded on terms advantageous to 
— Re Miaces terms, however, heats never meant 
to fulfil ; for haying gained over many of his ents, 
he used his Ashes with the Amenity of the States 
to declare those articles of the treaty void which were 
most disadvan to him. Scarcely, however, had 
he succeeded in reducing his nobles to subjection by 
these dishonourable means, when he was again involved 
in trouble by his own rapacity, and became the du 
of his own artifice, For on the death of Philip the 
Good, Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, who suc- 
ceeded him, made preparations against Louis, To these 
he was prompted, from a Parag knowledge of his 
character, and a strong suspicion that Loyis would soon 
attack him. hag also armed 3 bts ah e mat always 
averse to war, e agreed to y the © a large sum 
of money, and he acai personal he ata 
Pen Picardy, then.in the possession of the Duke. 
is went to the place with only a few attendants, 
in the hope that Charles would come with as few ; but 
at the same time, his emissaries persuaded the inhabi- 
tants of Liege to revolt against the Duke. _ The latter 
was at first pleased with the apparent confidence of 


Louis in coming with so few attendants; but intelli- 


arriving, during the conference, that a rebellion 
Riad broken out in Liege, and that it had been instiga- 
ted by the emissaries of Louis, Charles. ordered. the 
King into confinement. _ In this state Louis i 
three days, when he was released by the Duke, on™ 
dition, heyshould march along with him, and assist 
him in bringing the inhabitants of Liege back to their 
duty... Liege was reduced, and Louis was permitted to 

for his own dominions, During the remainder 
of his reign, this monarch continued to act with his ha- 
bitual icity, He first excited his le to rebel, 
and then having crushed them, divided with his mini- 
sters, who were equally, infamous with himself, their 

ions, At last even his ministers conspired against 

im; but, being defeated in their schemes, they suffer- 

ed those puni 
on. others. His. brother. Charles was 


which they had so often inflicted 
Constable St Paul, his brother-in-law the Count of Ar- 


poisoned ; the 


magnac, and the Dukes of Alencon and Nemours, were . 


beheaded; and the children of the last named nobleman 
were.sprinkled with the warm blood of their father,and 
sent ip 
an ignominious truce for seven years, en 

to. pay annually 50,000 crowns of gold; and subse- 
y. he concluded a treaty at London with Edward 

V. by which he stipulated, that the truce should be 


“mented the kingdom of France. Soon 


that condition to. the Bastile. With England he _ te 
ing . 


FRANCE. ee 


kept for 100 years after the death of each of the 
Shenae Mae 
D In 1477, a 
the heiress to the large possessions of that duch 
prehending not only ; but Franche ‘compte, 
‘the rest of the Nether. 
I marriage, seized on 
, the Princess Mary of 
was 


ects, she married the Archduke Maximilian, son of th 
haste Frederic IL. Hence arose those wars, 


‘aS 


so long desolated the Low Countries, and created an 
implacable hatred between the houses of France and — 


Notwithstanding this marriage 
places in Burgundy of which he had taken 
and, by the further acquisition of Anjou, Maine, 
vence, Bar, Rousillon, and Boulogne, he 


have been more useful to him, had he not, in so many 
instances, trusted rather to his. artifice than to them. 


proaek, and yet resigned himself to the most 1 5 


lous superstition. Yet to this king, the Pope gave the 


Greece and Italy, 


from whatev 


mulare, nescit regnar 

Had not Char his son, b 

good talents, as well as a good disposition, he must have A. D. 1483. 
4 


«% 


Rebellion 
the Duke 


of Orleans. 


FRANCE, 


gates; Charles made his entry into’ Rome as 2 conque- History. 


Ht 
Bs. 
! 
oF 


. 


FE 
i! 
Ef 
rf 
! 
: 


ea EyES 
- na i 


i 


at the meeting states, in 
« Tf,” said he, “ any dispute 
to the succession to the 


tions.of the , went into Brittany, where he 
sunsladithen tee -of- that groviaine $0\cotuaninich ans in, 
surrection ; but the war was of short duration. The 
‘king was everywhere successful ; and the victory which 
his troops at Saint Aubin, completed the de- 
the rebels. The Duke of Orleans was made 


set him at liberty ; 

sense induced him to become a loyal sub’ he even 
used his influence with Anne of Bretagne, though he was 
ee ee fenite the ki 


553 


ror ; and the Pope was compelled to grant him the in- 
vestiture of the Kingdon of Naples. .He lost no time, 
but immediately left Rome for his new kingdom. Fer- 
dinand, his competitor, fled at his approach ; the city 
of Naples instantly declared for him ; and of the whole 
kingdom, only three towns continued in the interest of 
Ferdinand. _Had Charles not been dazzled by.the ra- 
—_ and splendour of his success, he would instant- 
ly have secured his conquests ; but he wasted his time 
at Naples in festivals and triumphs, and was indul- 
ging in the vain and presumptuous hope of being able 
even to extend his victorious arms to Constantinople, and 
to subvert the Ottoman empire; while a combination 
was forming against him of almost all the Italian states, 
supported by the Em Maximilian, and Ferdinand 
King of Arragon. les, therefore, was soon too 
fatally convinced, that, instead of eae ake 4 his con~ 
quests, or even retaining the kingdom he acquired, 
it would be absolutely necessary for him to secure his 
retreat into France. On every 


and embarrassments of his situation, the Duke of Or- 
leans neglected the cause of his pee BEF his 
country, to engage in an attempt against Ludovico 
Sforza. Charles’s vigour of mind was of great avail in. 
this : At the head of not more than 9000 
men, he traversed the Alps, while the confederates, 


of though they had 30,000, were afraid to encounter him 


in the mountains, and patiently waited for him in an 
open plain near Placentia, Here the battle of Fornova 
was fought. Charles was among the first who charged 
the enemy; and his officers and soldiers, animated, by 
the example of their sovereign, fought nobly and suc- 
cessfully. The Italians fled; but Charles, on account 
of the very inferiority of his forces, either 
was not able or did not deem it prudent to pursue 
them, but continued his march unmolested, ant soon 
afterwards relieved the Duke of Orleans, who was 
blocked up in the city of Novara by Sforza. Notwith- 
standing his success, the 7 of France would pro- 
bably have found it very difficult to have extricated 
himself, had not a reinforcement of 16,000 Swiss troops 
joined him, by means of which he was placed in a si- 
tuation to dictate the terms of peace with Sforza. In 
the mean time, Ferdinand returned to Naples, which, 
er, he did not uer, till after an obstinate 
ce by the Duke: of Montieniier, to whom the 
government of it had been entrusted by Charles, 

In 1496, the King of France again prepared to in+ 
vade Italy, not for the of renewing his at- 
tempt on Naples, but in order to support the preten- 
sions of the house of Orleans to the duchy of Milan. 
But the Duke of Orleans, who was heir to the crown 
of France, refused to take upon him the command of 
the army destined for this This refusal pro- 
bably origi not so much trom his hension. of. 
the danger and difficulty of the enterprise, as from his 
railtby tong ibe worn out by debauchery, could not 
possibly survive. In consequence 
and of some other clecilssinasactin 


icularly his 
parent satisfaction at the death of 


e dauphin, 


opened up to him the immediate and certain 

of the throne, he was di |, and retired 

nore Reanlrence 16380 0 1e king being thus 
disappoin in hi ing Italy, and bein 

too sensible that his health was rapidly declining, torte 


ed his thoughts entirely to the internal economy of ‘his 
4a 


side, his enemies col- “fortu-- 
lected in great force; while, to add to the difficulties ™** 


his refusal, Disgrace of 
the Duke 
which of Orleans, 


tscory. 


—_—— 


Death and 


r 


554 


kingdom, and at the same time relinquished his irre- 
guiarities with regard to'women, and retired with his 
queen to the castle of Amboise, Here, in 1498, he 
acckientally struck his head against the va of a door, 
which brought on a fit of apoplexy, of which he died 


character of in a few hours, in the 15th year of his reign, and 28th 


Chaska. 


Loais XII. 
A.D. 1498. 


The French D’Aubigny, and John Trev 


again in- 
vade luly, 


of his age. His character is admirably drawn by Co- 
mines: “ He was a man of little person, and slender 
understanding ; but so sweet in his disposition, that it was 
impossible to find a better temper. His widow, Anne of 
Brittany, was inconsolable ; and two of his domestics 
are said to have died of grief for the loss of their mas- 
ter. One of the consequences of the invasion of Italy 
by the French, in ‘this reign, is said to have been the 
introduction, among the latter, of a more refined and 
delicate cookery. Before this period, French cookery 
was distinguished by such a profusion, that their kings, 
more than once, were under the necessity of issuing 
edicts on the subj 

In Charles VIII. ended the direct line of the house 
of Valois; the crown on his death descended to Louis 
Duke of Orleans, grandson to the first Duke of Or- 
leans. He was 36 years of age when he’ became king: 
his disposition and temper were excellent ; and he was 
by no means destitute either of prudence or experience: 
He soon discovered that he was resolved to forgive the 
indignities he might have suffered before he came to the 
throne, remarking, with true magnanimity, that it was 
not for the king of France to revenge the quarrels of 
the Duke of Orleans. Louis the XII. (for so he was 
called) married a daughter of Louis XI.; a princess de- 
formed in her m, and incapable of bearing chil- 
dren, but of excellent qualities. As, however, it was 
on many accounts desirable that he should have an 
heir to the throne, he procured a divorce from the Pope, 
and married Anne of Bretagne, widow of his prede- 
cessor, Soon after this marriage, he turned his thoughts 
to the claims which his family had to the duchy of 
Milan. Sforza, anticipating Louis’ intentions, had made 
every preparation to defend his dukedom. He repaired 
all the fortifications, augmented his garrisons, and re- 
plenished his magazines; but he wanted the support 
and good opinions of his own subjects; and he had 
too much reason ‘to apprehend, that whenever Louis 
should appear in Italy, they would desert him. The 
republic of Venice also, to whom some part of the Mi- 
lanese territcry lay very convenient, were temp 
unite with Louis, in the hope, or on the conditi 
sharing in his conquests. Maximilian, who before had 
opposed the French in their invasion of Italy, was now 
on good terms with Louis; so that Sforza had every 
cause for despondency. Louis himself was persuaded 
not to lead his army in person ; but to give the com- 
mand to Louis of Luxemburgh, Robert Stuart, Lord 
eo, a native of Milan. 
The French army amounted to $0,000 excellent troops: 
with these, the assistance of the Venetians, and the dis- 
affection of the Milanese to Sforza, success beyond ex- 
pectation was accomplished. Even the castle of Milan 
was given up. As soon as the king of France was in- 
formed of these successes, he hastened to cross the 
Alps, and entered the capital of his newly acquired 
territories. He continued three months in Milan, du- 
ring which period he gave 
ling those who had been banished. by Sforza, remit- 
ting a fourth of the imposts, and establishing a court 
of justice. But, either from the natural fickleness of 
the Italians, from their dislike.of the dominion -of a 
foreigner, and that foreigner a Frenchman, or from 


t satisfaction, by recal-~ 


FRANCE. 


some other cause, scarcely had Louis reached Fra 
when Sforza, who had retired to Inspruck, ret 
and found the gates of the principal cities of 

lanese at his approach, Even Milan itself re- 
ceived him. But Sor be merce eae! hoy eae dl He 
had in his a ’ w troops: these conspired i 
against hiss, “and delivered him up to the French, b 
whom he was sent to Lyons, where Louis then resid 


he died after a captivity of ten years. 4 


he could not ex to conquer without assistance ; 
therefore agreed to divide it with Ferdinand of Arra- 
gon: the city of Naples and the northern half were to 
be the portion of Louis. He also entered into a treaty 
with Pope Alexander VI.; but the simplicity and ho- 
nour of the French monarch were no match either for 
Ferdinand or Alexander. The confederates indeed were 
successful. The King of Naples fled from his own ter- 
ritories ; and distru Ferdinand, who had betrayed 
him, after having actually concluded a of al- 
liance with him, he threw himself on the liberality of 
Louis, who assigned him an asylum in Anjou, with a 
pension of 30,000 crowns. But scarcely was the con- 
quest of Naples atchieved, when Louis and Ferdinand 
turned their arms against each other: the 

began the quarrel, but the French were by no means 
slow in revenging the insult offered them, and Louis 
in a short time was so successful against his new ene- 
mies, that he might have added Ferdinand’s portion of 
Naples to his own, had he not been"persuaded to a re- 
concilement of their differences: In 1503, Philip, son 
of the Emperor Maximilian, who had married the - 
ter of Ferdinand, passing h France, had an in- 
terview with Louis, at which he concluded a 


with him in the name of the King of Spain, who had 


granted him full powers for that purpose. By this 
treaty, among other conditions, the two monarchs were 


bound to a cessation of arms, and the provinces of 


Naples originally ceded, were to be teed to each. 
As soon as the treaty was concluded, it was announced 
to the commanders of the French and ish troops 
in Italy. The French commander immediately offered 
to retire with his troops, but Gonsalvo, who command- 
ed the Spaniards, under the pretext that fey had 
acted without powers from Ferdinand , Stated his deter- 
mination to wait for further instructions. In the mean 
time he was reinforced by 10,000 Germans sent by 
Maximilian; and receiving information that Louis was 
likely to be deserted by his allies, the Pope and the Ve- 
netians, and that 4000 French troops which had been 
intended for their army in Naples were disbanded, 
under the idea of peace, he was influenced by these 
circumstances to attack the French general. 


quisition of the whole of Naples, with the exception of 
a few places. As soon as Philip was informed of this 
treacherous behaviour, considering his own character 
and honour as deeply concerned, he returned instantly 
to France, and placed himself in the power of the 
French monarch, He also remonstrated strongly with 
Ferdinand; hisremonstrancesyhowever, were of no effect. 
Ferdinand preferred power to reputation; ~ 
5 


i 
Basia 9 
“ ad - , 


to Milan, induced 
him to extend his views to Naples: but this kingdom to Neen 


he re- 7 
_ sult of the battle of Cerignoles was the utter defeat of tnesme 
the French, the death of their commander, and the ac- niards. 


we ~ Argos yy 


__ History. 
. , 


- yed immediately to. crush the insurgen 
he assembled 


FRANCE. 


4 


still: eive Louis, he publicly offered to restore Na- 
ples to its rightful sovereign, while at the same time he 
sent orders to. use every endeavour tovexpel the French. 
These orders were obeyed, and were successful. Louis 


at first took this treacherous conduct of Ferdinand very 


coolly ; but soon afterwards he changed his feelings and 
his determination. He assembled three large armies, 
for the purpose of invading Arragon on every side, while, 
at the same time, a considerable fleet was fitted out, to 
insult the coasts of Catalonia and Valencia, and to inter- 
cept the communication between Spain and Naples. But 
a variety of unforeseen and untoward circumstances dis- 
appointed the hopes and the projects of Louis, while he 
himself was attacked by a fever that threatened his life. 
As soon as he recovered, A. D. 1505, he diligently ap- 
plied himself to terminate a war, which had proved so 
unfortunate; and a treaty was at length concluded, ac- 
cording to which, the Neapolitan nobility, who had been 
the ad of Louis, and on that account had been 
ienreped:Py the Spanish commander, were to be re- 


Soon after this treaty, the states-general were assem- 
bled at Tours. One of their first acts was to bestow on 
Louis the title of Father of his people. Their next was 
to repair a fault that their sovereign had committed. He 
had promised his eldest da in marriage to Charles 
of Austria, afterwards so well known under the name of 
Charles V. and along. with her part of the French terri- 
tories. To this promise, the assembly objected most 
strongly, urging that the king had no right to give aw: 

any portion of the French territory. _ Influenced by their 
his ae poused ie rp pawn hy rh 
i ter es rancis, Count 

heir apparent of the throne. : ; 
_In 1507, the city of Genoa, which was then. depen- 
dent on Milan, revolted from the French. Louis resol- 
ts; and for this 
purpose, a numerous and formidable army, 
forced the passes which the Genoese had occupied, and 
stormed their entrenchments. He then entered Genoa 
in triumph. But in the midst of his success, his natural 
mildness of temper was conspicuous, for he put to death 
only two of the insurgents, and levied a fine upon the 


At this period, no monarchy in Europe was more 
proud than the republic of Venice 3 while their wealth, 
acquired by commerce, excited the envy and jealousy of 

their neighbours. Pope Julius Il, in particular, re- 
ed this state with peculiar enmity ; and influenced 
this motive, he laid the foundation of the famous 
of Cambray. This league was composed of the 
the Emperor, the King of France, and the King of 

was induced to join in it, from the belief 
Venetians had contributed to his loss of the king- 
Naples ; but true policy should have kept under 
motive for going to war with the Venetians, as 
ere the, ont setae ages Alpe, on whose al- 

i he could depend. Pope contented himself 
ith issuing his anathemas against Venice; and after- 
repenting of the alliance which he 
to na peace with the V, if they would 


E 


eee 


F 


SEFELTE 
220 


He 


Louis seemed most in earnest the con : 
he assembled a large army, and imself at the head 
of it. crossed the Alps ; those barriers which 


v 


554 


had seldom been passed without calamity, by the sove- 
reigns of France. The valour of his troops, animated by 
the example of their monarch, triumphed over every ob- 
stacle. In the battle of Ghiarrada, the Venetians were 
defeated with the loss of 80600 men, 
active for his own benefit ; immediately seizing all the 
towns which the republic possessed in the ecclesias- 
tical territories. _ Ferdinand, on his part, reannexed Ca- 
labria to his Neapolitan dominions. At the same time, 
the city of Venice itself was threatened by the armies of 
Maximilian and Louis ; and the absolute ruin of the re« 
public seemed near at hand, when the confederates began 
to quarrel with each other. The senate of Venice lost 


‘no time in profiting by this circumstance, and by well- 


termed concessions to Ferdinand and the Pope, dissolved 
the confederacy. 

Julius II, now projected a more arduous and extensive 
undertaking than the humiliation or conquest of the re- 
public of Venice,—he hoped, by his efforts, to expel every 
foreign power from Italy; and his first efforts were direc- 
ted against the French, against whom he declared war, 
invading the duchy of Ferrara, and laying siege to Mi- 
randola. At first the King of France was disposed to be- 


History, 
—_—— 


The Pope now was ° 


hold with contempt these efforts of the Pope. Perhaps The French 


he was retrained by religious feelings towards the head ?¥ 


ade the 
man 


of the church ; but at length, A. D. 1511, he ordered his Cenc. 


troops to repel the invasion of Julius, and even to pene- 
netrate into the Roman territories, Julius was soon un- 
der the necessity of retracing his steps, when the French 


A.D, 1511, 


general was suddenly seized with a mortal distemper, . 


which gave Julius a temporary respite and advantage; but: 

another commander haying been appointed, he was again 

pressed so closely, that he was under well-grounded ap- 

ensions, that it was the intention of Louis to depose 

im from his holy dignity. To this extremity the French 

monareh might probably have pushed him, had not his 
queen Nonencedon and saved his Holiness. 

Julius, in return for this clemency, displayed only in- 
creased bitterness and enmity against France, which he 
hoped to render efficient, by forming a new confederacy, 
called the Holy League. The principal parties of this con- 
federacy against France, were Ferdinand, the Swiss, end 
the Venetians. At first their armies were successful ; but 
the valour and skill of Gaston de Foix, a name celebra- 

ong heroes, retrieved the affairs of France. This 
1, after relieving Bologna, and Brescia, and de- 
eating the Venetians with a very inferior force, laid 


Holy 
League, 


siege to Ravenna with the professed object of compelling Battle of 
or inducing the army of the confederates to give him Ravenna. 


battle. The two armies were nearly equal in numbers, 
being about 20,000 each. The battle was long and ob- 
stinate. The French were victorious, but their victory 
cost them the life of Gaston, The day was already 
gained, when he received information that a body of 
4000 Spaniards still maintained their ground : anxious 
to render his victory complete, he rushed forward to the 
charge, with about 20 gentlemen ; his horse was killed 
under him, and he himself, after having fought with the 


greatest. courage, fell, pierced with wounds. The death Death of 
of this hero was a fatal blow to the French, for they Gaston de 


soon. afterwards lost all the places, which they possessed 
in Italy ; their generals did not with each other ; 
the king was without money; the confederates were 
much superior ; and there was no alternative left, but to 
evacuate the country. f 

Louis now, A, D, 1513, was threatened with a confe- 


OLX, 


556 

Mistery. deracy similar to that which had so lately humbled Ve- 
he om nice. The Pope, Leo X. was to Sergundy! the King 
eset » Cham ; the Swiss, indy ; 
with a of England, Piewly ; and the King of Spain, Guienne 
and Languedoc, But the elements of this confederacy 
were too discordant long to hang together : the Pope was 
not fond of war; the emperor ed subsidies, but 
neglected to supply an army ; and Ferdinand looked to 
his more immediate —- as well vr. a an ~~ sd 
terprise, in seizing on the kingdom of Navarre. 
the coulidarates, Hharelat Henry, King of England, was 
the only formidable one that remained ; and he was eager 
after : this he obtained at the battle of Spurs. But 
the Swiss, who had entered Dauphiné, having retreated, 
and the rest of the allies, as we have mentioned, havin 
deserted the cause, the King of England, on the piers 
of winter, re-embarked for his own country. 

Anne of Bretagne died the following year, 1514, and 
Louis, in the hope of having an heir, and in order to 
“Barrics the destroy effectually the confederacy against him, married 
sister of the the sister of the King of England. Louis was much old- 
ae. be er than his wife; this he forgot; and in three months 
me ey after his nuptials, he was seized with a violent disorder, 
which carried him off. In him expired the older branch 
of the house of Orleans, and the crown of France passed 
to that of Angouleme. 

The taxes, which had been lessened by Charles VIIL, 
were still further diminished by Louis, while, at the same 
time, by a judicious mode of levying and collecting them, 
he rendered those which were continued less irksome 
and unpopular. Even in the midst of his Italian wars, 
he laid on no new burdens. It is true, he extended and 
systematized the practice of disposing of offices for money, 
but he carefully excepted the judicial functions from this 
danger and disgrace ; they were always filled by men 
distinguished for their intelligence and virtue. The par- 
liament of Paris not being adequate to the discharge of 
its duties, since it had been made sedentary, Philip the 
Fair and his successors had instituted several other par- 
liaments. Louis XII. still further increased their num- 
ber, and he issued an edict, by which he gave them autho- 
rity to recal him to the fundamental laws of the state, if 
ever he discovered a disposition to evade or abrogate 
them ;—a proof this of his wish to govern according to 
law, but no surety of the object which he had in View. 
It is said that he always kept two lists, one of the places 
and favours which he had to bestow, the other of the 
persons in each province most fit to fill or enjoy them ; 
and on such alone they were conferred. This monarch 
made a wise, just, and humane distinction between those 
who offended him in his private character, and those who 
offended him as the sovereign of France: the last he 
punished, because he was of opinion that he thus best 
secured the safety and prosperity of the state ; the for- 
mer he suffered to pass unpunished. Perhaps in no 
part of his conduct did he display more good sense, or 
better consult the welfare of his subjects, than in the 
choice of his ministers ; and in the case of the Cardinal 
Amboise, he even seems to have had the merit, or the 
talent, of making the same man, under him, the instru- 
ment of happiness, who, under another, would probably 
have been the instrument of oppression and misery, 
Francis I. = A's soon as it was ascertained that the widow of Louis 
AD, 151% NTT, was not t, Francis, Count of ileme, 

and Duke of Valois, took the title of king. He was at 
this time 21 years of age, full of spirit and confidence, 


- 


FRANCE. 


fond of war and glory, and disposed, as well as enabled, 
from the circumstances in which he was placed, to give “-Y—~ 
way to that - ity. Before he ascended the throne, : 
he married Claude, the daughter of the late monarch, by 
Anne of Bretagne. Mary the widow of Louis bestowed 
her hand on Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. ' 
The first and darling object of the new 
the recovery of the Milanese ; and he resolved ‘to profit 
by the preparations which had been made by his 
cessor ; but as money was still wanting, Francis, by the 
advice of his lor Duprat, not’ only restored the 
taxes which Louis had abolished, but” the offices 
of the crown to sale, and endeavouréd to augment his 
treasures, by means, if possible, still more unjust, impo- 
litic, and arbitrary. As soon as he deemed ‘himself 
uite prepared for the conquest, he openly avowed his 
deterunitation to march against Milan. As his designs 
had been suspected, a confed had been formed as 
gainst him, consisting of Maximilian, Ferdinand of Ars 
ragon, Leo X., Sforza, and the Swiss. But the chas 
racter of Francis was of such a cast, that the knowledge 
of this confederacy, instead of leading him to drop or A 
suspend his designs, only prompted him to their more J 
speedy and resolute execution. As the Swiss guarded ‘ 
the Alps, it was necessary either to force the passes of 
the mountains, or to elude the vi ce of their 
tors. Francis chose the latter. ‘ His soldiers, into whom 
he had inspired his own zeal and ardour, cut new roads; 
and his forces were in Italy, before his opponents 
that he had disentangled himself from the Alps. 
first enemy which the forces of Francis encountered, were 


the papal troops, which were i , and ys 

Si hey aghh ‘Shcadngiel tes Oot tees oe he BO n 

these the French poured down, so t and with 

80 much violence, that they were speedily and dis- Defeats the 
comfited. Hitherto Francis had 1 ed in his own Pspal ~ 
kingdom ; but as soon as he learnt’ of this be or 


hastened to put himself at the head of his armies, leaving 
his mother, Louisa of Savoy, t during his absence, 
As soon as Francis assumed the command, he enter- 
ed the Milanese, and pressed forward to its capital, For 
its ea and defence, only the Swiss troops were 
repared ; they were encam about a league from the 
city, at a be called Mari o. Francis knew that 
they were brave ; but lie also suspected that they might 
be allured to withdraw from their post. His suspicions 
were not unfounded. nk offer of lene crowns made 
as impression on them, an were ri : 
to yield Milan up to the French king, when t ween ; 
joined by 10,000 of their own countrymen. These troops - : 
were not di to desert the cause in which they were — 
embarked, and Francis found, that if Milan were to be } 
his, the Swiss must be fought and conquered. ‘ } 
The Swiss, probably ashamed of having listened to Battle of 
the offers of Francis, and Papen to wipe off their dis- Marig ae / 
grace, ht with more than their usual bra’ and per- September, — 
Crain The battle began about four in tie aher: a 
noon, in the month of September 1515, and three hours 
after dark, the combatants, fatigued with their exertions, h 
separated, but only to renew the contest, if possible, with 


more valour and animosity next aoue a For some 
time the issue was dubious, for the Swiss, though inferior 
to the French, ht only on that account more obsti- 
nately: At last they were obliged to give way; 10,000 
of them perished on the field of battle ; the rest fled, but 
in their flight they remembered’ their — and no 7 


History. 


. disorder or 
—\— also suffered 
. killed and 


ince te 
Lyons. 


% FRANCE. 


confusion was visible. The French army 
severely, 6000 of their troops having been 

lled and wounded. On this occasion Francis display- 
ed the valour of a brave man; Charles of Bourbon, his 
constable, the wisdom and experience of a t com- 
mander :' to him the success of the battle of Marignano 
' The Swiss were now tired of a contest, in the issue 
of which they had no immediate concern ; and their army 
was recalled. Sforza, therefore, was left to defend his 
territories by his own forces alone. His cause was hope- 
less ; but he sought to prolong his fate, by retiring into 
the castle of Milan. The French army, however, full 
of ardour, flushed with victory, and guided: by the cool- 
ness and skill of the Constable, soon compelled Sforza 
fo surrender the castle, on the condition that he should 
enjoy a retreat and a pension in France. 


acted in conformity with this policy. He sought an in- 
terview with Francis, whom he received with a flattery 
which he knew would find its way to the feelings of the 
French monarch. After this interview, Francis return- 
ed to Lyons. 

Had not Francis been more ardent than penetrating, 


he would not have forsaken Italy at this moment; but 
he unife ed, through his whole life, qualities 
and which prompted him to enterprise, but for- 

success of his plans. 


Among the confederates against him was Ferdinand of 
Soon’ after the return of Francis to his own 
om, this monarch died. He had always opposed 
of the French against Naples; his death, 

doligun which, tle i ec sal chee 

igns, which, it is probable, were sti i 

by Francis. At any rate, a rival was removed, whose 
dread. 
Ferdinand, though his successor 
; and by this want of foresight— 
for history compels us to his conduct to any other 
motive but a scrupulous regard to justice—not that Fran- 
¢is was more lax in this respect than the other sovereigns 
of his age,—he suffered a rival to rise up in the fulness 
of his strength, still more formidable than the one from 
whom death had just freed him. The successor of Fer- 
dinand was Charles V.; and under him were now united 
a most formidable kingdom in the Old World, and terri- 
tories in the New, which promised an inexhaustible source 


_ In the mean time, the Emperor Maximilian had in- 
vaded the Milanese with an army of 40,000 men; but 
the Constable Bourbon, with an inferior force, obliged 
him to retire. Francis also made an attempt to rescue 
Navarre from Spain, and to reinstate on its throne its 
cocoa, a ge but in th gdpey baa 
principally by Sagacity ar ence of Cardinal 
Ximenes, who at that Emme riled ah 
Charles V., at his accession to the throne of Ferdi- 
‘nand, was disposed to continue the war with Francis, 
especially on the side of Flanders, where he was when 
Ferdinand died; but the Flemin were averse to a war, 
ae ther to the los oftheir commerce Fran- 
on his side, was desirous of securing his conquests 
—" circumstances, a treaty of peace 


S, 


557 


was easily and speedily concluded at Noyon between tha History: 


ee 


two monarchs. By this treaty, Francis was to give in 
marriage to Charles his eldest daughter, and with her re- 


Peace be- 


tween Fran- 


sign all his pretensions to the throne of Naples. Charles, cis and 
till the marriage took place, was to pay 100,000 crowns Charles V- 


a year to the King of France, in consideration of his being 
already in possession of Naples ; and Francis was left at 
liberty tosupport the heirs of the King of Navarre, provided 
they could not make out their claim to the satisfaction of 
Charles. Peace was thus restored for a short time ;\ but 
in 1519, the Emperor Maximilian expired; and it was 
easy to foresee, that the election of a successor would 
give rise to hostilities. The probability of this event was 
still further increased, when it was known that Charles 


and Francis were competitors for the imperial dignity. pa aap 
r the im- 


They had indeed, from the first, agreed to carry on the 


competition with emulation, but without enmity ; and pity, 


Francis, with his natural and characteristic vivacity and 
frankness, declared to Charles, «« We are both suitors to 
the same mistress ; the more fortunate will win her, but 
the other must remain contented.” It was, however, not 
to be expected that the loser would be:contented. The 
prize was of infinitely too great value to be’ sought for 
and lost with quiet feelings. As the sovereignty at which 
they aimed could be obtained only by means of the‘elec- 
tors, money and influence, not arms, were to decide to 
whom it was to fall. Francis was profuse in his expen- 
diture of money on this occasion, but his influence was 
small. The Germans were partial to the house of Aus- 
tria; and the voice of Frederic of Saxony decided the 


dig- 


contest. Charles was raised'to the imperial dignity, and Charles ob- 
Francis retired disappointed, and rankling after revenge. tains it. 


Influenced by these feelings, he sought and obtained the 
alliance of teas of England ; but Henry was ‘of too 
fickle a character to be long faithful to his promises. 
Charles knew this, and a very short time saw the emperor 
and Henry united. Francis next turned his thoughts to- 
wards the Pope, who, hoping to serve his own interest, 
by employing one monarch to expel the other from Italy, 
gre encouragement to the expectations and wishes of 
rancis. By the German constitution, the kings of Na- 
ples were for ever excluded from the imperial dignity. 
According to this regulation, Charles ought not to have 
been elected emperor ; but as his election had taken place, 
Tapered Francis declared that he had forfeited his right 
aples. This was one cause for war ; and another was 

not wanting: The emperor, as king of Spain, refused 
‘to do justice to the heirs of the king of Navarre ; and in 
this event, by the treaty of Noyon, Francis was at lie 


berty to support them. The kingdom of Navarre’re- The French 
ceived the French with open arms, Charles was taken invade Na- 


unprepared ; his forces were employed in‘ quelling some Y*'T¢ 


commotions which had arisen in Spain ; and Navarre 
seemed on the point of being completely conquered, 
when it was saved to Charles by the rashness of the 
French general, who, before he had completed the con- 
quest, entered Catalonia, whence he was driven with 
disgrace, and his army afterwards defeated, and himself 
taken prisoner. As this war had been carried on by 
Francis in the name of Henry D’Albret, who claimed 
the kingdom of Navarre, it did not immediately occa- 
sion “hostilities between Francis and Charles. In the 
mean time, the former was nearly deprived of his life by 
an accident. While he was en in the diversion of 
attacking with snow-balls the house of the Count de Pol, 
he was wounded in the head by a torch. For o long 


558 FRANCE. 


Histery. time he was seriously ill; and, during the cure of his jealousy of the king with regard to the Constable 

=-— ‘wound, it was doomed neseseary t0 cut of bis hair, which bony ne Leena This nobleman, on 
he never would permit to grow again, but introduced the _ part, could not but indignant at the treatment 
fashion of wearing it short. ; . 

aed the As soon as he was sufficiently recovered, he prepared cially at the famous battle of Marignano, had never 

Lew Coum- for hostilities; and, taking the field with a numerous requited; on the ane the king, in more 

__ army, spread terror through the Low Countries. Charles, instance, had purposely slighted him, © Perhaps, 
on his part, was not slow in meeting his an ist; and ver, the feelings which this conduct on the part of 
near Valenciennes, the two monarchs, at head of king produced, would not have stirred up the Constable 
their respective forces, were opposed to each other. A to rebellion, had it not been for another : 
thick fog at this time prevailed, and the Constable Bour- The mother of Francis, forgetting her ge fell in love 
bon entreated his sovereign to take advantage of it, and with him. She offered him e 
commence the attack. Francis, however, jealous of the Her love was thus converted into the most hatred |. 
military reputation of the Constable, refused to listen to and revenge. A law-suit was commenced him a 


: 

z 

& 

z 

e1ag 

A 

Hi 
eficee. 


Hi 


his advice, and even manifested his jealousy, by bestow- for the estates, which he held in right of his deceased 
ing the command of the van, to which the Constable, by wife. The issue was such as might be ageiels 
virtue of his office, had an undoubted right, a myo justly ves rp no} Me pe the pr i 
D'Alencon, the first prince of the blood. From this found himself depri greatest part of his proper- 
pa the Constable's dislike of Francis may naturally ty. In this state, he began or renewed his intrigues with 
be deted. Henry and Charles, who gladly embraced his alliance, 
Nothing of consequence occurred in the Netherlands ; and formed an actual treaty with him, according to which 
but Charles, who trusted as much, or more, to his in- ‘the conquest of France was projected, and if it were ef- 
trigues as to his army, contrived to engage Henry VIII. fected, Provence and Dauphine were to be assigned to 
the Pope on his side. By the treaty entered into by the constable, with the title of King. In furtherance of 
them, it was agreed, that Pope and the Emperor this plan, the English monarch was to invade. Picardy; 
should unite their forces, for the purpose of driving the the emperor was to enter France by the Pyrenees; and newt 
French from the Milanese, which was to be restored to Bourbon was to penetrate with an army of Germans into nN 
Francisco Sforza; that Parma and Placentia should be Burgundy, where he expected to be joined by his nume- 
restored to the Pope, whom the Emperor should also as- ous and powerful adherents... The period for carrying 
sist in conquering Ferrara. Henry, on his part, agreed these enterprises into execution was fixed; as soon as 
to invade France on the side of Picardy with 40,000 Francis had crossed the Alps, the confederates were to 
men, and to bestow on Charles his only daughter, the put their respective armies into motion. waar 
Princess Mary. As soon as Francis was informed of this iracy, he which de- 
As soon as Francis was apprised of the storm which attempted to seize Bourbon; but he escaped, and fled’ in- apg 
threatened his Italian dominions, he prepared for their to Italy. Not deeming it prudent’ to leave his kingdom 
defence ; but as his forces were either employed in the at this juncture, he entrusted the command of the army 
Low Countries, or assembling on the frontiers of Spain, destined for the invasion of Italy to Admiral Bonnivet, 
he was obliged to hire a body of men from the Swiss. who was totally unfit for his station. The general of the 
For this purpose, he raised a large sum of money, which, Pope, however, being much inferior in. force, was com- 
however, his mother intercepted ; and, in consequence pelled toretire. The greatest part of the duchy of Mi- 
of the Swiss troops not receiving their pay, they retired lan submitted to the arms of France; and had Bonnivet 
Francis from the standard of Francis. At this juncture, Milin known how to act, Milan itself must have fallen. But: 
meh was betrayed to the general of the Pope; the other ci- he delayed attacking it till it was too late; the winter. 
sae” ties of the duchy followed its example; and the castle set in, and Bonnivet was obliged to protect his troops 
of Milan, with a few inconsiderable forts, alone remain- from its inclemency in quarters, In Burgundy and Gui- 
ed to Francis. This great success, however, was if@i- enne, the success of Francis was more complete; the 
rectly the cause of the dissolution of the confederacy; Spaniards and Germans were repulsed. Paris, however, 
for ae X. received the news with such transports of was threatened by the angiah, who, having landed in 
joy, as brought on a fever and occasioned his death. He Picardy, advanced to within 11 of the capital. 
had kept alive the confederacy, which expired with him. their career was, however, soon by the Duke of 
But Francis was still unable to reconquer his territories in Vendome ; and they were driven out of the French terri« 
the Milanese ; and in 1522, Francisco Sforza was re- tories with disgrace. . ; ais al 
stored to the whole of his paternal dominions. At the commencement of the next. campaign, the af- 
The loss of the Milanese was not the only misfortune fairs of Francis in Italy wore a very unfavourable aspect. 
which assailed Francis at this time. Genoa expelled the A numerous army of the allies threatened that part of 
French troops, and opened her gates to the army of the Milanese which the French had conquered; and Bon- 
Charles. Henry of England openly declared war; and nivet was quite unable to contend, either with the supe- 
: : : : 


of the invaders, by adhering to the politic plan of not his entrenched camp, and crossing the river. During 
Sgiion s narthas ot kot the nglish and Flemings were this latter movement, he received a wound in his arm, 
Resolves to COmpelied to retreat. As soon as Francis saw his which obliged him to quit the field. ous 
march into territories were secure on the side of Flanders, he resol- Chevalier Bayard was entrusted with the command du- 
the Mi- ved to march himself into the Milanese. Before, how- ring the absence of Bonnivet. He animated the cavalry 

ever, be could put this plan into execution, he was alarm- by his presence and example, to withstand the whole of 
a conspiracy formed against him at home, The the enemy's troops; but in this ae 


H 


A.D, 1524, 


FRANCE. 


immediately perceived to be mortal. 
of sitting on horseback, he was 
ground, with his face towards the enemy, 

and his eyes fixed on the of his sword, which he 
instead of a cross. In this posture, he address- 
ed his prayers to God, and 


where he lay, and his sorrow at his fate— 
“ Grieve not for me (said the hero), I die, as I lived, 
true tomy king; but I pity you, who fight against 
your king, your country, and your oath !” 

In consequence of retreat of Bonnivet, which 
was continued into France, the whole of Italy was 
wrested from his master. The Cardinal Bourbon, eager 


who advised or commanded him to lay siege to Mar- 
seilles. In this siege, forty days were unprofitably 
consumed. The King of France advanced to its de- 
fence, and Bourbon retired into Italy. Francis, again 
elated by his success, and untaught by all the reverses 
which his as well as himself, had suffered 
in their attempts against Italy, resolved to enter that 
country, and endeavour to regain the Milanese. From 
this attempt he was in vain dissuaded by the most pru- 
donkee eenennrs Se anges as well as by his 
mother. He persevered, success seemed to sanc- 
tion his design. The city of Milan opened its gates; 
the army of fled ; but Francis did not improve 
his successes, He consumed the precious time in be- 
sieging Pavia, when he ought to have pursued and at- 

the enemy in the moment of their consterna- 
tion and flight. He was still further elated by the Pope 
and the republic of Florence Sonning his adversary, 
and uniting themselves to his cause. It seemed to him 
as if the period were at come, at which it was 
decreed the French should be universally and per- 
manently successful in Italy. Regarding the Milanese 
as secure, he dispatched men into Naples, while 
he himself forward the siege of Pavia. This 
city; defended with the utmost try, must 
have fallen, as it was reduced to the last extremity, 
when an imperial army advanced to its relief. 

The battle of Pavia decided the fate of that city and 
of Francis. Lannoy and» Pescara, the generals who 
advanced to its relief, were reinforced by 12,000 Ger- 
mans, dispatched by Bourbon. Still Francis would not 
haye been unfortunate, had he either raised the siege, 
or continued in his intrenchments ; but a false shame 
Sieg pom pina ing the first measure, and the 
bei and rash advice Papel fet i induced him to leave 

agag ss heer position, battle to his adver- 
saries. was what they wished for, but hardly ex- 
pected. Even after the imperialists had their adversary 
meen circumstances most srvumble to themselves, 

ir success was extremely doubtful; and, in all pro- 
bability, Francis would have witnessed a drawn and in- 
decisive battle, or at least would not have suffered such 
a severe and fatal loss, had it not been for the treachery 
of part of his own army. In the midst of the 
ment, the Duke of Alengon, with the ek 
immediate command, that formed part of the left win 
went over to the enemy. ‘Abeut.(the duane: tite, the 
garrison of Pavia sallied out on the rear of the French ; 
and the cavalry of the latter, unable to withstand the 
imperial i gave way. Under these circumstances, 


559 


notwithstanding the exhortations, the example, and 
the exertions of Francis, the rout became general. The 
king was himself wounded, and thrown from 
yet he defended himself bravely, till at length, ex- 
hausted by — and his wounds, he was under the 
necessity of delivering his sword to Lannoy. On the 


several day after the battle, Francis was conducted to a strong 


castle near Cremona, and committed to the charge of 
an officer of great vigilance and integrity. 

As soon as the regent Louisa was acquainted with 
the disastrous battle of Pavia, by a letter from her son, 
containing these words, ‘ Madam, all is lost except our 
honour,” she put forth all her talents, which had hi- 
therto been expended on useless or dangerous objects, 
towards the safety of the kingdom; and that it was 
saved in this hour of unparalleled and imminent dan-~ 
ger, must be ascribed to her exertions and talents. She 
immediately assembled the nobles at Lyons ; collected 
the remains of the army, and recruited it so as to render 
it fit again to take the field; levied new troops; and, 
above all, endeavoured to conciliate the King of Eng- 
land. Henry had long been jealous, or afraid of Charles ; 
and Wolsey had not forgotten the promises of the papal 
dignity, with which the emperor had deceived him. 
But it was evident, that whatever steps the King of 
England might be induced to take, immediate measures 
on the part of France itself were indispensably neces 
sary ; and when the storm had passed away for a little 
time, it was discovered that it was not in the power of 
the Imperialists to profit so much the victory of 
Pavia ab had lagi and tnahe had teended: 
Lannoy found himself under the necessity of disband- 
ing the t part of his army for want of money. 
The character of Charles in a great measure saved 
France ; for, instead of pursuing his advantages by the 
same means by which he had acquired them ; instead 
of a ting his armies and pushing his conquests 
into France,—he scr We to gain “ayo his ro om 
captive, by intrigue negociation; what y 
could have arcand force. But Francis indi tly 
a the base and dishonourable terms, and oe a 

, on the occasion, such spirit, that Lannoy thoug 
it more prudent to send him into Spain, for the 
of a interview between him and Charles. But 
this interview, at first, was productive of no effect. 
Charles behaved to him with so much duplicity, and 
evidently endeavoured to extort from him such disho- 
nourable terms, that Francis, in despair, entrusted to 
his sister, the Duchess of Alencon,, a deed, by which 
he resigned his kingdom to the Dauphin. is cir- 
cumstance at last induced Charles to behave with more 

nness and honour towards his captive. He was also 
threatened with a confederacy against him, which had 
for its objects to liberate Francis, and to humble and 
curtail the power of his conqueror. By the treaty of 
Madrid, Francis regained his liberty, and, as the price 
of it, restored Burgundy to the emperor in full sove- 
reignty, as well as Artois and Flanders. As hostages 
for the regular and honourable fulfilment of these con- 
ditions, Francis gave his two eldest sons. In order to 


History. 
—_— 


his horse ; Francis te 


? ken prison- 


Vigorous 
and wise 


conduct of 


the Regent. 


Behaviour 
of Charles 
to his cap- 
tive, 


who reco- 
vers his li- 
berty on 
certain con- 


render the union between him and the emperor more ditions, 


binding and lasting, he was to marry the 8 sis- 
ter, the queen-dowager of Portugal, and to. cause all 
the articles to be ratified and registered by the states. 
Even these terms did not satisfy the em ; for, sus- 
picious of the integrity of Francis, he bound him by 
an oath to return as a prisoner into Spain, if, within a 
limited time, all the stipulations were not fulfilled. It 
was not indeed probable, that the French sovereign 


560 


Hisery. would himself be willing to execute such stipulations 
—y— or, if he were, that hie states would permit the king- 


ahich be 
vades 


dom to be so dishonoured ; and, even while he was yet 
at Madrid, he assembled the few counsellors in whom 
he could confide, and before them solemnly Dylan 
against a treaty which had been extorted him, 
and which he therefore deemed null and void. The 
articles, however, were ratified in France, as, till that 
ratification arrived at Madrid, eg was not to be e 
‘liberty to depart ; but, as soon as Francis passed 
boundaries between France and Spain, he mounted his 
horse, waved his hand over his head, and joyfully ex- 
claimed several times, “‘ ] am yet a king!” 

Scarcely had he reached Paris, before he disavowed 
the principal article of the treaty of Madrid, that by 
which he agreed to cede the province of Burgundy to 
Charles ; but, in order to colour and excuse this infrac- 
tion of the treaty, the deputies of that province waited 
on the king, in the presence of the ambassadors from 
Charles, and represented, that no sovereign could alie- 
nate their country from the crown, or transfer it to ano- 
ther, without their consent ; and that, therefore, as 
Frantis had done that, which he had no right or autho- 
rity to do, the cession of Burgundy must be looked 
upon as void. Francis assented to these arguments ; 
but at the same time he offered in lieu of Burgundy, to 
pay the emperor two imillions of crowns. Charles, as 
might be expected, rejected the proposal ; and resolved 
to have recourse to arms, for the purpose of compelling 
his adversary to fulfil the treaty of Madrid. 

But while the fate of Francis had excited thepity,—the 
ambition and power of Charles had roused the jealousy, 
or the apprehensions of the other European sovereigns. 
The Pope, the republic of Venice, and the Duke of 
Milan, entered into the confederacy, of which, under 
the appellation of the Holy League, Henry King of 
England was declared the head and the protector. 
Scarcely, however, was this confederacy formed A. D. 


‘Phe Cardi- 1527, when its dissolution appeared at hand: The Mi- 


nal Bour- 
ben march. 


against 
Rome. S. 
A.D, 1527. had antici 


lanese, indeed, had been over-run by the Constable 
Bourbon ; but his soldiers not reaping from the con- 
quest of this exhausted territory all plunder they 


Rome, This march, perhaps as much as any of the ex- 
ploits of the Cardinal, proved the greatness of his mili- 
tary talents: it was executed in the depth of winter, 
with an army of 25,000 men, destitute of money, ma- 
gazines, and artillery, and in the face of a superior 
army ; but Rome was reached; and Bourbon was on 
the point of witnessing the capture of the capital of the 
ancient world, when a random shot deprived him of 
life. The command of his troops devolved on the Prince 
of Orange ; they were eager for booty, and for revenge, 
on account of the death of their general; and Rome 
became a theatre of carnage and desolation, the Pope 
himself being made prisoner. 

But the splendour of this expedition, and its imme- 
diate success, by no means com for the injury 
se it did to the cause of Charles: the Milanese were 

exposed ; Catholic Europe was indignant and hor- 
rified at the treatment of the Pope ; the states of Italy 
were wearied with the yoke of Charles, and an army 
sent under these circumstances by Francis, was recei- 
ved with congratulation and gratitude. After the 


The French French commander had succeeded in reconquerin 
succenfully Nearly the whole of the Milanese, he directed his marc 


in 
ly 


wade Iw- towards Rome, from which place, after paving i 


libe- 

rated the Pope, he resolv to proceed to les. 

The imperial army was unable to contend wid fie ; 
1 


, he was obliged to march them against” 


FRANCE, 


the fleet of the em 


all the Neapolitan ory, with the exception of 
the capital and Mis gs (a er to the invaders; 
; e 


was defeated 
ve secured the 


at last seemed to object, i 
and so frequently directed their 


they had ‘so long 
= id and splendid rprises, than for such 
or rapid and splendid enterprises, a for suc! 
as required continued effort, circumspection, and fore- 
sight: Elated with his success, he forgot that his troops 
still must be supported and paid ;__he neglecte 
his Admiral Doria, to whose skill and valour he 
al been indebted for his naval’ vi ; he even or- 
dered him to be arrested, because, with atreedom, which 
the circumstances justified, which his republican bitth 
and education might have excused, and which proba- 
bly arose in some d from his attachment to 
Francis, he opposed some designs of the king, which 
he deemed injurious to his honour, as well as to the in« 
terests of Genoa. Doria, apprised of his danger, escaped 
the meditated arrest, entered into a negociation with 
the emperor, and sailed back to Naples, which he pro- 
tected and delivered. In the mean time, the discon- 
tents of the French army increased ; they were in great 
want of provisions ; constantly harassed by their op- 
ponents, and at last attacked with a contagious disorder: 
of this their general died ; and his successor found him- 
self under the necessity of evacuating Naples. Doria 
now triumphing over Francis, was resolved to effect 
the liberation of his native city ; and as the French 
ison of Genoa was reduced by desertion to a very 


Foconsiderable number, he had soon the satisfaction of 


of the Turks, the 
progress of the Frotestint sebapod in Germany, and 
the discontents in Spain. 


Francis, on his part, renounced all his right 
lanese, Flanders, and Artois, and espoused nope 


sister, the widow of the King of eno ' 
agreed to give two millions of crowns of gold for the 
ransom of his sons. With this money he was supplied 


But Francis’ character was much better suit- Their ad- 
vantages 
lost 


Francis, 


In consequence of this mu- Treaty of 

tual disposition for peace, the treaty of Cambray was Cambray. 

formed, Charles gave up his pretensions to esky A.D, 153 
ts 4 


by Henry VIII. of England. These terms were not . 


very honourable or advantageous to France. But the 
French monarch stained his em e by abandoning 
his allies, the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Duke 
of Ferrara, to the mercy of Charles. 
Francis now had been for nine years, from 1525 to- 
1534, almost constantly at war. His kingdom was. 
nearly exhausted ; and not only did. its finances require- 
his care, but its internal ations in almost every 
other To these objects, therefore, he devoted: 
some part of his time; but a we oye of it was. 
given up to luxury, the patronage of letters, and the 
protection of the fine arts. During this repose from 
war, the most important events were the annexation of 
the province of Bretagne to the crown of France with 
the consent of the states, and the marriage of his se- 
= son ax! with = Rees Catherine of Me. 
icis, by which union he again to open a . 
for the facies of the French into Italy. a 
Francis. had never regarded the terms of the : 
of: Cambray, as advan us.or honourable to him- 
self; and consequently eagerly “<— forward: 


* 


—s 


= 


Charles in- 
vades 
France 


fer e:noodempiatnnily: se excuse, in order to break them, 
after. 


of the French army, is said to have expired 
with terror; and every thing to promise a ra- 
pid fulfilment of the wishes of Francis. Again, > 
ever, he was destined to be disappointed. The Pope 
would not second his enterprise. of England 


. The 
princes of Germany, to whom, as the natu- 
of Charles, he next turned his attention, 
renounced his alliance, because he persecuted their 
brethren in France. He therefore was convinced, that 
on his own resources and vigour alone he must d 
in his war with Charles. But this consideration failed 
8 he ne Rite arene conduct. Instead of pro- 


fiting by state of Charles, he suffer- 
cae dig ee tg get sa eg) et se At last he 
saw his folly. em was amusing him 


France, he entered Piedmont with an army of 40,000 
i , and 10,000 cavalry. This country soon yield- 
ed to him ; and Francis next saw him direct his atten- 
tion and his march against the southern provinces of 
his ki On this occasion, Francis conducted him- 


self with a of prudence, which could not have 
_ of to the frontiers to give his opponent bat- 
tle, he to act entirely on the defensive; to gar- 


unsuccess- 
fully. 


i 


the strongest towns; and to lay waste the coun 

e diitiekd. po ai 2S deptiva bien of wl. 

i was entrusted to Montmorency ; 
entrusted, 


8 


5 
8 


ah 
ut 
Hh 
1 

: 


: 


ay 


iF 
Fi 
: 


com: 
came forth, and OA teva trode arpa 
Perhaps the emperor and his army might have to- 


~~ of armis was 


- B6E 


a most poignant disaster overtook , 
died sud denly, not without suspicion of being poison< 
__In the beginning of 1537 a curious scene was exhi- 


bited, which seems to prove, that the natural foibles of 
Francis’ character were too deeply implanted to be en< 


tirely extirpated by age and experience. He summon- 
ed iD ateecta to aciske eke the parliament of Pa- 
ris, to answer as his vassal for the counties of Artois 
and Flanders ; and on his refusal, declared them for- 
feited to the crown of France. He even marched into 
the Low Countries ; but either not being sincere, or 
not able to carry his purpose into effect, a suspension 
upon, which was afterwards follow- 
ed, A. D. 1538, by a truce for ten years. Shortly af- 
ter this truce was agreed upon, Charles, on his: voyage 
to Barcelona, was driven to take refuge in a small 
island on the coast of Provence, As soon as Francis 
heard of this, he proposed a personal interview, to 
which the emperor consented ; and thus these two ri- 
vals, after twenty years of hostilities, met each other, 
and vied in expressions of respect and friendship. 

In the following year they had another interview. 
In consequence of the revolt of the people of Ghent, 
it was necessary for Charles to pass into the Nether- 
lands from Spain. _As expedition was necessary, he did 


not wish to pass through Germany, in which country, 


he must have travelled with so much ceremony and 
pocp, as must have delayed his progress. He did not 
ike the uncertainty and risk of a voyage; he there- 
fore resolved to through France ; and, in order 
to induce Francis to permit this passage, and not 
to take advantage of it, by detaining him, he repre- 
sented to that monarch, that he would cede the Mi- 
lanese to him. Francis agreed to the proposal, and 
received and treated Charles with the utmost respect 
and magnificence, during his six days abode in Paris. 
A bon mot of Triboulet, the fool at the court of Fran- 
cis, on this occasion, is recorded; He wrote on his ta- 
blet, that Charles was a greater fool than himself, 
thus to himself in pee through the territo- 
ries of his rival, ‘“ But w wail :you say, ge me 
Francis, ) if I let him pass unmolested?” ‘I shall.ef- 
+ hey sare ac gies in its stead,” replied the 


As soon as the emperor had arrived in Flanders, the 
ambassadors of Francis required that the Milanese 
should be restored to their master. At first Charles 
ot gag tec gy an 4a till at, last having re- 

uced the Flemings to submission, he ly averred 


Interviews 
between 
Charles and 
Francis. 


Charles 
agrees to 
cede the 
Milanese, 


that he had never given any promise to restore the Mi- put breaks 
lanese. Francis was, completely ashamed at his own his pro- 
folly, in thus being the dupe of the emperor, and at mise. 


the same time was filled with indignation and the spi- 
rit of revenge; but he could not immediately com- 
mence a war, for, by his interview with Charles, he 
had excited the suspicion, or produced the indifference, 
of the king of England. The pope seemed resolved to 
maintain his neutrality, The sultan alone listened to his 
schemes of revenge and warfare. Still, however, Fran- 
cis could scarcely feel himself justified in the eyes of 


‘Eufope to commence ‘hostilities, merely because the 


Se promise to restore the 


M had not that promise ; but a more 
solid reason was not ft pr Two French amy 
AD. 


History. 


Francis 
makes war 
oo hun. 

A. D. 1542, 


Mis affairs 


562 
bassadors were assdssinated by order of the Milanese 
government. This was amply sufficient, in the spirit 
in which Francis had Jong been: He demanded instant 
and full satisfaction for their death ; he was evaded and 
refused ; and he resolved on instant war. ly 
had Charles returned from a id expedition into 
Africa, A. D. 1542, when five formidable French ar- 
mies entered his dominions, Spain, Piedmont, Brabant, 
Flanders, and Luxemburgh, were at once the scene of 
war. The Duke of Orleans reduced the ter part 
of Luxemburgh ; the dauphin laid siege to Perpignan : 
but, on a report that the emperor was advancing to 
its relief, the duke abandoned his conquests in Luxem- 
burgh, and hastened to support the dauphin. Perpig- 
nan was defended by the Duke of Alva, who had in- 
structions from his master to hold out to the last ex- 
tremity, as it did not enter into his plan to raise the 
siege. The event proved that Charles was wise in his 
determination ; for three months the French endea- 
voured to reduce it, but their troops fell before fa- 
tigue and disease ; and after that period, they were un- 
der the necessity of retiring from before it. The ar- 
mies of Francis were equally unsuccessful in their other 
attempts against the dominions of the emperor, so that 
he saw his vast preparations rendered utterly useless. 
The year 1543 was distinguished by few events of 
moment. Rochelle had revolted, but it was soon redu- 
ced. Luxemburgh was occupied by the armies of 
Francis ; and the city of Nice was besieged by that mo- 
narch, in conjunction with his ally the sultan: but this 
alliance was by no means prudent or politic, as it gave 
great offence to those who might otherwise have united 
with Francis, that he shou!d have allied himself to an 
infidel’; and this evil consequence of his alliance was 
not counterbalanced by success, for Nice was not re- 
duced, The year 1544 was distinguished by the battle 
of Cerizoles. The young Cont D’Enghien, had pe- 
netrated into Piedmont, where he was opposed by the 
imperial general the Marquis del Guosto. The armies 
met at Cerizoles, and the Imperialists were defeated ; 
but the vi : of the count was of little avail. The 
emperor, and Henry of England, (who at length had 
Sais decided part against Frans.) had pris Pi- 
cardy with two numerous armies ; and, as Francis was 
by no means equal in force to his opponents in this quar- 
ter, the count was obliged to abandon the fruits of his 
victory in Italy, and hasten to the north of France. 
At i period were the — of toes monarch, 
to pearance, more desperate than at this period. 
The ae of his enemies p24 so powerful, and his own 
means of resisting that force, or delaying its progress, 
so inadequate, that had Charles and Henry united their 
armies, Paris, in all probability, would have fallen: 
But they were not men likely to agree long in opinion; 
besides being suspicious of each other, they were both 
obstinate in their dispositions. Charles wasted his 
time in the siege of St Dizier, while Henry’s imme- 
diate interest directed him against Boulogne. From 
these attempts neither of them would desist, even 
though they must have perceived, that if they gave 
them up for the present, Paris would be their imme- 
diate reward, and St Dizier and Boulogne would not 
pers An out after the capital was reduced. At this 
isis, Francis, who had been long unable, from illness, 
to head his armies, committed the command of them 
to the dauphin, who was not insensible to the dangers 
and difficulties of his situation, but who conducted him- 
self, on this occasion, with considerable skill and pru- 
dence. St Dizier was bravely defended ; nor would it 


FRANCE. 


have fallen if artifice had not been employed. On its 
reduction, though the em 's army was considerably 
weakened by the losses he had sustained 
siege, he resolved pl gery still farther into France. 
Champagne was in and Chateau-Thierry was ta- 
ken,—a place within two days march of Paris. The 
fate of the capital seemed inevitable, when the dauphin 
threw himself Y between it and the enemy ; but he still 
er avoided a battle, contenting himself with in- 
cessant skirmishes, and with depriving the enemy of 
the resources of the country. is plan had its desis 


red effect: Charles, straitened for forage and necessa- Treaty of 
ries, listened to terms of accommodation, and a definis ©5PY- 


tive treaty was signed at C . _ By this trea’ 
Francis resigned his ‘acdyulsitions ta Pi and rl 


voy; and the emperor engaged, in the of two 
years, to t his daughter or his aleos th 36 i 

to the Duke of Orleans ; and, as a porti , to give up 
either the Low Countries or the TMilentse, It is evi- 
dent, that this treaty, like the rest which Francis had 
entered into with his opponent, was favourable to the 
latter, in so far as the cessions to him were immediate 
and certain ; and of doubtful advantage to the former, 
in so far as it contained merely a promise of a future 
cession to him ; while, by such arrangements, reasons 
for future warfare were supplied. 

While the n iations between the Emperor and 
Francis were going on at Crespy, Boul Mead fallen 
into the possession of the king gland; and as that 
treaty contained no stipulation respecting Charles’ ally, 
it was necessary for Francis to recover Boulogne, ei- 
ther by force or negociation. He chose the former, 
and sent an army, under the Duke of Orleans, for that 
purpose. But, at a place between Abbeville and Mon- 
treuil, the duke died, and the enterprise was abandon- 
ed. The insincerity of Charles in this condition of the 
treaty of Crespy, was immediately made manifest ; for 
he declared that the death of the Duke had freed him 
from all his agreements respecting the Low Countries, 
or the Milanese. J 

The Count D’Enghien did not long survive the 
Duke; and the mind of Francis, already weakened by 
his long and severe illness, sunk before the impression 
of these calamitous events. Even an advantageous 
peace with England did not mitigate his grief, and re- 
new his energy ; for it was more than counterbalanced 
by the enmity and intrigues of his own mistress, the 
Duchess D’Estampes, and of Diana de Poitiers, the 
mistress of the Dauphin, who divided the court into 
open and implacable factions. The death of Henry of 
England, which happened in 1547, also preyed on the 
mind of Francis, as he had long known and personally 
loved that monarch. In this state of grief and des- 
pondency, he wandered about from place to place, in 
the vain hope of restoring his health of body, or reco- 
vering his Sr ea ‘and firmness of mind ; at length 


he died at Ram et, in the 53d year of his age, and 
32d of his reign. | { 
The character of Francis was strongly marked. One peat) and 


of the distinguishing features of his mind was om poe of 
great Francis. 


tude and decision : hi C9 perception and 

activity, led him to resolve instantly, and to follow up 
his resolutions by vigorous action ;' but he did not per- 
severe ; difficulties, which at first only prompted him to 
greater efforts, ifthey were of long continuance, and 


especially if they did not promise any thing splendid in 
their overcoming, soon wearied him out. Thus he often 
abandoned his first designs, and relaxed from his origi- 


nal vigour,—-often through impatience, and sometimes 


— 


during the 


=—— 


as rather 
Character of Hot; which rose above 
ivity 


FRANCE, 
tions with ayowed heretics, he seized the first opportu- _ Histery- 


through mere fickleness. _His courage was undoubted ; 
but it courage which could act than sup- 

the greatest dangers, if they 
exertion, but which cooled, if 


called for acti 
be shunned or endured rather 


pci 


tively useless in this view, from the thoughtlessness of 
i ey and the warm sincerity Be oP Powia 

is mode of carrying on war was stam y the pe- 
culiarities of his character. At the edad ot 
a campaign, he darted on his enemy with all his force, 
and endeavoured to attain his object, by the decision 
and rapidity of his first movements ; but he seldom had 
any regular and com ive plan of warfare, the 
consequence of which was, that with whatever appear- 


ance of ultimate and success he commenced 
hostilities, he ly found himself, at the end of the 


ig 
_ It will appear from this sketch, that his faults as a 
sovereign were of that nature which seldom fail to cap- 
multitude, as 


real gentleman. To the period of his reign, 
we may justly trace those features in the character of 
the higher society in France, for which it was so long 
and so justly celebrated in Europe. Anne of Bretagne 
had begun to introduce ladies at court ; but it was not 
till the reign of Francis that th Lsppertesy Shere, ce 
gularly, or that they were consid as an essential 
part of it. The consequences were soon i : 
Seg, meensitny gave a softness and a polish to that 

of manners, which the rative ignorance 
and barbarism of the as well as its martial habits, 
necessarily generated. 


It was during this period, that the religious disputes 
commenced, which afterwards Spliated rence oe ge- 


nerally, and gave rise to such 
Calvin was a native of Noyon in 
tected by M of Navarre, sister of Francis: these 
circumstances some influence in causing his tenets 
to take root and spread in France. But those who em- 
them soon became the objects of tion, 

rancis at one period (as has been already mentioned) 
was desirous of uniting himself with Protestant 
inces of Germany, Sane Emperor Charles ; but 

é of awakening the indignation of the Roman pon- 
tiff, and the prejudices of his people, by his negocia- 


and bitter civil wars. 
i , and was yk 


563 


nity to prove the soundness of his faith, by ordering six 
of his subjects, who had embraced the Protestant reli- 
ion, to be publicly burnt ; he himself being present at 
e execution, and. declaring, with his usual and cha- 
racteristic yehemence, that if one of his hands were in- 
fected with heresy he would cut it off with the other, 
and would not spare eyen his own children if found 
guilty of that crime, Even before the time of Calvin, 
it that the French had imbibed the reform- 
ed elicit ; for the inhabitants of Cabrieres and Me-_ 


_rindol, small towns in Provence, followed the opi- 


nions of the Waldenses ; and on this account the Par- 
liament of Provence issued against them a decree, so 
barbarous and cruel, that the execution of it was sus~ 
pended by orders from the court. .But some years af 
terwards, in 1545, from what cause is not known, it 
was carried into execution by the Cardinal de Tournon, 
aman of a most cruel and bigotted disposition. At 
this period, of the Fendh army was returning’ 
from Italy ; and these were employed against the de- 
fenceless inhabitants of Cabrieres and Merindol, 3000 
of whom, without distinction of age or sex, are said to 
haye been massacred. Nor was this barbarous work 
confined to these places ; twenty-two other villages or 
towns were reduced to ashes, in the vain hope of utterly 
bit ig the heresy. 
en Henry IT. son of Francis I. mounted the throne 
gent commands or requests of the dying Francis to his 
son, was, that he d never recal the Constable 
Montmorency, and that he should, by all means in his 
wer, repress the ambition of the family of Guise. 
enry, however, was inattentive to the injunctions of his. 
dying father. The Constable Montmorency was recal- 


- Jed and loaded with honours ; and the house of Guise 


were entrusted with his confidence. Henry did not 
long remain faithful to his wife Catherine of Medicis ; 


indeed it would appear, that at this period she either did 
not or exercise, those qualities and seducing 
arts for which she afterwards became so famous; since 
her hushand deserted her, and gave himself up, a blind 
and willing slave, to Diana de Poitiers, whom he crea- 
ted Duchess de Valentinois, though she was 20 years 
older than himself. 

Before Henry had ascended the throne, his Queen 
had brought him a son, who was named Francis. In 
1548, on the death of James V. of Scotland, Mary his 
daughter, then an infant, succeeded to the throne of 
that ki Taking advantage of this circumstance, 
the ministers of England endeavoured, by force of arms, 
to obtain for Edward VI. the hand of the infant Queen 
of Scotland. This the ministers of Mary resisted, and 
the King of France sent a powerful army to the support 
of his ancient allies, Jn return for this assistance, the 
Scotch entrusted their Queen to the French admiral, on 
his return to France ; and soon after her arrival in Paris, 
she was betrothed to the Dauphin. 

In 1549, a dangerous rebellion broke out in the pro- 


. ‘ a Rebellion 
vince of Guienne ;,and, as Montmorency and the Duke 1 alee: 


A. D, 1549. 


of Guise were the most confidential ministers of the 
King, they were dispatched to quell it. Their conduct 
ou this occasion was diametrically ite: the con- 
stable endeavoured to repress the rebellion by the most 
violent and cruel measures ; while, on the contrary, the 
Duke of Guise reclaimed the insurgents by his concili- 
ating address, and lenient ‘measures. To this line of 
conduct he was probably led, by that ambition which 
afterwards so decidedly marked the character of his fa- 


he was 29 years of age. One of the last and most ur- Se 


Mery willy. To obtain the 
—v~" cossary that they should 


Be ulogne 
purchased. 


Henry pre- 
pares for 
war with 
Charles. 


564 
j of this ambition, it was ne- 

popular ; and the Duke, 
by his measures in Guienne, undoubtedly acquired 
great popularity. The reformed religion at this time 
was making certain, though not very rapid progress in 
some of France. e King was naturally of a 
mild temper, and a humane disposition ; but these qua- 
lities were not sufficiently strong or enlightened, to with- 
stand the blind and intemperate zeal of the age ; and 
H commanded a number of proselytes to the new 
doctrines to be burnt in his presence. 

The following year, Henry, by the advice of his mi- 
nisters, direct is attention to the reco of Bou- 
logne from the English. It is not improbable, that if 
he had gone to war with this object, he might have 
been successful, as the English councils, during the 
short reign of Edward VI. were weak and distracted ; 
but this very circumstance induced him to hope, that, 
hy means of negociation, he should succeed with even 
more certainty, and with much less expence and trou- 
ble. He accordingly opened a negociation with the mi- 
nisters of Edward for the restoration of Boulogne ; and 
on his offering 400,000 crowns, they immediately ac- 
cepted it, and surrendered this important place, A for- 
mal peace was soon afterwards concluded between 
France and England, in which Scotland was included. 

It was scarcely to be imagined, that the long and ar- 
duous struggles in which Francis I. had been engaged 
with the Emperor Charles V. should not have at an 
impression on the mind of Henry, and led him to regard 
that monarch almost as his hereditary and natural ene- 
my. His personal feeling was strengthened and con- 
firmed by political motives and views. The treaty of 
Crespy could not be regarded as advantageous. or ho- 
nourable to France, The only provision in it, which in 
the smallest degree bore this appearance, related to the 
Duke of Orleans ; and even he survived, and had 
Charles fulfilled this provision respecting him, the crown 
of France could only have been indirectly benefited : 
but there was too much reason to suspect, that Charles 
never intended to fulfil this part of the treaty, and at 
any rate, by the death of the Duke of Orleans, he pub- 
licly declared, that he was no longer bound by it. Hen- 
ry, therefore, considering the treaty of Crespy as injuri- 
ous to his interest, was not sorry that Charles, by refu- 
sing on the ws of the Duke of Orleans, to fulfi} his part 
of it, had a 
test against it. This he accordingly did, and immedi- 
ately afterwards prepared for war. His great object was 
the reconquest of the possessions which the French for- 
merly held in Italy ; and the state of that country filled 
him with the hope, that he should attain that object. 
The duchy of Parma had been given to Octavio Far- 
nese, the grandson of Pope Paul IIT.; and Julius ITI. on 
his accession to the apostolical throne, had at first con- 
firmed him in the possession’ of it. But he withdrew 
his support, and revoked his grant, as so6n as Gonza- 

governor of Milan, a sworn enemy of the house of 
arnese, prepared, by permission of the Emperor, to 
make pod master of Parma. In this critical emer- 
gency, vio applied to Henry, as the only prince 
powerful enough to protect Hien aioe Charles, at 
the same time disposed, both from his antipathy to 
Charles, and his anxiety to re-establish himself in Italy, 
to afford him support. Henry having not only settled 
his own domestic concerns, but brought his transactions 
with the two British kingdoms to such an issue as he 
desiretl, was at complete leisure to poms the measures, 


which his hereditary jealousy of the Emperor's power 


orded him a very fair pretext openly to pro- . 


FRANCE. 


aturall sigyesten. He accordingly listened t6 the History. 
pe Savio aii oT ef eek npeatniny Of pale | Y 


overtures of 
ing a footing in Italy, furnished him with what assist- 


ance he desired. The army which Henry sent into 
Italy, was commanded by thé Marshal Brissac. The 
imperial troops were under Gonzaga. Still, however, 


the two monarchs issued no declaration of war, but, on 
the contrary, affected to maintain inviolably the treaty 
of Crespy. The war of Parma, as it is called, was dis- 
citiguishad by no memorable event. The army of 
France rayaged dot of the ecclesiastical territories, 
while the Imperialists penetrated to the gates of Parma ; 
but they were obliged. to relinquish the siege of that 
city with disgrace. 


At this period, the council of Trent was summoned Council of 
to meet; but the alarm occasioned)in Italy by the war, Treat. 


revented most of the Italian prelates from repairing to 
te on the day appointed, so that the legate and nuncios 
found it necessary to adjourn to a future day, hoping 
that such a number would then assemble, as would ena- 
ble them to begin their deliberations. When that day 
eame, the French ambassador demanded audience, and 
protested, in his mf&ster’s name, against an assembly, 
called at such an improper juncture, when a war wan- 
tonly kindled by the Pope, made it impossible for the 
deputies from the Gallican church to resort to Trent in 
safety, or to deliberate concerning articles of faith and 
discipline with the requisite tranquillity. He declared, 
that Henry did not acknowledge this to be a. 
cecumenic council, but must consider and 
it as a particular and ial convention. The legate, 
however, affected to despise the protest of the King of 
France ; the prelates ed to determine the great 
points in controversy ; and the Emperor, by his autho- 
rity and countenance, endeavoured to ish the com- 
petency and jurisdiction of the assembly. It is unne- 
cessary here to Setar onry= the proceedings of the coun- 
cil of Trent. ‘They were so directl 


treat. 


princes, who, under the promise of liberty 


Emperor against the confederates of Smalkalde, were 
now made sensible that they had been duped by him, 
and that by their own force alone, could they to 
preserve the religion which they had embra from 
secution and probable ruin. But Maurice, who, from 
fis eaperite talents, as well as his superior power, took 
the lead among the Lutheran princes, was ring Hey 
ced, by his knowledge of the character of the Er 
that it would be absolutely necessary to proceed with 
the utmost degree of circumspection and caution, so as 
to excite no suspicion, till all his measures were taken, 
and his scheme was completely ready to be carried into 
full execution, By his former conduct he had lost, in a 
great measure, the good will and confidence of the Pro= 
testants. These it. was necessary for him to regsin's 
but while he was regaining them, it was equally desi- 
rable and necessary, though still more difficult, to're- 
tain the good will and confidence of the Emperor, In 
the execution of his enterprize he succeeded most tho- 
roughly, conducting an intricate plan of policy in such 
a manner, as to deceive the most’artful, experienced, 
and suspicious prince in Europe. Having negoci 
new confederacy of the Protestants, of which he was 
psn the head, it became necessary to ——— 
t confederacy by every means in his power. With 
this view, Maurice turned his thoughts to the King of 
France. There could be no doubt that Henry would 
most chearfully embrace any plan, the object of which 


inst the Protes- state of the 
tants, that Maurice of Saxony, and the other Lutheran Protestants 
of conscience, in Germa- 
and other advantages, had been induced to assist the "Y- 


el | eee 


Charles pree 


FRANCE. 


was to curtail the power and influence of the Emperor, 
rovided hi ious opinions did not create an objection, 
These, therefore, it was necessary to consider in the ne- 
gociation. It was also necessary for Maurice to antici- 
Biotest prises Se Goriuciy ight fel oy orang 
inces of Gi ight feel on i 
an alliance vith a prince, who rent not only a Catholic, 
but who had persecuted the reformed religion 
in his dominions. The and les of both 
phe however, were overcome by the wi and po- 
icy of Maurice ; and a treaty was concluded between 
Henry and the Protestant confederation. 
As soon as the ions of Maurice were comple- 
ted, and he had assembled his army amounting to 
25,000 men, he published a manifesto, containing his 
reasons for taking armg; to secure the. Protestant reli- 
ion ; to maintain the constitution of Germany ; and to 
iver the Landgraye of Hesse from his and 
unjust imprisonment. To this the aus, * of France; 
his own name, added a manifesto, in 


icious of the in- 

e pre ions, of 
the Protestant confederates, and of Henry, he was not 
in a condition to oppose such formidable enemies. Lor- 
raine was immediately invaded by the French armies. 
The young Duke Charles, the nephew of the Emperor, 
was sei Toul, Verdun, and Metz were occupied. 
Nor was Charles, even after Rae ae le to 


the 


tu pte 
Be 

civil and ecclesiastical independence eayirge 
oe taawae oat In this treaty, however, the con- 
totally overlooked the services of Henry, and 
the union they had formed with him. There zppears, 
Se 8 Sete one baa ess 

teed A Soro g measures an ions, 
'y such as weakened Clete’ aeeraa ed 
izement, even at the 
deavoured, by artifice, himeclt of the elty of 
' ; i to possess himse e city of 
Strasburgh ; and had he succeeded in his attempt, the 
m of the Rhine would have fallen inte his 
power. ‘was to desist, by the in- 
being thi Ror oye and rae can- 
As Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which Henry had con- 
, formed the barrier of the ine onthe side of 
eeply affected by their loss; and 
ided the treaty of Passau, he 
resolved to employ the most vigorous and powerful 
measures for their recovery. He therefore left his re- 
treat at Villach, and put himself at the head of the for- 
ces, which he had assembled against the confederates. 
Boi yaa tg be At first, in order 
toe his real object, he. circulated a report, that 
he intended to lead it into Hungary against the Turks ; 


and when the line of his march unequivocally proved 
that such was not his intention, he pretended that he 
was marching, in the first place, to chastise Albert of 
DestidieriOUiiit who had refused to be included in the 
treaty of Passau. Henry, however, was not deceived ; 
but guessing at the true object of the emperor's arma- 
ment, he resolved vigorously to defend his conquests. 
As it was to foresee that the reduction of Metz 
would be the first. object of the emperor, Henry resolved 
that it should be defended in the best possible manner. 
He therefore inted to the command of it Francis 
of Lorraine, Duke of Guise. No fitter man could pos- 
sibly have been chosen for this arduous enterprise. He 
was full of military ardour and zeal ; anxious to dis- 
tinguish himself, and to be classed among the heroes 
of France ; delighting in bold enterprises, and aspiring 
after fame by splendid and extraordinary actions. ‘These 
qualities, however, had they 
more solid and useful, ge not so dazzling, Sane 
haps, have prevented his sovereign from makin 
Thales of him on this occasion. But he was no les 
distinguished for city and presence of mind, than 
for zeal and pict. nin To' this nobleman the de- 
fence of Metz was intrusted ; and he received the com- 
mission with joy. His zeal’and enthusiasm were hard- 


565 


History. 
—_—— 


The Duke 
of Guise op- 
poses him. 


not been united with others: 


ly necessary to induce many others of the French no- . 


bility to offer their services, so that Metz soon saw 
within its walls, some of the best blood of France, 


which, if necessary, would be most chearfully shed to- 


eit to the French kingdom. As soon as the 


e of Guise entered the place, he carefully examined « 
it: it was of great extent, ill fortified, and the suburbs: 


large. These defects, therefore, it was absolutely ne- 


immediately to remedy. For this purpose, the 


cessary 

Duke ordered the old fortifications to be repaired with 
all possible ition, even assisting and. animatin 
the labourers his example. The officers and ath: 


diers thus encouraged, chearfully submitted to the most ~ 


severe toil. After repairing the old fortifications, the 
Duke directed his skill to the erection of new ones, The 
suburbs were levelled to the ground, in order that they 
might not favour or protect the approaches of the ene- 
my ; and with a similar object in view, he gave orders 
that the country, for several miles round, should be laid 
waste. At the same time, he filled the magazines with 
provisions and military stores, and compelled all useless 
persons to leave the place; yet such were his ‘popular 
talents, and his power of acquiring an ascendency over 
the minds of men, that the citizens not only ined 
from murmuring, but seconded him, with no less ar- 


dour than his soldiers, in all his operations ; even in- 


the ruin of their estates, and in the destruction of their 
public and private buildings. 

In the mean time, Albert of Brandenburgh entered 
Lorraine, with 20,000 men, seemingly with an intention 
to join the French. The emperor, notwithstanding the 
vicinity of this army, and the advanced season of the 

ear, for it was now the month of October, resolved to 
ay siege to Metz, contrary to the advice of his most 
experienced officers. One of his first attempts was’ to 
secure the tion, or at least the neutr. ity of Al- 
bert. | This he affected, by rok up to his price, and 
he joined the imperial army. The emperor now flat- 
tered himself that Metz would be soon reduced ; ‘but 
he was most lamentably mistaken. The winter set in 
with unusual rigour, in little more than a month from 
the commencement of the siege. The imperial camp 
was exposed to almost constant alternations of snow and 
rain, which, of course, produced disease even among 
the hardy Germans ; while the Spaniards and Italians, 


History. 
—yY~" more sick! 


Charles 
obliged to 
raise the 


A.D. 1883, less € 


after dread- 


ful loss. 


566 


accustomed to more genial climates, were rendered still 
and i ive, In vain the generals and 
officers youred to animate and rouse their men ; 
their exhortations, their threats, their example, scarce- 
ly produced ‘any effect. When they were ordered to 
advance to the assault, they remained motionless and 
silent. The emperor, blinded by his obstinacy to the 
cause of this conduct in his soldiers, retired to his tent, 
complaining that he was deserted by them, and up- 
braiding them with disaffection or cowardice. In vain 
did his generals endeavour to persuade him to give up 
the hopeless and fatal enterprize ; in vain did they re- 
present to him, that he was his own enemy, in weak- 
ening and dispiriting that army, which, though it was 
not equal to The task of reducing Metz, so defended, at 
such a season of the year, might yet, if not totally de- 
stroyed in organization, strength and spirit, be adequate 
to the atchievement of such conquests as would compen- 
sate for the loss of Metz. Charles was still obstinate, 
even when he must age lost * hope ; nor did pesiee 
the siege, till after the of 65 days, spent in fruit- 
forts, and after the loss of 35,000 men. Metz, 
notwithstanding, was very near falling into his power, 
by a conspiracy of monks. The superior of the corde- 
liers of that city was a man of a bold and intriguing 
spirit, and warmly attached, either from habit, or prin- 
ciple, or interest, to the cause of the emperor. This 
man, by his address, had contrived to insinuate himself 
into the graces and confidence of the governor, 
and then treacherously formed a design to deliver up 
the town to the enemy. The monks of his monastery 
being privy to his plan, he introduced into it a number 
of soldiers disguised as cordeliers, who were to open the 
gates to the garrison of Thionville. The plot was so 
well concealed, that it was not discovered or suspected 
till the very day on which it was to be executed. On 
its discovery, the superior was condemned to death, 
with twenty of the monks. Before the sentence was to 
be carried into effect, the criminals were put into a cell, 
for the purpose of confessing one another ; and in this 
they murdered the superior, and beat to death 
ve of their brethren, who had been chiefly instrumental 
in seducing the rest. 

When, at length, Charles found himself under the 
painful necessity of raising the siege of Metz, A.D, 
1553, his army resembled rather an assemb of worn 
out, diseased, and undisciplined people, those 
troops which he had always been accustomed to bring 
into the field, and with which he had advanced against 
this place. He was compelled to abandon a large pro- 
portion, who were utterly unable to keep up with the 
main body, on account of their debility ; while others, 
no longer under discipline, fell behind, either for the 
poreare of plunder, or to throw themselves into the 

s of the enemy, from whom they expected the in- 
fliction of less misery than they had suffered during 
this unfortunate siege. Under these circumstances, the 
Duke of Guise might easily and safely have increased 
the disorder and the loss—perhaps have pressed on, al- 
most to utter destruction, the army of Ris opponent : 
but either from motives of policy, or from the influence 
of humanity, he did not take al the ible advanta- 
ges of his success. On the con , his attention and 
care were almost exclusively di to heal the wound- 
ed, and restore the famished ; and those who recovered 
he sent home, under a eafe escort, and with money to 
bear their charges ; so thet the courage and skill which 
he had displayed during the siege were leled, if 
not , by his humane treatment of his prisoners. 


FRANCE. 


i 


e 


ever, defended with great courage by D'Esse ; but. 
his death, the Eeapersaliets pressed the siege with in- 
it 


r, an 


He then hastened his army, which he hz , 
the command of Emanuel Philebert, the Duke of Savoy, 
towards Hesden, which was also carried by It,, 
though Henry himself, with a strong force, advanced. 
to its relief. Charles, however, carefully avoided an 
en ent; notwithstanding the French threatened 
to lay 
necessity of retiring without accomplishing the object 
for which they had advanced. anor 
In A. D, 1554, Henry beheld his riyal’s 
ready too powerful for the repose of F 


increase the jealously, without intimidating the King. 
of France. THe ponctaane augmented his f ; 
and resolved, by carrying on the war in Italy yin 
Low Countries at the same time, to compel the empe-. 
ror to listen to equitable terms of peace, before the 
English sent any large reinforcements to him, 
large armies were accordingly equipped, with which 
he invaded and laid waste the provinces. of Hain- 
ault, Liege, and Artois, reduced Marienburgh, took 
Dinant and Bouvines by assault, and invested Ronti. 
Charles was now broken down by years, fatigue and 
illness; yet, on hearing of the rapid march of the 

he put himself at the head of his army, and advanced 
to the relief of Ronti. Henry did not avoid the con- 
flict ; an obstinate skirmish took . The imperi 
army suffered the loss of a considerable number of men 
and artillery. The Duke of Guise behaved in a man- 
ner worthy his reputation; and had the constable 
Montmorency acted wi skill, vigour, acti i , and 


would have been completely routed ; 
jealous of the talents and fame of the Duke, and, in- 
uenced by these dishonourable motives, he would not 


siege to Cambray, and the latter were under the. 


lands. 
A. D. 158 


second his efforts. The consequences were, not only The 


that the imperial army escaped with comparatively 
little lg French a ves were ar after -. 
wards under the necessity of retiring. Charles was not 
slow in taking advantage of these circumstances. Im-, 
mediately on the retreat of his opponents, he entered 
Picardy, where he retaliated the ravages which the 
French had committed in Hainault, Artois and Li 

In Italy, the French were equally unfortunate : 
army there was placed under x 
a Florentine exile, who was defeated with the loss of 
4000 men, in the battle of Marciano, by the Marquis de 
Marignano, general to Cosmo de Medicis. The Impe- 


command of Strozzi, in Italy, 


rialists, fully sensible of the advantages that might be - 


reaped from this defeat,  ailieited laid siege to Siena, 


FRANCE 
Cardinal Rebiba was directed to protract his negocia- History. 
—— 


which was garrisoned soned by French ti , under the com- 
mand of Montluc. oe eta eon all in his 
‘to 


who was opposed to the Duke of Alva. Notwithstand- 
ing the great talents of his rival, and the lly dis- 
couraging circumstance, that his were inferior 
in numbers to the Imperialists, he not only baffled the 
that he would seon compel him 
to retreat into France, but he even into that 
peror had hitherto 


his supplies, 
termination of abandoning his throne, and spending 
i is days in retirement. To this de- 


assumed the name of Paul IV. immediately demanded 
the ion of the French, affirmed the investiture 
endeavour to ne- 


The great bar against 
of France, was the hich Henry 
cluded with Phoadbetn G?"tihens An 


567 


tion as long as possible ; and Cardinal Caraffa was em» 
powered to urge the King of France to renounce the 
treaty, or to elude its engagements, and to renew his al- 
liance with the court of Rome. - The Cardinal was by 
no means unacquainted with the feeble and yielding 
parts of Henry’s character: he knew that he was en- 
tirely under the guidance and influence of his queen, 
the Guises, and his mistress Diana of Poitiers: to 
these, therefore, he applied ; and paving gained them 
by his address, they easily swayed the king, who al- 
ready leaned to that side towards which they wished 
him to incline, his own genius, warlike and enterpri- 
sing, his habits and his hopes, that the successor of 
Charles would be a less formidable ee strongly 
urging him again to try the fate of war. e only per- 
son of consequence int the French court, who bk om 
the measures of the Cardinal, the influence of the 
Guises, the queen, and Henry’s mistress, and the secret 
wishes of the monarch himself, was Montmorency ; but 


his efforts and remonstrances were unavailing. The Broken by 
nuncio, by powers from Rome, absolved Henry from Henry. 


his oath, and he signed a new league with the Pope. 
Paul, as soon as he learnt the success of his intrigues, 
immediately threw off the mask, and no longer pro- 
fessed himself the friend of peace, or the mediator be- 
tween the monarchs; on the contrary, he ordered the 
Spanish ambassador to be imprisoned ; he excommuni- 
cated the Colonnas, because they were attached to the 
cause of Philip; and when that monarch received this 
noble family in his dominions, the Pope proclaimed 
him guilty of high treason, and to have forfeited his 
right to the kingdom of Naples, which he was suppo- 
sed to hold of the Holy See. Against those proceed- 
ings of the sovereign pontiff, the superstitious educa= 
tion of Philip at first prevented him from proceeding 
in the manner in which a regard to his own dignity, 
and to the interests of his kingdom, imperiously de- 
manded'; but as the arrogance and hostility of the Pope 
Were only augmented by the moderation and supersti- 
tious reverence which Philip displayed, that monarch 
at ee resolved to adopt a more vigorous and deter- 
mined line of conduct ; and the Duke of Alva was com- 
manded to enter the ecclesiastical territories. No soon- 


er had the light troops of his army reached the gates of 
Rome, ned Paul a vomition of arms. To 
this, Alva consented ; and a truce, first for 10, and then 
for 40 days, was concluded, 

Henry entered on the new war with great alacrity 
and vigour. A numerous army, well appointed, was 
placed under the command of the Duke of Guise, who 
was ordered to lose no time in crossing the Alps, and 
advancing into Italy. This he accordingly did, A. D. 
1557. As soon as the Pope heard of the advance of 


represented 
and injustice of sacrificing the undoubted and real 
terests of his country to any rash engagements into 
which he might have entered ; and this tation, 
with an express stipulation that the Roman iff 
should be included in the truce, removed the doubts 


His army 
enters Italy, 
A. D, 1557. 


z 


this powerful army, he threw aside all disguise ; breath- 
ed et ch war and revenge; and became more 
arrogant ever. He probably would not so soon 
have displayed his real character and wishes, had: not 
the Duke of Alva judged it prudent to leave the papal 
territories, and advance to the protection of Naple: 

against which it was supposed the Duke of Guise would 
direct his more immediate and principal efforts. » But 
the latter, though he had been eager for the war, and 
hoped to measure his talents against the Spanish com- 
mander, soon found that he should be able to atchieve 


nothing of im nce. The Pope, though so indig- 
nant against Philip, had neg’ to raise both the pe- 
euniary and military aids, with which he had engaged 
tosupply the F when they entered Italy, and the 


568 


Italian states either a strict neutrality, or 
ly declared for the King of Spain. The of 
ise, however, advanced into Italy, and laid siege to 
Civitella, a town on the frontiers of that kingdom; but 
the Spanigrds soon rendered it necessary for him to 
this enterprize, by threatening Rome, to the 
defence of which he proceeded with a fatigued and dis- 
pirited army. Here he in vain endeavoured to bring 
the Duke of Alva to an pos the latter 
perceiving the rav which fatigue disease were 
making among tie Pasa, carefully avoided a battle; 
and at last the Duke of Guise, mortified and disappoint- 
ed, begged to be recalled. 

No sooner had Philip learnt that the King of France 
had been indoced, by the intrigues of the Pope, to 
break the truce, than he resolved to penetrate into that 
kingdom, and by one vigorous effort to convince Hen 
that he was not to be thus treated with impunity. Wi 
this object in view, he assembled in the Netherlands a 
body of 50,000 men. He exerted his influence over 
his consort, Mary of England, so successfully, that, not- 
withstanding the repugnance of her subjects, she de- 
clared war against France, and sent 10,000 men to as- 
sist his projects against that country ; and he gave the 
command of his army to Emanuel Philibert, Duke of 
Savoy, one of the greatest generals of thatage. Philip 
himself fixed-his head-quarters at Cambray, while the 
Duke, after having kept the French for a considerable 
time in utter ignorance of his views and destination— 
threatening Champagne till he succeeded in drawing 
all their troops in that direction—suddenly marched to 
the right, and invested St Quintin in Picardy. This 
wasa place of considerable strength, but its fortifica- 
tions had not recently been put in a state of repair, and 
a large portion of its garrison had been drawn off to- 
w Champagne. It is probable, therefore, that it 

must soon have surrendered, had not Admiral Coligny 
‘taken the gallant resolution of throwing himself into 
it, with such troops as he could suddenly collect for 
that pu This he accomplished, notwithstanding 
all the circumspection and efforts of the enemy, break- 
ing through their main body with 700 horse and 200_ 
foot. To this hazardous step the admiral was probably 
incited, from the consideration that the town was with- 
in his own immediate jurisdiction. Henry was fully 
sensible of the importance of preserving it, as, if the 
enemy succeeded in taking it, the road to Paris was 
nearly quite o to them. He therefore hastily as- 
sembled a small body of troops, not half the number 
of the army which was besieging it, and gave the com- 
mand of them to the Constable Montmorency. 

This general had hitherto been distinguished, not 
less by his prudence and caution, than by his skill and 
bravery. on this occasion, however, anxious to extri- 
cate his nephew, he conducted himself with fatal rash- 
ness. At first, indeed, his attempt to relieve the town 
was attended with success, for, by approaching the 
camp of the enemy, the brother of Coligny, with 500 
troops, was enabled to force his entrance into the town. 
Here, however, his success ended ; for, in the execu- 
tion of this design, Montmorency had drawn too near 
the entrenchments of the besie, The Duke of Sa- 
voy, always on the alert, advantage of this cir- 
cumstance ; and, as soon as the French general began 
to retire, he pressed on him with superior numbers, In 

Battle of St yain did Montmorency use his utmost endeavours to 


Histery. 
—_—yo 


The Spa- 
hiards in- 
vade 
France. 


Quintin, his men firm and in order. The Count E t. 
1, iak;, at the head of the Duke of Savoy’s cavalry, bende» fo: 


“ious charge, which the French could not withstand ; 


FRANCE. 


their ranks were broken ; and their men at arms, who } 
had hitherto digi. eafea lane) onl. Seem 
courage in the midst of the most imminent. danger, 
sought shelter in a precipitate and disorderly fli : 
soon as the horse gave way, the foot, who had d. 
ed on them for support ion, wa\ : 
second charge decided their fate; they also fled in the ~ 
utmost terror and confusion. Above 4000 peri in 
the field ; and the Constable himself, after in vain en- 
deavouring, by his example and ions, to reani~ 
mate his troops, and to put a stop to their flight, having 
received a s wound, was made prisoner, slong 
with the Dukes of Montpensier and Longueville, an 
the Marshal St Andre. 

Such was the result of the famous battle of St Quin- 
tin, which was fought on the 10th of August 1557. 
The intelligence of it spread consternation and terror Consterma. 
through France, almost to as great a degree as the bat- 5°? it 
tles of Cressy and Agincourt. Already it re eee, ee 

app 15 the - 
inhabitants of which prepared to quit it. In this pe- 
riod of general dismay, the firmness and i benef 
refused to almit the 


Grand Signior was solicited ; the Scots were incited to 
invade the North of England, for the purpose of draw- 
ing off the English troops to the protection of their 
own territory. The ban and arrierban of the frontier 
provinces were called out; and, in short, every mea 
sure was taken which could operate towards the weak- 
ening or distraction of Philip’s forces, or the ic 
of France. When we consider, however, the power 
of Philip, the consternation which pervaded rance, 
and the great loss which she had sustained in the battle 
of St Quintin, it may well be doubted whether all these 
recautions and efforts would have been availing, had 
Phil ursued with alacrity and vigour the advan’ 
which 3 had gained. But he refused to listen to the 
advice of the Duke of Savoy, who strongly and wisely 
urged, that, overlooking all. inferior and intermediate 
objects, they should march, without the smallest de- 
lay, by the shortest route to Paris. The cautious 
temper of Philip, afraid of committing his forces, in 
the heart of France, without a single place to retreat 
to in case of disaster, strongly objected to this plan ; 
and he asked the opinion of his other generals. They, 
easily ascertaining how their monarch was inclined, re~ 
commended that the siege of St Quintin should be con- 
tinued, which, it was supposed, could not now hold 
out many days. In this ex tion they were disap« 
pointed. Coligny, fully sensible that the fate of France 
ly d on his holding out till Henry had 
red sufficient means to oppose the progress of the 
enemy towards Paris, put forth, in a most wonderful 
and successful manner, all the resources of his great 
talents and long sapere For 17 days, he baffled 
the repeated assaults of the Spaniards, English, and 
Flemings ; at length, overwhelmed by superior num- 
bers, the town was carried by storm, and Coligny him- 
self was taken prisoner on the breach. St Quintin was St Quin 
thus taken ; but by this time it was no longer prudent taken. — 
to advance into France, and Philip became sensible that 
he had lost an opportunity that could never be recalled: 
he therefore contented himself with reducing the petty : 
towns of Horn, Catelet, and Noyon, which, with St 


ed ee I ee 


re 


<i 


7 


_— History. 
—~ 


en io 


FRANCE. 


Quintin, were the sole fruits of one of the most deci- 
sive victories which had been gained in the 16th cen- 


Tha batliest accoutst of the fatal blow which France re- 
ceived at the battle of St Quintin, was carried to Rome 
the courier whom Henry dispatched to recal the Duke 
Guise. In vain the Pope remonstrated against the de- 
of the French; the orders sent to the Duke were 

, and admitted of neither modification nor de- 

. Paul, therefore, was obliged to have recourse to the 
influence that he knew he , from his character 
and situation, over the mind of Philip, in order to avert 
the danger to which he was exposed; and so well did he 
work on the superstition of the Spanish monarch, that, 
on. his league 
Philip, on his part, stipulated that the Duke of Alva, 
the proudest 


uF 
‘ 
i 


BPESE 
fre 
HE 


a 
: 
sh 


SEF 
3 
i 
: 
4 
: 
z 


E 


passage 
thstanding its importance in this 
that it was the only town which the 
is ki is i almost 
the whole garrison at the end of autumn, and the mi- 
nisters of Mary had greatly neglected the works. Some 
them, indeed, were so confident as to say, that if 
Ser relate nena would 
defend it wi i 


and the i uacy of its garrison, suddenly in- 
i drove the English fom the ft which pro 

and in eight days made himself master of a 
which Edward ILI. could not take in less 


months. Henry, in order to secure this im- 


: 
FE 
gz 


: 


| 
| 


eri 


j 
d 


t activity, and overtook the French near Grave- 
es De Termes finding a battle unavoidable, pre- 
pared to defend himself with great courage. For some 
time, notwithstanding the great disparity of the forces, 
victory was doubtful ; till at last chance, on this, as on 
many other occasions, decided the fate of arms: A 
squadron of English vessels, which chanced to be off 
the coast, on hearing the cannon, entered the river 
Aa, and turned their guns upon the right wing of the 
French army, which were dispirited by this unexpect- 
ed circumstance, while the Flemings were equally en- 
cou . . The former fled in great disorder ; about. 
2000 were killed on the field of battle ; a greater num-~ 
ber in their flight were put to death by the peasantry ;: 
and the general, with a number of officers of distinc- 
tion, was taken prisoner. This disaster obliged. the 
Duke of Guise to relinquish all his other schemes, and: 
to hasten to the frontiers of Picardy, to oppose the 

of the enemy. About the same time, the 
uke of Savoy effected a junction with the troops un- 
der.the Count of Egmont. As soon as these junctions 
were vely formed, Philip and Henry put them- 
selves at the head of their armies, each commanding 
about 40,000 men ; and being encamped at the. dis- 
tance of a very few leagues, an awful and decisive 
crisis seemed approaching. But both the monarchs were 
weary of war; it had answered the ‘tions of nei- 
ther, while, for half a century, it had exhausted their 
Ha wee kingdoms. Philip was anxious to visit Spain ;. 
and therefore was disposed to listen to pacific overtures. 
The motives and objects which inclined Henry to meet 
the views of Philip were more com naar? He was 
eager to put a to the progress eresy in France, 
His eich the’ Duchess of Valentinois, long re- 
garded, with disgust and displeasure, the haughtiness 
of the Duke of ‘Guise, and of his brother the Cardinal 
of Lorraine ; and, above all things, wished to/oppose 
their measures, and diminish their influence and 
larity. This she could not expect to ocieuiligh. so 
long as the Duke had an ity of adding to: his 
military fame. Peace, therefore, she was bent on bring- 
ing about; and, by her 
was eager to regain his liberty, undertook the intricate: 
and difficult negociation, and the Abbey of Cercamp. 
was fixed upon as the place of congress; the confe- 
rences were afterwards removed to Chateau Cambresis, 
where, in 1559, a definitive treaty was signed. By 


569 


History. 


Battle of 
Gravelines, 
A. D. 1558, 


uasion, Mentmorency, who . 


Treaty of 


this treaty, France restored to the Duke of Savoy the Chateau 
territories which she had taken from him in Piedmont, ©*™*¢sis, 


Savoy, and Bresse. Corsica was given up to the Genoese. 
Hesden, Catelet, and Noyon, were restored to the 
French, who were also suffered to retain Calais, Metz, 
Toul, and Verdun. A separate treaty was, at the same 
time, signed between the King of France and Eliza- 
beth, who now sate on the throne of England, by which 
the former engaged, at the expiration of eight years, 
either to deliver up Calais, or to forfeit the sum of 
500,000’ crowns. : 
In order to facilitate and hasten the: conclusion of 
peace between Spain and France, the Constable Mont- 
pre oo ae two treaties of iage ; one be- 
tween Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of Henry, and 
Philip; the other between ' Henry's: eldest 
sister, and the Duke — Savoy. The part ne 
moreney took in all these arrangements, gave hi t 
weight with the king; while, on the taher had, the 
family of the Guises, fully sensible that their influence 
was on the decline, and during a period of peace, 
4c 


7 A. D. 15595 


History. 
—o 


of 
Calvinism. 


Death of 
Henry. 


Francis I. 
A. D. 1559. 


570 


would possess no opportunity of compensating for 
en dnieation of this influence, by gaining military re- 
nown, and increasing their influence with the nation, 
arraigned the treaty in the most and indecent man- 
ner, as dishonourable and disadvantageous to France. 
But Henry attended not to their complaints ; he was 
too much occupied, either with the Duchess of Valen- 
tinois, who continued to countenance and support Mont- 
morency,,or with taking measures for the su i 
of heresy. Among the most illustrious proselytes to 
the doctrines of Calvin, was D’Andelot, the brother 
of Coligny, and the nephew of the Constable. So deep- 
ly impressed was he with the truth and im ce of 
the opinions that he had embraced, that he dared to 
avow them in the ce of his sovereign. He was 
immediately deprived of his post of general of French 
infantry, committed to close confinement, and restored 
to liberty only on submission, and through the entrea- 
ties of his uncle. So bigotted and blind was the zeal 
of this monarch, that he attempted a ition of the 
Duchess of Ferrara, daughter of Louis XII. who grant- 
ed an lum in her court to the literati, who were 
tin with heterodoxy ; ordered the judges to cause 
all to be arrested as heretics, who should solicit them in 
favour of those who were condemned to death on ac- 
count of their religious opinions; and denounced 
ee capital and the different provinces, his 
firm ination to root out heresy by the most severe 
and violent persecution. 

But these plans of Henry were happily interrupted 
by his death. The Duke of Savoy arrived at Paris 
to espouse the king’s sister. Jousts and tournaments 
were ordered on this occasion: in these dangerous ex- 
ercises Henry excelled. After having broken many 
lances with success, on the last day he was desirous of 


.breaking a lance with the Count de Montgomeri. The 


shock was rude on each side; but the count’s lance 
breaking against the helmet of the count, the latter at- 
tacked Henry with the stump, which entering his eye, 
the monarch fell senseless on the ground. He remained 
in a state of insensibility for eleven days, and then ex- 
pired, in the 16th year of his scien and 45th of his 
age. By his queen, Catharine of Medicis, he left four 
sons ; Francis, who had been married, a few years be- 
fore his father’s death, to Mary queen of Scotland ; 
Charles, Alexander, and Hercules. ThHe’names of the 
two last were afterwards changed to those of Henry 
and Francis. He also left three daughters; Elizabeth, 
queen of Spain; Claude, duchess of Lorraine; and 
Marguerette, who was first queen of Navarre, and after- 
w ueen of France. In some respects, the charac- 
ter of Henry resembled that of his father: like him, 
he was courteous, open, unsuspicious, and beneficent ; 
fond of pleasure ; handsome in his person, and accom- 
plished in the martial exercises of the age; but he 
sessed not either the capacity or the discernment which 
distinguished Francis; and he was naturally so tracta- 
ble and yielding, that he was almost constantly under 
the guidance of his favourites. 

Francis II. was only 16 years of age when he ascend- 
ed the throne of France. His mind and were 
alike feeble, so that he was completely under the influ- 
ence of those who oA him. Unfortunately 
there were about him persons not more remarkable for 
their talents, than from their intrigues, ambition, and 


Character of vices. His mother, Catherine of Medicis, was a wo- 


Catherine 
de Medicis. 


man, bold, enterprising, sagacious ; whose firmness and 
presence of mind were never awed or disconcerted by 
the most formidable or unexpected dangers. Her pes 


FRANCE. 


ed navel of ecdapiabootion taanloege 
i a 

Ponce hee cule Thus powerful in her mental 
endowments, she was not less distinguished by her 
manners, When her interest, or ic circum~ 
— tien cppentl Cigibtiiee and insinuating ; 
and she often aj to gai i 
those from cine shovenplcted pach seer ty: Roce 
when in fact they were the dupe of her superior arti- 
fice, or actually bent before her ing powers of 
mind. Heer disposition was magnificent, her profusion 
excessive ; but she was magnificent and profuse only to 
answer her own p , which, however, had fre- 
quently all the characteristics of greatness, 

tice. 


knowledge, that she most effectually accomplished her 
object. Even to men of learning, notwithstanding her 
political and religious bigotry, a was a pa- 
troness. In short, in her might clearly be traced many of 
those features, both of mind and manners, which cha- 
racterised the most distinguished branches of the fami-« 
ly from which she was sprung. But these grand, and 
even attractive qualities, were strangely intermixed and 
debased by her vices and prejudices. To i 
her views, she did not scruple to overleap the bounds 
of justice, truth, and humanity. She was cruel, ras 
pacious, and deceitful ; it would even seem, from some 
parts of her conduct, that her cruelty was so refined 
and disinterested (if that expression may be allowed), 
that it centered in itself, nor looked to any exterior ob« 
ject, as its own justification or excuse. In her morals, 
she displayed all the profligacy of her nation ; her am- 
bition was without bounds ; it did not even confine it~ 
self to objects grand and comprehensive in their na- 
ture, but could, at times, feed on what was compara- 
tively trifling and insignificant, Such a woman, even 
if she had not stood in the relation of mother to the 
young king, must have possessed t influence over 
is mind ; and even during the life of her husband, 
she had been preparing herself for the exercise of power. 
No person was more deeply sensible of the im 
of the maxim, of dividing in order to govern; and no 
person ever acted more systematieally on that maxim. © 
, She soon had occasion to act on this maxim; for the 
weakness of Francis afforded opportunity for intrigue, 
and opened the way to the rule of the om. e 


family of the Guises were bp tes to Catherine de 
Medicis, most distinguished at period for their ta- 
lents and ambition : there were five brothers of them, 
The Duke of Guise himself; the Cardinal of Lorraine ; 
the Duke of Aumale ; the Cardinal of Guise ; the Mar- 
quis of Elbeuf, and the Grand Prior ; they were all men 
of ambition, and who rey ee: the greatest mili- 
tary and political talents, in order to acquire the highest 
power in the state. As they were uncles to the Queen 
of Scotland, and had Rat oneness the marriage between 
her and Francis, they had easy access to his and 
influence over his mind and feelings: nor were 
without considerable influence with the mass of 

the nation. The Duke of Guise himself was 


formed, when he was led from Italy ; and if 
left any doubt respecting his military talents and skill, 


they were completely removed by the recollection of — 


his defence of Metz. But he trusted for his po — 
not merely to what he had atchieved as a scliier's or 


Of the arts and sciences, even emidse the hors 


regarded: Character 
as the saviour of France by the deeds which he had per- he ; 


History. 
-—o 


Duke 


of 
of 


t 


* 


, 


FRANCE. 
yet such were the attractions of his manners and cha- History. 


: 
: 
@ 


Fa 
ve 
2 
i 3 
2 
z 


1 


and treated as sac an in- 
iption, he condescended not only 


i 
g 


and « 


at 
Hi 


g 
; 
i 
Z 
: 
s 
f 
e 
s 
z 


Z 
i 


: 
: 


by his zeal for religion, than for 
manners which we have described: and 


a 
BF 
st 
8 

1 

Z 
g 


him. Even in those days of church authority, 
and of and unbending , this prelate was 
by the clergy, as the of their 


“ftheCon- The Constable Montmorency and his family were 


not condescend, like the Duke of Guise, to gain that 
influence, by the affability of his manners, which he 
thought ou: A Boe ser gests reward, ep 
consequence, of his high bi great services, un- 
talents. ae it be Sn oor respects, 

oehen hares 


tee 
wu 


g 

F 

r 

: 
t 
if 

2 

e 4 


L 
i 

i 
af 
f 

aH 


is 


i 
i 
z 
ff 
: 
? 


571 


racter, that he received from the ladies of the court of 
France, the most flattering proofs of their affection. 
His courage was undoubted; and though his income 
was narrow, yet his magnificence and liberality were 
great. His talents, though not perhaps of the first 
order, were by no means despicable ; but what dis- 
tinguished him particularly, was an attachment to the 
reformed religion, not merely ardent and zealous, but 
pure and enlightened. In vain were the allurements 
of pleasure, and the higher and more splendid rewards 
of ambition, employed to entice him from his religious 
principles and professions: he was firm and unbend- 
ing; and when they called upon him for action or 
sacrifice, he was always ready. To the Duke of Guise 
he was an open and formidable rival, not more from 
the similarity of their character 7 objects in some 

, than from the ite religi sentiments 
which th ively embraced. 


vely em! 
The Advniral Coligny was brave, generous, and sin- of eae 


cere. His first and most darling wish was, to secure li- }: 
berty of conscience for himself and his brethren of the 
reformed religion. Could he have secured this, he would 
ingly have withdrawn himself from public life ; 
but while this was unattained; he regarded it as his 
paramount duty to stand forward, as the isgui 
and enthusiastic champion of what he was convinced 
was the truth. ris 
The ties of iament waited on Francis, soon 
after ngs i wre to express their duty 
and iance to his person: on this occasion he in- 
formed them, that he had thought to assign to 
the Duke of Guise the supreme administration of the 
military department, and to the Cardinal of Lorraine 
the aoe administration of the finances, at the same 
time Constable Montmorency was dismissed from 
his office of master of the household to his seat at Chan- 
tilly ; and the King of Navarre, with his brother the 
Prince of Condé, were received at court in a cold and 
disrespectful manner. The former was soon afterwards 
persuaded by Catherine de Medicis to leave Paris, and 
to take up his abode in Bearn, under the vain hope 
that he might recover his former dominions by nego- 


ciation, 
As soon as the King of Navarre had left Paris, the 
measures and plans of the Guises and Catherine 
to unfold themselves, An edict was published, forbid- 
penn person to carry fire-arms, or to wear any dresa 
fav le to the concealment of such weapons. Ano- 
ther regulation was adopted, which declared that no 
should hold two situations at the same time. 
object of this was undoubtedly the Admiral Colig- 
ny, who immediately resigned the government of Bi. 
cardy, which was given to the Marshal Brisac, notwith- 
standing the Prince of Condé endeavoured to obtain it. 
The Duke of Guise, at the same time, was appointed 
Master of the Household. 


As all these measures were preparatory to the per‘se- p f 
cution of the Protestants, it may be proper to take a ret Calvinism, 


trospective view of the origin and oo of the re- 


formed religion in France under Francis I. As’ has 
been already noticed, the new doctrine had great- 
ly at court,.as well as in the capital an ivinces, 

Christian Institutes of Calvin were dedicated to 


that king. His sister, the Queen of Navarre, protected 
his disciples, while they were persecuted by the clergy 


and the —— t. e spirit of the new religion was 

incre: and invigorated, and the numbers hp pirale: 

sed it were greatly augmented, by the massacre of Ca- 
4 


572 


brieres and Merindol, and by the executions which were 
i ipli “: Il. Thus, at the ac- 


wide footing, and could count among its professors, se- 
veral of great talents and influence, O Admieal Cor 
ligny, and his brother D’Andelot, and Cardinal Chatil- 
lon, were firm friends to a reformation ; and the Prince 
of Condé inclined to the same side. The court, on the 


passengers to put money into little boxes, for the ex- 
pence of the Diumination. If a man did not bow to 
these i , and with marks of reverence, while 
the people wer paying this worship, he was either 
down, d to prison, or insulted, These, 
however, were trifling evils, to which the Protestants 
were Courts of ecclesiastical judicature, in- 
vested with inquisitorial powers, were erected, denomi- 
nated Chambres Ardentes, from the severity of their pu- 
nishments. To these the cognizance of heresy was en- 
trusted. The strictest search was made to discover of- 
fenders; and as the Protestants, in order to conceal 
themselves, were obliged to meet by night, they were 
4 with committing in these assemblies the most 
ul crimes. Thus goaded on to resistance, they 


only waited for a fit nity and season to protect 
themselves by force of arms; and this was soon sup- 
plied them by the mixture of folly and wickedness 


which the court displayed. In ; Srumeanenes “hes  ° 
peace, great numbers troo} nm dis! ed, 
without receiving what they oneal due for their 
services. They therefore came up to Paris, and applied 
to the Cardinal of Lorraine, as Minister of the Finances. 
He treated them with insult, unwilling or unable to 
satisfy their demands; and when they again importu- 
ned him, he commanded them to retire, on pain of be- 
ing instantly hung upon a gallows, which had or- 
dered to be erected for that purpose. By this foolish 
and harsh behaviour, these soldiers were totally aliena- 
ted from the house of Guise, to which the military ta- 
lents and success, as well as the popular character of 


the Duke, had hitherto attached them; and they uni- 


Conspiracy 


of Amboise. 


ted themselves with the Protestants. 

Soon after this, the conspiracy of Amboise was form- 
ed, Of this the Prince of Condé-was the invisible mover, 
and La Renaudie, a Protestant gentleman, the open and 
avowed author. The latter was a man of ancient fami- 
ly, but of ruined fortune: he had lost a law-suit, and 
been condemned to banishment for having produced 
fictitious titles. At Geneva and Lausanne, he imbibed 
the doctrines of the Reformation ; and afterwards, un- 
der a feigned name, he traversed the different provin- 
ces of France, for the purpose of rousing the Protestants 
against the Duke of Eniine. At length he appointed a 
os rendezvous at Nantes, where the parliament of 

ittany was at that time sitting; and anowe, 209. ge" 
tlemen of fortune and family, from various the 
kingdom, attended the summons. Before he laid 

his plan for carrying off the Guises from Amboise, 
w the Court then resided; to set the Prince of 
Condé at the head of affairs, and to secure liberty of 
conscience. The day was fixed for the execution of 
this design, and the measures so well concerted, that 


gained a firm and ~ 


FRANCE. 


8 , from the utionary measures adopted 
the court, that his plan was known, resolved to. “a 
vere in its execution ; and several small bands 
spirators, marching only by night, succeeded in reach« 
ing, undiscovered, the gates of the castle of Amboise. 
Here, however, were repulsed, and 
by the inhabitants, at the head of whom 
uise had placed himself. The Baron of Chatelnau, at 
the head of a considerable number of Calvinists, shut 
himself up in the castle of Noissy, where he was attack. 
ed by the Duke of Nemours, to whom, 
that the lives of himself and his associates should be 
spared, he soon surrendered himself. As soon as Re« 
naudie was informed of the us situation of Cha- 
telnau, he put himself at the head of a few men, as des- 
as himself, with the intention of either i 
wy nd ishi 
met by opposi . 
persis action took place; but Renaudie’s companions 


the commander of the cavalry, and thrusting a poinard 
through his vizor, laid him upon the spot. He 
himself was afterwards shot, and died i 


rately to the last. His body was publicly exposed on 
a gibbet, and a label affixed to it, with the inscription, 
Clg ashe Leas : q ; 

, e fate of Renaudie produced not the effects which 


enmity of the 
r ery ion was held out to 
im, to name the Prince of Condé as his accomplice ; 
but though a declaration to that effect had been extort- 
of Som. oon nions, he’ he gps the asper- 
sion, and to the moment is life, proclaimed the 
aa a ee Ne EOS 
prince now ight himse 

to vindicate his honour, which he did in the presence 
of the king, offering to maintain it, in single combat, 
against his accuser. It could not possibly be mistaken 
t he pointed at the Duke of Guise ; but the Duke 
ising the conduct of 


eluded the challenge, warmly 
is second against any 


the prince, and offering to be 

an ist. In private, however, he strongly urged 
the king to secure a chief, who was so formidable, on 
account of his birth, talents, and enterprize. Francis, 
easily led, and sensible of the danger to which he 
might be from the intrigues of the prince, 
seemed disposed to have listened to this advice; but at 
this period, in consequence of the death of the Chancel~ 
lor Olivier, and the succession of Michael De ag 
tal to that office, the power of the Guises suffered a de- 
cline ; for the new chancellor, being a man of cool tem- 
per, great abilities, and a friend rather to his king and 
country than to any of the parties which then endea- 
voured to gain an ascendency over them, pointed out, 
Bere a Reape 
ger o' ises acquiring a permanent 
ascendency, and advised ig to follow that temporising 


; . . FRANCE. 
"History. system of policy, to which she was. so naturally incli- 


“~~ ned by her disposition, and so happily adapted by her 


_ General as- 


et) 


OF PRE OS er eR ae) Aw 


i 


habits and talents. In consequence of this advice, Ca- 
therine lent her support secretly to the Prince of 
Condé and the Protestants. 


lence, and Marilla, Archbisho of Vienne, spoke with 

ergy against the abuses which occasioned so many 
troubles and disorders ; exposed the vices of the court 
of Rome—the i and corruption of the French 


At the same time, while they, in this bold 
and liberal manner, advocated the cause of truth, and 
denounced the vicious and corrupt, they condemned 
the seditious religionists, and insisted on the necessity 
of ing and curbing them, marking the distinc- 
tion, wever, between those 


jedices ; but unfortunately they conducted 


573 


warmth, that no council should foree or influence him History. 


to change his religion. The Cardinal of Lorraine fol- 
lowed and supported his brother, denying the imputa- 
tions which Coligny had cast on the opinions and prac- 
tices of the church, strongly insisting on the necessity 
and sacred obligation of extirpating error by the secu- 
lar power, and branding as seditious the advice which 
Coligny had given. The opinions of the Guises would 
probably have been carried into full effect, had not 
Catherine of Medicis considered it as her best poli 
to check their violence, and to use her influence wi 
the king to countenance, at least, the advice of Coligny 
and his party. Francis therefore declared his intention 
of convoking the states in the ensuing December, and 
thus breathing time was given to the Protestants. 

It was evidently their policy to keep well with Ca- 
therine of Medicis ; and this they could only effect by 
not alarming either her ambition or her religious pre« 
emselves 
In such a manner as to excite her hatred, and to induce 
her again to unite herself with the Guises: For the 
King of Navarre and the Prince of Conde concerted 
measures to deprive the Guises of their power and in- 
fluence before the states assembled ; and even laid a 
plan* for surprising the city of Lyons, This plan 
reached Catherine, who, regarding it as proceeding’ 
from a spirit which looked farther the mere over- 
throw of ‘the Guises, took the alarm, and, by the in« 
terception of some letters, completely defeated the ex- 
ecution of it. 

In the mean time, the period for the assembly of the 
states drew near. It had been originally-appointed to 
be held at Meaux, but it was afterwards transferred to 
Orleans. Hither the king, now in a very dangerous 
state of health, , with a guard of 1000 caval- 


ry. The King of Navarre, and his brother the Prince Danger of 
of Condé, were invited to attend, with the strongest the King of 
assurances, not only that they should be safe, but that Navarreand 


people saw them maintained in the 
by men of estimable character and 
isting on the ne- 


his subjects, or the object of dread to them. He 
repeating his opinion, that the king’s 


ive, but practical errors from the church. If 
hese things were done sincerely and effectually, the 
king would gain the affections of his subjects, the 
nation would be peaceable and happy, and real religi 
would flourish and influence the conduct of all. i 
kK ae sa saecoranieal, 90 much in character, called up 
Duke of Guise, w urposely misrepresented the 
advice and wishes of Coligny, declaring, with much 


such measures would be adopted at this assembly as 
would satisfy them, and please the Protestants. At first 
they were icious of the machinations of the Guises, 
but at last they resolved to obey the summons. In 
the course of their journey, were darkly and mys-« 
teriously informed of some r that threatened 
them ; but justly concluding, that if they discovered 


suspicion or alarm, or if returned instead of pro- 
ceeding, they might ly expose themselves to 
still r risk, they resolved to on to Orleans. 


Indeed, they beheld before, behind, and on all sides of 
them, — of men stationed there under various pre- 
texts, but whom they had just reason to apprehend 
were instructed to intercept their retreat or flight. 
When they arrived at Orleans, the king at first treat- 
ed them with great coldness and indifference ; but this 
behaviour was soon changed, and succeeded by the 
most violent reproaches, and such accusations as left 
them no doubt that they had acted imprudently in at- 
tending the assembly. Beterelin the Duke of Guise and 
the Cardinal of Lorraine the king was seated ; around 
him were eo ee of his guards. On the Prince 
of Condé he f a look as full of determination and 
meaning as he could well call up, and accused him of 
having attempted to seize on the principal cities in 
France, and even of having plotted to away his 
life and that of his brother’s, This accusation, so un- 
ted, and brought forward at atime and in a place 
which bespoke a determination to throw aside all re. 
gard to justice and innocence, by no means daunted the 
intrepid Condé, He protested that he was guiltless of 


Hintery. 
— 


aved by the 
death of 


Francis. 


574 
the crime laid to his 
his cape ce. To this 
would be necessary to 
justice. On this, the King of Navarre was conducted 
to an adjoining apartment, where, however, he was al- 
lowed the liberty of conversation ; but the Prince of 
Condé was strictly confined, and with such precautions 
plein indicated that it was resolved to take away his 

ife. The Protestants immediately took the alarm ; but 
the Guises were afraid to to extremities too 
suddenly ; and the admiral, though he remained at Or- 
leans, was unmolested. His brother D’Andilot, some 
time before, icious of the treachery of the Guises, 
had withdrawn into Brittany. 

The chancellor and five judges were appointed to in- 

terrogate the Prince of Condé in prison ; but-he refused 


¢, and he offered to e 
er Francis replied, that it 


}to answer to their questions, and boldly demanded to 


be tried in the most public manner. This, he said; he 
claimed as due to his dignity and rank, not less than to 
his innocence. Catherine of Medicis, by whose advice, 
or at Jeast with whose concurrence, the king had taken 
these steps, and who, at first, with her characteristic 
duplicity, affected to deplore the violence which she 
herself consented to, soon discovered the error she 
had committed, in uniting herself too closely with the 
Princes of Lorraine, and in destroying that ce of 
parties most favourable to the success of her own in- 
trigues, and to her own views and interest: But she 

gone too far to recede; and the fate of Condé 
seemed inevitable, when he was preserved by the 
death of the king. Francis, on his return from the 
chace, was seized with a violent pain in his ear; in a 
short time an imposthume was formed, and the surgeons 
declared that nothing could save him. The Duke of 
Guise and the Cardinal of Lorraine thus beholding 
their power, in all probability, drawing to a conclusion, 
while the very same cause must preserve the life of 
their rival, hurried on the process in a most shameful 
and indecent manner, neglecting even the forms of 
justice. As the judges were entirely under their in- 
fluence, they found him guilty without the slightest he- 
sitation; and he was condemned to have his head 
struck off on a scaffold before the apartment of the 


king. 

"Before, however, the execution could take place, it 
was indispensably that the signature of the 
chancellor should be put to the order for that purpose. 
De l'Hospital was a man always averse to violent 
measures ; and in this case, as the king’s death was ex- 
pected every hour, he was reasonably afraid lest he 
should be called to account if he lent the authority of 
his official character to the execution of such an unjust 
and illegal sentence. The Guises in vain appealed to 
Francis; he was now too weak to understand what 
they wanted ; and even while they were urging him 
to issue his orders to the chancellor to affix his signa- 
ture to the warrant for their rival's death, he breathed 
his last. Thus was the Prince of Condé snatched from 
the very jaws of destruction. The character of Francis 
was not marked by any strong or discriminating fea- 
tures; nor could it i be expected, when we re- 
flect on his extreme youth—on the manner in which 
that youth had been t—and on the talents and in- 
trigues of those by w he was constantly surround- 
ed, and who, however they might differ among them- 
selves, took especial care that the king should never 
think or act for himself. His death opened up a new 
scene for intrigue and ambition ; and so eagerly were 


Catherine and the Princes of Lorraine engaged in secu. 


by the usual modes of go 


FRANCE. 


then only ten years of age. extreme youth 
son afforded Cahetine-tetctigla field for her powers of 
ambition and pt She was resolved not to com- 
mit the management of Charles to any person, but to 
wield herself the whole machine of ponent at the 
same time she was fully aware, that her power would 
nap he soaneeeeyeeeatee unless she acted on her fa- 
vourite maxim, divide and govern. After, therefore, she 
had obtained for herself the i t of to 
her son, Pen eg ay an niet cab ers of the 
i re ies in the state. The King of Navarre was 
Sian Leebeneneigenatal of the hingilan ; the sentence 
against Condé was annulled, and he was pronounced in- 
nocent ; the constable Montmorency was recalled to 
court ; and thus the princes of Lorraine, se they 
still enjoyed high offices and great power, found a coun- 
terpoise to the weight of their influence. To this e, 
Catherine gave the name of the Triumvirate. 
short time, however, she began to dread the effects of 


that which she had taken such pains to accomplish ; “* Medicis 


and her endeavours were now directed to weaken the 
force, and divide the interests of the three t parties, 
With this view, she tempted the King of Navarre, by 
the charms of one of her maids of honour, to renounce 
his claim to the regency as first prince of the blood ; and 
she deceived Coligny: by the protection she afforded to 
the doctrines and followers of Calvin. This conduct 
alarmed or disgusted the other branches of the Triumvi~ 
rate, who, in their turn, used their efforts to weaken 
and divide the party of the Queen. The King of Na-« 
varre, always vacillating and inconstant, was soon drawn 
over, by the vain promise of receiving the island of Sar- 
dinia as a compensation for his kingdom of Navarre. 

In the mean time, the States- 
1560, at Orleans ; but their labours were of no effect 
in tranquillizi 
third estate the nobility concurred in demanding 
the reform of the clergy, to whose ignorance and vice 
they ascribed not only the rapid spread of Calvinism, 
but all the evils which afflicted the nation. The cler~ 
gy, however, as might naturally be expected, proclaim 
ed their own innocence, and ascribed the growth of 
Calvinism, and the distracted state of the country, to 
the love of innovation. Catherine, always attentive to 
her own schemes, having at this time professed her de- 
sire that the Calvinists should be protected, and even 
displayed some sym of favouring their doctrine, 
p the expedient of a conference between them 
and the Catholics. The cardinal of Lorraine, filled with 
vanity, and not doubting that at this conference he 
should for ever silence the sup’ of the new doc- 
trine, willingly consented to 


fee ie. Soma ts Sar a and in in- 
creasing persecutin irit Catholics, and the 
zeal of the Calvinists, © he cardinal of Lorraine, and 
Theodore Beza, were the principal disputants. Lai- 
nez, the second general of the order of the Jesuits, and 
the principal author of their regulations, was sent by 
Pope Pius IV. to attend this conference ; but the vio- 
lence and persecuting ee which he manifested in his 
harangues, alarmed and displeast Catherine, who, at 
this time, deemed it her policy to keep her bi un- 
der the management of her ambition. In , hows 


na Conduct of 


general again met, in Meeting of 
" the States. 
the nation. At this assembly, the general. 


is scheme. In 1561, conference 
therefore, the famous conference of Paissi was held, of Paissi, 
which terminated, as might have been anticipated, in A. D. 1561. 


' 
i 


- 


mrs a, 


, she 


: ight not be 
‘History. ever, that her orthodoxy might n ee 


to the establishment of a college 


country, and not in any 
kingdom. 


were insulted, and they 
turn insulted the Protestants. At this critical juncture, 
it happened that the Duke of Guise, on his j to 


ing that the law was on thei side, 
ants with stones. The Duke, as soon as he learnt what 
was goi on, hastened to the spot, and, in his attemp 
dispute, he was wounded in the face. 
servants, enraged at this, drew their swords, and killed 
* and wounded above 250 of the Protestants. As soon 
as the tumult was over, the Duke of Guise severely re- 


primanded hrc te of the place, for 
the assemblies of obetsiae tebe hala domes and 


tisfaction from the court. Catherine was puzzled how 
she resolved to promise him the 
uired, well knowing that her promise 
would be futile by the remonstrances and op- 
position of the King of Navarre and the Triumvirate. 
So it happened ; they openly refused to obey her com- 
mands ; and they were strengthened in their refusal, by 
the arrival of the Duke of Guise at Paris with 1200 ca- 
valry. Catherine now became seriously alarmed for 
her own safety, and for the continuance of her power 
over the King. She therefore made a forcible appeal to 
rege fi poryis : aferding bins the pees 
ign from captivity, i i 
Secies Wa ated Ser bo ors his ammovinton, The Triam- 


Tint cing oth cn, thy wie 
ino’s Tescue him from vinists, sei is , and 
secon = conducted him, and his indignant mother, who vainly 
seized. lamented the of her own machinations, 
first to Melun, and ards to the capital. 
inning Such was the beginning of the civil wars, that deso- 
of the civil lated and wi France for so long a period of time. 
wars, 


The Prince of Condé having consulted with the admi- 
t himself at the head of 2000 cavalry, pushed for- 
ward, and made himself master-of Orleans, 

ing established his head-quarters, it became 


for him to his cause by every means in his 
er. His first object was to quiet the icions of 
rie Catholics in France as much as possible. With this 


view, he declared that he had taken up arms, to relieve 
the and his mother from captivity. He next dis- 
ved messengers into Germany, to solicit the aid of 
Protestant brethren ; and he gave up Havre to Eli- 
zabeth, Queen of England, in order to obtain her as- 


FRANCE. 


575 


sistance. The chancellor De l’Hospital made an attempt History. 
to prevent the dreadful evils of eae war ; ee iat, Gases 
failing, both parties prepared for hostilities. e Ca- 
tholie army was first in a condition to take the field; 
and after plundering Blois, Tours, and Bourges, it sat 
down before Rouen. This place was occupied by a gar- 
rison under the command of that Montgomery, who had 
been the innocent cause of the death pe | Il. In 
eonsequence of his having been pursued by the impla- 
cable resentment of Catherine, he had taken refuge in 
England, where he had embraced the reformed religion, 
from which country he had returned as soon as the 
civil war commenced. His courage naturally great, 
and his talents and experience by no means of an ordi- ° 
description, were called into full action on this oc- 

casion ; and the inhabitants, encouraged by his exam- 
ple, refused all offers of capitulation. At last, after a 
most obstinate defence, the city was taken by assault. 
Mon escaped with a few companions in a boat, 
but the inhabitants suffered every species of outrage 
which an enraged soldiery could inflict. In the course 
of the siege, the King of Navarre received a wound, 
which soon afterwards caused his death. 

The Prince of Condé hitherto had not been able to 
act offensively ; but having now been joined by 12,000 
men from Germany, he attempted to surprise Paris ; 
but not succeeding, he retired into Normandy. In his 
retreat, he was pursued by the Catholic army, which 
came up to him at Draix. Here, in 1563, the first civil Battle of 
battle took place, and it was fought with the rancorous Draix, 
Pesci Renae always fatally distinguishes civil wars. A.D. 1563. 
In the beginning of the engagement, nothing could 
withstand the impetuous charge of the Protestants ; and 
the Constable Montmorency having been wounded, was 
taken prisoner. But the Duke of Guise, by his calm 
and cireumspect courage, more than compensated for 
these disasters. The Protestants, in their of 
pursuit, had weakened their line: on it the Duke fell 
suddenly, and with great force. The Prince of Condé, 
being dismounted and surrounded, was obliged to sur- 
render to the second son of the constable. The com- 
mand now devolved on Coligny, and it required all his 
talents, and the animating example of his courage, to 
rally his , and conduct them, before a superior 
force, oe preg eere 4 

Althoug mother, in consequence of this 
victory, was fully sensible that the ‘talus of the 
Princes of Lorraine was become much more formidable 
than it had ever been before, yet the military talents 
of the Duke had been so conspicuously displayed in at- 
chieving it, that she found herself under the necessity 
of ing on him the chief command of the army, 
with which, indeed, he had been already invested by 
the tumultuous acclamations of the soldiers. The 
ture of Orleans was the next object at which the Duke 
aimed. Coligny, having i into Normandy in order 
to receive the supplies which he expected cL, ae 
land, had left in city his brother D’Andelot wit 
2000 of his troops, with instructions to defend it to the 
last extremity. These orders, the Duke, from the tried 
valour of D’Andelot, had every reason to conclude 
would be obeyed in their fullest sense ; but he was ra- 
ther urged on than intimidated by this consideration. 
In lessthan a month, he had made himself master of 
the bridge across the Loire, and of the suburbs ; and 
the fate of Orleans seemed at hand, when the duke was Assassina- 
assassinated by a gentleman ofthe name of Poltrot. In tion of the 
his last moments, he exhorted Catherine to extinguish Duke of 
the civil war, which was just begun: he lamented the SU 


576 FRANCE. 


History. massacre of Viessy as the cause of it, but declared, that, 
vr" with respect to it, he was completely innocent ; and he 
recommended to his eldest son, Henry, an inviolable 


conveniences of a siege, marched forth at the head of Battle of 
attachment to his so The 


Treaty with 


The command of the army before Orleans was given, 


the Pro on the death of the Duke, to the Marshal Brisac ; but 


Ces mares, 


A. D. 1564. 


Apprehen- 
sion of the 
Protestants. 


Catherine, at the same time, discovering a wish for 
peace, the terms were soon settled by the constable 
and the Prince of Condé. By this treaty, the free ex- 
ercise of their religion was ted to the Protestants, 
on condition that they laid down their arms, gave up 
the places which they occupied, and renounced their 
alliance with England. 

In 1564, Catherine having obliged the parliament of 
Paris to declare the regal authority at an end, though 
Charles had not yet completed his 14th year, made a 
progress through France, along with him, under the 
pees of ascertaining its state and resources. At 

yonne, they were met by the Queen of Spain, sister 
to Charles, and by the Duke of Alva. A long and mys- 
terious conference took place, which, it is said, was 
held at the solicitation of the Pope. Every thing was 
conducted in the most private manner ; but when the 
Protestants considered the character of the Duke of 
Alva, and of his master the King of Spain, both avow- 
ed and most bitter enemies to their religion, and the 
duplicity of Catherine, they were filled with alarm and 
suspicion. Their apprehension of impending danger 
was further increased, by the conduct of the Catholic 

istrates towards them, who, in direct and open vio- 
lation of the edict which had recently passed, securing 
them the free exercise of their religion, threw every 
obstacle in the way of their assemblies, and rather en- 
than restrained the populace in insulting 
them. In this state of apprehension, they had recourse 
to the Prince of Condé; but he, either from prudential 
motives, or because he still hoped to be appointed lieu- 
tenant-general of the kingdom, strongly advised them 
to suffer quietly. This they did for nearly two years, 
till the prince, perceiving that the court was not sin- 
cere in its conduct towards him, and that it was only 
waiting for a fit opportunity to crush effectually and for 
ever the Protestants, determined to have again recourse 
to arms. Catherine had hoped that her measures were 
so well concerted, and at the same time kept so secret, 
that the Protestants would not proceed to open violence, 
at least till she was fully prepared to resist and over- 
whelm them. She was therefore surprised and asto- 
nished, when she learnt that the ruin which she had 
plotted against them, was likely to fall on herself and 
on her party. The king, Catherine, and the ministers, 
— Fe _ thee at Monceau, when she was informed 
at the Prince of Condé was ring to march against 
that place, for the purpose’ of sizing the person of 
Charles, She therefore hastily retired with him into 
Meaux, and afterwards to Paris. On his way from 
Meaux to the cope, he was surrounded and protect- 
ed by a body of 6000 Swiss troops. Scarcely had. he 
proceeded two leagues, before the Prince of Condé ap- 
peared in sight at the head of 200 cavalry. The Con- 
stable Montmorency, upon this, sent the monarch for- 
ward by private roads to Paris, under the escort of a 
body of cavalry, and with the remainder of the troops 
succeeded in repulsing the Prince, Thus was a second 
eivil war begun. 


Second civil. Condé bemg thus deceived in his hope of seizing the 


wer. 


king, to St Denis, which he occupied, and 
thus cut off the supplies of the capital. Upon this, the 
constable, notwithstanding he was anxious cautiously 


three hours 
courageously such superior numbers, til 


were com 


by no means declined 


e@ was wi 
and at the advanced age of 75, fought with all the ar- 
dour of a youngman, | ; 
Condé was not dismayed by this defeat ; but, having 
collected his dispersed troops, and having received a 
strong reinforcement of German Protestants, he ai 
peared again in the field, at the head of a formidable 
army. He even again blocked up the capital, and at~ 
tempted to possess himself of the suburbs; but being 
foiled in this, he traversed the est part of the king~ 
dom, and at last laid siege to C a place of mu 
importance. While he was before this city, terms of 
accommodation were proposed by the court, and ac- 
cepted by Condé. They were similar to those former- 
ly granted, and produced rather a suspension of hosti- 
lities than a renewal of peace. 


The character of Charles now began to unfold itself ; Character 
and it was such as might have been anticipated from Charles. 


the principles in which he had been brought up,—the 
maxims which his mother had inculeated,—the exam- 
ple which she had set before them,—and the circum- 
stances of the kingdom, both political and religious, in 
which he had passed his youth. He was a thoro 
adept in the art of dissimulation, which indeed he car- 
vied to such an extent, that though his bi 

tred of the Protestants was extreme, he 
even those feelings, when it was 


conceal 
so to do, for 


the accomplishment of his wishes or purposes. He was * 


r after glory; but even this eagerness bore the 
prs of his bigotry ; for, instead of looking beyond his 
own kingdom for the acquisition of it, he contented 
himself with that glory which could be derived from 
overwhelming the Protestants: and, unlike aman whose 
love of glory excludes every thing that is mean or dis- 
honourable, he often preferred the gratification of his 
bigotted and persecuting spirit, to a fair and open com- 
petition with the Protestants in the field of battle. On 
the death of Mepimoreerss being a Pag to bestow 
the office of constable on his brother » he replied, 
«I want no person to carry my sword ; I will carry it 
myself:” by these words not only displaying his own 
character, but intimating that he thought the office of 
constable conferred too much power on the person who 
bore it. The treaty which had been concluded, was 
not likely to be of long duration: in fact, neither party 
were sincere. The Prince of Condé had acceded to it, 
because he was unable to satisfy the demands of his 
German auxiliaries ; and the court party, because they 
clwexe preferred intrigue and dissimulation to op: 


ity. In less than six months after it was conclu- 


and ha- 


ded, Catherine laid a plot for seizing the Prince of Plo 


Condé and Admiral Coli 


ir partisans to their assistance. To this place the 
Protestants resorted in great numbers; among the rest, 
Jane, Queen of Navarre, with her infant son, after, 
wards Henry IV. In vain did the Chancellor De I'Hos- 
pital endeavour to avert a civil war; his advice and 
remmonstrances were neglected ; he was dismissed from 
his office ; and the were given to the Bishop of 


. They received intelli. Condé 
ce of their danger, fled to Rochelle, and summoned ©°ligny-. 


« 


History. 


—\— jou, brother to the ki 


Battle of 
Jarnac, 
A. D. 1569. 


Battle of 
Montcon- 


cour, 
A. D. 1569 


FRA 


Catholic. The Duke of An- 

g, though little more than 16 
ars of age, was appointed lieutenant-general of the 

i ; and along with him was sent to the arm 

the Tavannes, a man of great military eupedt- 
‘ence and reputation. In the mean time, the Prince of 
Condé was not idle. Having received money and am- 
munition, he marched to Soissons, in order to meet 
the reinforcements which he expected from Germany. — 
As it was of the utmost ence that the prince 
should be attacked before he was reinforced, the Catho- 
lic army rapidly advanced for this purpose, and suc- 
ceeded in overtaking them on the banks of the Charen- 
ti, at Jarnac, a small village in the province of Angou- 
mois. The Protestants were , and they were 
inferior in numbers ; yet, for upwards of seven hours, 
fought with the utmost steadiness and bravery. 

The Prince of Condé’s arm was in a scarf, in conse- 
quence of a wound received in a former action; and 


Orleans, a most bi; 


just as the battle was beginning, his leg was accidental- 
ip teckel by the horse of his brother-in-law: notwith- 


standing all this, he betrayed no symptoms of pain or 
uneasiness, but, retaining his wonted dignity and pre- 
sence of mind, he thus addressed those who immediate- 
ly surrounded him: “ Nobility of France,—know that 
the Prince of Condé, with an arm ina scarf, and a leg 
broken, fears not to give battle, since you attend him.” 
At last, after the Prince himself, Coligny, D’Andelot, 
Montgomery, and Rochefoucault, vied with each 
other in displays of skill and valour, the Protestants 
wabdoocisitaa’ te yield. The Prince alone, incapable 
of flight, covered with wounds, and exhausted with 
fatigue, was surrounded and taken prisoner,’ and after- 
wards killed in cold blood by a captain of the Duke of 
Anjou's guard. 
Protestants, defeated, were not dispirited, 
and the resources of the fertile mind of Coligny were 
called into immediate and full action on this occasion. 
He collected the scattered troops, took such measures 
for their security and ion as he deemed most pro- 
and necessary, and succeeded in reaching Poitou. 
Ficbele was joined 22 es Queen y Pha wi with 
such troops as he collect ; an oung son 
H p presented So-thid ining,  endcpesived wiekt uhi- 
versal acclamations, was declared ge , dong with 
‘his cousin the youug Prince of Cor ris J 
Coligny, who still exercised the actual command and 
direction of the forces, being strengthened by some 
German auxiliaries, again took the field, obliged the 
picmtael yt oe to retreat, and invested Poitiers. Into 
this place, young Duke of Guise, recollecting the 
lory which his father had acquired by his defence of 
Siete; Ind ‘thrown bedulself; ond ankesecdd the gar- 
rison, by his valour and conduct, to a most resolute de- 
fence. In the mean time, the Duke of Anjou advan- 
ced witha powerful army; andColigny thus threatened, 
preset 7 Fale Sean of reducing Poi- 
tiers, xd the siege. He would have also care- 
fully avoided a battle ; but as he was incapable of satis- 
phe Sap tages ee pe German auxiliaries, he was 
é necessity of fighting ‘while ’ 
with him, lest on their departure cee! 
ata er rm disadvantage. 
which led to the battle of Montconcour. — 
a of the yee er ay was 
Catholics, and the superior discipline of the Swiss, 
~— : maphoag samt: paw Sy de  beginni 
action ; but his wound was totally disregard 
VOL, IX. PART TI. or at Orbe 


] 


NCE. 517 


any advantage. He then, at the head of only 300 horse, 
accompanied by the young King of Navarre and the 
Prince of Condé, reached Parthenai, about six leagues 
from the field of battle. Such was the rise of the repu- 
tation of the second Duke of Guise; for to his obstinate 
and skilful defence of Poitiers, the disasters of the Pro- 
testants may justly be ascribed. 

Ass the Protestants had lost nearly 10,000 men in the 
battle of Montconcour, the court of France and the 
Catholies fondly imagined that their power was finally 
and completely broken ; what then was their surprise 
to learn; that Coligny, undaunted by so signal a defeat, 
had suddenly appeared in another quarter of the king- 
dom ; had assembled a formidable army, accomplished 
an incredible march, and was ready to besiege Paris, 
The state of the finances was such, that the king found 
it impossible to raise and support an army sufficiently 
powerful to overcome the persevering and indefatigable 


Coligny: he ‘was therefore obliged A. D. 1570, not- Treaty of 
inst the Protes- st Ger- 


them at St Ger- main en 
Laye, 
A, D. 1570. 


withstanding his violent animosity 
tants, to enter into a negociation wi 
mainen Laye. By this treaty, the edicts in their favour 
were confirmed ; a pardon was granted for all their 

“past offences ; they were dec’ capable of all offices, 
both civil and military ; they were restored to all their 
employments and dignities ; and Rochelle, La Charite, 
Montauban; and Cogniac, were ceded to them for two 
years, as places of refuge, and pledges for their security, 
The first of these cities kept the sea open for receiving 
succours from England ; the second preserved the pas- 
sage of the Loire; the third commanded the frontiers 
of Languedoc ; and the fourth opened a passage into 
Angoumois, where the Protestants possessed greater 
strength than in any other province. 


and he continued ing with the utmost gallantry History. 
till he was eee his efforts’ were ino longer of 


Both Catherine-and her son, being now convinced Intrigues 


that the destruction of the Protestants could be effected of Cathe. 
only by intrigue, resolved to exert all the powers of rine and the 


their minds to carry it on in such a manner as might King. 


most effectually deceive the proposed victims of it. 
With this view they pretended to be averse to the mea- 
sures of the Guises as unfriendly to the Protestants; and 
= roctasd with bn woe and indifference, The 
i to give his sister Margaret in marri 

oes of Riparhs, as a further prot of his rile 
= a prpoeal and oa ity to the Protestants, 

is was readily acce 3 and so deeply laid 
ps plans of Catherine ad her son, that aveti 
the Admiral Coligny, notwithstanding a letter which 
he received, pute him im mind of the faithless cha- 
racters of them , was deceived by their specious 
conduct and professions. M 

Catherine, having so often been foiled in her attempts 
to crush the Protestants, both by open and secret mea- 
sures, was resolved that her present plan should not be 
frustrated by precipitation : for two years she permit. 
ted France to enjoy the blessings of tranquillity ; and 
during the whole of this period, the conduct both of 
herself and of the king, continued such, as effectually 
Tulled the suspicions of the most timid and apprehen- 
sive Protestants. At last having succeeded in per- 
suading the admiral to come to Paris, along with the 
most considerable men of the Protestant party, in order 
to assist at the celebration of the marriage of Mar, 
ad Henry, at and the king resolved to hasten 

cal e. 
The marriage was celebrated on the 17th of August 
bay 4° 


578 


Miter, 1572; and, on the 2@d of that. month, Coligny ‘was 
—Y~ wounded by a shot from a window, as he was going to 
his house, U learning this, the king paid him a 
visit, aioe ae find out and punish the assassin, and 
to all appearance was filled with indignation and sorrow 
Mamacre of for the aceident. Two days after, this, on the 24th,of 
St Barhe- August, the massacre of St Bartholomew took place. 
a D iste, When the king gave his. directions respecting it, he 
**** added, with his customary oaths, ‘ Since,it 1s:to be 
dove, take care that no one escapes to re me.” 
The direction of the massacre was entrusted more espe- 
cially to the Duke of Guise; and the signal for its com- 
mencement was to be given by striking the great bell 
of the palace. Coligny, regular in his habits, and still 
weak with his wounds, had retired to rest on the eve of 
St Bartholomew very early ; but he was roused by the 
noise of the assassins, who had surrounded his house. 
A German, of the name of Besme, entered his cham- 
ber; and the admiral, suspicious of his designs, pre- 
pared to meet his fate with calm and firm, resignation. 
Scarcely had he uttered the words, ‘‘ Young man,, re- 
ope these grey hairs, nor stain them with blood,” when 
yerman plunged his sword into his bosom, and af- 
terwards threw the corpse into the court. The Duke 
of Guise beheld it in silence; but Henry, Count of 
Angouleme, natural brother to the king, spurned it 
with his foot, exclaiming, ‘‘ Courage, my friends; we 
have begun, well, let us also finish well,” 

For five days did the massacre. continue... The Ca- 
tholic citizens, who had been secretly Prepared by their 
léaders, for such a scene, zealously seconded the execu- 
tion of the soldiery, and imbued their hands, without 
remorse, in the blood of their neighbours, their com- 
panions, and even their nearest relations, _Among 
the most illustrious victims, beside Coligny, were 
the Count de Rochefoucault and Teligni, who, had 
married the daughter of the admiral...The Count de 
Montgomery, and the Vidame of Chartres, with near 
a hundred others, who lod on the south of the Seine, 
es pi on horseback, half naked ; but they were pur- 
sued and overtaken by the Duke of Guise, who cut in 
pieces nearly the whole of them. 

The young King of Navarre and the Prince of Condé, 
exempted from the general destruction, were brought 
before Charles, and commanded to abjure their religion. 
The King of Navarre consented ; but the Prince hesi- 
tating, Charles, in a transport of rage, exclaimed, “ Death, 

The Prince mass, or the bastile !” e violence of this threat in- 
of Condé re- timidated the Prince ; and, recanting his heresy, he 


eants. Beit absolution from the Cardinal of ce ys Oe 
urin: e ter of the massacre, Charles 
posted eas Pn ofthe windows of his palace, from 
which he not only saw and encour: the assassins, by 
frequently calling out, “ Kill, kill !” but even repeatedly 
fired upon the miserable fugitives. 
Massacre The same barbarous orders were. sent to all the pro- 
oo Pro- vinces of the kingdom; and they were faithfully obey- 


ed in Lyons, Orleans, Rouen, Bourges, Angers, and 
Toulouse. In Provence, Dauphiné, and some other 
parts, the Protestants were protected. . The Viscount 

rthes, who commanded in Bayonne, in reply to the 
order which he received, wrote back to the king, that 
Bayonne contained loyal citizens and brave soldiers, 
but that among them he was. not_able to find one exe- 
eationer. The Bishop of Liseux, on this occasion, con- 
ducted himself in a manner becoming the religion of 
which he was the minister ;. for when the commandant 
of that place communicated to him the orders of the 
court, he answered, “ You must not execute them; 


PiRAN CE. 


those whom you are commanded to are my flock; History. 
Se T chal ican —— 


it is true they have astra: 
frem back to the right fold. ‘The 


Care po on the co a 
L ought, if necessary, to spi | for 
‘These instances of humanity sive, bene few ; 
it is supposed that, throughout France, 25,000 
testants perished, and in Paris alone 10,000. 
As a justification of this dreadful and. 
massacre, Charles pretended, that the Protestants had 
formed a conspiracy to seize his person ; and that, in 
his own defence, he had been under the necessity 
giving orders for its execution. But the real motive and 
object were by no means thus concealed ; nay, they were 


even displayed to public notice, by the petals of 


is occasion. Still more unequivo- 

were the real causes of the massacre of St Bar- spain. 

tholomew displayed by the feelings with which the in- 

telligence of it was received at e and in Spain. 

In both, public rejoicings were held, and solemn thanks 

were returned to God for its success, under the name 

of the ‘ triumph of the church militant.” Among the 

Protestants, it excited the most deep and penetrating 

horror, and no where to.a b pens d than in Eng- 

lend, Fenelon, Be Aes oy rae at the samen 

t James, gives ‘ollo , ing picture of hi 

first wrlgeen after the massacre was known: “A MY Effect it 

sorrow sate on every face; silence, as in the dead of prod 

night, reigned through all the chambers of the royal 

apartments ; the ladies and the courtiers, clad in 

mourning, were ranged.on every side; and as I pass 

by them, in my approach to the queen, not one bestow- 
on me a fayourable look, or made the least return to 

my salutations.” alow thd 
The effect of the massacre on the Protestants was 

directly the reverse of what the king ; but ex- 

actly such as a knowledge of human nature, and of 

religious zeal and enthusiasm, would have anticipated. 

Calvinism, instead of being destroyed, became more for- 

midable by despair ; and a thirst for revenge, united to 

an ardent spirit of civil and religious liberty. A fourth Fourth «- 

civil wa was einen. ee Lape ts gertaonp he vil war, 

lar, ies, and took re in the strong which, A- D. 1573. 

belonged to their party. In these, now fatally con- 

yi that their only alternative was open rebellion— 

if rebellion it might be —or persecution, they 

resolved to defend themselves to the last omeeaney 

At their head : d the King of Navarre and 

Prince of Condé, both of whom abjured a aslgigs 

which they had been compelled to profess. 

made a des] defence against the Duke of Anjou, 

who lost almost all his army before it. The siege con« 

tinued eight months, during which time the citizens 

repelled nine general, and twenty particular attacks, and 

at length obliged the Duke to grant them an advan’ 

ous e town of Sancerre was defended 

4 bravery for upwards of seven months ; nor did the 


a. 


itants surrender till they had obtained the promise 
of liberty of conscience. About time, the Duke 


of Anjou was elected King of Poland; and the mise- 
ries of France daily increasing, Charles embraced the 
pretence afforded by the elevation of his brother to con« 
clude a treaty with the Protestants, which he did not New treaty. 
intend to keep, and to os they never trusted. 


cree. 


Origin of a 
A.D. 1574. 


His charac- 
ter. 


7 two parties, confin 


FRANCE. 


In the following year, A. D. 1574, a third party arose 
in France, which, ‘without paying the least attention 
to the religions disputes and differences of the other 
their efforts entirely to politics : 
they were called the Malcontents. Their avowed ob- 
ject, was to reform the political state of the kingdom, by 
nig ing limits to the power and influence of the Guises ; 
excluding the queen from the administration of affairs ; 
and banishing the kingdom all the Italians, whom 
she had introduced and countenanced. The Duke of 
Alengon, brother to the king, a man restless, intriguing, 
and versatile, put himself at the head of ee 

In the midst of this disordered and emba state 
of the kingdom, the health of Charles was vem de- 
clining. Ever since the massacre of Bartholomew, a 
deep and icious gloom overspread his countenance, 
and his mind was torn by contending ions. He 
still hated the Protestants ; but he was ed at the 
ambitious views and extensive influence of the families 
of Montmorenci and Guise, while he was ly af- 
atte Sed repartee ea Alen- 
con, and the King of Navarre. In this state of bodily 
weakness and mental agitation, he began to suspect 
that he had been too easily led by the counsels of his 
mother, into a line of conduct neither conducive to his 
peace of mind, honourable to his name, nor advan- 

s to his own interests, or those of his kingdom. 
This reflection, coming thus late, served only to in- 
crease his bodily and mental sufferings. His health de- 
clined with great rapidity: each day some new and fa- 
tal symptoms manifested themselves; and. at last his 
disorder took a most si turn. While a slow and 
internal fever preyed on his strength, the blood oozed 
even out of the pores of his skin. Catherine was sus- 
of having administered poison to him ; but it is 
more probable, that his disorder was occasioned by the 
dissolute life which he had led, and by the excessive 
violence of his temper. For some time, such was the 
repsedrung power of a pe waaay aetre yre atrorigs - 
struggled against his disorder ; at , in the 23 
year of his age, itovercame him. His last hours were 
hg Sag soo Nearest chormehees These 
t in recommending to those around him-to pre- 
eave thes fidelity to the King of Poland, the heir to 
the throne on his decease ; he obliged all present 
to take an oath of fidelity to Catherme during the ab- 
sence of Henry. , 

Charles was not naturally devoid of qualities and ta- 
lents, which, if they had not been counteracted by a 
a Nagagut education, age have rendered him a 

lessing to his subjects. He possessed wit, judgment, 
activity, and courage; but his disposition abit. 
ly iolent ; and those who had the care of him in ear 
life, especially the Marshal de Retz, had encou § 
l this violence. From his mother 
he learnt the whole mystery of the Italian school of 


hy ee by open and ingenitous conduct; and his public 
e 


_ Notwithstanding the 
laws a3 seer in wise and profound 
views of ic benefit, were passed, chiefly through 
the labour and patriotic efforts of the Chance or 


519 
De Hospital. In the midst of the civil wars, this 
really great«man fixed ‘his undivided attention and 
wishes dn the’ good of his country ; and such was the 
commanding influence of his character, and his activity 
and zeal, that at a time when law generally is trampled 
under foot, he made it be respected and acted upon. 

On the death of Charles 1X. the king of Poland, who 
succeeded him’ under the name of Henry TII. hastened 
to take possession of the throne. Dreading lest the 
Poles should detain him, he withdrew privately, as if 
he had been a prisoner making his escape. As he pas- 
sed through the dominions of the Emperor and the Re- 
public of Venice, he was advised to treat the Protes- 
tants with justice; if not with gentleness and kindness, 
and to avoid persecuting them, if he wished to restore 
tranquillity to France ; but this advice was given in 
vain to a man who had been one of the advisers of the 
massacre, and who; tothe utmost depravity of manners, 
added the external observances of the lowest supersti- 
tion. Scarcely was he seated on the throne of France, 
when he manifested a total unfitness for his situation, 
even independent’of his bigotry and depravity ; for he 
was totally :averse to business,—occupied and interested 
So most low and trifling pursuits and objects ; 

utterly devoid even of the manners and dignity of 
a sov . . 

As the kingdom: was still divided by factions, Ca- 
therine persuaded Henry to take advantage of this’ cir- 
cumstance, and by acting as umpire between them, to 
restore the royal authority to its pristine dignity and 
extent; but the king, though not unfit'for this line ot’ 
conduct, in se to his habits of dissimulation, was 
totally disqualified for it,/on account of his want of vi- 
gouty application, and sound understanding ; instead 

erefore of acquiring a’superiority over both factions, 
he lost the confidence of both, and taught the parti- 
zans of each to regard him with’ suspicion, and to ad- 
here more closely to their ive leaders. 

In the mean time, A. D. 1575,'the Duke of Alengon, 
who, as has already ‘been stated, had put himself at the 
head of the political party united with the Protestants, 
while they were fu encouraged and strengthened 
by the presence of the King of Navarre, and by the ar- 
rival of the Prince of Condé at the head of a German 
army. The king upon this found himself under the 
necessity of con uding a treaty with them, by which 
they obtained the public exercise of their reli ion, eXx- 
cept within two leagues of the court ; party chambers, 
com of an number of Protestants and Ca- 
tholics, were established in all the parliaments’ of the 
kingdom ; all attainders were reversed, and eight cau- 
tionary towns were put into their ion. 


History. 


Henry LIT. 
A. D. 1574, 


His charac- 
ter. 


Pacifies the 
Protestants, 


But, while Henry by this treaty pacified the Protés--anq dis- 
tants, he excited the greatest disgust and indignation aie the 
among the Catholics ; and affording the Duke of Guise Catholics. 


the pretext, which he had long sought, of putting him. 
self at the head of a most formidable party, for thé ex- 
press purpose of entirely suppressing the Protestant 


religion in France. This was the origin of the famous Origin of 
League, the members of which openly declared, that ithe Lengue. 


they would withstand the royal authority in all eases 
where that authority was at variance with the com- 
mands or the interests of the Catholic religion, Henry 
now, saw the error which he had committed in makin 
peace with the Protestants ; and’ as‘ he possessed nei- 
ther the justice nor the vigour that might have prompt- 
ed and enabled him to protect the Protestants against 
the L e, while’ he saw'that the members of it had 
it in their power even to shake the foundations of his 


580 


ituery. throne, he resolved to unite himself to it, and was ac- 

—— ingly declared its head, and in the year 1577 he 

took field as the leader of the Catholics. This cir- 

cumstance was favourable to the —— 

tranquillity of the kingdom; for the dilatory, feeble; and 

indecisive character of the king, prevented the troops 

of the League from acting with vigour or success, and 

a new was brought about, which, though less fa- 

vourable than the former to the Protestants, was equally 

i ing to the leaders of the Catholics. The king, 

now suspected by both parties, retained little weight or 

influence ; while the Duke of Guise on one side, and 

the king of Navarre on the other, engaged by degrees 

the bulk of the nation to enlist themselves, either with 

the Protestants or Catholics. Foreign aid was also cal- 

led arm J both ; the Protestants ae and 

supplied with money by Queen Eli ; and Philip 

11. of Spain declaring himself Protector of the League, 

and entering into the closest correspondence with the 
Duke of Guise. 

In 1581, hostilities between the two parties com- 
menced, and the King of Navarre signalized himself 
at the siege of Cahors. About the same time, the Duke 
of Anjou, Henry’s brother, secretly retired from France, 
pe es AT Te eR pee as craerery 
against Philip II. ; but his caprice an disappoint- 
ed the P which he entertained and refi ebliged 
to return into France, where he soon afterwards died. 
This event completely unfolded the real -views of the 
members of the ; for as the king of Navarre, by 
the death of the Duke of Anjou; was presumptive ‘heir 
of the crown, they inflamed the people with the dread 
of an heretic sovereign, and avowed their resolution to 
woes the meer oo of the ‘Cardinal of Bourbon; 
u tothe King of Navarre, a zealous Papist, but in- 
capable, from age and weakness, of holding. the reins 
of government. Inthe proclamations ‘issued bythe 
League, the character of the» king: of France was not 
spared ; he was held up to this subjects asdebauched, 
—the mstrumentof unworthy favourites, and/especially 
as the secret friend of the King of Navarre, and the 

rotector of the sectaries of Geneva. The people were 
away by these representations, and filled with the 
most violent bigotry. 

In 1584, the Duke of Guise, as the general of the 


Civil war, 
A. D. 1581, 


League, took the field ; and: though: his army scarcely’ - 


exceeded 5000 men, he gained) ion of Verdun, 
but he was from Metz by the Duke D’Epernon. 
Peace, If H taken advantage of this, he might have 
A. D. 1584. re-established his power ; but he was no longer ca’ 
ble of any great or arduous enterprise, and he conclu- 
ded a peace on the most dishonourable terms ; agreeing 
to compel the Protestants to restore the cautionary 
towns, to annul all the edicts.in their favour; and ‘to’ 
The Duke join the League with all his forces, He thus virtually 
of Guise resi his sovereign authority into the hands of the 


inf the su. Duke of Guise, whonominated a council of 16 citizens 

preme for the government of the capital, and intimated to’ 

power. them his wish that they should take. measures for de- 
throning their sovereign, and ing the crown on 
himself. In pursuance of this desi e inhabitants 
of Paris presented a memorial, in which they 1 
the King to declare openly for the to revive’ 


the Council of Trent,—to establish the quisition, and 
oe we ay Mee low were the 
rmness of mi sunk, that he promised to’ 
take this memorial ienivcinasegniads : mt 
In 1588, the Duke of Guise had the audacity, con- 
trary to the express commands of his sovereign, to en- 


‘and the. 


FRANCE. 


ter the city of Paris amidst the loud and universal ac- History. 
clamations of the citizens, and demanded an audience 
of him. ‘To this, however, Henry would not consent ; 
his timid spirit was at length roused ; he declared that 
the death of the Duke of Guise should be the conse- 
quence of his forcing this interview. Catherine now Dispute 
interposed her authority, and even her tears; but in nape 
vain. Henry remained inflexible, till at length the yp" “°° 
Duke, afraid that he had passed even the limits of the " 
king’s pusillanimity, and sensible of his danger, endea- 
voured to disarm the royal rage by submission. He 
was permitted to retire ; but his soul breathed indign 
tion and revenge, and he instantly prepared for the 
most decisive and determined measures. Henry, at 
this juncture, had given orders for 6000 of the troops, 
on whose fidelity he could place the utmost reliance, to 
enter Paris: the citizens took the alarm; they were 
conscious of the punishment which they deserved for 
their insolent behaviour to their sovereign ; they flew te 
arms; the capital became the scene of the greatest cor’ 
fusion and ; the soldiers were surrounded and 
overcome. Catherine now saw, that if she did not ine 
terfere, the life of her son would probably be sacrificed ; 
she therefore entered into a private’ negociation with 
the Duke, while Henry quitted the palace, and effected 
his escape through the gardens of Thuilleries. Tt 
is said that when he was safe, turnin back to look at 
his capital, he declared that he would never enter it 
again except through a breach in its walls. koi 

From Paris the king retired to Chartres, whence he who retires 
appealed to the loyalty and duty of his et ataes * Chartees. 
appeals were answered by the manifestoes of the Duke 
of Guise; but, in the midst of these mutual accusa- 
tions; the efforts and. intrigues of Catherine were di- 
rected to an accommodation, which she could not ex- 
pect ‘would be sincere or lasting on either side, but 
fronr which she hoped to derive advantages to her own’ : 
cause. " A treaty was accordingly entered into between ™ Pay 1 
the King and his rebellious subjects, according to which puke re- 
the Duke of Guise was appointed lieutenant-general of conciled. 
the French armies; the Cardinal of Bourbon was de- 
clared first prince of the blood ; and the severest pe- 
nalties were denounced against those who had presum- 
ed to leave the ancient and established religion of the 
country. From these terms, it is ovi ‘that’ the 
Duke of Guise had obtained all he could wish, or had 
taken up arms for. He was confirmed in the chief 
command of the army, and the King of Navarre was - 
excluded from the throne. Henry was soon made sen- 
sible of the ignominious conditions to which, by the 
advice of his mother, he had consented ; and he breath- 
ed vengeance against the Duke, while he excluded Ca- 
therine from his councils. In this dilemma, he had re- &™"e! 
course to a most bold and unexpected measure, which “ 
indicated a greater portion of decision and policy 
it was he d. He assembled the states The King 
at Blois; and though the greatest number of those who ssezbles 
met were the partisans of the e, he boldly made ‘“* ““** 
his appeal to , dwelling in the most animated and 
forcible manner on the distress into which he had been 
brought by the seditious conduct of the house of Lor- 
raine. Had his future conduct cort ded with his 
behaviour before the states, he ly would have 
roused the latent loyalty of his nabjost ; but, on the 
remonstrances of the Duke of Guise, he softened the 
most obnoxious s of his address before it was 
cireulated through the kingdom. | _ ; 

Soon after this, having received intelligence that the. 
Duke had held a secret and treasonable correspondence 


: 


7 


he 


FRANCE. 


oe, with the Duke of Savoy, he came to the determination 
— to get rid of him, if possible, by assassination ; he ac- 
cotetingly summoned the few friends in whom he could 
place confidence, or from whom he could expect 


ion of this deed. Most of these advising the 

King to pursue the measure which he had. suggested 

lon, who commanded the royal guards, was first 

applied to, to strike the blow ; but he replied, that he 

was not an executioner ; ‘“ I will challenge the Duke, 
and endeavour to kill him fairly.” Loigniac, 

se el 7g RS Be aC 


s 


Biss 
Fi 
E 
i 
H 
Pe 

ae 


fal 
; 
FFs 
LE 
i 
eke 
1 


Le 
5 
3 
4 
Es 
i 
if 
ree 


FLERE 
i er 
a4 

i ie 

lie 

ii 

Hae 

SHEL 


| 
: 
8, 
: 
Z 
= 
3 
2 


-e 


: 


a 
Er Ee 
rae 
is 
i 
WW 

: 


= , 
sh 


Fine 

ft 
b 
e 


hich ther was p 


581 


In this extremity, Henry at last determined to do History. 
that which he ought to have done at the commence-~ 
ment of the troubles; he entered into a confederacy 
with the Protestants and the King of Navarre. Large . 
bodies of Swiss and German cavalry were enlisted ; 
and the chief nobility and the princes of the blood ral- 
lying round their monarch at this critical juncture, he 
was enabled to assemble an army of 40,000 men. Still, 
however, the superstitious weakness of his mind broke 
out; alarmed at the excommunication which the Pope 
had ced against him, he solicited absolution at 
Rome. “ Let us conquer,” said the King of Navarre, 
“and we shall be absolved; but if we be beaten, we shall 
be excommunicated.’”? The King of Navarre, also, 
prise acbinem se on the advantages which would en- 
sue immediately marching to Paris: His advice 
was followed ; and on the last day of July 1589, they 
invested the capital. The Duke of Mayence was with- 
in the walls, with about 4000 regular soldiers ; and by 
means of these, he hoped to inspirit and assist the ci- 
tizens to make a formidable defence. But Henry push- 
ed the siege with uncommon vigour ; and as the num- 
ber of the royalists in Paris was still great, the city 
must soon have fallen, had not the sane resolution 
of one man given a new turn to the affairs of France. 
‘ James Clement, a ra sry friar, filled nan that 
loody spirit of bigotry, which characterised the age, 
formed the combate of sacrificing his own life, aver. 
der to save the church from the danger to which he 
conceived it would be exposed, if the King were per- 
mitted to live, in ce of his alliance with the 
Protestants. This man had succeeded in getting intro- Henry as- 
duced into the King’s presence, under the pretence of ®sinated. 
ie t and confidential business, and ancitally weet “lo et 
im, while reading some papers which he had put 
into his hands, The assassin ean instantly put to death 
by the guards, At Paris he was hono as a saint 
and a martyr. The Pope expressed the highest admira- 
tion of this act; and all the Catholic clergy defended 
it as necessary for the safety of the church. 
As Henry III. died without children, and the house 
of Valois was extinct in his person, the throne 
to the house of Bourbon, in the of Henry IV. pirth ana 
This prince was born at Pau, in , on the 14th of education 
December 1553, of Antony of Bourbon, Duke of Ven- of Henry - 
dome, and Jane-of Albert, Queen of Navarre. He was lV: 
descended in a right line from Robert of France, Count 
of Clermont, sixth son of Saint Louis. When his mo- 
t with him, her father made her pro- 
mise, that she would sing during her delivery, in order, 
as he said, that she might not bring forth a gloomy and 
unfortunate child, She complied with this whim, and, 
in spite of the pain which she suffered, sung a song in 
the provincial dialect of Bearn, even at the moment 
when the child was entering the world. As soon as he 
was born, his grandfather, taking him into another room, 
rabbed his lips with garlic and wine, in order, accords 
ing to his notion, to endow him with a bold and vigo- 
rous temperament. In the chateau of e, situated 
in the middle of rocks, between Begoire and Bearn, the 
young Henry was brought up ; and his education was 
tended and directed by his grandfather, till the 
death of the latter, which ha very soon after- 
wards. He was treated in the most plain and simple 
manner ; his food being confined to brown bread, cheese, 
and a small quantity of beef; his dress was that of the 
peasant boys of Bearn, composed entirely of coarse stuff, 
and. made without any ornament. He was accustomed 
to the most vigorous exercise in all: kinds of weather, 


582 


he seen during his rambles, with his head and feet un- 
covered. But the corporeal powers and habits of Hen- 
ry were not the sole objects of the care and attention of 
his parents: his mind also was cultivated, but in the 
eame i dent and useful manner as his body. His 
mother, who had avowed herself the protector of the 
Reformed Religion, invited to her all the most distin- 

ished Protestant priests in that part of France, and 
the young Henry, who exhibited early indications that 
he united a solid and clear judgment to a lively and 
quick apprehension, soon made rapid progress. It is 
said that one of the books in which he took the most 
delight ; and which therefore may justly be regarded 
as having materially contributed to form his character, 
was Plutarch, a French translation of which had recent- 
ly been made by Amyot. 

When Henry ascended the throne of France in 1589, 
he was in the 35th year of his age; eloquent in coun- 
cil, intrepid in action, fertile in resources ; and distin- 
gue by wonderful sagacity, the love of glory and 

is country, uncommon frankness, economy, and talents 
for business. And he had ample occasion for the exer- 
cise of all these qualifications ; for his religion prejudi- 
ced nearly one half of the royal army against him. The 
Duke of ieccanan! who was appointed to the command 
of the League, after the d of his brothers, might 
have assumed the title of king; but he chose rather to 
confer it on the old Cardinal of Bourbon. Under these 
circumstances, Henry was under the necessity of sign- 
ing certain propositions favourable to the Catholics, and 
promising to listen with attention and impartiality to 
the arguments of their clergy. Even after these con- 
cessions, he found his force far from numerous ; and he 
was obliged to abandon the siege of Paris, and retire 
into Normandy. The governor of Dieppe opened the 
tes of that city to him; and the governor of Caen 
ollowed his example. He was thus able to preserve a 
free communication with England, the only power from 
which he could expect assistance. 

The Duke of Mayence, sensible of the importance of 
reducing these places, advanced into Normandy at the 
head of 30,000 men; while the army of the king amount- 
ed “a to 7000. H therefore took refuge under 
the walls of Arques, where he was attacked by the 
Duke. Henry's troops, enco by the exhorta- 
* tions and example of their sov , stood firm; and 
the Duke found himself under the necessity of retiring 
from the enterprise. Soon afterwards, the royal army 
was strengthened by 4000 men from England; and the 
Swiss cantons, as well as the republic of Venice, ac- 
knowledged Henry as king. 

Being thus reinforced, he formed the resolution of 
marching to:Paris, in the ape of finding it w led; 
and so rapid and secret was his march, that the Pari- 
sians were astonished and intimidated at his appear- 
ance, at a time when they thought he was far distant, 
and by no means in a-condition to act on the offensive. 
He insulted the suburbs; cut in pieces above 1300 of 
the troops of the ue; and if the Duke of Mayence 
had not arrived, would have made himself master of 
the capital. In consequence of this, he retired to 
Tours ; and the Duke in Paris solemnly imed the 
Cardinal of Bourbon King, by the title of Charles X. 

at this time he was a prisoner to Henry. The 
next object of the king‘was the town of Dreux, before 
which he sat down with an army.of 12,000 men, in 
the year 1590; but being informed that the army of 


FRANCE. 


Netery. and soon became remarkable for the fearless agility 
—y~— with which he clambered- over the rocks, Often was 


the League, which was now reinforced by the Prince 
of Parma, and consisted of 16,000 excellent and ex- 
perienced troops, was advancing towards him, he 
raised the siege, and d for battle. With this 
view, he posted his army at Ivri, on the banks of the 
river Eure, His position here was so strong, that the 
Duke of Mayence would have avoided an en ent; 
but the citizens of Paris him with cowar- 
dice, and ke was farther stimulated by the presump- 
tuous and boasting speeches of the Count Egmont. Ac- 
cording to him, the cavalry which he commanded were 
isha ail to conquer the whole royal army. The Duke, 


thus goaded on, gave orders for battle. The conflict Battle of 
was long, and obstinately contested, But the genius of Ivti, 
t, directing and encoura- “+. 1590 


Henry was everywhere yo moped 

i is troops, preven or remedy mistakes 
of his officers ; rvhile, ‘bye his example, he taught the 
lowest of his followers what. he from them. 
« My Lords,” said he to them, “if you should lose sight 
of your colours, rally round this,—pointing to a aree 
white plume which he wore in his hat,—you will 
ways find it in the road to honour, God is with us!” 
added he emphatically, drawing his sword, and 


pursuit, he cried out, “ Spare my French subjects!” The 
Count Egmont, with the part of his troops, pe- 
rished on the field: 2500 of the troops of the Le al- 
so fell; and the Duke of Mayence himself with 
difficulty. The Swiss alone remained firm; and after 
the offered their services to Henry. © 


ing So ain Re Roe nea, oa rather have secu- 
by arms, 


the 

blockade. The Parisians, notwithstanding the death of 
the Cardinal of Bourbon, were etl most. ohstinately. 
averse to Henry, and resolved to suffer the A cl 
tremities, rather than deliver up the city. | ‘this reso- 
lution they were confirmed by the ecclesiastics, who, 
leaving their cloisters, formed themselves into a 
ment, under the command of the Pope’s oe 
mine and disease soon began to assail the | ts. 
The Duke of Nemours, who had been yw Rape: 
nor ofthe, capital, commanded the aged and infirm to 
leave it. Had Henry refused a passage, it is 
that it must have surrendered; but he rejected. 
counsels of his officers, who advised him to drive them 
back with the sword ; he even permitted the 

ly to the. 


rE 


and his own soldiers to carry provisions 
besieged. “I would rather never possess Paris,” said 
he, * than acquire it by the destruction of its citizens,” 
In the space of the last month of the blockade, famine 
had destroyed above 30,000 of the inhabitants ; 1 
the Duke of Parma, by order of the King of Spain, lef 
the Low Countries, and hastened to its relief. On 
proach, Henry raised the siege and offered him 

cE bat the Toke bavi ¢ plishe: 

which he was sent, refused to : 
endeavoured to force him. to it, and even to attack 
with advantage, during his retreat; but so 


1. 


g 
4 
Para 


age 


FRANCE. 583. 


History: the skill and caution of this celebrated commander, that. would be under the influence of the Pope's legate, History’ 
bat Semel he retired in the face of his enemy, without somuchas At the meeting, he produced a bull, requiring the bes) toes 
putting his army into disorder. French never to elect Henry, even though he should 
- After the retreat of the Duke, Henry again attempt- abjure heresy; while the Duke of Faria, ambassador 
, ed to get possession of Paris : re he was defeated in fee pn gale: perenenes oe ae - the mess “a 
‘designs, by the vigilance citizens, particu- in, on ition that she married the young Duke 

tari Se ‘it of Guise. act ae ynanee - or cf Lge to 
governed. Thus foiled in his d object, he began agree to this demand, he was offered the duchy of Bur- 

to consider his situation Beal aan ay i on gundy, with a large sum of ey ; but the Duke, un- 
hen willing to become dependent on his nephew, disputed 

Duke of Parma retired, he left 8000 men for the the powers of the ambassador; and the parliament, 
support of the League. Pope Gregory XI. at the re- roused from its shameful lethargy, passed an arret in 


uest of the King in, not only declared ya conformity to the Salic law ; which, being a fundamen- 
. heretic, and Daag ait Cities cé.sieoet: tal principle of the government, they insisted could not: 
him, under pain of « ; but sent his be ide, even under the pretext of religion. 
: of: 


ne« 
‘Sa- Henry was now convinced, that even the greatest srenry re- 
voy, who was y in possession of Provence, and military successes could not obtain for him the confi- golyes to re- 
had entered Dauphiné. About the same time, the dence.and loyalty-of his subjects ; he therefore again nounce the 
i rom the castle declared, that he was seriously desirous of being in- Protestant 
where be had been confined since the assassi- structed in’ his: religious faith’; that he was ready-to "ligion- 
nation of his father. When Henry was informed of all embrace the truth, as soon as he was convinced of his: 
these threatening circumstances, he coolly observed, error; and that the incessant war carried on against 
« The more enemies we have, the more care we must him, was the sole cause why he did not employ all his’ 
take, and the more honour there will be in beating thoughts on that important subject. Conferences were 
therefore appointed to be held between the divines of 
» Elizabeth, however, was still a steady and useful the two religions, that he might be enabled to take, 
friend. She had, indeed, on the first ap- with more cy, that step which the security of his~ 
pearance of Henry’s affairs, withdrawn her troops; but throne, and the happiness. of his subjects, imperiously 
she saw him again menaced, she sent, in 1591, demanded. These conferences were held at Sureure ; 
3000 men under Sir John Norris, and afterwards 4000 and, as the real motive for which they were appointed: 
of Essex. With these supplies, joined was well known, the account which ‘Sully gives is not 
all to an army of 35,000 men, entered Norman- improbable, that the Protestant divines allowed them- 
dy, and undertook the are en. This town selves to be foiled, or at least silenced in argument, in 
r i ; but at last, when it order to furnish the king with a better pretext for em- 
was reduced to extremities, the Duke of Parma, by or- bracing that religion, which it was so much his interest 
i to pes Bag While the Catholics contended, that there 
king to raise the siege. was no salvation out.of the pale of their church, the 
also offered his wonist bat- Protestants acknowledged, that salvation was possible: 
tle ; the Duke refused it, and began his retreat. in the Roman church; and thus an easy triumph, and 


Henry pursued him, but the Duke, by wonderful ge- a strong argument, were conceded to the Catholics.. 
neralship, in spite of the greatest obstacles and difficul- This conference, however, not being sufficient to re~ 
ties, a second time made good his retreat into the Ne- move the scruples of the king, he ards conferred 
a hi of the king one or ear i sys i 3 took his resolu- 

subsequent year, affairs ing wore a tion, an ‘ormed the ceremony of abjuration at St 
more promising appearance in Provence, from which Denis, in ce of a multitude of Parisians—the 
hic general the 


Duke of Savoy; and in i Re to witness the ceremony, though the 
Languedoc, where the commander of the troops of the ope’s legate had prohibited all thes mies 
aes apeadils that the Ainge chowhd lene But os in of excommunication. A parish priest in 
was impossible kingdom should remain ital preached nine sermons against the absolu- 
in its state of confusion and civil war; even the Catho- toa posta te dike King sticl-ie. xacoes of the: 
consequences of the relaxation ki Sa Serpnrees: nigetd: f0. (eases 

remarks of the on that very act which Henry’ 


Hi! 
§ 
Z 
| 
2 
F 
2 
E 
ey 
g 
“> 
3 
= 
z 
5 
= 
8 
tae! 
F 
q 
g 


as a Catholic king, to his». 
pressed the Duke of May- weak protection as a t prince. 

i Though the court of Spain and the Pope in vain en- 
; and the Catholics of deavoured to allay that satisfaction which was gene- 
that rally diffused over France by the conversion of Henry,: 
f m. The yet this event did not immediately produce all-the be- 
were accordingly convoked, the Duke of neficial effects expected from it. The Marquis of Vitri, 

under pretence of sipporting their determina- who, on the death of Henry IL. had deserted the: 

Trance 


5 
EE 
| 
= 
E 
i 
( 


te 
iit 
i 4 
; 
: 


Saar preparing to enter with a powerful king, and had been appointed by the League to the 
army, when the ¢ th of that Seth Honry pct ee ry Pana Ga ay aga 
Meeting of from a most formidable enemy. The states, however, turned to his allegiance.. He had often solicited the 
— met at Paris on the 26th of January 1593; but it was Duke of Mayence in vain.to make peace with the 
‘A.D. 1593, 908 evident, that their deliberations and resolutions king, as the cause of the war was at an end; and om 


Hestery. 
—_—\y— 


Several 
cues ace 
knowlalge 


him. 


Attempt on 
his life. 


Defents the 
Duke of 
Mayence, 
A. D. 1595. 


584 


receiving no satisfactory answer, he resolved to dis- 
| rp thar he conceived his duty required of him. 
He ore ordered the garrison to evacuate the town, 
and, delivering the keys to the magistrates, he said, « I 
scorn to steal an advantage, or to make my fortune at 
other men's expence. I am going to pay my allegiance 
to the king, and I leave it in your power to act as you 
please.” This short, but candid and honest 

was received by shouts from the inhabitants, of “ Long 
life to Henry IV.!" and the example of Meaux was 
followed by the cities of Orleans, Bourges, Lyons, and 
Pontoise. When the deputies from Meaux waited 
upon Henry, they were so confounded, that they were 
incapable of speech, and threw themselves at the king’s 
feet. Having regarded them in silence for some mo- 
ments, Henry burst ‘into tears, and, lifting them up, 
said, ‘* Come not, as enemies, to crave forgiveness ; but 
come as children to a father, always willing to receive 
you with open arms.” 

The king determined to take advantage of returning 
prosperity to celebrate his coronation. As Rheims 
was still in the ion of the enemy, he was crown- 
ed at Chartres. Almost immediately afterwards, the 

winees of Orleannois and os were a up 

their respective governors to the king; and a sin- 
pa accident rn the capital to him. The Duke 
of Mayence having been obliged to leave it, to quell 
some Tietbenned in Picardy, entrusted the com- 
mand of it to the Count de Brisac. This nobleman 
seems to have formed the romantic idea of establishing 
a republic in France ; but his designs being received 
with contempt by the chiefs of the League, he deliver- 
ed up the capital to Henry. Villars, who had so gal- 
lantly defended Rouen, soon afterwards opened the 
gates of that city, and a asc Henry king. The 
young Duke of Guise also made his peace ; and, on 
the reduction of Laon by the king in person, Amiens, 
and a t aoa of Picardy, submitted to him. 

In A om midst of his successes, his enemies resolved 
to assail his life. On his return from Picardy to Paris, 
John Chastel, a scholar of the college of the Jesuits, 
struck him on the mouth with a knife, as, in the apart- 
ments of the Louvre, he stooped to embrace a nobleman 
that was presented to him. The blow was intended for 
his threat, but his stooping prevented it touching that 
dangerous part. Chastel was instantly seized, and de- 
livered over to condign punishment. On his examina- 
tion, he confessed that he had been prompted to this 
deed by hearing his p tors assert, that the murder 
of kings was lawful, and that as Henry had not yet 
been absolved by the Pope, he ought still to be regard- 
ed and treated as a heretic: hence he inferred that it 
would be a merit to put him to death. Father Guis- 
card, on whom were found some writings, which in- 
culeated the same doctrine, was also executed, and all 
the Jesuits were banished by a decree of the parliament 
of Paris. 

In 1595, Henry entered the city of Dijon in Bur- 

dy, convinced that his life would be safest while 
was in the midst of his troops, and engaged in mi- 
litary affairs. Scarcely, however, had he made himself 
master of Troyes, before he learnt that the Duke of 
Mayence, in conjunction with the Spaniards, had cros- 
sed the Saone. He immediately resolved to attack 
them ; and conducted himself on this occasion with so 
much boldness and impetuosity, that, with only 1800 
troops, he routed an army of 14,000 men. In Picardy, 
however, his cause was not so fortunate; the Spanish 
army invading that province, and reducing several 


FRANCE. : 


cities of im which Henry himself, in com 
ance with the ambition of his mistress, the fair 
brielle D'Etrees, who wanted a principality for her 


son, pe ae ao a fruitless tion into Franche 
Compté. In su mee” 0 1596, the Duke of 
Guise surprised Marseilles, Henry was informed 


of this event, he was so much transported, that he ex- 


separate himself from them ; but he had formed a re- 
solution never to acknowledge Henry, til] that monarch 
had been absolved by the Pope. Henry, being made 
aequainted with his scruples, secretly su, to him 
to retire to Chalons, till his Holiness granted his absolu- 
tion; and the Duke had scarcely reached that place, 
when the Roman Pontiff, fully convinced that Her 
was firmly established on the throne, absolved him in 
form. e Duke immediately threw himself at the 
feet of the sovereign, and vowed a fidelity which he 
proved to be conscientious, by his future conduct. 
Soon after these events, Archduke Albert, who 
was now governor of the Netherlands, sent an army 
to besiege Calais, which was obliged to surrender, be- 


fore the king could come to its assistance. This cala~ pyouttes i 


mity was soon followed by another still more grievous, Henry. 
Spaniards. 


for Amiens was taken by surprise by the 
Nor were the demands on the king's ess and men 
tal resources yet exhausted ; he was harassed by the 
complaints of the Protestants, who expected that he 
would have ted them pyrene 2 eee a 
vileges; and the Dukes of Savoy Morceur, still re- 
fused to acknowledge his authority, unless on condi- 
tions with which he did not deem it proper to 4 
The king at this time labouring under a severe in 
position, felt these misfortunes more keenly ; and his 
difficulties were greatly increased by the exhausted 
state of his finances. He was therefore under the 
necessity of assembling his nobles, and ing them 
acquainted with the real state of his affairs ; “ I have 
not called you Pn woes said he, “ as my predecessors 
used to do, to oblige you to adopt my measures, or im~« 
plicitly obey my will: I have assembled you, to take 
your advice, to which I will listen with attention and 
candour, and with a firm resolution to follow it, pro 
vided it will benofit the country.” Bur the nobility, 
though disposed to give their advice, were not in a 
condition to assist their sovereign in carrying into ef- 
fect the measures which they recommended; the 
were exhausted and dispirited. “Give me an army, 
cried he, “ and I will cheerfully sacrifice my life for 
the state.” Troops Low could supply him ‘with ; but 
as he complained, b for these troops could not be 
rocured. nes 
: In this critical and embarrassing situation, he had 


the sense to it the Marquis de Rosny, after- 
saci Dake of Sully, soperntendant BP ape 
in 


wards the celeb 
the finances ; and he soon placed the 
tion to support the expences of the war, financial 
measures were wise and efficacious, at the same time 


that they were not burdensome to the people. By means 
of them, Henry in a short time was at head of an 
army of 20,000 men, the best appointed that he had 


ever commanded. Elizabeth reinforced this army with 
4000 troops ; so that in 1597, the king deemed himself 


sufficiently strong to attempt the recovery of Amiens, _ 


« Let us go,” said he, on setting out on this expedi- 
tion, “ and act the King of Navarre; we have acted the 
King of France long enough.” ‘The enterprise was 


nd 
perin 4 
in a situa~ the finances, . 


PO 


Ee 


—$—$—$——_ 


FRANCE. 


History. worthy of the talents of the King ; for the Spanish gar- 
Wleemcaaipten idiporcance of the place, and knew that 
on that account’ the Archduke would’ mareh to its” relief, 

@ most obstinate and nt defence. “The 

Archduke did indeed advance to it, but not being able to 

force the French lines, though his army was composed of 

« 25,000 excellent troops, he retired, and Amiens surren~ 

dered to Henry. ‘The next enterprize of this monarch 

was against Dourlens, which he also hoped to take: But 

his troops were fatigued ; disease and discontent began 

to prevail among them; the works went slowly on from 

these causes, and the unfavourable weather ; the artillery 

could not be brought up, in’ consequence: of the badness 

of the roads ; and the vigilance of the Archduke had pre- 

pared the city with every thing necessary for its defence. 

Henry, therefore, had begun the siege, before he 

was convinced that it would be wise + Prccmeag it; = 
accordingly disbanded the greater part of his troops, an 

leaving his cavalry for the defence of the frontier, return- 

ed 13 Paris, ‘Here he was received with every mark of 

loyalty-and attachment; but his stay could not be long, 

for Brittany still was in possession of the 3 and 

* the Duke of Morceur, of the family of Lorraine, nourish- 

ed the flames of sedition there. The King, therefore, as 

soon as the return of spring permitted his troops to 

march, advanced to Angers. The Duke taken unawares, 

and deserted by the principal part of the nobility, ‘consi- 

dered ‘himself as utterly lost, when the lucky th 


1 lought pre- 
sented itself of offering his daughter, the heiress of his 


at his request a con was held, the ipotentia- 
ries of iinie’ and Spain, at Veriae? a oa Picardy. 
ooght hnsell at what anonerier tachi meakty aud Pros 
it in what manner he might satisfy the Pro- 
testants, without offending the Catholics, or exciting their 
Fadict of Suspicions. This was no easy task; but he effected it in 
Nantes. © @ wise and’ politic manner, by passing the famous edict 
of Nantes in favour of the Protestants. This edict con- 
firmed to them all the rights and privileges which had 
pony tom egt them by former princes, and it added a 
free ion to all employments of trust, profit, and ho- 
nour ;-an establishment of chambers of justice, in which 
the members of the two religions were equal ; and liber- 
ty to-educate their children without restraint in any of 
the universities. _ The iations at Vervins were at- 
tended with considerable difficulties, but these being re- 
moved principally by means of the Pope, Hen signed 
a peace, by which he obtained the restitution of Calais, 
Ardres, lens, and all the towns of France which 
Spain had wrested from him, but at the same time gave 
up his pretensions to Cainbray, . 

‘When this peace was concluded in 1598, France stood 
much in need of repose, The crown was loaded with 
debts and pensions ; the country was uncultivated; the 
people were poor “and miserable ; and the nobility, long 

VOL, IX. PART IL. 


task remained for him than 


585 : 

aceustomed to a life of rebellion and plunder, were desti- _ History. 

tute of all sense of justice, moderation, or loyalty. -Hen- 

ry, therefore, “was convinced, that a ‘still more arduous Henry’s ef- 

any he had yet undertaken ; frts to im- 
to 


and that'it would be necessa Dring all his powers of P*°v* *h 
mind into action, if he wished to’ restore happiness to France. 


France. He was also convinced, that the’ measures 
which it would be necessary to pursue, would meet with 
violent opposition from all those, whose habits and inter- 
ests attached them to rapine and disordér; but he was 
neither intimidated at the greatness, nor perplexed by the 
intricacy, of the task which he undertook. No man in- 
deed was better qualified for it. Res 

His object was single ; he suffered no thought or wish 
to interfere with his desire for the public good ; and his 
talents were of that description, that what he desired ar- 
dently and sincerely, he could examine in all its bearings, 
and ascertain every possible mode by which it could be 
accomplished. He was aware that he must proceed with 
caution, and that many must be enticed to do or permit, 
what, if they were ordered to do, or reasoned with, they - 
would undoubtedly oppose. Among all men of the mi- 
litary profession, he’ possessed great influence, from his’ 
‘success in war, and his courageous and open disposition ; 
while, to the nobility in general, he was recommended by 
his magnanimity, gallantry and gaiety. The people loved 
and reverenced him ; they were convinced, that all his 
actions were directed to their good, and they even gave 
him credit for aiming at it, when their ignorance or their 
passions prevented them from perceiving in what man 
ner his measures would promote it. As the more violent 
and factious had experienced his vigour and ie 
tude, they were afraid to excite his suspicion, by oppo- 
sing his schemes. Thus he found himself in a:condition 
to undertake the mighty and benevolent work of 
nerating France, and of curing the wounds which_a long 
civil war had inflicted on her morals, her happiness, and 
her finances. — Still, however, the task was too great for 
one mind, even of the highest talents, and purest views. 
‘Henry, therefore, called to his assistance the Marquis de 
Rosny, whom he created Duke of Sully. This justly character 
celebrated man, in some respects resembled his master ; of Sully. 
and where he did not resemble him, thé difference was 
such, as rendered their dispositions ‘and talents mutually 
beneficial, instead of antagonist to each other. Henry 
was naturally fond of pleasure, and of a volatile temper ; 
hence he required a steady and thoughtful: friend, ‘pose 
sessed of more coolness and perseverance than himself: 
this friend he found in Sully. « Attached to his mas- 
ter’s person by friendship, and to his interest and the 
public good by principle, he employed himself with the 
most indefatigable ind to restore the dignity of the 
crown without giving umbrage to the nobility, or tres- 
passing on the rights of the people.” As all these plans 
of reform and amelioration depended on the restoration 
of the finances, Sully first applied his attention to them, 
and, in a very short time, he exhibited a statement of 
them so simple, clear, and satisfactory, digesting the 
whole system into tables, that the King became perfectly 
master of his own affairs, and was able, by a single glance, 
to see all the branches of his revenue and expenditure. 
As it was one of Sully’s maxims, that every man employ- 
ed in collecting the revenue was a citizen lost to the pub- 
lic, and yet maintained by the public, he levied taxes in 
the shortest and most frugal manner ; all the expences of 
the government were curtailed: but those which were ne- 

45 


walg 
agriculture. 


consequence 
of five years, all the debts of the crown were 
revenue was ted four millions of livres ; 


expenditure in the treasury, while the taxes were much 


Though Sully was convinced that while the finances 
i were embarrassed, the operations of govern- 


and 
with it in 
and viewed the re-establishment of the 


te 

giving due effect to its laws and regulations, 
consequently i 
finances as a measure first demanding his 


attention, he 
im 


laws are re- 


of a nation, he resolved to secure them b 
enacting good laws, and by every other method whi 
pt ewe gipee and sagacity could devise. He was, in- 
, not one of those politicians, who coldly, as 
well as unwisely, regard the real stength of a nation to 
consist entirely in its pecuniary resources, or even in its 


In Sully’s character, there was a grand and dignified 
simplicity, which accorded better with the manners, than 
with the feelings and wishes of Henry ; for though that 
monarch, in his private life, was free from ali unneces- 
sary pomp, and his gellen 
was forgotten in or companion, yet his t- 
ry and love of pleasure, too often led him aside from 

path of simplicity, and to prefer ostentation and 
show. Sully, on the con , could not suffer himself 
to entertain the idea, that Juxury was not prejudicial, 
‘both to the moral feelings and principles, and to the real 
of a peo He therefore patronised most 

i pursuits, and seems to have formed 
the i that an agricultural nation possessed within 
itself all thet was necessary for its happiness and secu- 


were four millions of surplus above the regular i 


enjoyed himself most, when the king i 
the friend 


sisprucnani 
but she was violent and unguarded in her love. of plea- 
sure; and mingling the fervours of religion with the ex- 
cesses of dissipation, her time was alternately occupi 
by enthusiastic devotion, and unrestrained sensuality. 
enry, coldly averse to her from the very period of 
their marriage, was by no means select A, ges i 
except when some woman of uncommon beauty and ace 
complishments captivated him, For some considerable - 
time before the peace of Vervins, Gabrielle D’Estrees, 
whom he had successively created marchioness of Mon« 


and of legitimating his astoual children ; pte 


even made out a promise of marriage thstandi) 
he was not yet divorced from Margaret. This promise 
he shewed to Sully, who tore it to pieces. . “I believe 
you are turned a fool,” said . 1 know it,” re- 
an Sully, «and I wish I were the only fool in France.” 

otwithstanding this daring and virtuous freedom of 
Sully, Henry was so sensible of his real worth, and sin« 
cere attachment to him, that, so far from being offended, 


he added to his former employments that of master of 
the ordnance. At length, in 1599, the sentence of di- 
di vorce, which he had so long and ardently desired, was 
‘pr from the court o reer poke oat, 
‘Henry’s ion was cooled ; reflection t t him, 
BD. laweCeets fad Hecli’ Gn the’ pole of staining his character 
‘and injuring ‘his people, Bier he made out the promise 
marry his mistress. He therefore resolved to be 
guided in his second marriage, -solely by the considera- 
tion of what would most benefit France ; and, in order 
to effect this, and please his subjects, he nominated Mary 
de Medicis, niece to the grand Duke of Tuscany. But 
‘having done this, in compliance with the wishes of his 
people, and from a conviction that thus he had served 
their interests, he did not scruple again to deliver him- 
self up to gallantry ; and his attachment to the Marchio- 
ness of Verneuil was the frequent cause of disagreements 
between him and his queen. 
In the mean time, the intrigues of the court of Spain 
e him great uneasiness and alarm, His ancient and 
inveterate enemy Philip was indeed no more, but his 
successor ‘inherited his designs of molesting the throne 
of Henry, and incited the Duke of Savoy to make war 
against him. The Duke, however, soon experienced the 
evil consequences of his proceedin, Bresse, Savoy, 
and Nice, were immediately subdued by the armies of 
France ; and in a very short Aces Bry es ‘ore not 
supported, as he expected, by Spain, he implo' me- 
‘diation of the Pope to extricate him out ofa war into 
which he had thus rashly plunged. In 1601, therefore, 
a treaty was accordi formed, on condition that the 
: Duke should cede to see einer ids onto 
extensive territory on the banks of the Rhine, and pay 
“freachery “100,000 crowns to defray the expences of thewar. The 
of Biron, during the war, had in a secret cor- 
em 10014 dence with the Marshal Biron, who, boasting that 
“he liad placed Henry on the throne of France, did not 
eee ae a ae 
‘and felt hi ‘humbled, duri is ig- 
norance even of the sores Apion of learning. These 
motives and feelings operated to make him wish-again for 
war ; and even at the time when he was leading the 
_ French’ ormies into the territories of the Duke of Savoy, 
he was engaged in a correspondence’ with that~prince. 
This dence had not escaped the vigilant atten- 
tion of the king, who, when at Lyons; reproached him 
with his seditious designs. The Marshal acknowledged 
his crime; professed his repentance ; protested future 
fidelity ; and thus succeeded in obtaining the forgiveness 
of his sovereign, who endeavoured still farther to awaken 
‘his gratitude, by the of a large sum of money ; and 
‘to keep him out of the way of future guilt, by appoint- 
harry first to the court of England, and 
‘ _to the Swiss cantons. But the Marshal had 
no sooner returned from these’ embassies, than he re- 
sumed his ambitious projects ; entered into an alliance 
with the courts of Spain and Turin; and succeeded in 
drawing over the Duke of Bouillon, and the Count d’Au- 


3 


-vergne, natural son to Charles 1X. Circumstances seem- - 


* ed favourable to the plans of the conspirators ; disaffec- 
tion was widely spread though France, in’ uence of 
Henry's yielding to the influence of his mistress in the 
‘ nomination to ecclesiastical’ dignities; his ne- 
glect of the Protestants; and the numerous imports 
‘which it was necessary to lay on, in order to support the 
state. These compleints, in some respects: well-ground- 


FRANCE. 


587 


ed, in other respects without foundation, were listened to _ History. 
and enco' by the Marshal and his associates ; and 
as the counties of Anjou, Poitou, Saintonge, Auvergne, 
Guienne and Languedoc, were in a state of revolt, they 
already anticipated the overthrow of the power of Henry. 
But their hopes and plans were disappointed. They had 
employed a person of the name of La Fin in their most 
secret intrigues, who, in a moment of di , revealed 
to Henry the whole of the conspiracy. Henry did not 
hesitate for the shortest period, in what manner he ought 
to act ; but first went into the seditious provinces, and~ 
having overawed the people by his firmness, or brought’ 
them back to their duty by his popular manners, and by’ 
the recollection of what he had done and suffered for’ 
France, he returned to Fontainebleau, determined to bring 
the principal conspirators to the block, before they were 
strengthened by the troops of Spain and Savoy. Biron 
was at this time in his government of Burgundy, strength- 
ening the most important cities in that province, when 
he received an order from Sully, as master general of 
the ordnance, to send back the cannon of Burgundy, 
under pretence of new casting them. No sooner, how- 
ever, were transported beyond the government of 
Biron, than Sully stopped the new ones, with which he 
had promised to replace them. This first excited the 
suspicions of Biron, which were confirmed by his learn- 
ing that La Fin had bad a private conference with the 
king. He now lost all his courage and presence of mind ; 
and though he could not hope for the royal clemency, 
yet such was his agitation, that he obeyed the summons 
of Henry, and along with the Count D’Auvergne, re« 
paired to Fontainebleau. Henry’still wished, if possible, 
to save him ; and, for ‘this purpose, endeavoured to lead 
him to: a fall confession of his guilt, in order that he 
might justify his clemency ; but ‘the Marshal was obsti- 

te; and Henry was at length compelled to give way 
to the regular proceedings of justice. The* proofs being 
clear and positive, the judges unanimously’ pronounced 
the sentence of death. At the’place of execution, Biron 
behaved: in a manner by no means becoming his situation, 
or agreeably to his former conduct ; for he was seized 
by alternate fits of terror and and thus disgraced, 
in his last moments, the character of Intrepid, which he 
had acquired amidst the dangers of war, 

The of Bouillon was yet in arms, and refused to Henry ad- 
obey the royal summons for his appearance at court. vances a- 
Henry, therefore, determined by his presence to reduce geinst the 
this rebellious subject. Accordingly he directed his course penai. 
through the provinces of Auvergne and Limousin, and 4 
approached where Bouillon’ was, before that nobleman 
suspected he had left Fontainebleau. Astonished, there- 
fore, and unprepared for resistance, he ordered the go- 
vernors of the-towns which belonged to him to open their 
gates, and thus by his apparent sincerity succeeded in 
disarming the resentment of his sovereign. Scarcely, 
however, liad Henry returned to Paris, when the restless 
and discontented disposition of the Duke again broke out 
into acts of sedition; and he-found it absolutely necessa- 
ry to crash him at once and effectually, With’ a small 
but well-appointed body of infantry, supported by a train 
of artillery, under the command of the Duke of Sully, he 
pressed forward to Sedan ; and Bouillon again began to 


Biron ex- 
ecuted, 


consider his situation dangerous, On Spain he could not 


rely ; the Protestants, with whom ‘he had been a great 
favourite, were shocked at his disloyalty, and flocked to 
the standard of the King. He therefore again threw 


reg beeen 


His disho 
nourable at. 


tachinen' 
Charlotte de pepe 


Monune- 
rency. 


FRAN GE. 


588 
hieself on the royal mercy, and, however unworthy, ob- 
ul, 
about this period, experienced a greater share 
of domestic unhappiness than ever. The temper and ha- 
bits of the Queen were utrerly st, variance with his, She 
was cold, indifferent, and reserved ; blindly attached. to 
her Italian favourites, and regardless of the wishes or in- 
terests of the King. Such a temper and conduct were ill 
calculated to draw him from those amours, to which he 
was so much adlicted, The Queen complained of them, 
at the very time when she was rendering her own society 
repelling and disagreeable to her husband. Hence the 
inmost recesses of the palace were disturbed by their mu- 
tual and incessant complaints; and Sully, whose good 
offices were always required on these occasions, often 
found the utmost difficulty in accommodating these quar- 
rels. The King, wearied out with the arrogance of the 
Marchioness of Verneuil, sought a new mistress ; and was 
captivated by the wit and apres of the daughter of 
the constable, Charlotte de Montmorency. — So ardent 
- was his passion for this lady, and so completely did it ob- 
good. sense, and pollute the purity and honour 
that he formed the disgraceful resolution of 
marrying her to the Prince of Condé, that thus he might 
introduce her into his own family. The Prince, soon af- 
ter his , diseovered that Henry was still attached 
to his wife, and he desired leave to quit the court. This 
the King positively refused, and thus. confirmed the sus- 
picions of the Prince, who immediately formed the plan 
of secretly escaping with his wife band the limits of the 
kingdom. He reached Landrecy in safety, when ithe 
King, bearing of his flight, and transported with rage and 
ief, dispatched the captain of his guards to demand the 
itives from the Archduke ; but Albert replied,’ « that 
he had never violated the laws of nations on any occa- 
sion whatever, and that he could not begin. with a prince 
of the blood royal of France.” _ The. Prince and_his wife 


_ afterwards took up their, abode at Brussels ; but Henry, 


instead of being saa to a sense of duty and respect 
for his own character by the. reply of the Archduke, first 
ineffectually attempted to carry off the Princess, and then 
commanded the parliament to pass an arret against the 
Prince, and to condemn him to suffer whatever punish- 
ment he might chuse to inflict. 


In 1609, a dispute arose concerning the succession to 


wean he the duchies of Cleves and Juliers, which afforded Henry a 


f D.1609. 


pretext for taking up arms, and with the real view of hum- 
the House of Austria, and circumscribing its power 
in Italy and Germany. On. the death of Jobn William, 
— of Cleves, a number of competitors arose ; and it 
to two of them, who were Protestant princes, 
mperor meant. to of the vacant 
po 2 dh they applied first to ae Evangelical Union, a 
confederacy of Protestants, which had been recently form- 
ed in Germany, and, as the Emperor was in alliance with 
the Pope and the King of Spain, afterwards to France. 
Henry now had a sufficient excuse for breaking openly 
with the.House of Austria ; seal $8 tatoos) of the neko 
iteore ane the Prince and Princess of Condé 
at the same time, private re united with 
public policy in inducing him to poms Protestant 
envoys most favourably for their wishes. He therefore 
renewed his ancient alliance with the United Provinces, 
and cultivated the friendship of England ; while the Pro- 
testant princes of Germany readily united. with him. in 
his plan for humbling the House of Austria. Even the 


Duke of Sayoy, in expectation of acquiring ; 
the duchy of Milan, gpa Rpm ius m Austria, 
agreed to join the con » and to give up Savoy to. 
France ; and the Italian states, Jong worn out by ‘conti- 
nued warfare, and constantly exposed to irruptions from 
Germany, Spain, and Frio associated in the design, 
in the hope. of possessing undisturbed wr quill pand na- 
D ed 
than 


tional independence for the future, itis. 
bable, that the design of Henry went much 
merely to pruis the Labry Puss renee ier the peas 
and strength e House o tria, s might ha 
been the immediate and primary object, but there ipod 
reason to believe, that the plan of a Christian commons 
wealth, as it is exhibited in Sully’s Memoirs, was serious- , 
ly entertained by Henry, 

Concerning this scheme, there have been various ‘ideas, His grand 
To some it appears so romantic, that they cannot believe design. 
that it ever actually engaged the attention, or excited the 
hopes of such men as Henry and Sully ; but that a plan 
was really formed, which was known by the appellation, of 
the grand design, there can be no doubt, According to it, 
Europe was to.be divided into fifteen states, so” 
with respect to situation, and so. poised with yaa 
strength and resources, that there would either beno 


for war, or no probability of any state carrying it on 

success. In. order to compose sen tesa 
ones were to be united with the Biba me 
were to be bound bya such 


as would render it the interest of all to p 
een e sponte on. Sa aaeane rare 
plan, it.is scarcel le to conceive it could 
entertained -by..Henry or Sully ; and epegss! 294 
to believe, that its object was at the same time more 
practicable, and less disinterested. In fact, meer 
der the knowledge of mankind, which they both 
sed.; the experience they ‘had of the. difficulties attend= 
ing even the arrangement of petty concerns, where dif- 
ferent states were interested, and the little i 
shat any ehines phennactes sitiethe inseeretarts ‘rance, 
would rouse their attention, or excite their wishes; we 
shall be induced to believe, that the t of 
their own country was the final end at which they 2s 
ed in their grand design, Or if thi tha te Bean net 
be admitted, there seems no doubt, 
ciated states into Siig eeepc on 
to be formed solely by: means of compulsion ; a yond 
the wishes and) the interests of those at east 
of the inferior states, were not to be consulted. 

_ That the object, whatever it was, which Henry had in 

reached Reps OherEe is evident bid 


~« 


the field, he pepself had Pig en huciagn ah vn 
well-disciplined troops. Sully assured him eon 
forty millions in the treasury ; and added, « If 
not increase your army beyond 40,000, I np ay 
supply you with money sufficient for the prosecution of 


the war, without being under the perm of imposing 
any new, taxes.” pine Leable Sarge 
ae, resolved to command his 2 n oy agp 
made preparations . etting out from his go to the 
capital, cepital “Be Appointed the he oem but she in- “"™y- 
sisting on being crowned before his stay in 
the capital wap nerserer garam mean time, 


as his route lay through Flanders, 
sion from ,the Archduke Charles to march 


History. territories; t 
\— tertai 


‘ 
aT. 


FRANCE. 589 


the court of Austria pet have en- 
tertained suspicions of the real object of so great an 
We eth Geinewse tions, yet, as the 
rchduke was not for resistance, he answered in 
terms of respectfu Ri ibpauaacee Nothing now retard- 
ed his departure, but the coronation of the queen. Sully 
i as, the thoughts of this ceremony disquieted 
him greatly, and that he felt an inward, unaccountable, 
and obscure dread of some approaching misfortune. It 
is probable that the greatness of the object which he 
had in view, might have impressed his manners and 
countenance with unusual gravity ; and that this after- 
wards was attributed to a timent of his fate. At 
the same time, it must be admitted. that the recollec- 
tion of the narrow escapes which he had often made, 
and of the opportunity which a crowd afforded of at- 
ing his life, could hardly fail to arise in his mind ; 
and if it did occur, must have rendered him unquiet 
and mélancholy. Besides, he had often been displeased 
with the attention and indulgence which the queen dis- 
Baverfo Ber Italian favourites ; and he mig ta - 
d that, during his absence, they would conduct 
themselves with more than their usual audacity, and 
excite the Paras of the people. Notwithstanding 
tat ap ions, however, wg me ful e which he 
uni - expressed, and_ sincere a pageantry 
Sed odeaiiten te sae that the coronation should 


ificence, The next Sunday 
was fixed for the public entry of the queen, and on 
the Wednesday following, oH had resolved to quit 
Paris, and to put himself at the of his army. 


Isassassina- But the termination of the life of this really great 


ted. 
A.D. 1610. Jed from 


_ Epernon and Montbazon, the 


king was near at hand. Francis Ravilliac had travel- 
, his native province, to Paris, in 
order to procure a livelihood ; but being di inted, 


and reduced to extreme poverty and ess, he 
conceived the design of arming his hand against the 
King of France. after he arrived in capital, 
he conducted himself in such a manner as plainly proved 
him to be a wild and frantic visi ; and this frame 
of mind must have been rendered still more lomina- 
Sing Fy ea Sierewe SnCe Be Be - Being a 
bigoted i regard: , as he was going to 
assist the sits, an all a BereRiC i thems. Phone are & 


dened by enthusiasm, distress, and bi , he watched 
ty of striking the fatal blow. Henry had 


_ an opportuni 
proposed to visit the arsenal on the morning of the day 


after the coronation ; but he postponed his intention, in 
consequence of the indisposition of Sully, till the after- 
noon, when, finding himself disquieted and restless, he 
ordered his coach ; and, accompanied by the Dukes of 
ahr arshals Lavardin and 


Du Plessis, Liancourt, his master of the harse, he 
determined to proceed to the arsenal. The captain of 
the guards was ordered to 


a 
back and the royal footmen. ' e king might have 
a full and unobstructed view of the various ornaments 
and devices which the citizens had prepared on the oc- 


to a narrow street, where the was by the 
accidental meeting of two carts. Most part of the at- 
tendants, on this, took a nearer way, and only two 
footmen were left, one of whom went forward to clear 


the , and the other .was accidentally detained History, 


behind. Ravilliac, who had been watching a fit oppor- 
tunity to execute his p , instantly stept forward, 
mounted the wheel of the carriage, and, as the king 
turned to read a letter to the Duke of Epernon, he 
stabbed him over the Duke’s shoulder, Henry had 
scarcely time to exclaim, “ I am wounded!” before a 
second blow, more fatally directed, pierced his heart ; 
and, breathing only a deep sigh, he sunk down lifeless. 
The assassin did not attempt to escape, but remain, 

supporting himself on the wheel of the coach, with the 
bloody knife in his hand, till he was seized. He would 
immediately have been torn in pieces by the king’s at- 
tendants, had not the Duke of Epernon interfered. 
The same nobleman quieted the apprehensions of the 
multitude, by assuring them that the king was merely 
wounded, and that they were carrying him to the 
Louvre, in order to have his wounds » eae The 
crowd instantly gave way ; and the body being convey- 
ed to the palace, was laid upon a bed ; but it is said, 
that it was soon deserted by most of those who so late- 
ly had courted the protection and favour of their sove- 


reign. 

The most dreadful tortures were inflicted on Ra- 
villiae: his bones were broken by the arms of the exe- 
cutioner: his flesh was torn by hot pincers: into the 
wounds thus made, scalding lead and oil were poured ; 
and his mangled body, still quivering with life, was de- 
livered to be torn to pieces by four horses. Even after 
all these excruciating torments, the vital principle was 
not destroyed, when the multitude, mad with rage, 
rushed through the guards, and in an instant the last 
spark of life was extinguished. In the midst of all his 
torments, he isted, that it was entirely his own act, 
and that he had no accomplice ; declaring, that, “ im- 
pressed with the idea that the armaments of Henry 
were destined against the Catholic church, he alone had 
planned, and was payy to the deed, but that he was 
now convinced of his guilt, and trusted that his suffer- 
ings in this world would atone for it.” 


Of the character of Henry. we have already sketch- 443, charac- 
ed the leading features, as well as pointed out the be- ter. oT 


nefits which, during his reign, he bestowed on his sub- 
jects ; but the extreme rarity of such an assemblage of 
excellent qualities in a sovereign, will authorise us to 
recur to the subject. His master virtue undoub 

was his love for his country ; not a cold, abstract, or 
unenlightened love, but that feeling which constitutes 
the rarest and pages. order of patriotism, which leads 
him, in whose breast it dwells, to be zealous of his 
country’s rights, to be anxious for its happiness, and 
most keen and penetrating in examining into the means 
that will best promote it: while such a person is by no 
means blind to the imperfections or vices which m 
prevail in it, but, on the contrary, convinced that they 
are the enemies of his country’s happiness, his patriotism 
induces him to acknowledge their existence, and to us 
his utmost efforts to extirpate them. Under the di- 
rection of this warm and exalted patriotism, all the ta- 
lents of Henry’s powerful and well cultivated mind, 
were brought into exercise. His chief weakness was 
undoubtedly his inordinate passion for women, which 
eee inf many irregularities A but this was a blemish 
ra in his private character, for he never permitted 
his mistresses to direct his councils, ees influence 
him in the choice of his servants. It must be con- 
fessed, however, that the ers of the nation, at 


least of the court, were rendered loose and prota 
is loose- 


by the example of his libertine conduct: and 


590 


ness of manners rise to other consequences l 
rench gentlemen are said to have been 
in single combats, chiefly arising from amorous 
ls, during the first eighteen years of his 
i: a general, his emp otem. eaceely. 5 
though his success t, Ps, to be ascri 
to the confidence and affection with which he inspired 
his officers and soldiers, than to the comprehensive plans 
on which he conducted his campaigns, or the masterly 
manceuvres which he put in practice during an 
ment. Having been accustomed to the profession of arms 
from his earliest youth, he not only set an example of la- 
bour, iety, and , but charmed the soldiers 
by his behaviour and discourse, which entertained them 
by its sprightliness and vivacity, at the same time that it 
convinced them that he was really their father and 
friend. It is scarcely possible to conceive with what 
yess even the common soldiers endeavoured, by 
their conduct, to deserve his approbation ; and it was not 
because they thus hoped to be substantially rewarded, 
for the least expression of praise from him was hailed 
with rapture, and acquired inestimable value. 

Nor were the soldiers the only class among his sub- 
jects who regarded him with the affection of children. 

he same feeling towards him the breasts of 
most Frenchmen,—even of those who differed from him 
with respect to religion, while he was a Protestant, and 
who suspected his sincerity when he professed himself 
a Catholic. Of this, they gave such undoubted proofs, 
as amply to justify the reply of Henry to the Duke of 
Savoy, when he asked him what the revenue of France 
amounted to ;—‘* To what I please; for having the 
hearts cay people, they will grant me whatever I 
ask ; if sees to my life, I will take 
eare that France be in such a condition, that every 

it in it shall be able to have a fowl in his pot.” 

e houses of some ts in Champagne having 
been pi by the soldiery, the King sent for their 
officers, who happened to be at Paris, and commanded 
them instantly to repair to Cham e, and restore or- 
der, and punish = a Ce “¥ gti “eit 

ruin my people, who shall support me; how will 
ee teen be mepecnten 5 who will pay_you, sirs? 
To plunder my people is to plunder me. e was ex- 
tremely attentive to his officers, and they did not hesi- 
tate to consult him ing all their distresses and 
difficulties: The Spanish ambassador, expressing his 
surprise at finding him one day almost besieged by 
them, the King replied, “ If you saw me during a bat- 
tle, they then ga still more closely round me.” 

Bat though he was thus affable, he knew when it 
was his duty to be firm and resolute. A person of 
bea vaca ee influence asked a favour for = 

Ww iad been guilty of murder. His 
sn. 94 Bi dignified, veithonk being harsh. “Tam 
sorry it is not in my power to. grant your request. It 


becomes to act as the uncle ; it becomes me to act 
asthe King. I excuse your request; do you excuse 
my refusal. 


To these rare and excellent qualities of the head and 
heart, Henry added a most ing physi y, 
which at once commanded and inspired affec- 
tion and esteem. He was of middle stature ; of a fine 
complexion, a broad forehead, etrating eyes, an 
= meal and brown hair, Phish. hiv be 
to turn grey when he was only 33 years old. On this 
nappening, he remarked, that the storm of adversity 

early commenced to blow against him. 

Such was Henry IV. a sovereign who restored_trah- 


FRA 


NCE. 


erse 
pdhe who introduced order and economy into 
administration of the 


cles, so many disorders, and so many enemies. 
By M. lis Malicis be had tix guildiroty Sail ht 
by his di mistresses, besides those whom he 
not acknow ; 
He was in the 58th year of his age, and the 21st of 
his reign, when he was assassinated. . . 
Louis, the eldest of Henry’s three sons, by Mary de Louis X11 
Medicis, was only in the ninth year of his age at his 
father’s death, and consequently it was to 


int a regent. A parliament was held, at which 
Duke of on, laying his hand on the hilt of his 
sword, said in a threatening tone, “ It is still in its 


Medicis 

character, she soon became the dupe and instrument of Medicis 

her Italian confidents and favourites. Concini, a na- 8% 

tive of Florence, Marquis D’Ancre, afterw: Marshal 

of France, and his wife Eleanora i, possessed an 

entire ascendency over her mind, directed the af- — 

fairs of the state asthey pleased. The Duke of Sully, 
iving that he was no longer capable of benefiti 

Kia country by his advice or services, and dis; 

with what was going on, indignantly reti 

court to his estates, resigning his offices of governor 


i t of the finances ; 
was persuaded, by 


of 
but he 
his regard to the interests of the 
Protestants, to retain his situations as Master of the 


Prince of Asturias. The Protestants imm took The 
the alarm, auguring that their tion. would 


mediately follow this line of foreign politics. 
Duke 


the mayor, who was attachied to his interest, and i 
inted another entirely at his own devotion, 17 
Queen, timid by nature, and conscious that her power 
was still weak, a endeavoured to pacify, 


i 


‘@ourt in- 


FRANCE. 


and had the Prince persevered, itis probable that Louis Histery-. é 
i i le difficulty in ree “vy 


justified, the Duke of Rohan, by re- 
mayor. The Prince of Condé, who, on 
death of Henry, had quitted his retreat in 
ded the regency, as first prince of the 
been tempted to fore; apes fis sey 
a splended palace and a sum of money. 
however, he was disconten and set himself 
the-Florentine favourites of the Queen; but 
herself entirely guided by the Count of Soissons 
caper wag , the is D’Ancre found 


, the Duke of Mantua dying without male 

issue, the Duke of Savoy, who had long wished to ob- 
of Italy, conceived that this would be a 
moment for the accomplishment of his ob- 
He therefore attem to seize Montserrat, an 
to Mantua, which was also claimed by the 

brother of the deceased Duke ; the latter, finding him- 
self unable to resist his opponent, applied for assistance 
of France, who, in conjunction with 


Spain and Venice, to su him. The 
Duke of Savoy, alt «agpantin the force which 


: 
E 
H 


Ht 


= } 


v 


i 


The princes of the 
glected, and sensible that 


591 


would have experienced co ficu 
ducing him to subjection ; but, after publishing a most 
violent manifesto, he permitted himself to be duped, 
laid down his arms, returned to court, and was arrest 
ed in the middle of the Louvre in 1616. The impri- 
sonment of the Prince in the Bastile awakened the sus- 
picions and alarms of the Dukes of Vendome, May- 
ence, Nevers, and Rohan, who, accompanied by a num- 
ber of the nobility, retired from court, and prepared 
to take up arms. This was the signal for public dis- 
contents being loudly ex ; and it was farther 
increased by the dismi from office of of 
state, of Vi , an old favourite and faithful servant 
of Henry IV., and by the promotion of the Bishop of 
Lucon, afterwards the celebrated Cardinal Richelieu, 
in his stead. 


Scarcely had the Bishop taken his seat at the coun- Cardinal 
cils of Louis, before he infused talents and vigour into Richelieu, 
of the state. Three armies were 4: D. 1616. 


all the eaenee 

immediately raised, and took the field, to support the 
royal authority; the first in Cham e, under the 
command of Duke of Guise ; second in the 


Nivernois, commanded by the Marshal Montigni; and Civil war. 


the third was entrusted to the Count D’Auvergne, 
whom the queen, drawing from the long confinement 
to which he had been sentenced by Henry, placed at 
the head of the royal forces in the Isle of France. The 
Duke of Guise reduced Chateau, Ponceau, and Rethel. 
The Marshal defeated and took prisoner the second son 
of the Duke of Nevers; and the Count surprised and 
dispersed the scattered bodies of the confederates, and 
shut up in Soissons the Duke of Mayence. This noble- 
man, son to the celebrated chief of the League in the 
reign of Henry, must have surrendered, had he not 
been preserved by an unexpected event. 

The Marquis D’Ancre, th 


and .des- The Italian 


Btates-gene- _ In 1614, the States-general were assembled, in com- pised by all the nobility of France, had hitherto up- favourites 
i i i i Reld his power in spite of their efforts to destroy Sata es 


tations and authority of the attorney-gene- 
ral, gave this brief reply : It fe my Glesthine, a also 


ueen’s. 
The king was now of age, but he still suffered him- 

self to be under the guidance and i 

and her favourites, 5 28 gee Sop a 


him; but he met with a more dangerous enemy in. yesteq, 


young Licenes, whose fortune was as remarkable as his 
own. Licenes had been placed by the Marquis himself 
about the person of the young king, into w favour 
he soon a himself by his assiduities, and the 
ardour with which he en into his childish amuse- 
ments. The Marshal thought that no danger of rival- 
ship could be from one who was occupied 
by such frivolous pursuits ; but this behaviour Licenes 
only ‘pe in order to conceal his ambitious views 
igns. He soon succeeded in inspiring the ki 
with a jealousy of the authority of the Marquis, ps | 
in ing him to shake off the yoke of his mother. 
The resolution of Licenes to destroy the authority of 
the Marquis, was strengthened by the refusal of the 
latter to unite his niece to Licenes’s brother. From 
that moment his ambition was whetted by the spirit of 
revenge. The king listened attentively to the repeated 
suggestions of Licenes, respecting the removal of the 
Marquis and the Italian favourites of the queen; and 
was struck with his representations, that his father 
Henry had ed with aversion their influence over 
her mind, and only been prevented, by her tears and 
entreaties, from sending them baths ie Geeone mee 
try. Nor was this the only topic on which he dwelt ; 
he insisted on the unpopularity which the king was ex- 
posed to, from aay! Imprisoned, at their suggestion, 
the first prince of the blood, and on the calamities 
which were impending over France. The restoration 
of tranquillity and loyalty, both among the nobility 


592 FRA 


Mixory. and the great mass of the le, he said, were ; 
—Y—" andl the same means which’ weuld render the King te. 
spected and beloved by his subjects, would put him in 
ion of that authority of which he had been so 
deprived. Louis listened attentively. At first, 
the habits of dependence and submission in which he 
had been brought up, rendered him timid and appre- 
hensive; but afterwards, the love of power, and a sense 
of his own danger, from the disturbed state of the 
country, made him anxious to free himself from the 
influence of the Italians. This resolution he immedi- 
ately communicated to Licenes ; and, by his ‘advice, 
he exacted an oath from the captain of the guard to 
execute what he should command. Having obtained 
this oath, he informed him, that the royal orders were, 
that be should arrest the Marquis. He immediatel 
prepared to obey. By this time, he, as well as his 
wife and the queen, had intimation given them of the 
danger which was hanging over them. The marchio- 
ness, intimidated, wished to leave France; but her 
husband declared, that he never would desert the for- 
time which had hitherto befriended him.’ On the morn- 
ing of the day fixed for his destination, he had gone 
to the Louvre, surrounded by forty of his favourites or 
dependants ; and was attentively employed in reading 
a letter, when the captain of the guard, and a few 
friends whom he had associated with him in the enter- 
prise, made their appearance. The attendants of D’Ancre, 
supposing that the king was approaching, gave way ; 
and the captain of the guards advancing, him 
in the name of the king. Astonished, and su i 
treachery, he laid his band on his sword. This mark 
of his resistance was the signal for his destruction : 
three pistols were instantly fired at him, and he fell 
lifeless on the ground. As the king was at a window 
where he could see what was going on, his presence 
prevented the adherents of D’Ancre from rising in 
their master’s behalf. His son and his wife were im- 
mediately arrested. The latter, instead of being tried 
for her real crimes, though they were sufficiently noto- 
rious, was principally accused of sor and magic. 
The judge having demanded what charm she made use 
of for the Purpose of fascinating the queen, she replied, 
hobly and truly, “ The ascendant which a superior 
ius always has over a weak mind.” She was con- 
Secttied: and suffered the severest tortures. 
Andhenelf ‘The disgrace of the Queen-mother followed the de- 
disgraced. struction of her favourites. “Licenes succeeded to the 
honours and situations of D’Ancre ; the captain of the 
ards was raised to the rank of marshal; and the Bi- 
shop of Lucon was compelled to resign the seals of 
secretary of state. The submission of the Dukes of 
Mayence, Vendome, Nevers, and Rohan, were among 
the first consequences of the fall of the Italian favou- 
rites. Licenes now turned his attention to the best 
means of securing the permanency of his high situa- 
tion, and of ennobling his obscure birth by an illus- 
trious alliance. At first, he aspired to the sister of the 
Duke of Vendome, the natural daughter of Henry IV. ; 
but he afterwards judged it more prudent to lower his 
Views to the daughter of the Duke of Montbazon, who 
with pleasure received as his son-in-law the favourite of 
the king. Still, however, further measures were ne- 
cessary, to make the nobility and people forget that 
one favourite had only been destroyed to make roém 
for another. Licenes, therefore, who had been created 
Duke, assembled the states of Rouen in the year 1618, 
and abolished the most burdensome i ts: he also 


appeared zealous to procure the freedom of the Prince 
: 1 


NCE. 


of Condé, in order to secure the favour of the pee 

of the blood. By these , and by 

pointment of the Duke of Mayence to the governn 

of Guienne, and the Marshal Ornano to that of Nor- 
great measure, in accom- 


mandy, he succeeded, in a 
pee his object. The government of the Isle of 

rance he reserved to himself, as allowing bim, at the 
same time, to attend to his interest at court. — 

The Queen-mother, ase. 4 was still formidable, my — 
even in her exile at Blois: and Licenes, consi ntiy, 
could not deem himself perfectly seesarel" he Weta ret 
into a plot with the Duke of Epernon, who suddenly 
quitting Metz at the head of 100 horse, and ad 
to Blois, succeeded in rescuing Mary from her captivi- Ls 
ty, and immediately conveyed her into Angouleme, at 
the very time when Licenes had persuaded Louis to 
commit her a close prisoner to the castle of Amiboise. 
The king at first was highly enraged, and resolved to 
recover her mother by force of arms; but Licenes, ap- 
prehensive that such a proceeding would excite univer- 
sal disgust and dissatisfaction, had the prudence to op- 
pose this resolution. The Duke of Epernon and’ Mary, 
on their part, were sincerely desirous of a reconciliation 
with the king. In order to effect this, Licenes recalled 
the Bishop of Lucon, and by his influence tranquillity 4 
was again established. The Queen-mother was restored + 
to liberty, and in lieu of the Saba eoe of Normandy, ¥ 
she received that of Anjou : her adherents were reinsta , 
ted in their offices; but the Bishop himself, who had 
been so instrumental in bringing about this wi 
reconciliation, concealing his passion fo ne 
more favourable Yate , at present displayed the 
appearance of an psn disinterestedness, and re- 
fused to accept of any situation, © == 

From the beginning of the reign of Louis, the Pro- 1 ouig mea. 
testants had been treated in such a manner, as justly suresagainst 


ri 


a ar 


rendered them apprehensive that the privil Nt- the Protess 
ed them by Henry IV. would be i ~ In 1617, tants, ~~ 
the King gave them great offence by an arret of coun- 
cil, ordering the restitution of the church lands in the 


district of Bearn, which the Protestants in that pro- 
vince had enjoyed above 60 years. Upon this a meet- 
ing was held at Rochelle, and they resolved to erect a 
peg gh the model of the Du About tie’s baie 
iod, e le at heger to bpabententane at th. 
aitaee of Few axes ee the nobility were displeased 
at the increasing fondness of the for his favourite 
the Duke of Licenes. The Duke of Mayence retired jy offends 
to his government of Guienne ; the Count of Soissons, the nobility. 
the Dukes of Vendome, Nevers, Rohan, and Retz, re- 


paired to Angers, where the Queen-mother resided, ‘ 
ho had slready begun to intrigue again. "The Duke : 
of Epernon also in her favour; so thet she F 


found herself in a condition to assume a lofty and de- 
cided tone, and to declare that she never would con-. 
sent to any future treaty, unless it were guaranteed by 
the Parliament of France, or by some foreign power. 
The King’s character for indecision and weakness, on é 
this occasion, had induced the Queen-mother and her 
adherents to pass all bounds of decency: But, to 
surprise and terror, he acted with vigour, activity, and. 
firmness: assembling his forces as rapidly as possible, 
he went into Normandy, where he reduced Caen, and 
prevented Rouen from joining the rebels. Mary on 
this took the alarm ; and the Bishop of Lucon, in whom 
she still placed the greatest confidence, her. 
to try the effects of a new 1 n, she deserted 
her party, and a new treaty, which confirmed the for- 
mer, was signed. The Bishop of Lucon, on this occa- 


oe ae he 


te 


om 


FRANCE. : 593 


_ History. sion, threw off the mask which had.so long concealed 
"his aspiring and. ambitious projects; and entered into 
an: with the Duke of Licenes, to bestow the 

of his niece on his nephew, on condition that the 

Duke should use his: influence to raise him to the rank 


Protestants were apprised of their danger ; and scarce- 
ly needed the exhortations of the Duke of Rohan, son- 
in-law to the Duke of Sully, and of his brother the 
Duke of Soubese, to induce them to resolve on de- 
ir religious liberties at the hazard of their 


by his ari 
pr a ra a i npr thas 
oppose his sov convic- 
.@ tion. he surrendered the Saumur, which com- 


place was gallantly, ineffectually, defended, for 
ee ts aa ; and, on its surren- 
der, Louis had the magnanimity, as well as the policy, to 
Siege of permit the garrison to unmolested. From this 
Montauban. place, in 1621, the army to Montauban, into 
A.D. 1621. which the Protestants had thrown a numerous garrison 


commanded by the Marquis de la Force. The royal 
army i of 25,000 men ; but the place was so 


rss This fj , only filled the breasts 

Protestants ae en ignation, and roused 
their to a higher enthusiasm. The 
Duke of in Montpellier, and pre- 


Nantes was again confirmed; the royal forces were with. History. 
drawn from the gates and harbour of Rochelle; and the 
inhabitants of Montpellier agreed to surrender to their 
soverei, : 

The inal of Retz dying about this time, Cardinal Projects of 
Richelieu, by the influence of the queen, was introdu- ee, 


ced into the royal councils: npeals badete ot a share 
in the administration; (which ina time he entirely 
governed, ) before he formed three mighty projects ; to. 
subdue the turbulent spirit of the French nobility; to. re- 
duce the rebellious Protestants ;,and to’ curb: the en- 
croachments of the House of Austria. But it was, in 
the first place, necessary to remove his rivals in the 
cabinet; the care of the finances, therefore, about which 
he was most anxious for the prosecution of his designs, 
was taken from the Duke of Vienville, and given to 
Morillac, a man upon whose subserviency be could 
completely depend: other changes. of a less important 
nature werealso made. His next project, before he 
entered on the execution of his grand designs, was the 
expulsion of the Pope from the Valteline, which he ac- 
complished, of the remonstrances of Gre- 
gory XV. These, however, were only preliminary 

or rather intended as indications of the extent of 


serve peace with England. James I. at this time sat 


on the throne of that ,,and had determined not 
to bestow the hand of his.son Charles, except on a 
Princess of France or in, Richelieu, aware of this, 


negociated, in spite of courts of Rome and Madrid, 
a treaty between the Prince of Wales and 
Henrietta of France, sister of Louis XII]. 

He now turned his abilities to the destruction of the 
pink einai Ae Sa ely eee reer 
veral respects the court, they were preparing for 
renewed oatilities, when a new subject of Tibcontent 
arose. A royal fleet was stationed at L’Orient, to block 
up the harbour of Rochelle. This the Duke of Sou- 
bese offered to attack ; and if he failed, the Protestants 
were to disown his conduct. He succeeded, and his 
brother the Duke of Rohan immediately displayed the 
standard of revolt. A sharp but desultory war was 
carried on, which was terminated for the ti by 
the mediation of the Queen of England; the edict of 
Nantes was again.confirmed ; the harbour, of Rochelle 
freed from blockade ; and the King of France agreed 
that the King of England should guarantee to the Pro« 
testants the articles of the peace. 

_ A powerful faction now rose at court against. Riche- 


Cabals 


lieu. Not one prince ,of the blood was sincerely his ®gainst him. 


friend. Gaston, the Duke of Orleans, the King’s bro- 
ther, was his declared enemy. |The Queen+mo her. 
self, was become jealous of him; and, even -the: King 
was attached to him rather through fear than affec- 
tion, But the intrigues'of the. courtiers, thus  sup- 
ported and encouraged, could not escape the vigilance 
of the Cardinal: he discovered and dissi all their 
iracies, and at last made himself absolute master 

of: the King and kingdom. 
During these cabals, the Protestants, complaining 
that the terms of the last treaty had not) been strictly 
with, displayed a di ition once more to 
themselves independent ; and in this were 
confirmed by the assurances of support which they re- 
ceived from England, where a fleet of 100 sail, and an 
army of 7000 men, were fitted out for the invasion of 
France. Thangeeea however, were entrusted 

’ Fr : 


Hi 


594 FRANCE. 


Hisery. toa man by no means fit for the enterprise, the Duke 


of Bucki , whose measures were so ill concerted, 
that the inhabitants of Rochelle, when he appeared be- 
fore their harbour, refused to admit his troops. ‘They 
were but a part of the Protestant body, they observed, and 
they must consult their brethren before they gave admit- 
tance to an army, of whose coming they had not been 
jously informed. The Duke next directed his force 
against the isle of Rhe, which was well isoned and for- 
tified, instead of attacking Oleron, a fertile and defence- 
less island. He did jndeed succeed in effecting a land- 
ing in Rhe, but he left behind him the fort of 
Prie, which covered the landing place ; allowed Tho- 
rias the governor to amuse him with a deceitful'ne 
ciation, till St Martin, the principal fort, was provided 
for a siege ; and then attacked it before he had made 
any breach, and thus threw away the lives of his sol- 
diers. He likewise guarded the sea in such a negli- 
gent manner, that a French army got over in small di- 
visions, and obliged him to retreat to his ships. 

The Protestants were now at the mercy of Richelieu, 
who had already, by separate treaties, secured the al- 
liance of Spain, and of the United Provinces. ‘The 
army he assembled was commanded by the King in 
person, attended by all the principal nobility. The 
Cardinal himself, aspiring to the reputation of a gene- 
ral, planned the lines of circumvallation, designed the 
forts, and directed the attack. The citizens of Ro- 
chelle, animated by civil and religious zeal, and abun- 
dantly provided with military stores, resolved to defend 
thinstlites to the last extremity ; and their Mayor, 
Guyton, a man of experience and fortitude, took the 
command, as neither the Duke of Rohan, nor his bro- 
ther Soubese, were in the place. The Cardinal, find- 
ing it impossible to reduce it so long as the communi- 
cation by sea remained open, attempted first to shut up 
the harbour by stakes and by a boom; but these me- 
thods being ineffectual, he recollected what Alexander 
had erie at the siege of Tyre, and erected a mole 
a mile in length across a gulf, into which the sea 
rushed with great impetuosity. ‘The inhabitants, be- 
fore it was completed, saw an English fleet approach ; 
they crowded the ramparts in the expectation of relief; 
but the English Admiral, after throwing in’a small 
supply of corn, either through cowardice or treachery, 

ined an engagement with the fleet of France, and 
returned to Portsmouth. The Duke of Buckingham 
then resolved to resume the command; bot while he 
was hastening the preparations, he was stabbed b 
Felton. Inthe mean time the mole was completed, 
and so strong as to resist all the attacks of the Bark of 
Lindsay, who succeeded to the command of the Eng- 
lish fleet. He was obliged to abandon the enterprize ; 
and as the sails of his squadron vanished from the view 
of the abandoned and deepaiting inhabitants, they con- 
sented to surrender, after a siege of 12 months. They 
were deprived of their privileges, and their fortifica- 
tions were destroyed ; but they were permitted to retain 
possession of their property, and allowed the free exercise 
of their religion, A. D. 1629. Searcely had the inha- 
bitants opened their gates, when a tempest arose so 
violent as to bury in the ocean that mole which had 
been the cause of their ruin; so that, if they had held out 
only a few hours longer, the pride of the Cardinal would 
have been humbled, and their freedom 

Richelieu, sd rt rR with the advantages that 
result from quickly fo owing up success,’ immediately 
after the fall of Rochelle marched into the other parts 
of France, where the Protestant party were powerful, 


‘that he abandoned the sense of his own injuries, refused — 


land had concluded a peace with France, - 

abandoned the Protestants to their fate, had recourse 

to negociation, and obtained very favourable conditions 

both for himself and his party. The Protestants were ‘Pye Pro. 
permitted to retain their estates, and allowed the free testants 
exercise of their religion; all the privileges of the edict pas hg 
of Nantes were also confirmed to them; butthey were 
deprived of their cautionary towns, as dangerous to the 

state. From this period is justly dated Me ae ww 

ment of the French monarchy, which suffered 
considerable diminution by the power.that'the Protes- ” 
tants had acquired during the civil wars. Indeed; it 7 
seems to have been Richelieu’s object, not. so much to 

subdue the Protestants, because they were of a diffe- 

rent religion from that established in France, as be- 

cause they had erected themselves into an i 
community, and aimed at an entire separation frc : 
monarchy, It was in their political, not in their reli. 
gious character, that he chiefly regarded them as ene- | 
mies to his plans of aggrandizing the power of the sove- | 
reign; and that this was his view of them, will fur. 
ther appear in the sequel, when we advert to the'as. 
sistance which he gave to the Protestants in Ger. 


ee ee a 


he 


many, : : ‘ aes | mu 
As Richelieu had displayed an extent and variety'of 
talent, during the siege of Rochelle, which he-was hot 
previously pa! Hye to possess, the King determined 
to commit to his superintendence the care of the ma- 
rine ; and for this purpose he’ persuaded the Duke of: 
Montmorency to resign that situation. This | depart. 
ment soon experienced the beneficial effects of the com- 
prehension of the Cardinal’s mind, and the activity and 
vigilance of his management. But he did not con- 
fine himself to this: or any other particular branch of 
public business. Indeed, the care of these: were amly 
subordinate to his grand and daring designs’; for, hav- 
ing subdued the Protestants, he now’ directed his 
thoughts to the humbling of the house of Austria. } 
This he perceived could be done most effectually, and Richelieu’s 
at the same time with the least risk to France, by sup- plans to 
porting the Protestants in Germany. There were, how. humble 
ever, other means, of a less extensive: natutep which 4° 
he did not neglect. ube. acs PAB 49 aes. 10 
On the death of the Duke of ‘Mantua;: the Duke‘of 


ie to the dependent marquisate of Montserra 


oth -were supported by 'Philipj:Kingiof Spains"The 
Duke of Note, in his distress; knew not where to : 


turn for assistance. He hadi dl the suspicion of 
the Cardinal, by uniting with his secret enemies in . 
France. He was the object of ‘dislike to the Queen-~ 
mother ; but Richelieu possessed so much patrioti 


2 


to listen to the complaints of Mary de Medicis, and ~ 
‘strongly advised the King to support the Duke'agai 

the House of Austria. An army was lingly - 
formed: Louis placed himself at their head. The The French: 
were passed ; the narrow pass of Suza penetrated ; and invadeltaly. 
the Duke of Savoy, alarmed, and unequal to the com- 
bat, was under the necessity of deserting his allies, and 

of uniting his troops with those of France. Casal was 4 
at that time besieged by the Spaniards ; and when Louis a 
first entered Italy, he meant to have advanced with his. 4 
whole army to its relief; but, 7, learning that the 


“i 


uc 
~ 


Sh 


FRANCE, 


History: Duke of Rohan had again roused the Protestants in se- 
—~—" veral provinces, he himself returned with most of his 


troops, leaving 3000 chosen soldiers for the 
of Casal. The Protestants were soon red 
mean time, the Duke of Savoy, violating his engage- 


otection 


. ments, had joined the Spaniards in the siege of Casal ; 


hid 
> 


Unite with 


oly Rete rs 
ly us tary cly1 
power, to reduce him to submission. In a 
short time, his troops approached Turin; but while 
the Duke was ing for the defence of his capital, 
lena he Givectiope« mannat 
against Pignerol, an important ‘ortress, whi 
from Dauphiné to Italy, vidik am 
12 days. Louis now joined the army ; and, in a short 
time, reduced the whole of Savoy ; which so afflicted 
the Duke, that it caused his death. This circumstance 
facilitated the of she Kosei ~ their cameee 
as stopt by a pestilential disorder, that carri 
bea n “ a ateded. ton bodies and minds of 
of the survivors. . Notwithstanding this calamity, 
w to to the relief of Casal, 
of Rati was concluded, which 
of Nevers in the le 
marquisate of 


The designs of the Cardinal against the House of 
Austria sa pened ripe for execution. The Emperor 
Sn eh atone ances of Germany were at war: 


famous vus Adolphus of Sweden embraced 
ren eee ing this as an excellent 
opportunity of ing Austria, agreed to pay Gus- 


tavus an annual subsidy of 1,200,000 livres; in consi- 
deration of which, the Kin of Sweden was to maintain 
in Germany an army of 36. nen ; i 
gl i Duke oheBarare, sod a) ithe 
i of atholic e, provi not 
pou wane nt rights of the Ro- 


join the Finperor ; and to respect 
a herever he should find it esta- 


. blished.. Thus Richelieu avoided giving alarm or of- 


the princes of 


Saleen antral salons 


tion of the Duke of Orleans and the Queen-mother. 
His vigilance and activity were so that his ene- 
mies had no chance against him. Mary de Medicis was 
banished the kingdom.; her son Gaston was obliged to 
beg his life ; the Marshals Morillac and Montmorency 
were brought to the block ; and the most arbitrary sen- 
tences were daily passed, in a court erected for the trial 
of his enemies. 


ign of Richelieu, of humbli 

ey Ap pe 
orce in 
im from 


ho Oxenstein put Louis i ali 
: x aig is in possession 
Piilipabuegs and Alsace, on condition that France 


ae | 


595 


should take an active part in the war against the Em- 
or. Richelieu H0..c oe an alliance with we 
nited Provinces, in aining part of the 
Low Countries ; and he pi cl aise deed ae 
A frend rea a4. same time entered into with the 
Duke of Savoy, in order to strengthen the French inte. 
rest in Italy. 


History. 


Ina short time, the activity of Richelieu had pre- Immense 
five armies for active service. The first and Prepara- 


largest was sent into the Low Countries, under the com- 

mand of the Marshals de Chatillon and Bregé ; the se- 
cond, under the command of the‘Duke de la Force, en- 
tered Lorraine ; the third, under the Marshal de Crequi, 
entered Milan; the fourth was led into the Valteline 
by the Duke of Rohan ; and the fifth, under the Duke 
of Saxe Weimar, acted on the Rhine. But these im- 
mense armies performed scarcely any thing correspond- 
ing to their magnitude, or to the hopes and designs of 
Richelieu: indeed, they were too great for the finances 
of France to support, The Cardinal’s household alone, 
which was more splendid than the King’s, swallowed 
up four millions a year. There was no resource but in 
the by ee Jeng of money-edicts; and these 
were so rapidly, and to such a degree, that 
at one sitting, the parliament were obliged to register 
42 of them, without examining, or even reading them. 
The uences were such as might be anticipated : 
the armies in Flanders and Germany mouldered away 
for want of provisions. The first campaign was every- 
where unsuccessful, e tin the Valteline, where the 
Duke of Rohan maintained himself with a few troops, 
against the Germans and Spaniards, while the Marshal 
de Crequi, though assisted by the Dukes of Savoy and 
Parma, could make no progress in Italy. Richelieu, 
in order to raise so many armies, was obliged to expose 
France, on the side of Picardy, to the incursions of 
the allies. The, Spanish army commanded by Prince 
Thomas of Savoy and the celebrated Piccolomini, en- 
tered this province— the Somme—made them- 
selves masters- of Corbie—and spread terror into the 
capital. _ Richelieu, under these calamities, remained 
cool and unshaken, and put forth all bis vigour and ac- 
tivity. His own guards were dismissed; the horses 
and domestics of the wealthy, and the personal services 
of the r, were put in requisition ; and, in a short 
time, 50,000 men’ were assembled for the defence of 
Paris. The command of these was divided between 
the Duke of Orleans and the Count de Soissons, who 
compelled the enemy to repass the Somme, and retook 
Corbie. Inthe mean time, the Spaniards rav. Bur- 
gundy, and invaded Guienne, but they no ad- 
vantage from these successes. 


tions of 
rance. 


Still, however, France had suffered considerably by Plan to as- 


the war in which she had en 
was known to be the. adviser 
increased, The Duke of Orleans and the Count de 
Soissons, as soon as had freed their country from 
the Spaniards, formed a plot to assassinate him in the 
King’s a ent; and the blow would have been struek, 
hadnot ‘song egg of ara ye at peavey 
moment when the conspirators ¢; e si for 
the assassination. Scarcely, however, had the inal 
thus narrowly escaped, when he was to danger 
from a quarter where he least dreaded it. Father Cau- 
pin a Jesuit, confessor to the King, employed the in- 

uence and oppertunityy which his character gave him, 
to exasperate mind of Louis, by representing the 
Cardinal as the oppressor of  ctnsncther; the ty- 


ed; and as Richelieu sassinate the 


it, his unpopularity ©#4inal. 


596 FRANCE. 


nie, and, above all, the of he- 
retics: but” ae Te ore corset tol pan 
ed in the banishment of the Confessor. 

The war still continued, grein reines Yn 
endeavonred to bring about a reconciliation. The Duke 
of Rohan, not being y supported, Jost the Valte- 
line. On the other hand, the Count D’Harcourt reco- 


- vered the isles of St Margaret and St Honorat, on the 


Success of 
the French 
in the Bris- 
ga. 

A. D. 1637. 


coast of Provence, which had been taken by the Spa- 
niards in 1695; the Duke of Valette reduced several 
forts, which the Spaniards had seized in Guienné ; Mar- 
shal Schomberg raised the siege of Lucat, and defeated 
Serbillon, the Spanish ; Cardinal de La Valette 
reduced Capelle again under the dominion of France ; 
the Marshal de C ilion obtained ion of Dam- 
villiers in Luxemburgh ; and the e of ille 
successfully advanced in Franche Comté. The Mar- 
shal Crequi, aided by the Duke of Savoy, defeated the 
By ea tel , under the command of the Duke of 

odena ; while Breda was obliged to surrender to the 
Prince of Orange. 

In 1687, Ferdinand IT. died, and was succeeded in 
the imperial throne by Ferdinand IIT. who pursued the 
same hne of’ politics as his father: hostilities therefore 
were continued. In the following year, the Duke of 
Saxe-Weimar, supplied from the treasures of France, 
took the field again; but he was surprised and routed 
in the siege of Rheinteld, where the Duke of Rohan, 
who served as a volunteer, from a friendship to the Duke 
of Saxe-Weimar, was wounded. The latter, 
impatient to wipe off the di of his defeat, collect- 
ed all his'force, and ex all his talents and skill ; 
and soon conquered in his turn. General de Savelli, 
and the famous John de Wert, who led the Imperialists, 
were taken sce care ; and the towns of Rheinfeld and 
Fribourg, the capital of the Brisgaw, were reduced. 
The siege of Brisac was afterwards undertaken with the 
greatest confidence of success ; during which, the Duke 
of Lorraine, and the Im General Goentz, attempt- 
ed in vain to check the success of the Duke of Saxe- 
Weimar ; and Brisac was forced to surrender, after it 
had been reduced to such an extremity that the gover- 
nor was under the necessity of ren, Re somioeeepme 
burial-places, lest the inhabitants shou up and de- 
vour the dead. ‘ 

As soon as Richelieu heard of the reduction of Brisac, 
he immediately formed the scheme of annexing it to 
France; and accordingly made the pro to the 
Duke of Saxe-Weimar. But this would not 
part with his conquest: “ To part with my conquest,” 
was his reply, “ would be to sacrifice my honour: ask 
a virgin to give up her chastity!” In 1689, the Duke 
died, not without suspicion that his death had been has- 
tened by the Cardinal, ‘who certainly, as soon as it hap- 
pened, sueceeded in procuring from his successor, not 
only Brisac, but Fribourg also. ‘Thus was the King 
of France, by the abilities and’ intrigues of his minis- 
ter, rend sovereign of almost all Alsace, and a great’ 
part of the Brisgaw. 

To retaliate on the Spaniards for their invasion of Pi- 
cardy, the Prince of Condé was ordered to lay siege to 
FPonterabia ; but he was defeated by the Admiral of 
Castile, and with the remainder of his army, escaped 
with difficulty to his ships. 

In 1641, the Emperor, though he to be 
desirous of peace, convoked a diet at Ratisbon, for the 

rpose of concerting measures for carrying on the war. 

pon this the Swedish 1 Bannier, having joined 
Erfart, formed the design of dis« 


ing the assembly, and even of surprising the city. 
Fie maveh'ene id and well planned. Teaetetee 
Hoff on the Sth of January, and proceeding with the 
same celerity, he crossed the Danube on ice, and’ 


took above 1500 of the.enemy’s » The Emperor’ — 
himself narrowly escaped rane prisoner. Ais‘ Attempt on 
Ratisbon was utterly unprepared for a siege, the ap- Buti 


of the Swedes a 

hey had planned to take advantage of the frost, and’ 
starve the town into submission; but the weather 
changing, it was resolved to repass'the Danube, before’ 
the ice thawed. Bannier, however, ordered’ the gene- 
ral of the French to advance as nearly as possible’ 
to Ratisbon, and to salute the E with 500 shot 
an insult which meee deprived 
powers of reason and recollection. After this ineffec~ 
tual attempt, the French ‘themselves from 
their allies, and marched towards Bamberg. After the 
death of Bannier, in united, and under the com- 
mand of Guebriant, the i 
the Archduke and Piccolomini, at the battle of Wolfe1 
buttel. As soon as Tortensten assumed the commit 
of the Swedes, the French again separated ‘from 
by yee of the Cardinal, and Guebriant entered We 
phalia. . 

one pein cintinueyona ah testi 
tween Sw and France, most vi ' 
solutions taken for ing the war, — sunt 


crossed the Rhine, and understanding that Hasfeld was 
rene} ‘ 


ref aww and of the whole Imperial army 
ve escaped. consequence of this victory 
was the reduction of nearly the whole electorate of Co- 


On the oe a French army entered Rousil- Conspiracy 


lon, and reduced Colonna and P. 
self was at the head of this army, 
Richelieu, who accompanied him as - 
where he fell y ill. During his illness, 
confederacy was formed against him, at the head 
which was Cinq Mars, whose lively , agreeable 
address, and handsome person, seconded 
mendation of the Cardinal, had made him a great favou- 
rite with the king. Thus fortunate, he aspired to be 
made a Duke ; and on the Cardinal ing hi 
he became his secret enemy. Cinq 

very weak intellect, and it is probable that his intrigues 
would have been i i frustrated by his incapa- 
city, had he not been son of the ce- 


i 
: 
& 


ms 
lebrated historian De Thou, by w advice he con~ 


nected himself with the Dukes of Orleans and 


and soon afterwards formed a secret alliance with’ thie” 


court of Spain, which ised to su the con 
tors with money and a prmidable aruiy Bor Rise 
stem of vigilance and detection was so well organised, 
uk ards ing his extreme illness, it operated as 
powerfully and completely, as if he had been able to 
superintend it himself. He was informed of the 


long before it had assumed a ) ; and he 
immediately persunded Louis to return to Fran, even 
before the fall of Perpignan, putting into his hands a 
copy of the treaty which the conspirators | 

into with Spain. Cinq Mars: was arrested in Narbonne, 
and the D of Bouillon in Italy, where he had the 


erdinand ofall the 


ial army, led by 


was concluded be- Wd 


a eae ee re © ee 


a Sa Re 


ee 


i 


{2 


a 


History. command of the French army. ‘The proceedings against! 


_—— 


= 


death 
: 
played 
- ing’ 
vigour 


FRANCE. 
had discovered himself totally unfit for the high office, History. 
—\y—— 


the conspirators were carried on at Lyons, under the 
eyes of ‘the'minister.. Additional proof was necessary 
to condemn them ; the Duke of Orleans was mean and 
base enough to furnish it, in order to.save his own life. 
The Duke of Bouillon his pardon, by giving 
the principality of Sedan; but Cinq Mars and De 
Thou were condemned to death, and-executed in 1642. 
Almost immediately after the execution, | the’ Cardinal 
having received intelligence of the fall of Perpignan, 
wrote to the king, «Sire, your’ enemies are dead, and 
our troops are in Perpignan.” It is said that Louis 
eo on his ‘watch; about the time when Cinq Mars 
was to suffer, said, “ thew an hour, the great man 
will pass his time very disagreeably” 1) wd 

Richelien having thus enenrped aves his enemies, at 
the very moment’ when he was himself’ , the 
grave, returned to Paris ; and as he was obliged to be 
carried in a litter, a breach was made in’ the walls of 
that to allow it to enter. He'survived a few 
days.” Om his death-bed, he ‘to Louis, that 
his ‘counsels had ever been directed to the honour'of the 
crown, and the welfare of the kingdom.’ The character 
of the statesman must have sufficiently appeared from 
hig actions. His plans were undoubtedly comprehen- 
sive and profound, and in the execution of them he dis- 
wonderful vigour ; but he was stained with the 
vices of ambition, hypocrisy, cruelty, pride, and avarice. 
The Emperor Peter the Great of Russia, however, con- 
sidered him as such a complete statesman, that on his 
visit to France in°1717, he is said, on viewing the mo- 
nument of Richelieu, in the church of the Sorbonne, to 
have exclaimed, “Oh, great man, if you had been alive 
now, I would have cheerfully given you the half of my 
empire, if you would have me how to govern 
the other half!” Mary‘de Medicis died soon afterwards 
in exile and poverty at Cologne. 

Somo time before hic “Richelieu had obtained a 
cardinal’s hat for Mazarine, and had introduced him into 
the king’s council. It was therefore supposed that he 
would sueceed his sae tys prime minister ; but Louis 
resolved to govern hi . ‘The servants of the crown 
were retained in their situations ; and the mo ar 
which marked the death of the Cardinal, was the - 
ling from banishment, and releasing from confinement, 
the principal objects of the Cardinal’s resentment and 
jealousy. The war or art with diligence and 

i 3 the Swedes, who were at first doubtful 
of the Ee an wreguictaars sh of the Cardinal, 
had begun to thi udi —— te treaty with 
the Emperor. Mazarine was not, indeed, possessed of 
the situation, or the influence of the Cardinal ; but he 
had sufficient power over the King to persuade him (to 
what indeed he was by no-means indi ) to pursue 
the line of: polities marked out by that statesman. All 

operations ‘of war were concerted with the same 
ies of every kind were ‘fur- 


the 
judgment ent as formerly su 

ished with equal pi ity. "In Germany, Guebri- 
ant, in conjunction with the Swedes, triumphed over 
the Imperialists; while, in Piedmont, Lorraine, Roussil- 
lon, and Catalonia, Schomberg, L’Hospital, and two 
other French generals, were successful. 

Louis, in the midst of these-successes, was fast ap- 
ree ox a latter end ; and; as the ‘tender years of 

is son would exposé the kingdom to dissensions, un- 
less a wise and vigorous regency were appointed,’ this 
subject oceupied his whole attention g the remain- 
der of” His queen, Anne of Austria, never 
partook of his.confidence ; and the Duke’ of Orleans 


him to the highest pitch of military 


597 


by his want of steadiness and vigour of mind ;.and un- 


worthy of it by his seditious intrigues.. He therefore Arrange. — 
resolved to: ‘distribute into different hands the power ments of 


Louis on the 


that: he be hed, inorder to:preserve the tranqguil- 
lity of Gor Eeccam during the minority of Mindubokes 
sor. -The leate of the) children’ was-entrusted to ‘the end, 
Queen, whovhad also the nominalicharacter of regent ;: 
the Duke of Orleans was appointed: head of the coun-. 
cil, and lieutenant-general of the kingdom. But:these 
appointments were. counterbalanced by others, from 
which Louis hoped that neither the Queen nor‘his bro-« 
ther would :be able to. create angen, or to weaken 
the kingdom by the»incapacity or folly of their governs 
ment.» In rar of the death “of the Duke; the Prince 
of Condé was to fill his situation ; \and, ‘after him, ‘the 
Cardinal Mazarine : and it was, in-fact; on the last, that 
Louis, by his a’ ents, devolved the real manage 
ment of the kingdom :during ‘the minority of his:son. 

As’a farther guard ‘against; the Duke of Orleans, the 
King directed that all. affairs) which came before the 
council should be decided by a-majority.of votes. The 

Queen and) the Duke swore»solemnly-to preserve invio- 
late the deed which they had subscribed ; and Louis, to 
render it still ni authentic, Tes neo it to be re-- 
gistered in parliament; After these arrangements were 
completed, Louis: lived) but +a very slescic shes expi- 

ring in the 42d 


reign was so completely under the influence of Riche- 
lieu, that his character is not marked very decidedly by 
his actions: ‘he: acquired: the epithet of Just; but his 
title to it may well be disputed, unless the severity and 
the cruelty of some of the public measures of his reign 
be entirely ascribed to his minister. 

Louis XIV. was only 44 yearsof age when his father- 
died. The prospects) of France during his minority ~ 
were by no means of a satisfactory nature ; the inter- 
nal ‘state of the country exhibited discontent and ex- 
haustion, created tlie measures of Cardinal Riche- 
lieu. The war which he had commenced with the 
house of Austria still continued. The Emperor Ferdi-. 
nand III. less formidable than his father, struggled 

inst the forces of Sweden and France, even though 

e forces ‘of the empire, in many cases, resisted hi 
will and his plans. Philip IV. of Spain had lost Rous 
sillon, Catalonia, and Portugal ; but he’ still continu- 
ed the struggle inst the Portuguese, the» Dutch, 
and the. French. “Bo gland, though involved in civil 
war, was already beginning to exercise that .energy 
which these troubles had created or brought into ac- 
tion, and threatened to become more formidable than 
ever. 


The will of Louis XIII. which ‘has been noticed) His willset - 


was violated almost: immediately ‘after. his . death ; his side. 
widow being invested ‘by an arret of the parliament of 
Paris with continued powers. She immediately gave 
herself entirely up to the direction and-influence’ of 
Cardinal Mazarine,-who was of a subtle and insinuating 
character. 


The court of Spain, imagining that the minority of The Spa- 
Louis afforded them an excellent opportunity of inva- niards in- 
ding France, marched an army from the Low Coun- vadeFrance. 


tries into Champagne, besieged Rocroy, and’ spread 

alarm on every side ; re ahey were oneeke. and un- 

expectedly were opposed by a general who, at this -pe- 

riod, commenced thas lorious canéer which has exalted 

i fame. Previous to 

the death of Louis XIII. Louis of Bourbon, Duke of 
3 


approach of 
his latter 


of his;age, and on the very day His death: 
that he had completed the 33d of his reign. This sove- A. D. 1643.. 


History. 
—vY~" great Condé, had received the command of the French 


View 


598 
Enghien, afterwards honoured with the title of the 


forces on the frontiers of Flanders. When the Spaniards 


plots of the invaded Champagne, he was scarcely twenty-one years 


great Condé. 


War 


in 


Flanders, 
Catalonia, 
and Ger- 


many, 


A.D. 
1646. 


. 1645, 


of age; but his want of experience was amply compen- 
sated by his genius. His orders were not to risk a 
battle ; yet, on receiving intelligence of the ——— 
Rocroy, he resolved tovattack the besiegers. Hitherto 
the Spanish infantry had been deemed invincible, but 
in this battle, the of the French, directed by 
the talents of their young general, deprived them of 
that character: They were broken by his impetuous 
charge ; the Count of Fuentes, who comman the 
army, perished on the field; #000 were killed, 20 pieces 
of cannon taken, Rocroi was saved, and the character 
of the Duke of Enghien stamped as a great general. 
When he heard of the death of the Spanish general, he 
exclaimed, “ I] could wish to have died like him, had 
I not been victorious!” Thionville; which had long 
been the object of Richelieu’s ambition and intrigues, 
but from the reduction of which, by force of arms, he 
had been deterred by its » next fell before the 
Duke. After this he Rhine, and advariced 
to av the death of Guibriant, who had fallen at the 
a Rotuil. On the death of this general, divisions 
and dissensions took place, of which the Imperialists 
took advantage, and gained the battle of Dutlingen, as 
well as other inferior en; ents in Swabia; Fri- 
bourg also was reduced by them. The Imperialists, 
after the reduction of this place, had formed an en- 
trenched camp under its walls, on hearing ofthe ap- 
proach of the French ; but the! Duke was not intimida- 
ted by their formidable position, nor their superior num- 
bers ; he attacked them in their camp, and, after a bat- 
tle which lasted three days, he defeated them. Philips- 
burgh and Mentz were the fruits of this victory ; while 
General Merci retreated in such good order, as to prove 
that, at the battle of Fribourg, he had only yielded to 
a general of the first rate talents. In Flanders, durin 
the years 1645, 1646, the Duke of Orleans reduc 
Gravelines, Mardyke, and Courtray ; but the French 
were not so successful in Catalonia, where Philip IV. 
defeated the Marshal de la Motte, and took Lerida and 
ah, In Bohemia, the Swedish, general Torten- 
sten gained a great victory; to improve the ad- 
vantages of which, Marshal Turenne was ordered to 
advance into the heart of Germany; but he committed 
an error in separating himself from his allies, and thus 
exposed himself to defeat. At first, indeed, he was 
successful; he crossed the Rhine at Brisac, and, ad- 
vancing towards the sources of the Danube, routed ‘the 
Imperialists. He next attempted to relieve Fribourg, 
which was invested by the Bavarian army, under the 
command of a brother of General Merci, but he was 
defeated. As soon as Cardinal Mazarine learned this, 
he ordered the Duke of Enghien to join Turenne with 
a reinforcement; and the two generals attacked the 
Count de Merci near Fribourg with such impetuosity, 
that he was obliged to retire with the loss of 3000 
men. This battle, which lasted seven hours, was im- 
mediately followed by another, in which the Bavarians at 
first were successful, but the Duke rallied his troops, and 
drove the enemy three times from their entrenchments, 
which they as often regained, till at last Merci, having 
lost nearly one-half off his army, resolved to. retreat. 
This he effected in good order, notwithstanding all the 
attempts of the French to harass him, leaying behind 
all their artillery and e, The consequences of 
this victory, were the reduction of all the towns situa- 


FRANCE. 


ted between the Rhine and the Moselle, from. Mentz to Histor 
After this, Torenne established his winter quarters — : 


at Marendahl, his troops di in the ‘ 
bouring villages. Pepe a1 pa hime 


he marched rapidly against him, and a 

victory. The Duke of Enghien was Saar = 
Cardinal to reinforce Turenne; and. the. two generals 
resolved to bring the Bavarians to a action. 
With this view, Turenne, whose day it was to com- 


mand, advanced at the head of his ca 3 


position of the enemy was so strong 
deemed safe to attack them. As soon, 


the Danube, and had got-as far-as Nordlingen when. 
the Bavarians came up with him. He immediately 
arranged his army in order of battle, on the very same: 
plain where the Swedes had suffered a defeat soon,af- 
ter the death of Gustavus, ‘The Bavarians were drawn. Battle of 
up on an eminence of easy ascent. The action was be-:Nordling 
gun by the’ French, who, at first gave way,/and suffer-, 4.5 
ed a great loss; nor could their utmost turnthe ~ 
tide of battle, till De Merci was slain-at the head.of 
his conquering troops. Even after his death, the Duke, 
would not have been able to have preserved his troops’ 
from destruction, had not Turenne attacked ‘the wight 


but the 


ready to gi 
Pavagien seme 
their cannon, 


were reduced, they were soon recovered by the Bere. 
The 


for he was sent, with an inferior army, very ill.equi 
ped, into Catalonia, to effect the pa ction of Le oe 
ipeseaBesbah gence 
e displeasure of Mazarine, 
and induced him to resign his command, |The Prince 
of Condé, on his arrival, found the lines of th 


M 

them, and the trenches i De Hag with a 
violins, eka ed ores manne 
very great skill and courage: he 
with continual sallies, and disputed pyr pe . 
0 Lun 

difficulties in forming their mines, by the ix 
vention of a rock; the troops were diminished by | 
tigue; the season was unfavourable for labour, and)pre- 
judical to health, on account of its,extreme heat; the 
Spanish army advanced to the relief of the place, and 
the Prince of Condé was obliged to raise the siege. 
‘  Hbieserta thasmageciatione. st mage a 4 
had yaried according to the, fortune of war; but 
French and Swedes being now decidedly victorious, the _ 
Em , deserted by his allies, was obliged to receive 
the these powers; and consented to purchase 
peace, by ceding to France the bishoprics of Metz, 


ee 


Disturb- 


France. 


Retz. 


FRANCE. 


Toul, and Verdun, and giving up his pretensions to 
Pigneral, Brisac, and Alsace. This was the memorable 
peace of Wes i Signed at Munster, on the 24th 
day of October 1648, which, till the French Revolution, 
was considered as a fundamental law of the empire, and 
the basis of all subsequent treaties. ae 
France, however, was still at war with the Spanish 
branch of the House of Austria ; and as the United Pro- 
vinces, jealous of the former power, had concluded a 
separate treaty with Philip in 1647, the Cardinal found 
it nec to exert all his talents at this crisis, espe- 
‘ially as his influence was now seriously threatened by 
inectfen Gite yas mY inet 
In 1648, the Prince of Condé resumed the command 
in Flanders, where he reduced Ypres. He was opposed 
by the Archduke Leopold, who, to balance this acqui- 
sition, took Courtray and Furnes, and advanced to the 


though superior, were defeated: 5000 were 
‘hed; 3000 made prisoners ; and the Archduke him- 


The civil war in France now calls for our attention. 


cious Italian, who 
money due to the 
magistrates was not paid ; some quarters of the annui- 
i rent 3; murmurs € out; the ‘par- 
liament opposed the court ; and a civil war was on the 
‘point of being kindled. An arret of union between the 
‘courts of Paris gave the minister uneasiness, and was 
annulled by the council. The magistrates maintained 
‘that their oe oe eho regarded as pepe tn or 
reprehensible ; upon whi azarie replied, * ‘kin 
must be obeyed ; if he forbid wenn tassels ‘to bani 
strings, it is less the nature of the thing prohibited, than 
‘the prohibition, which -constitutes: the crime.” The 
parliament abolished ‘the situation of intendants of the 
provinces who were instituted by Louis XIII; on 
which the court, filled with indignation, resolved to 
have recourse to a very bold measure. During the ce- 
ebration of T'e Deum for the victory of Lors, a presi- 
dent and counsellor Wii: ari rma themsel 


. Py ves 
‘in the debates, were arrested by o fthe Cardinal ; 
‘upon which the ‘rose, chains «across the 
streets,’ formed: . fired on’ the «chancellor's 


coach, killed some soldiers, and the two prisoners 
liberated . i '¥y ; mela eder +A naae 


Carina de-” The coudjtor, archbishop of Paris)’ sfterwardurthe 


noe de Retz, fomented and took advan- 
‘tage of these disturbances : he was a man of a restless, 


In 1650, the Prince of Condé 


599 


intriguing, and seditious character; excessively profli- _ History. 
gate in his principles and manners, but possessed of 
very superior talents. He was jealous of Mazarine, at 
the same time that he despised his abilities. Thinking 
himself better qualified to fill the place of prime mini- 
ster, he employed all his talents and his powers of in- 
trigue to inspire the nobles with the ‘same jealousy of 


“Mazarine, which filled his own breast; at the same time, 


he inflamed the people and roused them to sedition, by 
representing the ignominy of submitting to the op- 
pressive administration of a stranger. e parliament 
of Paris warmly seconded his pretended views of refor- 
mation ; and a civil war was inevitable. 

The talents of Mazarine were by no means equal to Anne of 
the approaching danger ; and Anne of Austria, entirely Austria. 
a guidance, was nearly as ne as himself. 

She could not appear publicly inthe streets without 
being insulted’; she was continually reproached with 
sacrificing the good of the nation to her attachment to 
a foreigner ; and ballads and madrigals were sung in the 
street, on the subject of her amours.” ‘The women took 
an ‘active’ and zealous part at this crisis; and many of 
the most celebrated generals declared for or against the 
court, as ‘they “were ordered by their respective mis- 
tresses. In consequence of this state of things, and of 
their apprehension of greater dangér, the queen regent, 
along with her children and Mazarine, left Paris, and 
retired to St Germains." Here; according to Voltaire; 
their distress was'so ‘that they were'obliged to 
‘pawn the eown’ jewels cin order to raise money: the 

ing himself was often in want'of conamon iecessaries; 
and the pagés’of the chamber ‘were'dismissed, because 
they ‘not the means of maintaining them. The 
parliament now proceeded to extremities ; they decla- 
red the Cardinal-a disturber of the public’ peace, and 
anenemy to France: this ‘was the signal of revolt: a 
pp of parties took place. The Frondeurs, as the 
rebels were called, were headed by the’Prince of Conti; 
brother of the great Condé, anid»the Dukes of Beaufort, 
Bouillon, and Longueville.” 'Phe® Prince’ of Condé, 
though dissatisfied with the court, eng in'the royal 
cause, and joined the Queen at St Germains: » But the 
rebels wasted their time in disputes, or vain parade, 
and neglected to take measures even for the defence of 
the capital ; they were soon therefore thrown into alarm, 
when thePrince of Condé, at the lead of 6000 troops, ad- 
vanced against it. ;The Marshal Turenne, who had been 
allured by the Duchess de Longueville; sister of Condé, 
in vain attempted to defend Paris with an undisciplined 
rabble. A conference was “to; and a treaty con- 
eluded at ‘Rouel, by which a” general amnesty was 
granted, and the appearance of peace restored, with- 
out, however, any sincerity’of reconciliation or extines 
tion ‘of hatred on either’side. it hy wih 

' The court returned: toParis, aiid’ the’ Cardinal was Intrigues of 
received with! joy by that’ very Panes who, ‘such ‘a the nobility, 
very short tins before; had" threatened “his life. . It is and fickle- 
this levity of the French nation,—the’ absurd and con. "¢5 “a the 
temptible mixture of a frivolous gallantry with’the in. P°°P'™ 
trigues of state, and even with civil commotions,—-and 
the influence exercised by the Duchess of Longueville, 
and other! women of @ libertine ‘character, in making 
the'most ‘eminent leaders several’ times) change sides, 
that mark out these civil wars, ‘otherwise contemptible, 
a objects of interest and: study ‘to:those wlio wish to 
gain a minute, profound, and intimate’ acquaintance 
with the character of the French nation. 

y insulted the 


Queen and the Cardjnal, while, by his haughtiness, he 


Hintery- 
—_—— 


The Freade. 


Civil war. 


Battle of 


St Antoine. 
4. D. 1651. other: the King from an; eminence 


600 


pe gm the coadjuter who now unenete’ Mazarine, 
an whose advice the prince, t with his bro- 
ther Prince of Conti, and the Duke.of Lon ille, 
were arrested at the council teble.. The citizens of 
Paris, on this occasion, celebrated with public rejoicing» 
the imprisonment of these men, whom they had lately 
hailed as their eotenene oo however, had ~ 
gained dence, is tria ; of course, was 
short ae Conceiving himself secure, he affronted 
the Duke of Orleans, who immediately deserted the 
court, and became the head of the Frende. On this, 
the parliament again took co e, and demanded the 
liberation of the Princes of Condé and Conti, ‘and the 
Duke of Longueville; and passed sentence of -perpe- 
tual banishment against the Cardinal, who went in 
son to liberate the princes, in the hope of gainin 
favour; but they treated him with contempt. 

then obli to flee to Liege, and afterwards. to Co- 
logne. The. coadjutor this time remained faithful to 
the court; and by his intrigues, the Duke of Bouillon 
aud Marshal Turenne were detached from the Fronde. 
In 1651, Mazarine again entered the kingdom with 6000 
men, upon which Condé took up arms, and the parlia- 
ment declared him guilty of high treason, though he 
was.only going to oppose the Cardinal, against whom 
they had so very lately passed a sentence of perpetual 
banishment, Condé, in this extremity, quitted Paris, 
to,arm in his, sw the provinces of Guienne, Poitou, 
and. Anjou, and to ally. himself with the Spaniards. 
During these convulsions, Louis XIV. being ‘now, of 
age, ordered the parliament to remove to,Pontage, and 
a few of the members obeyed ; but the greater part re- 
mained,.. Thus there were two parliaments ; their reso- 
lutions, however, had now; fallen into such ;contempt, 
that the riyal factions disdained. their mediation or sup- 
port, and prepared to terminate |their. differences by the 
sword. -Condé, in league with, the Spaniards,. appear- 
ed.in the field against the king,,and'the Marshal Tu- 
renne supported the court. |, 

The ing armies a each) other on the 
banks. ‘Loire, when the Prince of Condé attacked 
the ranks of the royal army with so much impetuosity, 
a snes were hota); ee court took the alarm ; 
an minister proposed to save the king by flight. 
Lr ee wne-sironeiy: oie Tareene, 
who, taki vantage of every inequality of ground, 
restored the confidence’ and. the hopes oF his party. 
The Prince of Condé,, in the meantime, entered Paris, 
where he was at first received with joy ; but the Car- 
dinal of Retz, having deserted. the popular cause, and 
succeeded in gaining an absolute sway over the Duke 
of Orleans, that Prince to become a-candidate 
with. the citizens for, their favour, )in opposition) to 
Condé. In this he succeeded, and the Duke of Lorraine 
deserting the cause of the Prince at the same time, while 
his troops were enervated by the pleasures of the: ca+ 
pital, Condé was not to learn that the approach 
of Turenne presented.to him the means more congenial 
to his talents and habits, of establishing -his cause: by 
the force of arms. In the suburbs of St Antoine, the 

two greatest of France were op to each 
i the battle. 
The Duke of Orleans remained in his palace, undecided 
what part to take: Cardinal de Retz was likewise neu- 
ter, and the parliament waited the issue, before it pub- 
lished any pee The citizens of Paris, afraid of 
parties, or affecting to preserve a strict neutrality, shut 
the city gates, and would permit no ingress or egress, 
The combat was long and bloody: the two generals 


eir 
e was 


PRANCE. 


gallant noblemen were killed or wounded ; at last the 
battle was decided. in favour of the Prince of Condé, 
by the daughter of the Duke of Orleans ordering the 


gates to be opened for the wounded, and the 


cannon 
cannon have killed Bag sentry 
when informed of the circumstance, 
hopes which the daughter of the Duke of , 
tertained of being Queen of France. yan 
The Duke was now declared by the Parliament lieu- 
tenant-general of the kingdom, and the Prince of Conde 
commander in chief of the armies of France, . But 
the popularity of the latter was of short duration: a 
tumult, in which several citizens were. killed, : 
which he was supposed to be the author, T 
with his violent an haughty demeanour, di 
irritated the inhabitants of Paris, and. he was 
to leave that city. On the other hand,, Louis, in-on 
to appease his subjects; dismissed Mazarine, who retir 


2 
ey 


ki 


iH 


The people, satisfied at this . 
sovereign’s attention to their ‘wishes, of their own 
cord sent deputies to invite him to return to the ci 
all ranka. "The fret acto of he royphanthodee 

ranks. The first acts o! ral.a ity, 
banishment of the Duke of Orleans,.and the arrestiand 
imprisonment. of Cardinal de Retz... The’ Prince) of 
Condé, condemned to lose his head, abandoned in France 
by, almost all; his partizans, feebly : by 
Spaniards, and pressed by. Turenne, carried on an un- 
successful. war on, the frontiers of Champs Yo sean 
To the storms, of this civil) war succeeded a calm. 
The Parliament was humbled; and Mazarine being 
called, again resumed all his authority, and was court« 
ed by every body. Even the Parliament, that had’ be- 
fore oa a R08 upon his-heed ae a pobtie robber, now 
sent es to compli t him. The Prince of C 
after this absurd war was finished, | job sve) Sonera 
served only to be stesngn 5 blank verse; and Voltaire 
remarks, that the name of Petits maitres originally. 
plied to that prince’s party, because they endeav: = 
to make themselves. masters of the’state, — i 
ifying overbearing and frivolous young men; and) 
pee Printoetes bestowed on. the censurers of govern- 
ment, are the only vestiges remaining of these troubles, 
Some parts of the kingdom were: still in the power of 
the insurgents. Bellegarde, a town in. 3 Was 
defended for the Prince of Condé, the Count de 
Bouteville, afterwards known as M Luxembu 
It was attacked by the Duke of Epernon at the of 
a royal army, but not surrendered till a practicable 
breach -was- made, and, honourable\conditions granted, 
In 1654, the Prince of Condé, in conjunction with the 
Archduke, laid siege to Arras. | At the same time, Ste- 
nai was besieged: by Turenne. As soon as the latter 
Pederpal in tae nelghiterbeod 0m helspeatird 
encamped in ' the i) 
used a stratagem to induce, or oblige them to aban= 
don the of Arras, but without effect. regpene 
terwards, Turenne having i wed, 
contrary to thesopinian df his-princinal officers, to force 
the Spanish lines.. The Spaniards were diiven out 
with great slaughter, and lost) their , ar 
and ammunition ; but the Prince,of » with 
regiments alone, after defeating a division of his op 
nents, covered therflight of the: iards, and thus sa 
ved the remains of their army. The King of Spain ac- 
knowledged and. characterized his services in 


iy z 


— 


FRANCE. 


and expressive letter, “ I am informed that all was lost, 
and that you saved all.” . re 
in. In 1655, Landreci and Quesnoy were reduced by Tu- 
vades the yenne, and thus a road was opened into the Spanish 
ine iy Pediat B00 amen. The-lines 
lenciennes with an 20,000 men. 2 
ee Feee: , and the operations far advanced, when 
the Prince of Condé, and John of Austria, advan- 
ced with a superior army, and in the night-time forced 
that part of the lines where the Marquis de la Ferte 
commanded, Turenne, after in vain endeavouring to 
restore the fortune of the battle, effected a masterly re- 


treat, carrying off his artill and , and even 
halting on the ikndamen n less than a 
month afte he took Capell, in sight of the Prince 
of Condé and Don John. 


A short time before these events, Mazarine, more anxi- 
ous about the overthrow of his enemies, and the resto- 


Siakasinng 6 
reduced Montmede and St Vincent, raised the siege 
Ardre, and concluded the campaign by taking Mar- 
which, according to the treaty, was given up to 


ege 
English 
ankneteme 


A.D. 1658. deliver it up to 
3; Di “Oudenarde, Menin, Gravelines, and 


great 


oF 

wa 
8 
rs 


a 


? 


601 

and, in order that the preliminaries of a treaty might be History. 
settled in the most satisfactory manner to each party, “~~” 
Mazarine, and Don Louis de Hare, met on the frontiers 


of both kingdoms, in the Isle of Pheasants, in the Py- 


'renees, A. D. 1659. Much time was consumed in dis- 


putes about precedency ; but at the conferences 


“were begun, and, after four months, were concluded 


the celebrated treaty of the Pyrenees. According Treaty of 
o this treaty, Louis received with the Infanta a dowry the Pyre- 
of 500,000 crowns of gold ; Alsace and Rousillon were AD 1660 
confirmed to him ; and he restored the duchy of Lor- : ; 
raine to Charles IV. ; and St Omers, Ypres, Menin, and 
Oudenarde to the Spaniards ; he also consented to 
don the Prince of Condé, and solemnly reintansechal 
claim to any territory that might fall to him in right of 
his queen. The King of Spain, on his part, pardoned 
the rebellious Catalans ; gave up Verceil to the Duke 
of Savoy ; Reggio to the Duke of Modena; and the 
Duke of Newburgh, the long disputed succession to 
the city of Juliers, which had been sequestered by the 
house of Austria. 
- On the 9th of March 1661, a little more than a year Death of 
after the treaty of the Pyrenees, Cardinal Mazarine died; Mazarine. 
and his concern for his wealth was marked, even in the 4: D- 1661. 
last moments of his life. By a deed of gift, he resigned 
his riches to the king, who immediately res the 
instrument. His. immense wealth was soon dissi 
by the prodigality of the Marquis of Meillrai, who had 
married his favourite ter, or niece, Hortensia 
Mancini, and assumed the title of Duke of Mazarine. 
On the ruin of her husband, Hortensia retired to Eng- 
land, and subsisted on a pension allowed:her by Charles 
** Historians have seldom done justice to the charace His charac. 
ter of Mazarine, whose political caution restrained the ter. 
vigour of his spirits, and the lustre of whose genius 
was concealed beneath his profound dissimulation, If 
his schemes were less comprehensive, or his enterprises 
less bold than those of Richelieu, they were less extra- 
vagant. He has been agcused of avarice, and seemi 
ly with justice ; yet, if we reflect, that, beingiae inde 
gent forei himself, he married seven nieces to 
rench ~servaeers Bom the —_— distinction, ~~ left his 
nephew e evers, we , perhaps, be inclined 
partly to forgive him. So many matches could not be 
formed without money; and the pride of raising one’s 
family is no ible passion. He had the singu- 
lar honour of extending the limits of the French mos 
narchy, while France was distracted by intestine hos- 
tilities ; sand. of twice ing peace to the greater 
of Europe, after the longest and most. bloody wars 
it had ever known. Nor must we forget his attention 
to the ish succession, which afterwards made the 


is a striking proof of his political foresight. 
ing maxim was, that force ought never to be employed 
but in default of other means; and his pert aeen 
ledge of mankind, the most essential of all.mental ac- 
quisitions for a-minister, enabled him often to accom-. 

plish his views without it, When absolutely necessary, 

we have seen-him employ it with effect”... 

On the:death of Mazarine, the officers of state inqui- Louis him- 
red of Louis, to whom they were to apply; They were elf governs. 
surprised and disappointed, when the mona 

years of age; he 


5 
: 
& 
Z 
z 


lec 

been ill e F was consequent] ignorant; 

addicted to pleasure, and had been carefully ept at a 

distance Sow all ener legen business by the cardinal ; 
; : G 


602 
tiieery. but he had measured his own powers of mind ; and he 
—Y~—" already felt the first aspirations after that glory, which 
Cccunetan- was the ruling passion of his life. He had many 
eee io bis cireumstances in his favour, and which could not fall 
—— of impressing the minds of his subjects with loyalty, 
respect, admiration, and even esteem. He was Te. 
markably handsome in his , at the same time 
that there was about him a wonderful of majesty 
and dignity ; these, which of themselves might have 
only inspiréd awe, were softened and tem by affa- 
bility and politeness ; so that, if he was not the great- 
est king, he was at least, as Bolingbroke expresses it, 
«the best actor of majesty that ever filled a throne.” 
His dignity of mind, and loftiness of ambition, even in- 
duced him to render his pleasures more decent than 
ee have been, he been destitute of these 
qualities ; and his court, oes the example of the 
sovereign, was soon distinguished by its elegant gal- 
lantry. The French have always been characterised 
by their fondness for show, and their vanity: these he 
gratified in an uncommon degree, by the magnificence 
of his palaces, and the splendour of his public entertain- 
ments. Even his own want of literature was conceal- 
ed, or forgotten, in the patronage he extended to lite- 
rary men, not only in his own kingdom, but also over 
the rest of Europe. These qualities rendered Louis 
extremel lar with the great majority of his sub- 
; while, with the more discerning, his reign was 
tna with pleasure, as soon as the measures of Col- 

bert began to 

and Louis, by 


te towards the advantage of France, 

e confidence he placed in this minister, 

discovered that his objects extended beyond mere plea- 

sure or glory. Though the king in other respects had 

no reason to be grateful to Mazarine, who had uent- 

ly misled him, and had neglected his education, and the 

‘ormation of habits necessary for his high and arduous 
situation ; yet he had received one favour from him of 

tt moment, when he inspired him with confidence 

for Colbert, one of the greatest statesmen that France 

has produced. Fouquet, superintendant of finances, 

who dissipated the public money, was disgraced and 
imprisoned, after a sumptuous entertainment which he 

gave the king at his pleasure house, that is said to have 

cost him 18 millions of the then current money. | His 
successor Colbert, had only the title of comptroller gene- 

ral. Hesoon put the finances into excellent order ; 

raised enormous sums for the public service ; and crea- 

ted a navy, and supported a large standing army, with- 

out oppressing the people. . 

Trstances of _ L WO occasions soon presented themselves, on which 
his haughti. Louis had an opportunity of displaying his vanity, 
nessand haughtiness and ambition. A anaes ‘respecting pre- 
ambition. cedence, that ed between his ambassador and 
that of Spain, in ion, furnished the first occasion : 

The latter at a public entry insulted the former, because 

he would not yield the precedence ; upon which Louis 
threatened to commence hostilities, unless the superio- 

rity of his crown was acknowledged. ee 

and dispatched Count Fuentes to Paris, with the im- 

portant concession, that the ministers of Spain should 

no longer dispute the lency with those of France. 

His treatment of the Pope was still more arrogant. ‘The 
Duke of Acqui, ambassador of Louis XIV. behaved in’ 

such a haughty manner, as to be quite intolerable ; and 
his domestics followed the example of their master.’ 
Some of them having attacked the Corsican guard of 

re cbek oe ag tim allie p ie oy 

killed. On this the e left Rome. The French 

troops were put in motion towards Italy, and the Pope 


FRANCE. 


f 


fi 
i 


was obliged to send his into France, to ask History 
, and to allow a pillar to be erected in Rome 
itself, as a monument of his own humiliation, and 
the triumph of the French monarch. yt were rere 
experienced the lofty spirit of Louis: he ly re- 
aarti oy re mr ew Uregaan: marr a 
remonstrated, he e such vigorous preparations 
support his refusal, that the { 


&, 


to 

it it to desist. The King of England,” said he i 
to his ambassador D’Estrades, ‘may know the amount q 
of my foree ; but he cannot measure the elevation of : 
my mind. Every thing to me is contemptible in com- 
parison with glory.” 

Soon after his accession, he | Swemcre Dunkirk from 
the needy King of England. He immediately - 
ed 30,000 men to fortify it by land and sea; and dug a 
large bascn between the town and the citadel, 
of containing several men of war. He soon 
obtained, by menaces, the strong hold of Marsal from 


against Spain ; and 
Dutch against the Kii 
offered to abandon to 


department of the kingdom, his other favourite minis« 
ter, Louvois, directed his genius most successfully to 
the means of wy tetera arson at a distance by 
~~ To ‘these armies to vi , the Prince 
= i dé and Marshal Turenne were still in the vigour F 
e. nao 

Louis, however, during this interval of 1, did Louis's em 
not confine his attention und his. leboues okey tthe Beymen 
poems me, | Pee RUS Ba. - and peace, : 
success. He embellished the capital, and paved and light- 
ed it.in a magnificent manner; and, for the security of 
the citizens, established a police, which, from its vigi 


lance and systematic proceedings, soon became 
astonishment of Europe. In the provinces, high 
and useful works were: In 1664, the ca- 


nal of 


custom, by which a female of a first marriage was 
fred to male het of «Second mariage on this 


p 
EB 
i 
E 
F 
i 


FRANCE. ; 608 


monarchy should wished to invest him with the powens and the digni- History; 
10) lh Bod 


i 
3 
8 
e 
E 
8 
: 


! 


Circum- ties of his ancestors. . De. Witt, however, had the com- 


claims. on Brabant, mand of the resources of the republic at the time when 
ast preparations, Mary Anne of Aus- Louis prepared to invade it; and he was blamed for 


: 


neglecting the land forces, and directing his whole care 


superstitious 
1 confessor, np to the marine. Even after ue bei ke nee French 
inted grand inquisitor, monarch, projected. an invasion, by e seems to 
7 ame ae ps eo r 


8 
i 
e%3 


i 


i 
i 


& 


: 


have been deceived with renpect to the side on which 
it would be made ; for he taken his tionary 


of the, kingdom were and defensive measures almost exclusively on the side 
the opportunity thus pre- of Maestricht. Louis, however, having made an alli- 
army of 40,000 men, di- ance with Cologne, chose that quarter for commencing 
Colbert, aw amply sup his hostile operations against Holland. But it was first 


z 
a 


B 


i 


necessary to enter the territories of the Duke of Lor- 


ines or garrisons; raine, on which, as he had no hopes of gaining the 
condition, sur- consent of the Duke, he resolved to seize ; ee. 
Lisle. alone resisted ing to justify his conduct on the unsupported and fri- 
king returned to Paris, after , that intrigues dangerous to the French 


had been carrying on at the court of Lor- 
raine. Before he eet ae territories of the Dutch, 


the 
the Prince of Condé was roused by he issued a declaration of war against them. In this 
~ re- 


he did not condescend to specify particulars, but con« 
hagenporads tented himself with the general and haughty assertion, 
Franche that the insolence of the Dutch had been so great, that 


on Flanders, or rather nga Det consints lee ingly any. lonete tn bert i. 
er the Spanish dominions, and _ Holland was now threatened with a greater force than 


they did had ever been directed against her. The combined 


vileges, and ruled fleets of England and. France, amounting to upwards 
rust entirely of 100 sail,.was ready to ravage her coasts; and a 
OE NASIR ana French army of 120,000 excellent » assisted and 


directed by the talents of Turenne, é, Luxem- 


in a very short time. burg, and, Vauban, was preparing to enter the fron- 
s Dole surrendered ; in three weeks of the tiers. Louis passed the Meuse at Visat ; and in a very 
the whole province was uered. few days, having made himself master of the intervens 

panish Nether- ing towns, approached the Rhine. The season was 

the other extremely favourable to him; the greatest rivers were 


olland, almost dried up by the excessive drought ; the French 
cavalry, ani by the presence of their sovereign, 


apprehensive of a more powerfu plunged into the stream, and were feebly opposed by 


queen’s ri to the 


tch ; so that the passage of the Rhine was ac- 
he complished with no danger or difficulty. In little more Rapid suc- 


last campaign ; than a month, the provinces of Guelderland, Overyssel, cess of 


and Utrecht, were in possession of Louis; and the only Louis in it. 
the — difficulties ining were in the provinces of Holland 
manner t and Zealand. The king here committed an error: in- 
stead of ing forward with his whole force, as he 


day, the French was advised to do by Condé and Turenne, he was pre- 
ambassador—‘ I yailed upon by Louvois to add new fortifications to his 
replied he, “ but conquests, which, acquiring additional garrisons, ne- 
affront was aggravated cessarily weakened his main army. 

: the States ordered a medal to In the mean time, the Dutch were successful at sea, 


De Ruyter having defeated the combined fleets of Eng- 


x informed 
republic had conciliated kings, and land and France in Solebay. 


The Prince of Orange, unable to withstand the vic- 


alone were sufficient torious and greatly superior armies of Louis, retired 


Louis to war, were now added, inthe case with his dispiri 


into the province of Holland. 


wounded pride. Underthe Naarden, within nine miles of Amsterdam, was redu- 
he prepared to humble the ced by the Marquis of Rochefort; and had he taken 
: es II. of Eng- possession of Meyden, the keys of which were deli- 


and bribing vered to some of his troops, but recovered by the ma- 


Charles XI. of Sweden gistrates, Amsterdam must have fallen. Louis himself, 


instead of pushing forward, remained at Utrecht, wast- 


enemy tothe jing his time in vain parade, At this period, John de 
the measures concerted for my <a States should sue for peace ; and 


proposition, notwithstanding the Prince of 


iod of danger, Holland was divided and Orange was decidedly averse to it. , But the deputies 
two factions ; the one headed by Johnde were received by Louvois with excessive bahgbtties 


snbegeity 3 and the intolerable conditions were insisted on, that the 


Orange's partizans, who States should give up all their possessions beyond the 


604 


Ristory. Rhine, and some strong in the very heart of the 
—\— blic ; that they shou! restore the Roman Catholic 
religion, and every year send an ambassador to Paris, 
acknowledging that they held their liberty of France. 
The deputies instantly rejected these most absurd and 
humiliating conditions ; and, on their return to Am- 
sterdam, John de Witt and his brother were sacrificed 
by the populace as the authors of their calamities. The 
Prince of Orange was now chosen Stadtholder, and the 
most implicit confidence and obedience were shewn him 
by all parties. As soon as Louis and his ally Charles 
ived the effects which the appointment of the 
Prince of Orange had produced on the determination 
of the Dutch, they endeavoured to corrupt him by of- 
fering him the sovereignty of Holland ; but he rejected 
all their , and prepared for war. The coun- 
try was inundated ; preparations were made to embark 
for their East India colonies, if their country could not 
be saved. Providence itself seemed to interfere, b 
reventing the hostile fleet, with an army on G 
rom approaching the shores ; and Louis, having gain- 
ed sufficient glory, and finding that his progress was 
delayed, had returned to Marseilles, 
In 1673, a confederacy, consisting of the Emperor 
and Spain, which had been alarmed at the conquests 
and ambition of the French monarch, and had already 
secretly assisted the United Provinces, openly decla- 
red themselves their allies. In three obstinate but in- 
decisive actions, with the fleets of France and England, 
De Ruyter maintained his character, and protected his 
country by sea. As soon as the summer commenced, 
Louis resumed the command of his armies, and in 13 
days took Maestricht, one of the strongest bulwarks of 
the United Provinces. The Prince of Orange, in the 
mean time, having assembled a respectable army, laid 
siege to Naarden; and, by its reduction, inspired his 
countrymen with confidence in his talents, and with 
hopes of the success of their cause. As soon as Naarden 
was reduced, he marched to join the Imperialists, who, 
under Montecuculli, on the banks of the Rhine, was 
opposed to Turenne. ‘The Imperialists having in vain 
attempted the passage of that river, in the face of the 
Marshal, eluded his vigilance, however, and sat down 
suddenly before Bonne; here they were joined by the 
Prince of Orange, who had displayed equal talents, 
in leaving behind him the other French erals, 
Communi- Bonne soon surrendered; and by the fall of several 
cation be- other places in the Electorate of Cologne, the commu- 
Semmes, and nication between France and the United Provinces was 
cut off, cut off, and Louis was obliged to recal his forces, and 
A. D, 1673, abandon his conquests. - : 
In 1674, the Parliament of England obliged Charles 
to make peace with Holland; and soon afterwards this 
Monarch offered his mediation to the contending 
powers. The King of France readily acceded to the 
offer ; but the Prince of , who had great influ- 
ence in the councils of the United States, and had just 
obtained the grant of the office of Stadtholder 
for his family, and who, besides, was ambitious of mili- 
tary fame, refused the mediation, alleging that it would 
be in vain to negociate, till a greater impression had 
been made upon France. Louis, therefore, resolved to 
open the campaign with such accumulated means, as 
should ae this Ly mary — . the Stadtholder alto- 
ape eg ess. He brought three great armies into 
pte field ; one on the side of Germany, one in Flan- 
A. D. 1674. ders, and one on the frontiers of Rousillon, while he 
himself, at the head of a fourth, entered Franche 
Compté, and subdued the whole. province in the space 


Holland 
saved by 
the Prince 
of Orange. 


FRANCE. 


Tt last attacked the rear of his army, in a narrow de- 
file at Seneffe ; ee eee 
aot tet ee ae On this oc- 
casion, the Prince of Orange, sensible that he had been 
out-generalled, atoned for his mistake by his personal ex« 
ertions and courage ; he rallied his them 

; in his turn made the French’ res : 


back to the char : 
tire ; and obliged Condé to exert desperate efforts to : 
obtain the victory, which he at length atchieved., Such 
were the deeds of the Prince of in this battle, 


that his adversary, always candid magnanimous, 
remarked, “ The Prince of Orange has acted in every 
thing like an old captain, except exposing his life too 
like a young soldier.” At length the ni, the 
combatants, and, notwith the advantage whith 
the easoege er at the ee ee 
gagement, the victory remained undeci Prince 
of Orange, however, in order to give himself the ap- 
ce of having been the conqueror, or to bring 

French toa new ent, besi Oudenarde ; but 
the Imperial general, who was with him, not choosing to 
hazard a battle, the siege was raised. | Before the 

of the campaign, however, he reduced Grave, the last 
town that the French held in any of the United Pro- 


vinces. " vieen “| 
In Alsace, Turenne commanded, and displayed of Turenne 
much military skill against a superior army. By a ra« in Alsace. 
= ee march, he attacked and defeat« 
e Duke of Lorraine, and , the Imperial g 5 
neral, at Sintzium ; and eee en ee - e 
tinate. During his absence in Lorraine, the Imperial- a 


ists again returned, and with an army of 70,000 men, q 
entered and overran Alsace. This obliged him ‘to 
come back for the defence of this province ; and so un- 
expected was his arrival, that Imperiali ta- 
ken unawares, were completely defeated, and being dis- 
lodged, were obliged to repass the Rhine. The Pala~ The pata- 
tinate was now given up to the most wanton and bar- tinate laid 
barous destruction. From his castle at Manheim, the waste. 
Elector beheld two cities and 25 towns in flames. Ra- 
pine and lust vied with each other in the dreadful de« 
struction that they committed. . The Elector, mad with 
and gri * challenged Turenne to single combat ; \ 

but the Marshal coolly 6, that he could not accept 1 
such a challenge without his master’s leave, but would, 
at any time, meet the Elector in the field, with their 
respective armies. ; 

In 1675, Montecuculli was recalled and placed at the 
head of the Imperial army, in order to oppose Turenne, 
He endeavoured to penetrate into Alsace, ine, or 
Burgundy ; while Turenne endeavoured to defeat this 
desi, The most consummate skill was displayed on 
the beakevot the Rhine, the scene of their manceuvres, 
by these two celebrated generals, who had reduced war 
to ascience. Turenne, by posting himself on the Ger« 
man side of the river, not only kept his rival from ‘pas« 
sing it, but was in a situation to take advantage of any 
fortunate circumstance that might occur. At last he poop op 
thought that such a cireumstance ited itself, and Turenne. 
was preparing to bring the Germans to a decisive en A, D, 1675 
gagement, by reconnoltering a situation to erect a bat« 


~ 


— 


FRANCE. 


3 . tery, when he was killed by a cannon ball. Consterna- 
, tion, alarm, and ‘indecision, their natural effects, filled 


Lonis’ in the: 1677, Louis placed himself at the fought at Mont Capel, on the 11th of April: For some Mont Capel. 
oan head of his decay tex Flanders, and began his tions, time the issue was doubtful, till tinterthe made a A.D. 1677, 
before the 's cavalry, for want of forage, could masterly movement, which compelled the Prince to 


the French army ; of this the Imperial general took ‘ad- 
vantage; and after having been kept three months on 
the German side of the Rhine, by the talents of Tu- 
‘renne, he passed it the moment he heard of his fate, 
and penetrated into Alsace. The Prince of Condé, 

this, was sent with a reinforcement to join the 
army, and supply the place of Turenne; but, before 
his arrival, a of the German forces had laid siege 
to Treves, an cog Acqui, advancing in relief, 
exposed himself is negli to a t defeat, 
pee or ee tale te Rtn do into Treves. Here 
he ved to at i 


iged them to the Rhine. 
pecthtre Jarteucm Cermbnistelt the career of his mili 

glory, passing the remainder of his life in honourable 
retirementat Chantilly. Montecuculli withdrew at the 


Prince of Orange ; but as each was ing to hazard 
eT an the Monarch returned to Ver- 
al 


Louis, thus deprived of two of his ablest generals, 
was obliged to supply their loss, as far as possible, by 
the vigour and extensiveness of his preparations for a 
new campaign; and by a new secret , into which 
he entered with the King of England. By this, they 
obliged themselves to enter into no treaties, unless by 
mutual consent. 


oe Dee er sot ella anche 
place, the’! posted himself to such advan as to 
from coming to its relief. The Prince 
indeed, came in sight of the French army, 
could not force Louis to fight ; and thus was 
inactive spectator of the fall of the place, which 
hoped to relieve. Louis soon afterwards return- 
Versailles, leaving the command to Marshal 
As soon as Seaton departed, the 

to Maestricht; but the 


* 605 


taken ; 5000 men were killed, and the French fleet History. 


were masters of the Mediterranean. They were, how- 
ever, soon afterwards induced to evacuate Messina at 
the moment they flattered themselves with the hope of 
securing it. 

During these various operations, a congress had been 
established at Nimeguen, under the mediation of the 
King of England. The Dutch were tired of the war, 
which had greatly increased their taxes; but the Prince 
of Orange, filled with ambition and animosity against 
France, persuaded them to continue it, representing, 
among other reasons, that it was necessary to obtain a 
strong frontier on the side of Flanders, and that they 
ead not honourably desert their allies. Louis also 
was desirous of ; but as he wished for favourable 
conditions, he was sensible that aa could iA ae 
onl a vigorous tion e war. us the 
nagobhets va ‘ons leading Ps tio réealle the preparations for a 
new campaign were carried on with great activity on 
each side. Louis took the field, as usual, as early as 
February, Louvois having by this time established 

ines. Valenciennes was his first object, which 
he carried by storm, by making the assault in the morn- 
ing, when it was least |, in preference to the 
night, the usual time ; to this he was advised by Vau- 
ban. “Indeed, he never sate down before any place 
that he was not almost certain of reducing. He next 
invested Cambray and St Omers, The Prince of Orange 
advanced to the relief of the latter place, with an army 
hastily assembled: the siege was covered by the Duke 
of Orleans, the King’s brother, and Marshal Luxem- 
burg ; the former had the effeminate manners of a 
woman, but these concealed the most ardent courage ; 
the latter had been the intimate friend and. favourite 
pupil of Condé. The Prince of Orange being resolved 
to raise the siege at any rate, an obstinate ba 


seek shelter under the walls of Ypres. The fall of St 
Omers immediately followed. Louis, always anxious 
after military fame, and jealous of it in others, could 
not brook the idea that his brother should have gained 
a Mere by an army, of which he was the command- 
er ; he listened to the intelligence with no ‘marks of 
satisfaction, and never afterwards entrusted the Duke 
with the chief command. The Prinee of Orange, in 
order to for his defeat, laid’ siege to Char- 
leroi, but he was forced to raise it on the approach of 
Marshal Luxemburg. 

Negociations for still continued, and they were 
soon ht to a favourable termination, The Par~ 
liament of England obliged Charles to listen to pacific 
overtures, as they, as well as the nation, were strongly 


lief, the siege was ; averse to the union with France, especially for the pur- 
Naval ope- In the midst of these operations by land, Louis did pose of war against Holland. The Dutch were weary 
rations, not neglect his navy. A fleet, under the Duke of Vi. of the war, from which hitherto: they had derived no 
vonne, was sent into the Mediterranean, to support the advantage, which could compensate for their addition- 
people of Messina, who had rebelled against the Spa- al taxes. France also need ce; for though victo- 


niards ; while the latter were aided by a 

Se caeiataepantaaieataan After an obstinate 

combat, Messina was relieved by the French. Another 
near 


vious in the field, she was exhausted at home. The 
King had indeed taken the field early in 1678, and had 
reduced Ghent, while the army under Luxemburg 


ttle was Rattle of 


engagement took place oom hens had invested Mons, when the Ditch ambassador at 
ee were also victorious, and De Ruyter was kill. Nim , alarmed at the progress of the enemy, Treaty of 


i the treaty of peace with the ministers of France, Nimeguen. 
by which Louis secured the possession of Franche A. D. 1678. 
Compté, Cambray, Aire, St Omers, Valenciennes, Tour- 
nay, , Bouchain, , Charlemont, &c. Maes- 
tricht was restored to the United Provinces, Spain re- 


606 


Misery. covered Charleroi, Oudenarde, Aeth, Ghent, and Lim- 
—v—— burgh. The Emperor gave up Fribourg to the French, 
but retained Philipsburg. Lorraine was offered again 
to its Duke, bat he chose rather to become a soldier of 
fortune than accept it under the conditions which Louis 
insisted upon, ‘The Dutch ambassador, in signing this 
treaty, had not consulted the Em or the King of 
Spain, both of whom subscribed to the conditions with 
great reluctance. The Prince of Orange was equally 
averse to it; and ing that he did not know that 
peace was actually signed, he attacked and gained some 
advantage over Marshal Luxemburg, who concluded 
the war was terminated, and consequently did not ex- 
pect this attack. 

Louis's en- Very soon after the — the Emperor, Spain, and 
creschments the United Provinces, disbanded their armies; whereas 
ane Louis kept up a formidable force. His motive for 
— this was too soon apparent. Several territories which 
had formerly been dependant on the three bishop- 
rics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, and on Alsace, had 
been for a long time in ion of different German 
Princes, and is wished to unite them to the crown 
of France, For this purpose he established two cham- 

bers, at Metz and Brisac, and these tribunals not onl 
ne a decree for the union which the King wished, 
t even cited the neighbouring princes, and the King 
of Spain, to before them, and render homage to 
the King of Benes: or to submit to the confiscation of 
their ions, The Elector Palatine, and the Elec- 
tor of reves were deprived of the seignories which 
a in this part of Germany. But Louis made 
a still more daring and unjust attempt the next year, 
Besieges A, D. 1681. , a powerful city, which com- 
Strasburg. manded the Rbine by its bridge, was still free, and 
A-D. 168+ 7 ouis had long been extremely desirous to annex it to 
France. Money and threats had been employed in 


vain,—the tes absolutely refused to give it up. 
At last, by the advice of Louvois, were order- 
ed into Lorraine, Alsace, and Franche pté, under 


the pretence of employing them to work on the forti- 

fications in these provinces. They all assembled in 

the neighbourhood of Strasburg, ing to 20,000 

men, and took ion of the nd between the 

Rhine and that city, as well as of the redoubt that co- 

vered the bridge. Louvois, who was at their head, 

now demanded that the town should be placed under the 

protection of France. The av, esse ing intimidat- 

pas or mares and the inhabitants in Sen aes 

city 0} its gates. Its ancient privileges were 

secured. PVauban was ordered to poner t ahi oP 

its fortifications, and he soon rendered it one of the 
strongest places in Europe. 

‘Violent con- Louis conducted himself with equal violence and in- 

éuct in the justice towards the Spaniards, pretending that his mi- 

Spanish —_nister had ae to insert the cession of the county 

Nether- of Alost, in the Low Countries, inthe treaty of peace, 

he demanded that it should be given up to him; and 

as his pce he a not + onpen comxipiliad. tee: he be- 

sieged Luxemburg. Su roceedings, mani esting a 

determination not to be bound by pe pes » and vio- 

lent and Kye in themselves, alarmed the other 

powers. The Emperor, King of Sweden, and some 

other princes, had already endeavoured to rouse ‘the 

German empire ; and if the Elector of Brandenburg 

had not at that time supported France, war would have 

recommenced. A congress, however, was held at Frank- 


fort, for the pu of inguiring into Louis’ proceed- 
ings witb regurd to the Gartian territories, which he 
had annexed to France. To this congress, his pleni- 


FRANCE. 


potentiaries presented a memorial in the French lan+ 
Latin having heretofore been the universal language of 
diplomacy. As there were also other disputes on poi 
equally frivolous, the congress was dissolved, and 

business put off till the ing of the diet at Rati 
bon. In the suuusione, “has tieachs maaniechcbict 

and Dix- 


employed against 
whieh had t Algioce ta in a 
used against Algiers in 1681, and again in 1684 This 
piratical state, aye those of ri 
experienced and acknow 4 
noa next felt his wrath. i blic was accused of 
selling powder to the pirates, and building 

Spain. The city of Genoa was bombarded ; and some of 
its palaces reduced to ashes. ‘The Doge and four of the 
principal senators were obliged to go to Paris and im- 


depri him of an of his 
triumph, insisted that the De Should 60 contional 


in 
office, notwithstanding the eR be 
ved of his dignity rome d 


which a Doge was d 
he quits the city. When the was asked, what he. 
thought most extraordinary at Versailles? he replied, 
« To see myself there !” ii “> %, 
In 1688, Colbert died. The advantages which he Death of 
had secured to France, wae ee and numerous: he Colbert. _ 
restored her finances, and lished or invi her 4. D. 1 
principal manufactures. Subsequent events proved how 
much France’ was indebted to him; since, when he 
ceased to manage the finances, the mili succes- 
ses of Louis languished. As he found that the Pro- 
testants, no longer able to 4 
distinguish themselves by 
‘disposed to direct their attention to manufactures, he 


oe 


tent and perfection, as to have rendered them the sour- 


FRANCE. 607 


of the : Telli i i ; im, F i Worms, and History. 
ey of the Chancellor Tellier, and his son, the Marquis reduced ; Manheim, Frankendal, Spiers, rms, 
~ ‘ is, whose leading maxim was, that every enheim, also surrendered ; and the Palatinate was 
de Lonvois, ¢ n 1684, ae given up to the plunder and a rte of the Sts i ac 
ts troops into the Protestant districts; and Lou- soldiers, A. D. 1689. Men, women, and children, were hostilities, 
a. pa aL it was his majesty’s pleasure, that driven out into the fields, in the midst of a severe frost, 4 - 1689. 
er and left to perish of hunger and cold ; while their hou- The Palati- 
ses were reduced to ashes, their prepeey. seized, and ~~ again 
their possessions pillaged. More 40 cities, and an ‘4 waste. 
infinite nuniber of villages, were burnt ; the of 
the electors were razed. to the , and their very 
tombs opened in search of hidden treasures. This se~ 
cond devastation made the former one under Turenne 
appear mild and merciful. About this time, England 
was added to the number of Louis’s enemies. James II. 
had been deposed, and William Prince of Orange cho« 
ape SAME cmikde Geoplin copper she delueiesd ead Wikies 
to the most dreadful i to s the ed mo illi 
of as tlacly isdsiis cracls of rousing the parliament 
time; and a price was set on the and of his new kingdom against Louis. 
who were hunted like wild beasts. - The exertions of the French monarch, though great, 
Above 500,000 of. the most useful and industrious in- were prewar cxpimined rage tacts pei number 
of France were driven into exile, by the revo- of the states that op him. He n 400,000 Forces em- 
eation of the edict of Nantes; and thus the staple ma- men in the field. e army of Spain and United ployed — 
declined in that country, Pentceedanfiet de-tenaadtal ‘orced by the English under 2gainst him. 
nations by these exiles. the Earl of Marlborough, amoun phere PolinK i 


9 FB 


rae By the revocation of the edict 
antes, liberty of conscience was abolished ; all the 


eT 
(ae 
ree i 
ane 
fee : 
can 
EEE 
TH 
. ae Beet 


3 


1 of zeal for the The Emperor and the German states supplied three ar- 
Catholic religion, was thus ing the Protestants, psy pcr ose wig agri, o naps = 
- he was insulting the Pope, and i him of Avig- on the U; Rhine ; the main army under t e 
omg te Pecttingethe hac of the Cathe at Locraist, onthe Milale Hbine; nad the third corti 
Pope. lic religion, sufficiently proves that Louis was actuated Lower Rhine, under the Elector of Brandenburg. The 
more frequently and strongly by ambition, and a desire Duke of Lorraine took Mentz, and the Elector of Bran- 
to exercise his » than by any other feeling or denburg took Bonne, while the Prince of Waldeck obli- 
ap aati hitelogs Ye un- ngereh in m inatich dey ware deleed. The 
pretences, his ruling passions opportunities le at Walcourt, in whi were defeated. 
ari ying themselves. The Pope moet Xl. was next year, A. D. 1690, Louis gave the command of this Battle of” 
of talents and abilities; and was extremely army to Marshal Luxemburg, who, in the plains of’ Fleurus. 
to destroy an abominable privilege which ren- Fleurus, defeated the Prince of Waldeck, with the loss 4- D- 1690. 
Seer ae Rene moran Ge ol ats et of 6000 killed, and 8000 taken prisoners. The Dutch 
criminals, the ambassadors of Catholic princes in that infantry behaved so gallantly on this occasion, that the 
i i dis- Marshal observed, “ Prince Waldeck ought always to 
from thei i He was also anxious to remember the French cavalry ; and I shall never 
i which whatever entered the Dutch infantry.” In Italy, the Duke of Savoy, 
under the sanction of an ambassador's name paid celebrated Victor Amadeus, was opposed by the Mar- 
Pee Datel seipciet Gees wea Tenders ets cinllat poet 
. i i ius soon im an ex t general. 
He completely defeated the Duke at Staffarada © and in 
to; consequence of this victory, the whole of Savoy, exce 
} ple the fortress of Montmelian, was reduced by the French, 
himself set an example to them; Catalonia was the scene of hostile ions, in which 
accordingly he sent his ambassador to Rome, with also the French were successful. But what was more 
i extraordinary, and more ing to the ambition of 
full exercise of these most unjust privileges. Louis, the combined fleets of Holland and En 
- Such could not fail to excite the nt 3% were defeated off Beachy Head, by: the French fleet 


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‘ under Tourville. 
peror Leopold having succeeded in defeatingthe Turks, In the beginning of April 1691, Louis himself took 
) in reducing the i _malcontents, and in secu- Mons, in ep Ki Prien Nothing farther re- 
to the House of Austria the hereditary possession markable happened on the side of Flanders. In Italy, 
of the throne of Hungary, resolved to oppose the power Marshal Catinat was held in check by Prince Eugene : 
of seems to have on the frontiers of Germany, the war languished ; and in 
. had a habitual and cherished hatred of Louis, readily Catalonia, the advantages. gained by: the French were 
League of entered into the views of the 3 and the league neither splendid nor decisive. The following spring, 
: Augsburg of Augsburg was formed, in to restrain the en- Louis and William set out on the same day to join their 
formed im, roachments of France, and to secure the jects of the respective armies. Namur was reduced, even in the 
- againet him treaties of West the Pyrenees, and Nimeguen. sight of William, by Louis, with an army, of 45,000 
Spain, Sweden, Dent ar iden men ; while Luxemburg, with another army covered siege of 
in the league. rage ae greases the designs of these the siege. The reduction of this place was rendered Luxem- 
powers, resolved to strike the first blow; and accord- remarkable by.the circumstance, that Coehorn defended wg. 
ingly-sent the Dauphin, at the head of 100,000 men, into in person a new fort, while Vauban directed the attack, 
Germany. After a siege of 19 days, Philipsburg was In order to atone for his not having prevented the fall 
3 


608 


History. of this im t town, William endeavoured to sur- 
—v—" prise the ch army under Luxemburg, at Stein- 
irk; but after the most daring efforts, he was com- 

led! to retreat. The next year, he was yet more un- 

ortunate; the army of the confederates being defeated 

with the loss of 8000 men at Landen: Huy and Charle- 

roi fell into the possession of the French, in conse- 

uence of their success at Landen. In the mean time, 

French fleet under Tourville, who received express 


and positive orders to t, that, if victorious, he might 
invade England, was defeated near Ne La Hogue, 
by the combined fleets of England and Holland. 


4In the campaigns of 1694 and 1695, fortune seemed 
rather to favour & allies: Huy was retaken.; the Duke 
of Savoy penetrated into Dauphiné ; and King Wil- 
liam, taking advantage of the death of Marshal Luxem- 
barg, invested Namur, which, though it was gallantly 
defended, was tens te capitulate in the a of the 
Pemine in French army under Villeroi. About this period, a dread- 
Prance. ful famine afflicted France ; it was caused partly by un- 
A. D. 1695. favourable seasons, and partly by the war not having 
left labourers sufficient to cultivate the rene ‘Corn 
was brought from abroail ; and if this had been the only 
measure adopted, probably the calamity might have 
been in some measure alleviated ; but by attempts to 
regulate the price, the evil was Snatedaed many of the 
peasants perished of hunger, and the whole kmgdom 
exhibited a dreadful scene of poverty and distress. 


In consequence of the misery of his people, and the 
exhausted state of his finances, Louis ved the ne- 
cessity either of making peace, or of ing some of 


the members from the’ confederacy. He preferred the 
latter. A negociation was opened with the Duke of 
Savoy, who was induced to desert the allies, and to 
unite himself to Louis, in consideration of the restitu- 
tien of his deminions; the honours of sovereignty ; four 
millions of money ; and the marriage of his daughter with 
the young Duke ¢ rp ae son of the Dauphin. 
e campaign of 1697 was not distinguished by an 
remarkable occurrence, except the taking of Bercllouk 
by the Duke of Vendome, notwithstanding it was gal- 
lantly defended by the Prince of Hesse Darmstadt, 
with a garrison of 10,000 men. This event induced 
the King of pein to listen to the proposals of France. 
A congress for a general peace was opened at the 
Castle of Ryswick, under the mediation of Charles XI. 
of Sweden. The Emperor at first was unwilling to 
listen to terms of accommodation, -but finding himself 
deserted by his allies, he acceded to the treaty. 
Peace of By this treaty, Louis restored to the Spaniards all 
Kyswick. the places he had taken from them; but the preten- 
A. D. 1698. sions of the House of Bourbon to the Spanish succes- 
sion were left in full force. He acknowledged William 
lawful king of England: with regard to Holland, he 
adhered to the ‘terms fixed at Munster and Nimeguen. 
To the empire he restored Kehl and Philipsburg ; and 
to the Em , Friburg and Brisac: he even con- 
sented to destroy the fortifications of Strasburg on 
the Rhine ; and restored Lorraine, Treves, and the Pa- 
eee. to their respective princes. 
is peace was very unpopular in France, particular] 
with the inhabitants of Parts, who repeanelel | and rd 
sulted the ministers who made it, on their return to 
the capital ; but these people looked only to the vic- 
tories which the French arms had gained, not to the 
effects of such an expensive war on the resources of the 


boars ( and yet they were obvious, and plainly 
out a peace as absolutely necessary. the five 
first campaigns had cost more than 200,000,000 ex- 


Effects of 
the war on 
France. 


FRANCE. 


traordinary ; the finances were in the disorder; | 
that the e might not be oppresel with taxes re 

course Was to loans, to cting new offices, 
and to oe which in the end became more 
extensiv permanently oppressive itional 
taxes, The value of roe: Ae pier in coin had been 
increased three livres in 1689 ; by which the commerce 


was injured, the ki impoverished, individuals 
onjeiy treated, and the revenue y diminished. 


In 1695, the capitation tax was 3 by it 
21,000,000 were raised, but they were at the expence 
of the other taxes, for the revenue of this year was not 
on the whole increased. beilt oe? r Bs | 

It has been noticed, that the succession tothe throne 
of Spain, which was claimed by the Bourbon family, 
was not settled by the terms of swic 
and scarcely was that peace concl 
evident that hostilities would soon recommence from 


consanguinity, ‘only the Imperial-or F 
a claim to the throne ; but there was:another competi- 
tor, who founded his claim on a will. The three com-' Competi 
Id, and for = 


petitors were, Louis XIV. the Emperor Leopo 
the Elector of Bavaria. Louis and the Emperor were oon 

both grandsons of Philip IH. ; in this respect therefore °?“™ 
their claim was : 


daughters of Philip IIL and Philip IV. . 
The Imperial family, however, asserted, in su of 
their claim, the solemn and . Seer a jations of 
Louis XIII. and XIV. and the blood of Maximilian, . 
the-common parent of both branches of the House of 
Austria. The Elector of Bavaria claimed, as the hus- 


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Ss 

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g 
“< 

: 
3. 
: 
g, 
ee? 


Phi- 
of 
in preference to his eldest s de- 
the will of Philip 1V. must be set 
aside, before the claim of the Elector could be rendered 
null, 1 2 vigre fore 
In the mean time, a most extraordinary circumstance 
occurred. William, King of England, who was always ~ 
so jealous of the power of Louis,—who had used his 
utmost efforts to restrain or crush it,—and who seemed’ 
actuated even by a personal dislike to that monarch— 
concluded a partition treaty with him, A. D. 1698, by Pattition 
which it was stipulated, that, on the death of the King S°o", , 
of Spain, his dominions should be divided the" 
claimants, in the following manner : Spain, and all her. 
American possessions, were to be given to the Elector 
of Bavaria ; the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the ports 
on the Biespogprnag meng i Si 
to be given to auphin ; while the Emperor’s se« 
eond pnt the Archduke Charles, was to RA 
the dukedom of Milan. As soon as intelligence of this 
treaty reached the court of Madrid, the King of Spain 
made a will in favour of his grand nephew the young 
prince of Bavaria, who died almost immediately after- 
wards. Upon this, the disquiets and intrigues were 


Se A eee. 


renewed ; and a second of partition was signed 
February 8th, A. D. 1699. ‘This aty differed mate- 4. p, 16: 
‘est Indies were 


rially from the re and the ¢ : 
to be given to the Archduke Charles; the Milanese to - 
the Duke of Lorraine, who was to annex Lorraine to 

France ; and the Dauphin was, as before, to have the 


Two Sicilies, the ports on the Tuscan shore, and Finals 
. 5 


FRANCE. 


- To prevent the union of Spain and the Imperial throne 
F pa in one person, it was agreed that the Archduke should 
. na amet ie patsah tone, in case he was rai- 
’ sed to the dignity of king of the Romans, by the death 
, of his eldest brother. Onthe other hand, in order to 


treaty of partition. The King of Spain nominated the 
Archduke Charles his universal basa that it was 
evident that the partition treaty would be of no effect, 


a ae 
pipet 
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FEESTE 
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by 
pee, eae es a 

ip V. His grand- 
father, at parting with him, exclaimed, “ There are no 
more ! He was acknowledged by the Pope, 
the potentates, 


of Savoy, Venice, the northern 


of 3 was to 
4. D. 1701. prevent the union of France and Spain and the Frenc 
taking possession of the Spanish dominions in America ; 


609 


the death of the King of England, the main spring of History. 
this treaty, threw the allies almost into despair, and oc- “~~ 
casioned the most indecent joy at the court of France. 

The succession of Anne, however, and her immediate 
declaration that she adhered to the d alliance, revi- 

ved ths hopes and the fears of the confederates and the 

French. : 

Even before the grand alliance was formed, war had War in 
begun in Italy between France and the Emperor. Itly, 
Prince Eugene, ‘who commanded the Imperial army of 
50,000 men, penetrated through the district of Trent ; 
the French general Catinat not conceiving himself au- 
thorised to obstruct his , In consequence of or- 
ders from his court. The Milanese was thus exposed 
to danger ; and Catinat was replaced by the Marquis of 
Villeroi. This general imprudently attacked Eugene, 
and was defea The first campaign, after the forma 
tion of the alliance, was not distinguished by any 
great event. In Italy, Eugene was not able to follow 
up his successes, as his army was greatly inferior to the 
combined forces of France and Spain ; indeed, he was 
obliged to raise the blockade of tua, and was de- 
feated in attempting to surprise the French general 

On the upper Rhine, the Germany, 


- Vendome near pati Es 
Prince of Baden was defeated by the Marquis de Villars, and lan- 


who, for this victory, was immediately afterwards crea- ¢¢* 
ted a marshal of France. On the side of Flanders, the 
cause of the Bourbons was not so prosperous. ‘The 


Earl of Marl h,; by his masterly movements, suc- 
ceeded in getti een the enemy and the principal 
towns of ish Guelderland, and reduced such of 


them as epened the navigation of the Maese, and afree. 
communication with Maestricht. By sea, Louis was 
unfortunate, the Priva having destroyed at Vigo a 
fleet of galleons, which had an immense ge fate 
ney on In the beginning of 1703, the of 
Savoy, who had been long wavering, concluded a trea- 
pt the Em . On the 20th of September in 

year, the Imperialists were defeated with 
slaughter at Hochstet, by Marshal Villars and the Elecs 
tor of Bavaria. The consequences of this victory were 
the reduction of Augsburg, and the epening of a pas- 

to Vienna itself. About the same time, the Duke 

urgundy made himself master of old Brisac ; and, 
before the end of the campaign, Marshal Tallard retook 
Landau, and defeated the ice of Hesse, who was ad- 
vancing to its relief. 

Soon afterwards, Louis was under the necessity of re- Revolt in 
calling Marshal Villars, in uence of a revolt in the Ce- 
the Cevennes. This revolt was occasioned by the per- Y™* 
secutions of the Protestants, who, roused by some pre- 
tended p and prophetesses, were maddened with 
religious ry and enthusiasm. Their war-cry was, 
“ No taxes, and liberty of conscience!” The more they 
suffered, the greater was their inveteracy and constan- 
cy. They pce inhabited lonely and desolate 
mountains, from which they rushed like wild beasts, 
and to which they returned when they were pursued or 
attacked. Marshal Villars, ashamed of having been re- 
called from scenes of real glory to war against these 
people, and moreover finding that they could not be 
completely subdued, thought it better to treat with one 
of their chiefs, a young baker, to whom the rank of 
colonel was given. The rebels, however, did not sub- 
mit at this time; but they were afterwards reduced, 
and almost exterminated by the Duke of Berwick. 

During the absence of Villars, Marshal Tallard was 

with the command. The lines of the Elec- 
4u 


blimery. 


—_—\y— 


Campaign 
of 1706, 


610 


tor of Bavaria had been forced by Marlborough, near 
Donawert, with considerable loss; but the appearance 
of Tallard inspired that prince with fresh confidence, 
and it was determined to hazard a general battle. This 
battle was fought near Blenheim, and, by its result, im- 
mortalized Marlborough, and exposed the Electorate of 
Bavaria to the ravages of the conquerors. Upon this 
Villars was recalled, and by prudently remaining on the 
defensive, obliged the Duke of Marlborough to relin- 
quish his plan of penetrating into France by the course 
of the Moselle. : 

The Duke of Marlborough having returned to Flan- 
ders, Villars was employed in watcHing the numerous 
armies of the empire on the Rhine, and succeeded in 
baffling them by his skill. In Italy, the Duke of Ven- 
dome on Prince Eugene and the Duke of Sa- 
voy ; bought the bloody but indecisive battle of Cassi- 
nato; and menaced Turin with a siege. These advan- 
tages of the French were balanced by the good for- 
tune of the allies in Spain, where the Archduke Charles, 
whom they proclaimed king, made himself master of 
most of that country. 

In 1706, the Marshal Villeroi was defeated by the 
Duke of Marlborough at Ramillies ; and the greatest 

of Spanish Flanders rewarded the victors. Louis, 
instead of re ing, endeavoured to console the Mar- 
shal for this defeat ; ‘“ People at our time of life, Mon- 
sieur Marshal,” said he, “ are not fortunate.” In Italy, 
the siege of Turin was begun by the Marshal Feuillarde, 
son-in-law of the minister Chamillard. The siege was 
covered by the Duke of Orleans, the nephew of Lonis, 
who was however controlled by the superior, but secret 
wers of the Marshal Marsin. As the preparations 
for this si were immense, great expectations were 
formed of its success ; but Feuillarde was by no means 
fit for his situation ; he was ignorant, obstinate, and so 
conceited, that when Vauban offered to direct the ope- 
rations of the siege as engineer, he rejected the offer with 
disdain, The city, however, notwithstanding the in- 
capacity of the Marshal, was reduced to the greatest 
distress, when Prince Eugene rapidly approached to its 
relief. The Duke of Orleans rmiaiied to have lett his 
lines, and met the enemy; but he was overruled by 
Marshal Marsin, and the French waited the attack in 
their entrenchments. In two hours, the Prince obtain- 
ed a complete victory : the Duke of Orleans was wound- 
ed, Marshal Marsin killed, and the duchies of Milan, 
Mantua, and Piedmont, with the kingdom of Naples, 
were by this one battle wrested from the House of 
Bourbon. The affairs of Louis in Spain were equally 
te; but in a short time fortune changed sides 
there, and Charles was obliged to evacuate his capital, 
and fly before the Duke of Berwick, who triumphed at 
Almanza over the forces of the confederates. 

Louis having in vain endeavoured to the King 
of Sweden in his cause, began seriously to think of put- 
ting an end to.a war, by which his arms had been dis- 
graced, and his subjects impoverished. He according- 
y ordered the Elector of Bavaria to write letters to the 
Duke of Marlborough, and the field deputies of the 
United Provinces, ing a ess; offering, 
az a proof of his sincerity, to give up all the Spanish do- 
minions. in Italy to the ‘Archduke Charles ; to the Uni- 
ted Provinces, a barrier in the Netherlands; and to the 
Duke of Savoy, a com tion for the-waste made by 
the war in his territories. In return, he asked the re- 
storation of Bavaria to its native Prince ; and that Phi- 
lip V. should be allowed to possess Spain and her Ame- 
rican colonies. This offer was, however, indignantly 


FRANCE, 


and wantonly rej , the views of the allies i 
with their ptndes ing humbled Fenae diet 
now wished to conquer Spain. They accordingly in- 
formed Louis, that no peace set ke made ma 4 the 
House of Bourbon, so long as a prince of that house ‘sat 
on the throne of Spain, , ' - 

Louis was not so humbled in means or in hopes, as 
to be willing to accept these conditions, and he resol- 
ved to prosecute the war with vigour; but he was at a 
loss for money. In this emergency, he issued bills upon’ 
the mint toa very large amount, but most foolishly re-. 
fused to take them in payment of taxes. The conse-) 
quence was, that they fell into such discredit, as to be. 
at more than 50 per cent. discount. He therefore was: 
obliged to continue the practice of loans, and to antici- 


pate the royal revenue. Still his efforts were astonish~| His asto- 
ing: The coasts of the Channel and Mediterranean( Dishing ef- 


were defended by a line of militia; an army was sta~ 
tioned in Flanders, under the Duke of V e; an- 
other in the neighbourhood of Strasburg, under Vil-: 
lars ; two smaller armies were“collected in Navarre and: 
Rousillon ; and the Duke of Berwick, who still com- 
manded in Spain, was strongly reinforced. These re- 
inforcements came from Italy, where the French troops, 
amounting to 15,000 men, been obliged, b i~ 
tulation, to evacuate Lombardy. i} new 

In Spain, use of Bourbon was successful. The 
Duke of Or ho assumed the command after the, 
battle of Almanza, reduced Valentia and and 


took Lerida in Catalonia, which had formerly resisted the: 


great Condé. In Germany, Louis was also fortunate ; 
for Marshal Villars, having passed the Rhine, laid Swa- 
bia and Franconia under contribution. France itself, 
however, was exposed to danger in the midst of these: 
successes ; for Prince Eugene and the Duke of Savoy; 
being perfectly at liberty, in consequence of the French. 
army having evacuated Lombardy, formed a plan, in 
conjunction with the maritime powers, to reduce Toulon: 
or Marseilles, But, unfortunately for the allies, before 
the Prince appeared with the van of the Imperialists, 
the French had found. means to throw.8000 men inte> 
Toulon, the place which they ultimately had resolved 
to attack. ‘They had also taken ion of all the 
eminences that commanded the city ; and the allies, in 
attempting to dislodge them, were repulsed with con-— 
siderable loss.. In consequence, the rals deemed it. 
prudent to give up the attempt. Ineidentally, how-) 
ever, this expedition was detrimental to France; for 
the detachments drawn from the army of Marshal Vil-: 
lars for the defence of Toulon, obliged him to abandon . 
his projects against Germany, and to. ‘the Rhine. 


repass 
In the month of July 1708, the French army un~ Campaign 
der the Duke of Vendome was defeated by the Duke of 1708. 


of Marlborough at Oudenarde. Immediately after 
this battle, the former were joined by a re~- 
inforeement under the Duke of Berwick from. the 
Rhine, and the latter by Prince Eugene's army. The» 
iege of Lisle, the principal city in French Hiandese 
on the second in the dominions of Louis, was now be- + 
Seealy and’ Marlbsron meyer soem | 
directly, and Mar coveri siege. Into. 
this lai Marshal iteolamen old i 
officer, had thrown himself with some of the best troops. 
of France ; but notwithstanding his gallant.efforts, and 


4 


his utmost skill, in the +“ of two months he was Lisle taken 
n 


obliged to capitulate, I 
tempted to pass through Switzerland, in order to join } 
the troops of the empire in Alsace, and penetrate into 
France on that side ; but he was so vigorously opposed 


, the Duke of Savoy at- ay tea al. 


FRANCE. 611 
by Villars, that he was content with securing his own the confederates continued their successful progress in History. 
inions against the invasions of the enemy, by re- Flanders: Douay surrendered, the Marshal Villars has “~~” 
La Perouse, and F ‘ving in vain attempted to relieve it; Bethune, St Ve- 
nant, and Aire, were also reduced. In Spain, the cause 
of the Bourbons was rather successful, and with their 
successes their drooping spirits revived. In 1711, a Change of 
change of ministry took place in England ; by which, istry in 
as the friends of the Duke of Marlborough were remo- ©s!"4. 
ved from their places, it was sup that he also of the Em. 
would be deprived of his command, and probably the peror, fa- 
war terminated ; but, as the war was popular, and the vourable to 


_ History. 
“——" dominions 


Alarm at 
Paris. 


ive Furnes, 
Ypres, Menin, Tournay, Conde, and Maubeuge, as a 
barrier to the United inces; to acknowledge the 
Elector of Brandenburg as King of Prussia, and the 
Duke of Hanover as the ninth elector of the empire ; 
to remove the Pretender from France, and acknow- 
ledge Queen Anne; to restore every thing required 
the cessions 


8, already gloomy, the Duke a great favourite with the nation, the new mi- Lou's 
famine: Louis, nistry did not deem it prudent immediately to recal 4+: 17!!- 


him, or terminate it. Another event however occurred, 
which had still greater influence on the state of things ; 
this was the sudden death of the Emperor Joseph. He 
was succeeded by his brother Charles; and as it was 
contrary to the general alliance that the same person 
should Spain and the empire, the new ministry 
of Ragland. ware no longer afraid to avow their wishes . 
for peace. Hostilities however still continued; but 
the rigour of the season prevented the Duke of Marl~ 
borough from taking the field before the beginning of 
May ; and, after he did take it, no events of importance 
occurred. Negociations had been for some time se- 
carried on between France and England, and 


is re. atrived when Louis might be effectually on the 27th of September they were privately si 
Sees” netahind; Seutmohel/iio otditions finale at uibdion:) “Asithtalliee wears ce tittesind of ties 
to certain preliminary articles, which were iations, they were highly displeased at the intel- 


negociations, 
ligence that the preliminaries were signed. But, in 
the beginning of 1712, general conferences were open< 


pe en guveve ines A MT, MR ROC ed at Utrecht for restoring tranquillity to Europe; the 
explaining the ample concessions which he had offer- French and English ambassadors declaring, the 
ed, roused ‘their indignation and pride. Hiostilities preliminaries signed at London were neither binding 


amounting to 100,000 men, under Eugene 
rough, were opposed to Villars, who had been called to 
the command as the last hope of his country, and who 
was and advantageously between Cou- 
riere and The allies, reconnoitring his 

iti were afraid to attack him, and set down be- 


Tournay ; which, ere ne ie 
of the town and the citadel—the of which 


attempt to save it; but 
league from the city, his 


now fell, and its surrender concluded this campaign in 


on the Queen or her allies. While these negociations 
were going on, the Dauphin of France died ; and his 
elde&t son, as well as his son, died also. In conse- 
quence of these deaths, the Duke of Anjou, a sickly 
infant, only intervened between the King of Spain and 
the crown of France. L erm now ae to submit 
certain propositions to Louis and Philip V. rn a 
Spain ; the latter preferred the ties ty Het 
nish throne without hesitation, but Louis hesitated be- 
fore he to the choice of his grandson. . He at 
last complied ; and it was , that the renunciation 
of the of France by Philip V. should be regis- 
tered in the books of the parliament of Paris, and rati- 
fied by the cortes of Castile and Arragon. 

While these negotiations were going on, Prince Eu- 
gene to the Duke of Ormond, who had suc- 
ceeded the Duke of Marlborough, to attack the French 
army under Villars, in the mi of concluding the war 
with a splendid victory ; but the English general having 
orders not to act offensively, defeated, by his hesitation, 
the projects of the prince, who, however, reduced Ques- 
noy, and sent a detachment to penetrate into the heart 
of France. Soon after this, the Duke of Ormond made 
known to the allies the cessation of arms between France 
and England, and the British forces from thosé 
of the other confederates. Notwithstanding this di- 
minution of his army, the prince invested ; 
but on this occasion committed errors, which were 

ived and taken advantage of by Marshal Villars, 
who slaughtered or oon a body of 14,000 men near 
Denain.’ The Marshal followed up this success ; and, 
having reduced Marchiennes, where the principal ma- 
gazines of the confederates were deposited, he reco- 
vered successively Douay, Quesnoy, and Bouchain. The 
Dutch now, being sensible of their perilous situation 


of pacification settled between 
Their example was followed by 
of , the King of Portugal, and the 
the last of whom, finding himself unable to 
support any military operations in Spain, agreed to the 
evacuation 
fore, all the belligerent powers, except the Emperor, 
being disposed for peace, negociations were opened at 
Utrecht. 
Peace of On the 31st of March 1713, sam oo i 
Usecht, at Utrecht by the plenipotentiaries rance, En k 
A D-1713: Portugal, Prassia, Savoy, and the United Provinces 
the King of Spain refusing to sign the stipulations, till 
a principality was sieviden in the Netherlands for the 
Princess Orsini, the favourite of his queen. So far as 
France was concerned, the principal articles were, that 
Philip V. should renounce all claim to the throne of 
that tenes that the Dukes of Berry and Orleans, 
the next heirs to the French monarchy after the infant 
Dauphin, should renounce all right to the crown of 
Spain, in the event of their accession to the crown of 
France; that the Rhine should form the boundary of 
the German empire on the side of France ; and thatall 
fortifications beyond that river, possessed or claimed by 
France, should either be relinquished to the emperor 
or destroyed ; that Luxemburg, Namur, and Charle- 
roi, should be given to the United Provinces, as a bar- 
rier, along with Mons, Menon, Tournay, &c. already 
in their session; that Lisle, Aire, Bethune, and 
Dinant, should be restored to France; that Louis 
should acknowledge the title of Queen Anne, and the 
eventual succession of the house of Hanover to the 
British throne ; that the fortifications of Dunkirk should 
be demolished, and the harbour filled up ; that New- 
foundland, Hudson’s Bay, and Nova Scotia, should be 
gs up by France to England ; and that the title of 
ing of Prussia should be recognised 


Louis, who 
should at the same time to cede to him the town 
of Gueldres, with part of Spanish Guelderland. 

As the Emperor continued obstinate, two months 


were allowed to him to sign the treaty ; in the course 
of which, as Louis had now no other enemy, and Prince 
Eugene was not sufficiently strong to oppose Marshal 
Villars, the latter successively took Worms, Spires, and 
Landau ; pierced the lines which the prince had or- 
dered to be drawn from the Brisgaw, and defeated Gene- 
ral Vaubonne in his entrenchments, The Emperor now 
was anxious for peace, and conferences were 

between Prince Eugene and Marshal Villars at Radstadt. 
The terms of this treaty, which was concluded on the 
6th of March 1714, were less favourable to the Empe- 
ror than those offered at Utrecht, as the King of France 
retained Landau, which he had formerly proposed to 


cede, and the Electors of Bavaria and Cologne fully 
re-establi in their dominions. About the same 
time, Louis persuaded the King of Spain to forego bis 


absurd claim in behalf of the Princess Orsini, and to 


o — aoe — pacification. 
Death is did not survive this peace: he died on 
character the Ist of ber a 


ron reed 1715, inthe 78th year of his 
ob 176, The events of his reign sufficiently illustrate his the: 
racter asa monarch. His love of glory and ambition 
were insatiable, and leapt over the boundaries of jus- 
tice and humanity, in order to attain its wishes. His 
has, however, been doubted ; it is certain, at 
Jeast, that he never exposed his person, and never, 
while he commanded the army, anhertdk the siege of 
# place which he was not certain to reduce, or fought a 
battle which he was not certain to win, It must be said 


FRANCE. 


in exculpation 


| 


of her generals, and 


Bourdaloue, 
and Massillon, taught him his duty ;—Vauban fortified 
his towns ; Riquet formed his canals ;—Perrault and 
Mansard constructed his which were embellish- 
ed by Le Pouissin, Le Seur, and Le Brun ;—Corneille, 
Racine, Moliere, Quenault, La Fontaine, Bruyere, and 
Boileau, relieved his more serious cares, by their wit 
and literature ;—and Fenelon, Huet, Flechier, Beauvil- 
liers, and Bossuet, were the instructors of his children. 

Louis seems to have seen the folly, if not the injus- 
tice, of his pursuits before he died; for he made use of 
the following memorable expressions to his successor— 
« Endeavour to preserve peace with your neighbours ; 
I have been d of war; do not imitate me in that, 
or in being ive. Take advice on all occa- 
sions, and endeavour to discover the best, that you 
may always follow it. Relieve your le as soon as 
you can ; and do that, which unfortun I could not 
do.” He also advised him never to forget his duty to- 


wards God. : 
By an edict, which was-regi in 1714, he called 
his legitimated children to succession, failing the 


princes of the blood ; but this 
1717. 

The Duke of Orleans, soon after the death of Louis R ry 
XIV. appealed to the decision of the Parliament of the Duke: 
Paris against the will of that monarch, and was ap. ° Or 
pointed by them sole regent. Although ively ad- 
dicted to pleasure, yet, in the early part of his admi- 
nistration, his measures were ar, wise, and bene- 
ficial. He restored to the parliament the right of re- 
‘monstrating against the edicts of the crown; compelled 
those who had plundered the people, by their extortions 


during the late reign, to give up their unjustly acquired 
washes sepengledl the towns and districts that had t been 
thinned by the ravages of war; nourished commerce 
and agriculture ; and entered into a close alliance with 


Great Britain and the United Provinces. But his mea- 
sures were interrupted, and his power threatened, by 


edict was revoked in 


the intrigues of the Cardinal Alberoni, first minister of 
Spain. This man, persuading Philip V. that his’ re- 
nunciation of the throne of France was invalid, and 
that he had a better right to it than the Duke of Or- 
leans, in case of the death of Louis XV. endeavoured 
to inflame those who were discontented with the mea- 
sures of the Duke. But his plots having been disco- 
vered, his adherents in France were executed, and the 
Duke’s authority was henceforth more firmly establish- 
ed. Soon after this, the Duke formed the quadruple 
alliance ; and Alberoni still continuing his intrigues, a 
declaration of war against Spain was issued by Great 
Britain and France. The e of Berwick, who had 
the command of one of the ba to Pe a —s-4 
ed towards the frontiers of Spain, took possession 

St Sebastian and Fontarabia’; and having ‘caries 
parations for the siege of some other places in that 


a So ee 


Serer th 


ee oie 


ment, 


A. D. 1723,.of Bourbon, who was soon su 


shin aor the Dake of Ones ean the regerey, 


. FRANCE. 
son eaten into a peace, 


acceding to 
the quadruple alliance, and 

i i. joa at the thrones 

FE and Spain, the Duke of Orleans projected a 
ameemencene ; his own doughionhepa petedioge 
Prince of Asturias, and the I of Spain to the King 
of France. oa 


to fly 


for murder, and afterwards became an 
adventurer, was the author of it ; and the tness of 
the idea recommended it to the Duke of Or His 


mounmee sa penal e national debt, by the intro- 


with the Mississippi 


to his of credit, wasin a short time 
it. In 1719, the notes which he fabricated, exceed- 
in nominal amount fourscore times the real value of 

coin of the kingdom. At first, only the 
of the state had been paid is paper; but 
in 


in conjunction with the. bankers, exhausted 
eg me a i 

The consequence of this was, 

to con 

all at once. 

ards of 
to 


frit 
i 
: 


wanted 
sunk 


. 


it 


fixed for 


by the Duke 
pplanted by Cardinal 
Fleury, who had been preceptor to Louis XV. and was 
now 73 years old. The character of the Cardinal was 

differen t from that of statesmen in general. He 


tion of blessing which a sovereign 
could bestow on his subjects. This ing therefore 
he was extremely anxious, es w adminis- 
tration, to e; and, as Sir Walpole, the mi- 
nister of Britain at this period, was equally pa- 
cific, the 2 Aone a kal ary roe plntgs 

e death 


i nearly 20 years. At len 
of the of Poland, in 1733, rekindled the flames of 
war, and was induced to embark in it, in 

of Stanislaus, the father-in-law of Louis, (for the 


A. D, 1733, Infanta of Spain had been sent back, before the mar- 


riage projected by the Duke of Orleans was completed. 
France, on this occasion, united with Spain Pd Sa 
dinia, and hostilities commenced on the side of Ger- 
of Berwick 


613 


this, Villars died, and his successor, the Marshal de Coig- History: 


ny, defeated the Imperialists, under the walls of Parma. 
The Emperor, discouraged by these losses, proposed 
e; and Cardinal Fleury, sincere and constant in 

is wish for it, acceded tothe proposal. By the treaty, 
Stanislaus was to renounce his pretensions to Poland, 
in consideration of the cession of Lorraine to him du- 
ring his life; and Louis agreed to restore all his con- 
quests in Germany, and to guarantee the pragmatic 
sanction, or domestic law, by which the succession to 
the hereditary dominions of the house of Austria were 


“secured to the heirs female of Charles VI. in case he 


should die without issue. Soon after this peace, Charles 
VI. died ; and the disputed succession to his heredi 

dominions, notwithstanding the pragmatic sanction, 
kindled anew the flames of war in Europe. 


dominions belonged to Maria Theresa, the late empe- 
ror’s eldest daughter, who was married to Francis 
- Lorraine, Grand Dok of a, . Almost all the 

wers had anteed the matic sanc- 
tidal mae thaless A oink the iod eae in which 
it was necessary to support it, many of them took up 
arms to set it aside. e claimants to the dominions 
of the house of Austria, were the Elector of Bavaria, 
the King of Poland, the King of Spain, and the King 
of France ; but the last did not appear as a competitor, 
being afraid of awakening the jealousy of all Europe. 
These claimants were, however, astonished, when the 
King of Prussia also appeared among them ; and while 
they were inactive, actually invaded Silesia. Cardinal 
Fleury, notwithstanding this violent invasion of the 
pragmatic sanction, was still desirous of peace ; but he 
was unable to withstand the ardour for war in the 


‘French councils ; and this ardour was increased by the 


idea, that the period was at length arrived, so long de- 
sired by France, for breaking the power of the house 
of Austria, and exalting that of Bourbon on its ruins. 
A with the Elector of Bavaria was accordingly 
concluded, by which the King of France engaged to 
assist him with his whole force, on condition that, if 
he succeeded in his projects, he would renounce the 
barrier treaty, and not attempt to recover any parts of 
the empire, which France might have conquered; a 
treaty was also concluded with the King of Prussia at 
the same time, the object of which was the total dis- 
memberment of the possessions of the house of Austria. 
The Elector of Bavaria was appointed lieutenant ge« 
neral of the French armies, with the Marshals Belleisle 
and Broglio to act under him, Louis XV. at the same 
time, issued a hostile declaration against the King of 
Great Britain, in his character of Elector of Hanover. 
The Elector of Bavaria was very rapid in his pro~ 
gress. Having entered Upper Austria, hetook possession 
of Lintz, and sent his detachments to the neighbour- 
hood of Vienna itself. In this extremity, Maria The- 
resa roused the Hungarians in her behalf; their nobi- 
lity were instantly in arms ; and the Elector of Bava. 
ria, threatened by the forces which Maria Theresa had’ 
collected, and finding the season of the year adverse to 
farther proceedings, gave up the plan of investing 
Vienna, and marched into Bohemia, where, being join- 
ed by 20,000 Saxons, he laid siege to Prague. After 
the reduction of this place, he was, on the 4th Janua 
1742; elected Em 
Here, however, his good fortune terminated : the Prus- 
sians and Saxons having been unsuccessful, were obli- 
ged to retreat, and the Austrians seized this opportuni- 
ty of attempting to unite their whole force against the 


By virtue War of the ; 
of this sanction, the succession to the whole Austrian Pragmatic 


r, under the name of Charles VII. A. D. 1742. 


Listers. 


Siege of 


TAgUC, 
A. D. 1742. 


-neral fo 


614 


French, under Marshals Belleisle and Broglio. The 
King of Prussia, fortunately for the French, prevented 
their junction ; but this monarch soon afterwards sus- 
pecting the sincerity of his ally, the King of France, 
concluded a separate treaty at Breslaw. This unex- 
pected and alarming intelligence was followed by dis- 
astrous wences; for Marshals Broglio and Belle- 
isle, by superior forces, were reduced to the 
humiliating peeey, of offering to evacuate all the 
places which they held in Bohemia, provided they were 
pent to retire with jane, —_ epson ps a 
e. This proposal was tily rejected by 
oy of ears ; and Marshal Mail Bashy who com- 
manded the French forces on the Rhine, was ordered 
to march into Bohemia, at the head of 42,000 men. In 
Weems, he was joined by $0,000 French and Im- 
ialists. In the mean time, Marshal Belleisle, who 
find assumed the command in Prague, was closely press- 
ed by the Prince of Lorraine. The latter, on learning the 
approach of Marshal Maillebois, turned the siege into 
a blockade, and advanced with the main body of his 
army towards the frontiers of the kingdom, in order to 
oppose the French. He was soon afterwards joined, by a 
1 Austrian army, and in the mean time Marshals 
Belleisle and Broglio formed the design of uniting with 
Maillebois. Prince Charles, however, by taking 
session of the passes in the mountains, utterly defeated 
this scheme ; and Maillebois was obliged to return to 
the Palatinate, whither he was followed by the Prince 
of Lorraine ; while the Austrian army, under Lobkouitz, 
obliged Belleisle and Broglio again to take refuge in 


ue, 
Soon afterwards, Brogiio baring escaped from this ci 
in disguise, took upon him the command of the Fren 
army in the Palatinate ; so that the fate of Prague, to- 
wards which the attention of all Europe was now direct- 
ed, depended solely upon the conduct and courage of 
Belleisle, and the smail remains of that gallant army, 
which had given an Emperor to Germany. Now it was 
that the powers and resources of Belleisle’s mind were 
made manifest ; having formed the plan of his retreat, 
by making in one quarter of the town a feint for a ge- 
, and marching out at another, he succeed- 
ed in eluding the besiegers, and in reaching the defiles 
with an unbroken army. In this march he had ten 
leagues to pass over; the ground was covered with 
snow ; the cold intensely severe; all the inhabitants 
were his enemies: and as soon as his flight was known, 
Prince Lobkowitz with 12,000 infantry, aud 8000 ca- 
valry, hung on his rear. After a fatiguing march of 
twelve days, he reached Egra, and entered Alsace with- 
out the loss of a single man from the enemy, though a 
thousand had perished in consequence of the rigour of 
the season. 

In 1743, the Queen of Hungary being victorious in 
Germany, and in sion of the territories of the 
Emperor Charles VII. the French became heartily tired 
of a war, in which they had suffered so severely, and 
made proposals of peace, on rather humiliating condi- 
tions, though Cardinal Fleury no longer influenced the 
cabinet of Versailles: he had died in the beginning of 
this year. But the Queen of Hungary rejected all pa- 
cific overtures ; and Louis made preparations for carry- 
ing on the war with increased vigour and effect. Af- 
fairs, however, were still gloomy: the French were 
driven from all their positions in the Upper Palatinate ; 
and Marshal Broglio was obliged to abandon a strong 
camp on the Danube, and to retire towards the Rhine. 
When he reached Donawert, he was joined by 12,000 


FRANCE. 


men under Count Saxe; but his main body being near- 
ly ruined, he still continued his retreat. About this 
time, the battle of — was fought between the 
French and the English; for an account of which, see 
the article Barratn. st " 
On the 25th of October in this year, a family com- Pamily 
pact, or perpetual alliance, was formed between France compact 
and Spain at Fontainebleau ; in consequence of which oxy 
the irals of their combined fleet, in the harbour of g,,:n 
Toulon, resolved to give battle to that of England, by 4. p.'17 
which they had been blocked up. The "particulars of 
this t are given in the article Brirain, Hi- 
war, 


therto France and England, ( engaged 
in hostilities, had 5 oe 

These, however, were put forth towards the end of 
March 1744. For the i of this war, we shall 
refer our readers to article Brirarn; and in this 


place confine ourselves to the ions of France 
against Austria and Sardinia. About the beginning Operations 
of April, the French and Spaniards formed of France © 


of penetrating into the Duchy of Milan, through the 98*"*" 
Genoese territories; but the republic not daring, in g.cinia, 
consequence of the threats of Admiral’ Matthews, to 4. p, 17 
allow this the French and Spaniards defiled off 
towards Piedmont, and attacked a strong post, where 

the King of Sardinia commanded in person. This — 

they carried; i uence of which, the King of Sar« 

dinia drew off in order to cover his capital. 

In the nes nome eeasiedeinion invested Coni, the 
possession of which wou ve opened them a passage 

into Milan. The King of Sardinia, on learning. this, 
having been -reinfi by 10,000 Austrians, resolved 

to attempt the relief of the He accordingly at- 
tacked the French and Spaniards in their entrench- 
ments; but, after an obstinate he was com< 

pelled to retire, not, however, before he had reinforeed 

the garrison of Coni, and supplied it with provisions. 


As the winter was now approaching, the 
raised the siege, r the mountains, evacuated 
Piedmont, and entered Dauphiné. ‘ 


In the beginning of November, a treaty was cone» 
cluded at Frankfort, through the influence of France, 
between the Emperor and King of Prussia, the Ki 
of Sweden, and the Elector Palatine, the declan 


obliging the Queen of H _to acknowledge 

Charles VII. The King of Pressing however, by 

a se aurocanent, Wat nheiee ge Se eneeaeee 

till he should see France act. with vigour. In conse- ' 

quence of this agreement, Louis put himself at the Louis in- 

head of his army in Flanders, consisting of 120,000 

men, and invested Menin, which surrendered in seven 

days ; several other places were reduced with equal fa- 

cility ; while the allied army, amounting only to. 70,000 _ 

men, were behind the Scheldt. But Louis was 

soon obliged to leave the scene of his triumphs, to go 

and defend his own kingdom ; for Prince Charles of . 

Lorraine having passed the Rhine, entered Alsace with ; 

an army of 60,000 Austrians. Against him, the ki 
i first the Duke of Noailles, and afterwards . 

marched himself ; leaving Marshal Saxe, ne aoe ¥ 

the troops, to oppose the allies in Flanders. is gee , 

neral, though now inferior to them, yet, by his con- i 

summate abilities, prevented them.from gaining any ( 

advantages during the remainder of the campaign. 
Before Pe Prince of honnen could atchieve por 

operst ion of importance, having. got information tha 

the King of Prussia had entered Bohemia, he judged it 


History. 
—— 


' concluded a peace with the Queen of Hungary 


The French 
obstinately 
continue 


FRANCE, 


prudent to repass the Rhine; after which, Louis laid 
iege to Fribourg, and the reduction of this place ter- 
minated the campaign on the side of Alsace. 

In 1745, Charles VII. died; and his son being too 
young to become a candidate for the Imperial ve 
treaty, it was expected, would lead to a general pacifi- 
GREE, 0 thereainie’ of var ii Getusly io Vp edd 
ed; but the Marquis D’Argenson, the French minister, 
who had great influence in the cabinet, declared that 
France, having undertaken to fork head to the Ger- 
manic body, ought to hazard the last soldier, in su 

of what she claimed, and had declared she w 
. The cabinet of Versailles therefore offered the Im- 
ial throne to the King of Poland ; but he refused it. 
French were still obstinate ; and as they could 


the war, |, find no candidate of their own, they determined to 


continue the war, in order to™ ent the election of 
the husband of Maria Theresa. The republic of Genoa, 
which had been long wavering in its politics, now con- 
cluded a treat with the House Bourbon, which 
turned out fatal to the interests of the Queen of Hun- 
gary and the King of Sardinia. The latter was obliged 
to retire, by the conjoint fa of the French, Spa- 
niards, and Neapolitans, beyond the Tanaro; the city 
of Pavia was taken by assault, and Milan itself forced 
to surrender. Turin was next th ; but the con- 
federates, contented with their su ann osed the cam- 
i a triumphant entry into Milan, 
Paauhng the avowed object of Louis was to ent 
the election of the Grand Duke, yet he had also in view 
the con of Flanders... In r to carry into execu- 
tion these plans at once, he assembled two great 
armies; one on the Maine under the Prince of Conti, and 
another under Count Saxe, which invested Tournay. As 
the relief of this place was of, 


consisting of the Austrians, Dutch, overians, and: 
British, thou hninferior to the French, resolved to 
its relief. i rise to the battle of Fon ; for 


an account of which, see Brirarn. After this battle, while 
the allies were entrenched between Antwerp and Brus- 
sels, Marshal Saxe and Count Lauendalil reduced Tour- 
nay, Oudenarde, Ath, Dendermond, Ghent, Ostend, 
and every other fortified place in Austrian Flanders, 
But though thus successful in this obj Louis was 
less fortunate in the other object of the war ; for he was 
not able to ent the Queen of Hungary from raising 
her husband to the Imperial throne. ‘ 

By the treaty of Dresden, the King of Prussia was 
detached from the house of Bourbon; i i 
which, the King of France was determined to push his 
conquests in the Netherlands, while the King of Great 
Britain, enraged at Louis for supporting the er, 
was resolved to oppose his projects. Louis 

the campaign with his usual vigour. Mar- 

shal Saxe took Brussels in the beginning of F 
1746. In April, the King joined his army, now 120,000 
; Antwerp was ~: She n debelttgggony, 


est in , held out only afew weeks ; an f 


by the 10th of July, Louis was master of Flanders, | 


Brabant, and Hainault. The confederates hitherto 
not able to m+ mae French, now mustered 87,000 
— - Charles of Lorraine ; and with this 
force took up a strong position in the neighbour- 
hood of Namur, as they conceived this place would be 
next invested. Marshal Saxe, after itring their 
situation, did not deem it prudent to attack it ; in 


erder to-attain his object by other means,-he reduced | 


con ence, theallies,: 


came to nothing, however, as the 


615 


Dinant, and thus obtained the command of the naviga- 
tion of the Maese above Namur, while a large maga- 
zine of the confederates was captured at Huy. The 
communication being now cut off with Maestricht, 
Prince Charles, from a scarcity of provisions, was obli- 
ged to quit his post, and leave Namur to its fate. The 
garrison was numerous, and the place well defended ; 
yet, on the 6th day, the town was compelled to sur- 
render, and the citadel on the 16th. Marshal Saxe, 
who never lost 2 moment’s time, immediately after this 
passed the river Jaar, at the head of the whole French’ 
army, and attacked the allies in the villages of Leirs, 
Warem, and Roucoux, at the same time, by 55 batta- 
lions in brigad 
ther advanced ; so that the allies, wearied out, and, by 
some unaccountable neglect, destitute of artillery, were 
obliged to abandon the villages, and retreat towards 


Maestricht. The French, however, had suffered so- 


much, that they did not attempt to pursue them. This 
battle was not attended wi 


term . 

As soon as Louis learnt the defection of the King of 
Prussia, he made, without consulting the court of Ma- 
drid, such advantageous proposals to the King of Sar- 
dinia, that they were instantly accepted, and a cessa- 
tion of hostilities took — ; but the jealousy and in- 
dignation of the Spanish Monarch were so great, that 
the treaty was annulled. The consequence, however, 
was injurious to France, as, from the misunderstand- 
ing, the French and Spanish armies for some time ef- 


fected nothing. The king of Sardinia, on the breaking - 


off the , made himself master of Asti, which was 


es. As soon as one was repulsed, ano-* 


any vor hg conse- 
quences: with it, the operations in the Low Countries: 


History. 


y 5000 French troops. This circumstance Jealousy 
tended still more to foment the jealousy between France between 


and Spain, the French gner bein 
ery in’not succouring this place. The Spaniards im- 
mediately raised the siege of Milan, and the French, 


afraid that their communication ‘with Provence might” 


be cut off, retired to Novi. This misunderstanding and 


jealousy being at last removed, the French and Spa- 
nish armies again united, and attacked the yr pt 


camp at St Lazaro ; but they were compelled to retire, - 


after suffering a very severe loss. : 

On the death of king of Spain, the generals of 
the combined armies, doubtful in what manner his 
suceessor would act, were desirous of securing a com- 
munication with France, and accordingly commenced 


a retreat, which was conducted with great ability by « 


the Count de Maillebois, son of the Marshal of that 


name, The King of Sardinia pursued, and endeavour- - 


ed to harass them: at Rotto Fredo he brought them’ to 

battle, and defeating them, Placentia was obliged to 

surrender. The French and Spaniards next took shel- 

ter under the cannon of Genoa; but not deeming this 

situation secure, they left the city to its fate, and re« 

ae. the latter into Provence, and the former into 
voy. 


victorious Austrians aside from Italy, uaded 


France and 
accused of treach- Benin, 


‘oy 
The King of Sardinia being desirous of turning the jnyasion of 


, France by 


in conjunction with the British cabinet, ‘to invade the, Aus- 
France. Count Brunn, who commanded the Austri- &™"- 


ans, accordingly invaded Provence ; but, by the mas- 
terly conduct of Marshal Belleisle, he was under the 
necessity of yeas the Var. Towards’ the end of 
this year, the King of France discovered some wish to 
make peace, and a congress was at Breda; it 

were exorbi- 
4s 


616 


Hisery. tant, and even insolent, in their demands. After the 
—\—" rupture of this negociation, the States General agreed 
Immense to white with Britain and Austria in opposing the am- 
peepare- —bitious projects af Louis: they were to f 40,000, 
Cae & the King of Great Britain an equal number, and Maria 
as Theresa 60,000, all of which were to act in the Nether- 

7 lands, Another army of 90,000 Austrians and Pied- 
montese, under the King of Sardinia; was to enter Pro- 
vence. To oppose the first army, Louis assembled 
150,000 men in the Netherlands, over whom was 
ced Marshal Saxe, with the title of Mareschal de Cam 
Generale. The Spanish army in Savoy was greatly 
augmented, and 60,000 French troops were stationed 
in Provence. 

The grand army of the confederates took the field in 
March 1747; but it lay inactive for six weeks, exposed 
to the inclemency of the weather; while Marshal Saxe’s 
army was within their cantonements at Bruges, Ant- 
werp, and Brussels, furnished with plenty of provi- 
sions, and unfatigued. In May, the, King of France 
arrived at Brussels, and resolved to besiege Maestricht. 
The allies being’extremel y desirous to preserve this city, 
the battle of Val, fought on the Ist of July, was the 
consequence, in which, after various turns of fortune, 
the Duke of Cumberland, who commanded the allies, 
was obliged to quit the field, and retire to Maestricht. 
Marshal Saxe immediately dispatched Count Lauen- 
dahl with 30,000 men to invest Be: Zoom, the 
strongest fortification in Dutch Brabant. It was taken 
by storm on the 14th of September, and the French 
thus rendered masters of the whole navigation of the 
Scheldt. 

The French were equally active on the side of Italy; 
for Marshal Belleisle having the Var, took pas- 
session of Nice, and reduced the fortresses of Montal- 
ban, Villa Franca, and Ventimiglia. While, however, 
the French were thus successful in this part of Italy, a 
powerful army of Austrians and Piedmontese invest- 
ed Genoa, and probably would have succeeded in their 
enterprise, had they not been alarmed at the rapid pro- 
gress of Marshal Belleisle, which induced them to raise 
the siege, in order to cover Piedmont and Lombardy. 
The apprehensions of the King of Sardinia respecting 
Piedmont, were by no means groundless; for the Count 
Belleisle, brother to the Marshal, endeavoured to pe- 
netrate into it by the route of Dauphiné. He was, 
however, killed in attempting to force the pass. of 
Exilles; and his army having been repeatedly repul- 
sed, was ap pa to retire with considerable loss. As 
soon as the Marshal was informed of this misfortune, 
he deemed it prudent to retreat towards the Var. 

In her naval transactions of this year, France was 


who is suc- 
cessful in 
the Low 
Countries, 
A. D, 1747. 


Naval 
transac. 
tons, 

A. D. 1747. 


me 
Congress at ning of 1748. Marshal Saxe was not, however, in the 


—_—_ mean time idle: he invested Maestricht; and thou 
I D. 1748. the state of the siege was unfavourable to the French 
when the intelli arrived of the signing of the pre- 


liminaries, yet it was agreed, “that, for the glory of 


FRANCE. 


gh protect Hanover; but, attempting in vain to obstruct 


the arms of his Most Christian Majesty, the place should _ History. 
be immediately surrendered to his general, but restored 

on the conclusion of peace.” On the 7th of October Treaty of 
the definitive treaty was signed, and hostilities ceased peace. 

in all quarters, — 

France, now freed from external war, was threaten- Disputes 
ed with civil commotion, in consequence of religious between 
disputes between the Jesuits and the Jansenists. These ):° per 
disputes had existed in the latter end of the reign of jjament. 
Louis XIV, when the bull Unigenitus, i Hi the 
opinions of the Jansenists were condemned, threw all 

rance into the most violent commotion, The death 
of Lonis XIV. however, put an end to the dispute ; 
and as the Duke of Orleans would not allow the bull 
to be sated into effect, ey BS yaw tne 
In 1750, the disputes again broke out ; the parliament A. D. 17 
and the naan wale intenical to the bull; the Arch- 
bishop of Paris endeavoured to enforce it, and Louis 
XV. at prohibited the interposition of the Par- 4 
liament. ‘This body was not disposed to submit quiet- : 
ly, and the King at last banished the refractory : 
bers to different of the kingdom. In 1754, how- a. p. 175k, 
ever, he found it absolutely necessary to recal them ; 3 
and the Archbishop of Paris, and two bishops, were 
in their turn banished. A tem calm was thus 
produced ; but the dispute ing the bull did. not 
subside, and ing at le referred it to the 
The decision Holiness, that the bull ought to 
acknowledged “ an universal yes so x cape 
liament, that t suppressed Pope’s bri an 
arret, This redewed the difference between them and 
their sovereign, who, in 1756, went to the Parliament a. p. 17 
with all his guards, and suppressed the 4th and 5th 
Chambers of Inquest. Upon this, 15 councillors of the 
Great Chamber, oat 124 members of toed oa 
resigned ; and the King was again u necessity 
afterw: e Jesuits were expelled, chiefly by 
authority and influence of the Parliament, the members 
of which, elated at this victory over ecclesiastical ty- 
ranny, next attempted to set bounds to the absolute 
power of the crown. We have brought the history of 
these ecclesiastical disputes down beyond the —— 
which we broke off from the political history, be- 
cause it is thus rendered connected and complete, and 
because in it we may clearly trace the germ of those 
causes which afterwards uced the Revolution. 

Almost immediately after the establishment of peace Ambi 
by the treaty of Aix-la~Chapelle, France began to dis- projects 


PT: 2 


mem- ¢ 


the Electorate of Hanover; in consequence of which, 
Great Britain united herself with the King of Prussia, 
while France formed an alliance with the imperial court 
of Russia and Sweden. One of the first attempts of 
the French was the conquest of Minorea, which, not 
being relieved by Admiral Byng, they succeeded in re- 
ducing. In 1757; a French army of 80,000 men pass- 
ed the Rhine, in —_ to — ae Ha- 
nover ; whilea smaller French force joined the imperial 
army on the Maine. The Duke of Cumberland was in- 
vested with the command of the troops which were to 


Invades | 
- 
A. DIT 


the of the enemy, he was to retire be- 
hind the Weser ; and afterwards, on 8th of 
tember, to sign the convention of Closter-Seven. 

1 


sm hn - 7 


FRANCE. 


the Frenck ral had thus gained possession 
wie ‘ f, Ati he formed a junction with 


advanced against them, fought the battle of Ros- 
bach on the 5th of November 1757, in which he gained 


the Rhine. In 1758, 

eisle was at the head of the mi- 
ent in France; and the ministers, who 
h female influence, 


the Duke of 


had obtained their situations 


His first was to the army on the 
Rhine; but, notwithstanding this, it was defeated at 
Crevelt by Prince Ferdi and obliged to retire un- 
der the cannon of Cologne. In this battle, the son of 


man of great 
promise, and whose fate was equally lamented by his 
enemies and his own countrymen. Further reinforce- 
ments being sent to the French army, and M. de Coy- 
tades having assumed the command, Prince Ferdinand 
wa obliged Yo act onthe defensive a some time: he 
joined the British f put his army 

into winter quarters towards the October. - 
The nayal affairs in 1758 belong more properly to 

the History of Britain: nevertheless, it may be pr 
very briefly to notice them here. To French ships af 
the line were driven on the coast of Spain by Admiral 
Osborne. The same fate attended a fleet that was 
bound for North America. But the success of Britain 


country to expect, and of the latter to dread ; for an 
br nye Sse pr grok SEX , and from 
which great expectations were |, to the coast of 

by no means produced the triumph to Britain, 
or the loss and Sg Pe gh pe Pilar: Reda 
anticipated, indeed, was taken, and the 
fartiGeations. demolished ; but, fr uence of the 
accumulating force which the French collected, it was 


then « welder it 
In America, where the war may be said to have ori- 


Affairs in v 
caten ‘the French were unsuccessful. Louisburg 
and the - was besieged and taken ; and the whole island of Ca 
Hast Indies, Breton, as well as that of St John, submitted to 
arms of his Britannic Majesty. The French settlements 
on the river 5 the island of Goree, were al- 
so wrested from them. In the East Indies, however, 
. i i in, aren fon 
‘was more having taken possession 
ee meee and Fort St Da- 
Ss. . - 
Gears; In the beginning of 1759, the French made them- 
of 1759. selves masters, by an act of perfidy, of Frankfort-on the 
As this isition. secured to them the course 
of the Maine and the Upper Rhine, the allies resolved 


a junction, which rendered it prudent for the Prince to 
retire. Nothing now intervened to prevent-them from 
VOL, 1X; PART 11, 


617 
taking possession of Munster and Minden ; and the ac- 
queen of them exposed Hanover to great danger, 

he Prince, therefore, in order to save the electorate, 
resolved to give them battle ; and the battle of Minden 
was fought, in consequence, on the Ist of August. Al- 
though the result of this battle was, perhaps, not so sa- 
tisfactory and nape to the Prince as it might 
have been, it enabled him to defend the electorate ef- 


fectually. No other event of c uence haying taken 
a this year on the Continent o pha in which 
French were concerned, we shall now briefly notice 


History. 
—— 


the disasters that attended them in the West Indies, Disasters of 


North America, the East Indies, and by sea. In the 
West Indies, Guadaloupe was reduced, though they 
saved Martinique from the attack of the English, 


North America, the genius and gallantry of Wolf strip- Indies, and 
them of all their ions, by the vi which by sea 
gained on the heights of Abrahisr. In the East In- 


dies, General Lally was at first ayer he even at- 
tempted the siege of Madras, but he was obliged to 
abandon the catipsl The French were afterwards 
defeated with great slaughter in two en ents. B 
sea they were Faeta as usually unfortunate this a4 
for, making ions for an invasion of Britain, all 
their ports in the Channel were blocked up by Admirals 
‘Rodney and Hawke ; while Admiral Boscawen, for a 
time, succeeded in blocking. up their fleet in the har- 
bour of Toulon.. The French Ee yes + ao 
an opportunity to escape ; an sea-fight off Ca 
ip best the uence, in which the Toulon fleet 
was defeated, with the loss of four ships of the line, 
Notwithstanding these disasters, the French minister 
seemed still bent on invading England ; and the Eng. 
lish fleet having been driven off the coast of France in 
a storm, Admiral Conflans put to sea with 21 sail of the 
line and some frigates: He was met by Admiral Hawke, 
and defeated with great loss, between Belleisle and 
Spe Quiberon. ' 

n 


the French 
in America, 
the East 
Tn and West 


order to compensate for these losses, the French Campaign 
Repteton: resolved to open the campaign of 1760 in of 1760. 


‘urope with immense force ; and as the nobility and 
seconded the exertions of the government, it 

was enabled to augment the army in Westphalia, under 
Marshal Broglio, to 100,000. e allied army under 
Prince Ferdinand, though ‘less numerous, was better 
mp ay Nothing of’ importance occurred between 
till the $1st of July, when the French were de- 
feated at the battle of Warburg, and obliged to retreat 
with the loss of 3000 men. In consequence of this 
victory, Prince Ferdinand was enabled to protect Ha~ 
nover; but the dominions of the Landgrave of Hesse 
were still exposed to the French. Soon afterwards 


‘both armies went into winter quarters. Int the East 


Indies the French were stripped of nearly all their pos- 
sessions this year. 


The death of George II. led the French government. 


to hope Sst his successor might be disposed te relax in 
his e to support the continental war ; but as soon 
as they were convinced, from the liberal supplies voted 
by the British parliament for the support of the Ger. 
man confederacy, that their expectations were ill found. 
ed, they, in conjunction with the court of Vienna, pro- 

terms of peace. A congress was accordingly 
appointed. to be held. at a a Te thie continen- 
tal. powers; while the separate discussions between 
Britain and France were to take place at Paris and 
London. Notwithstanding these negociations, hostilities 
were still carried on; and, with respect to the particular 

41 


618 
dispute between France and England, it was soon evi- 
dent, that it was more likely to be extended than ad- 
justed, in consequence of the br amc which the court 

of Madrid displayed to unite with France. The 
pal scene of the French military operations was West- 
ag where at first they were successful, obliging 
vince Ferdinand to retire behind the Dymel; but that 
indefatigable general soon afterwards repulsed the united 
forces of Broglio and Soubere, and thus was enabled to 
effect his grand object, the protection of Hanover. Still, 
however, the campaign was as indecisive, with regard to 
permanent or extensive advantage on either side, as any 
of the former campaigns had been ; and it was evident, 
that such operations would exhaust the resources both of 
the French and the allies. As the British ministry felt 
their peculiar strength to consist in the command which 
they now possessed of the sea, they planned another expe- 
dition against the coast of France, which effected the re- 
duction of Belleisle. This, no doubt, was a great mors 
tification to France, but it did not induce her to weaken 
her Westphalian army ; and therefore, as a diversion in 
favour Prince Ferdinand, it totally failed, while it 
was impossible for the British to retain their conquest. 
The negociations were now again resumed ; but as the 
offers of cessions and exchanges made by the court of 
Versailles did not meet the expectations of the British 
cabinet, they were finally broken off. The cause of this 
failure was soon traced to the court of Madrid, between 
which and the court of Versailles a family compact had 
been sometime before entered into. According to this 
Spain assists compact, the Kings of France and Spain were to have 
France. common enemies and friends; so that war declared against 
one was to be regarded as war declared against both ; 
and consequently, on such an event happening, the whole 
military forces of both were to act in the most perfect 
concert. No peace was to be made except by mutual 
consent. Spain, however, was not to succour France 
when she might be involved in a war in consequence of 
her engagements by the treaty of Westphalia, or her other 
alliances in Germany or the north, unless some maritime 
power took part in those wars, or France itself were at- 
tacked... Between the accession of Spain to the cause 
of France in her war with Britain, and the peace of 
Paris, no event of im occurred, except the re- 
duction of the island of Martinico by a British arma- 

ment. 

In consequence of a change of the British ministry, 
France found that a peace was more practicable than for- 
merly, while she herself, as well as Spain, were more 
sincerely disposed towards it: negociations, therefore, 
were carried on at Fontainebleau, and on the third of 
November 1762, the preliminaries were si there. 
Peace of On the 16th of February, in the following year, the de- 
Paris, 1763. finitive treaty was signed at Paris. By this treaty France 
agreed to cede to Britain, Canada, in its utmost extent, 
with the islands of Cape Breton and St John, and all 
that part of Louisiana which lies on the side of the Mis- 
sissippi, except the town and territory of New Orleans. 
The French were itted to fish, under certain limita- 
tions, on the banks of Newfoundland: the islands of 
Martinique, Guadaloupe, St Lucie, Goree, and Bellisle, 
were restored to them ; and the French East India Com- 
pany were placed in the same situation in which they 
were at the peace of Aix-la-~Chapelle, by the restitution 
#f Pondicherry, &c.; but they were not to erect any 


Histery. 
—_—— 


FRANCE. 


forts in the Province of Bengal. France agreed to cede 
to Great Britain the forts and factories she had Jost on =" 

the river Senegal, the island of Grenada and its depen- "a 
dencies, and to give up all claim to the neutral islands of 
St Vincent, Dominica, ‘and T ; she also consented 
to destroy the harbour and’ . the fortifications of 


Dunkirk. 
for, not only were Disputes 


France had much need of repose ; é 
her finances in a very dilapidated” condition, but: dis. ree" ne 


King and 
putes between the King and the parliaments the the Paria. 
minds of all: these disputes have been dy noticed. ments, 


And as the parliaments felt their own power and import- 
agets wile: the: lag eves, aaee SS ae 


they were dissolved, ps Louis, afraid of creating still 
greater disturbances, published a general amnesty, 
wished them to resume their functions. The parliament, 
however, convinced by this that the King was intimi- 
dated, and their cause was popular, refused to accept his 
proffered clemency. The indignation of the 
now extreme ; and he ordered such of the councillors of 
the parliament of Brittany as had refused to 

their functions, to be included in the list 

were to be drafted for the militia; and such « 
drafted were actually obliged to join their regiments, 
the rest were incorpora' tn thesciey gasrdi hes 
rity of this conduct appeased the stubborn spirits: 
parliaments for some time ; but the calm was 
duration. In the midst of these convulsions, 
tended to nearly all the parliaments in France, 
phin died, in 87th year of his age; and 
of Berri, his eldest son by his second marriage wi 


iz 


t 


5 


i 


H 
8 
e 


3 
7 


& 
HE 


Josepha of Saxony, was created Dauphin in his stead. : 
As soon as .: had in some measure quieted thé Corsica n- 
parliament, he turned his attention to the acquisition of nexed to 


Corsica. This island had for some time resisted the 
ranny of Genoa, which claimed the sovereignty by righ 
of conquest: At last the Republic, unable to support 
pretensions, transferred them to France, on condition 
that Louis should put her in possession of the island of 
Capraria, which the Corsicans had lately reduced. Louis 
thought that the subjection of the Corsicans would be 
easily and speedily effected ; but he found himself much 
mistaken, as the Corsicans defended erage ty By 
intrepidity ; and two campaigns, wi 

ee ae. men, were necessary to bring them un- 
der the power of France, ~ ' 


quired the measures of a man of talents and experience ; 
whereas the Duke of Choiseul, who was minister, was 
neither, and by attempting to remedy, he actually in- 
creased the evil : he reduced, at once, the interest of the . 

public funds one half; and, as if this were not sufficient , 
to injure public credit, be took away the benefit of sur- 
vivorship in the tontines. The king at last was under 
the necessity of banishing him ; but, instead of remedying 


Bbteriage of 


the Dau- 
» phin, 


Death of 
Louis. 


His charac- 
ter. 


LouisX Vf. Was in personal danger 
A.D. LTT. poe % ~y 


FRANCE. 


the restoration of public credit and confidence, 


thority of the parliaments, Louis involved. him- 
self in disputes with them. As he had no idea of carrying 


In the midst of these disputes, which would scarcely 


sion, a dreadful nanos | sa the crowd hastening 
to be the spectators fireworks, pressed on one ano- 
ther in such a tumultuous manner, that several hundreds 
perished in the confusion. » 

As soon as Louis had freed himself from the oppo- 
sition of his parliaments ; ah ganapeingphcal page phd 
to debauchery ; but his health was not equal to the in- 
roads. made upon rece jay Wmran (patd required 
the constant stimulus of new beauty, and a succession of 
mistresses. One of these, who was infected with the 
small-pox, communicated the disorder to the king. The 
danger hourly increased ; and Louis, apprised of his ap- 
proaching dissolution, fondly hoped to atone for his past 
debaucheries, by his present penitence: He received the 
sacrament; and declared his intention, if he should sur- 
vive, of exerting himself in the cause of religion, and for 
the benefit of his subjects ; but in eight days after the first 
any he closed his reign of 59 years, and a life of 


been crushed, as 

far as he could crush it, by his tyrannical measures. He 
not seem to have been capable of any generous 
ing ;. his affections were confined within, the narrow 
its of his personal pleasures and security ; whoever 
administer the one, or accomplish the other, was 
a fayourite ; but, as soon as they ceased to be 
these they were neglected and forgot- 
the ioness of Pompadour, who had so 
his pa ay and shared his pir a 
without drawing a si igh of regret or affec- 
the breast Ba pong cain ny life, he 
and adored her ; and to the death of the Dau- 


parliaments would not have been made, though his 


a 


gt 


= 
§ 


i 


Hu 


FF 
4 
; 
: 
; 
E 
: 
: 
3 


XVI. was twenty years of age, when, in the 


619 


year 1774, he succeeded to his grandfather. One of  Historys. 


his first measures was, to remove those from office, who, 
by their errors or misconduct, had become unpopular, 
and had contributed to the distresses of the kingdom ; 
and to replace them by men of talents and honesty. He 
likewise gave t satisfaction, by suppressing the new, 
and recalling the ancient parliament of Paris, though, at 
the same time, he limited their privileges, and declared 
his intention not to submit to any power in them, which 
could possibly circumscribe his own. Scarcely were the 
members returned, however, before they displayed their 
spirit and pretensions ; but Louis, in answer te one of 
their representations, peremptorily declared that he must- 
be obeyed. 


. The state of the finances was still. such as to require Turgot at 


hese’ A . =o, .the head of 
care in their management, and in their restoration. tholinsneen: 
was placed at 4/1775. 


or this purpose, the celebrated Turgot 
their head in the year 1775. His measures, in some 
respects, were undoubtedly wise and salutary ; but, in 
other respects, he seems to have suffered speculative opis, 
nions too much to influence him. | Even his wisest plan,. 
that of rendering the internal commerce of grain, as well 
as its exportation, free and unrestricted, gave rise to se- 
rious disturbances, in uence of a scarcity of corn 


happening at the very time of his regulations. . The State of: 
tranquillity of the country, as well as of Paris, was so France 


much disturbed, that Louis found it absolutely necessary 
to have recourse to very strong measures ; and the Ma 
rechausse, a military body dependant on the. police, were. 
ordered to disperse the multitude, and to execute sum- 
mary justice on the most guilty. After the suppression 
of these disorders, Louis, in order to draw. off the minds. 
of his subjects from the unpleasant recollection of them, 
and-of the harsh.means by. which they had been quelled,. 
resolved to celebrate his coronation with great magnifi- 
cence at Rheims; and,.to- prove that the measures he. 
had Jately been compelled to adopt were not the result 
of acruel or tyrannical disposition,, he. issued an edict, 
which in future sentenced deserters to work as:slaves on 
the-public roads, instead of punishing them, as former- 
ly, with death. He also suppressed the mousquetaires, 
and reduced part of the regular army. By the former 
measure, he relieved the citizens of Paris from an im- 
petuous and overbearing body of men, the suppression 
of whom no former sovereign had ventured to effect ; 
and, by the latter measure, he gave gratifying testimony 
to the nation at large, that he was.resolyed to introduce 
the strictest econom 

Still, however, the situation of the world rendered it 
prudent for Louis to direct his thoughts to the not im- 
probable renewal of hostilities. Great Britain was at 
this time involved in serious disputes with her colonies. 
France, however disposed to remain at peace, on account 
of the state of her finances, was too interested in the 
humiliation of Britain, not to regard with. satisfaction 
the progress of a dispute, which might afford-her a fair 
opportunity of weakening her ancient rival. This would 
be best effected by being able to meet. that»rival on her 
own element. The navy of France was therefore an ob- 
ject of great interest ; and the appointment of Monsieur 
Sartine to the superintendance of the marine, did honour 
to the penetration. of Louis. He was fruitful in his-re- 
sources, and unwearied in his application; and in a short 
time, the losses of the last war were nearly supplied. 

But the finances were not so easily managed. Tur, 
not possessing the public confidence, had resigned, and .. 


France in- 
creases her 
marine, 


620 
Mistery. Neckar was soon afterwards placed at their head. In 
—— order that he might carry into fall and uncontrolled ef- 
Neckar mc- fect all his plans, the entire mi nt of the funds and 
cools Tu revenue of France was submitted to him, with the title 
a of director-general of the finances. : ; 
Voyage of The interests of science next engaged the attention of 
ducovery. Louis and his ministers. Several vessels were fitted ont 
on astronomical discoveries. The Chevalier de Borda 
was instructed to ascertain the exact position of the Ca- 
nary Islands and the Cape de Verd, and the different de- 
grees of the coast of Aftica, from Cape Spartel to the 
island ‘of Goree. The Chevalier Grenier, who had tra- 
versed the Indian ocean, for the purpose of improving 
the charts, and correcting the errors which had misled 
former navigators, was liberally rewarded. 

In proportion as the success of the Americans increased 
the probability that they would ultimately establish their 
independence, the French cabinet, as well as the French 
nobility, were desirous of uniting with them, and thus 
contributing to the humiliation of Britain. But the for- 
mer concealed their wishes and their resolutions, and even 
restrained the ardour of the latter, till a proper opportu- 
nity offered itself of openly taking part with the Ameri- 
cans. As soon as the measures of Great Britain had 
roused the people of her colonies to the daring resolution 
of rising against their mother country, Silas Deane and 
Dr Franklin were sent to Paris. Here they exerted se- 
cretly their influence with the leading men in the French 
cabinet ; and though, in a public capacity, they were not 
admitted to an audience, yet they received sufficient en- 
couragement to hope, that, before long, their country 
would be assisted by the arms of France. In the mean 
time, the American privateers were allowed to refit in 
the French ports, and even to bring their prizes into 
them. Warlike stores were sold or given to the colo- 
nists ; French officers and engineers, with the connivance 
of government, entered into their service ; and the Mar- 
quis de la Fayette, a young nobleman of affluent for- 
tune and high birth, sailed for America, where he was 
received with open arms, and appointed to a principal 
command. These circumstances naturally excited the 
suspicions of the British court ; but, as nothing was done 
openly, they had no sufficient ground for remonstrating, 
till warlike preparations were carried on in such an undis- 
guised manner, and to such an extent, as could leave no 
doubt that France was on the eve of hostilities with some 
power. Upon this, the English ambassador at Paris 
closely questioned the French minister, who replied, that 
when the seas were covered with English and American 
ships of war, and when large armies were sent to the 
New World, it became prudent for France to arm for the 
defence of her colonies, and the protection of her com- 
merce. The outward forms and the language of neutra- 
lity, were, however, preserved, till the capture of Gene- 
ral Burgoyne and his army, when they were at once dis- 
missed from the French. cabinet, and the independence 
of the United States of America was openly acknow- 
ledged. Silas Deane and Dr Franklin were received as 
public ambassadors, and a treaty of amity and commerce 
was signed in the month of February 1778. The recal 
of the English ambassador from Paris was the signal for 
the commencement of hostilities. The details of this 
war between Britain and France having been already 
given in our article Brrrarn, we shall confine ourselves 
to the domestic transactions of France. 

Monsieur Neckar still continued at the head of the 


France fa- 
vours the 
revolution 
in America, 


Treaty of 
amity and 
commerce 


States, 
A. D. 1778. 


FRANCE. : 


finances, and endeavoured to render the pressure of the 
war as light as possible, by plans of economy and re+ 
trenchment; a variety of essary uffiews in the house- 
hold of the King and Queen were abolished, and other 
important regulations adopted for the benefit of the king< 
dom. At the same time, the diplomatic ‘skill, experi< 
ence, and intrigues, of the different Frerich ambassadors 
at the courts of Europe, were successfully’ exercised in 
rousing them, either directly or’ indirectly} ‘to take ad- 
vantage of the present circumstances, and crush, or at 
least weaken, the naval power of Britain. As ‘a long 
and intimate connection had subsisted between'thecourts 
of Petersburgh and London, the French ambassador at 
the former was instructed to conciliate the inclinations of 
the Empress ; and he conducted himself with so much 
adroitness, as to be very instrumental in ding her 
to place herself at the head of the Northern Confederacy. 
In answer to the declaration which she addressed to’ the 
courts of Madrid, Paris, and London, on the subject of 
neutral rights, the King of France declared, that what 
her Imperial Majesty claimed from the belligerent powers 
bai corresponded with the pha a yrs to the 
French navy; and as he was convinced solid advantages 
would undoubtedly result, not only to her subjects, but 
also to all nations, she might depend that he would ad« 
here to his ustal practice, and comply with her wishes. 
Towards the close of the year 1780, Monsieur Sartine’, p, 1 
was removed from the marine department, which he had 
superintended for five years. His Bee and leading ob« 
ject had been, during the whole of this time, to place 
the French navy upon the most extensive and efficient 
footing; and he had succeeded in raising her naval power 
to an unprecedented height; but his measures for this 
purpose necessarily required the expenditure of very large 
sums of money, at a time when the state of the finances 
loudly called for economy and retrenchment. Hence his 
measures and wishes were at variance with those of the 
comptroller-general of the finances; and his removal was 
the consequence. He was succeeded by the Marquis de 
Castries. el 
The disposition of Louis, naturally humane, was most Humane 
honourably displayed this year, by the abolition of the ee 
practice of putting the question by torture ; and his desire " or 
to relieve his subjects as much as possible from the pres- Louis. 
sure of the taxes, was evinced by the further diminu- 
tion of his own expenditure, and by his dismissing at 
once 406 officers belonging to his court. In this ad« 
herence to a system of economy so unusual in the soves 
reigns of France, Louis was undoubtedly strengthen- : 
ed by the advice, and perhaps the remonstrances, of 
Neckar. This minister continued to be uncommonly ¢,sacter 
active and faithful in the discharge of the duties of his of Neckar. 
important and arduous situation; but he was rather a - 
man of detail than of general principles or comprehen« 
sive mind ; and he did not always perceive the necessi- 
ty or advantage of accommodating his plans, in some | 
degree, to the habits and prejudices of the French na- 
tion. He conceived the impracticable idea of maintain- 
ing the war by loans, without additional taxes ; not re« 
flecting that loans cannot be raised in any country, in 
which there is not only a great superabundanee of capi- 
tal, but also the most implicit confidence in the’ faith of 
vernment. Unfortunately for his scheme, capital was 
far from being abundant in Yrarit,' and the measures of 
former sovereigns, as well as the nature of the govern« 
ment, were by no means calculated to inspire dence. 


a 


A. D. 1781. 


es 


id 


Peace of - 


FRANCE. 


There were besides other causes, which shook the popu- 
larity of Neckar; his temper was austere and unaccom- 
modating; the reforms and retrenchments which he had 
introduced into the various departments of the royal 
household, were represented as to the digni- 
ty and splendour of the crown; and his foreign birth 


‘and mercantile education and habits, increased the jea~ 


lousy and dislike created by his temper and plans of 
economy. The King for some time endeavoured to op- 
pose his favour and countenance to the intrigues that 
adieehtaalb ied tontanetnes towards the 
close of 1781, he was dismissed from his office of comp- 
troller-g and Monsieur de Joli Fleury succeeded 
him. The people at large beheld this change with re- 
gret, which was by no means diminished when the new 
comptrol! reverted to the old plan of raising 
taxes.’ It was, however, soon ascertained, that the bur- 
dens of the nation could not be much more augmented ; 
anid the ministry, in order to multiply the resources of 
government, without pushing taxation toa ex- 
tent, endeavoured to kindle in Paris, and throughout 
the provinces, such a degree of enthusiasm as would pro- 
duce voluntary contributions towards carrying on the 
war. Their efforts were seconded by the consternation 
and feeling of humiliated pride, which the defeat of 
Count de Grasse produced t the kingdom ; and 
several states displayed their zeal in building and fitting 
out ships of war, to repair the loss which had been oc- 
casioned by this defeat. The clergy also’ came forward 
at this time, with a free gift of 15,000,000 of livres to- 
wards the exigencies of the state ; and also offered 
another million to be applied to the support of wounded 
Seamen, and of the widows and orphans of those who 
had been killed in the various naval en ents. 
About this period, the attention of the French minis- 
try was directed to the commotions that agitated the re- 
public of Geneva. These commotions arose from the 
agistrates and senate having increased their own au- 
ity, and diminished the privi of the people: 


pri 
the latter were still farther irri by the additional 


called for the 
interference of foreign powers. The King of France, as 

tok repiabhie, cousbetuih, "wh the King of 
Sern td the ania of Zr Be, wh 
measures as thought would restore tranquillity to it; 
and in order to give weight to these measures, an army 


France, thus 


dependence on that power, 


621 


Christopher’s, Nevis, and Montserrat. In Africa, she 
acquired the full sovereignty of the forts on the Senegal, 
and regained Goree; while she to Britain, 
Fort St James’s, and the river bia. In the East 
Indies, all that she had lost was restored, and some ad- 
ditions were made to her former possessions. But the 
most gratifying article of this treaty to the national 
glory of France, was, that the fortifications of Dunkirk 
were no longer to be forbidden,—the stipulations exact« 
ed from Louis XIV. and XV. respecting them being fore 
mally abolished by the peace of Paris. 

The joy created in France by the termination of a 
war, in which she had been so eminently successful in 
weakening Great Britain, was not of long duration. The 
state of her finances grew daily worse. Three different 
successors of Monsieur Neckar had in vain attempted to 
remedy or palliate the evil ; public credit, as weil as the 
public resources, were too nearly exhausted to be re- 
vived. Government refused, or delayed the payment of 
the bills drawn upon them by their army in America ; 
and nearly at the same time the Caisse d’Escompté stopt 
payment. This last circumstance created general and 
excessive alarm. Their notes having been hitherto always 
convertible into specie at the option of the holders, had 
circulated very widely ; and as they were not out to indi- 
viduals at this period to a larger amount than usual, or 
than their known capital authorised, the suspicion was 
created that they had, to the prejudice of the holders of 
their notes, and to their own interest, as well 
as that of the public at large, accommodated govern« 
ment with the specie, which ought to have been exclu« 
sively devoted to the payment of their notes. It now 
became absolutely necessary for government to interfere, 
in order, by supporting this bank, to restore the confi« 
dence of the public in it. Four edicts, therefore, were 
issued with this view: by these, the banks of Paris were 
ordered to receive the notes of the Caisse d’Escompté as 
currency ; and a lottery, with a stock of one million 
sterling, was established, redeemable in eight years, the 
tickets for which might be purchased in the depreciated 
notes. At the same time, government having procured 
money, paid their American bills. Public credit was 
thus restored ; and the stock of the Caisse d’Escompté 
rose considerably above its original subscription. 

The comparison between the measures adopted in 
England, when its national bank declared their inability 
to pay in cash, and those adopted in France on the pres 
oat oceasion, cannot fail to strike the reader. In the 

‘ormer country, all that was absolutely necessary for the 
support of the bank was accomplished by individuals ; 
in the latter, it was the exclusive work of the govern« 
ment. In the former country, a tem alarm had 
shaken public credit; but the wealth and real confidence 
of the nation. remaining the same, as soon as that alarm 
subsided, public credit was again placed on as solid a 
foundation as before: whereas, in France, the shock 


-given to public credit arose from permanent causes, 


and the measures adopted only palliated, or put off the 
evil. 


The state of the finances of France, thus artificially 
kept from falling into utter ruin, absolutely required the 
most rigid and systematic economy : i , no other 
Ricesit Sada restore them even to temporary strength ; 
and yet, not began, the forces not reduced, but all 
the deficiencies in the diffe regiments were made 
good. At this period, there could exist no alarm or pro- 


History. 


Husery. 
—_—_— 


Franee in- 
terferes in 
the affairs 
of Helland. 


Alliance be. 


tween the 
two coun- 
tries. 


622 


bability of renewed hostilities, though, shortly afterwards, 
the disputes between the Emperor and the United Pro- 
vinces, respecting the barriers and strong towns in the 
Netherlands, excited the attention and jealousy of France. 
Before the late war, a French faction had scarcely ex- 
isted, or, at least, had not been powerful in Hi ; 
but that event, by detaching Great Britain from the 
United Provinces, had opened up an opportunity for 
such a faction to establish itself at the head. This fac- 
tion consisted of the hereditary enemies of the Orange 
family ; so that in Holland, as in America, the despotic 
government of France united itself with republicans, As 
soon as the Emperor extended his ions to the na- 
vigation of the Scheldt, the Dutch implored the media- 
tion of the King of France, their late hostility with Bri- 
tain having deprived them of any claim for protection or 
mediation from that power.. At this time, there were 
two ies at the court of Versailles, at the head of 
which were the Count de Vergennes and the Marshal de 
Castries ; the former, the favourite of Louis, was, like 
him, mild, humane, and a strong friend to peace ; the 
latter, supported by the Queen, was, like her, bold, in+ 
triguing, and enterprising, and the strong advocate for 
war. As the mediation of France had no influence with 
the Emperor, and the Dutch saw themselves threatened 
with hostilities, in consequence of having opposed his 
designs on the Scheldt, they applied to Louis for a ge- 
neral to head their armies ; and. the Count de Millebois 
was sent to them. Count de Vergennes, hitherto, had 
epposed any hostile or violent. measures; but, at this 
juncture, in consequence of the encroaching ions 
of the Emperor, he expostulated with the court of Vienna 
in more free and direct lan e. At the same time, 
the armies of France Bek yo degrees. to the borders 
of Alsace, Lorraine, and the Low Countries; and orders 
were given to form a camp at Lans of 80,000 men. The 
Queen of France, though ambitious and warlike, by no 
means approved of these indications of hostile measures 
against her brother the Emperor ; and therefore endea- 
voured to bring back the mind of the Count de Vergennes 
to its habitual feeling of moderation and love of peace; 
but the Count, though sensible of the state of the finances 
of France, and therefore desirous, if possible, of avert- 
ing hostilities, could not brook the idea, that the honour 
or interests of his country should be sacrificed; and, on 
the morning when a grand council was to be held, the 
result of which was to be conclusive with regard to the 
part France should take, and the Queen desired he would 
noton that day forget that the Emperor was her brother, 
he replied, that he certainly would not forget, but he must 
also remember that the King of France was her husband, 
and the Dauphin her son. Soni afterwards, the Emperor 
accommodated his differences with Holland, through the 
mediation of France, and thus the military preparations 
of the latter were rendered unn z 
The influence of France at the Hague, was thus con- 

siderably strengthened ; and the Count de Vergennes did 
not fail to make use of it for the advantages of his coun- 
try, by forming a new treaty of alliance. By this tre 

in case Holland was en in war, France was to-fur- 
nish her with 10,000 infantry, 2000 cavalry, 12 sbi 
of the live, and six frigates ; and, in the event of a ma- 
ritime war, or, in other, words, in case. and 
France should recommence hostilities, the United Pro- 
vinces engaged, themselves to furnish six ships of the 
line, and frigates. If France were attacked by 


FRANCE. 


of C 


Jand, they were either to furnish 5000 infantry and 1000 . 


cavalry, or a proportionate sum of money. ey 

The internal condition of France was every day be- Calonne 
coming more alarming. i ; WAS. NOW the head 
at the head of her finances. He ; displayed ad- the 
dress and talents in the measures le SI for 
the re-establishment of the Caisse d’Es - He also 


established the Caisse D’Amortissement, or sinking fund, 
the plan of which was recommended. by, its simplicity, 
Accarding to it, government were to pay ally into 
the hands of commissioners, the entire interest of the 
tional debt, together with an additional sum of L,120,000 
sterling. By this, it was estimated that annuities to the 
amount of L.50,000 would: be annually. extingui 


and in that proportion the sum ockepertiee eptindes | 


tion of the national debt would be increased. In 
om 
this sum, the annual receipt of the Cai 


its income, it would be impossible to raise the additions 
al annual sum requisite for the establishment and ope- 
ration of a sinking fund. The object of the financie 

of France ought to have been ively to relieve the 
existing difficulties, and not by any means to have exe 
tended their views and plans to a remote generation. 
There were besides other causes operating inst the 
success of any plans. of finance, which will ee ee : 
selves as we proceed in the history. As the manners 
and the talents of Calonne were more. insinuating and 
popular than those of Necker, while er wae, ai80 a 


accommodating to the necessities or the wishes of | 
court, he was their favourite; but with the nation at 
large, he was not so great a favourite as Neckar had 
oo bie ee eee 
out being ex to any consi degree of odiur 

till the year 1785, when, by the pL i anew a:p,1 
East India Company, he Sunes mat censure, yd 
objections urged against this monopoly were brought 
ee in a style of boldness and freedom, hitherto un- 
usual in France; and, from the substance as well as the 
manner of them, it was evident that those philosophers 
who had hitherto confined their speculations on govern- 
ment and political economy to books, were extremely de- 
sirous of reducing them to practice. Monsieur de Ca- 
lonne was by no means in a condition to regard the dis- 
cussions which this  eabiecs gave rise to with indifference; 
as they plainly indicated, that a body of men who at this 
time had great influence in France, were decidedly hose 
tile to the measures of his administration. _ He likewise 
was convinced, that the re-establishment of the finances 
was a much more arduous task than he had anticipated ; 


= 


for though France had now been at peace for three years, 
it was found requisite at the end ip io to sup. 
ply the deficiency of the revenue by a loan, Still, howe 
ever, had the rigid economy recommended ang paced 
by Neckar been persevered in, the expendi and the . 
income might have been brought more ona level; 


pressing necessity either to, 
erbourg, or to increase the 1 
quired during the dispute between the Gaps 


FRANCE, 623 


country, could not fail to ineréase the commotion, and _ History. 


and efficient footing, was more properly to let the people feel too sensibly their own weight and 


ee Dutch, for the purpose of placing the French army on 
goa 


laid out. 
‘As the internal resources of France were the only 
gmented, it 


g 
x 
s8 


is subject, strong and unfounded prejudice bore 


with Gown calm and clear inv on; but, In some re- 
England, spects, it must be admitted, that the framers of the 
A. D. 1786. treaty did not sufficiently advert to the nen which 
the weak and infant manufactures of ce required, 


: 


to enable them to rise to-an equality with those 
|, or, at least, to meet the lish manufac- 
tures in the markets of France. 
The mind was now in such a state of discon- 

irritation, that the smallest evil made it break 
out into bitter complaints against ment. It may 
therefore well be conceived, that edict at the end of 
the year 1785, for registering a loan of the enormous 
amount of £3,333,000 sterling, produced violent mur- 
murs. When this edict was presented to the parliament 

anddisputes of Paris, they selected a deputation to wait on the King 

between the with their remonstrances ; but he informed them, that 

Parliament he cet miey wen Donte mere obeyed ; and 

and King. the ceremony of registering took place the next day, ac- 
companied, erovar; with a resolution, that public eco- 
nomy was the only genuine source of abundant reve- 
nue, and that without it, the necessities of the state 
could not be ied, nor public credit and confidence 
restored. This was highly displeasing to the 
King; he ordered the records of rliament to be 
brought to him, and erased the resolution with his own 
hand ; at the same time , that-he in 

future they would communicate, in a 

ful manner. 


ing the measures of that minister, which were not to be 


‘consequently, the distracted state of the country 


influence; in the second place, the deliberations of 
such an assembly would necessarily be tedious, and, 
would 
be prolonged. But the circumstance which weighed 
with the minister most powerfully against calling out 
the States-general; was the apprehension that they 
would be disposed to the reform much farther 


‘than he wished ; and the impossibility of foreseeing 


what would be the consequence of putting power into 
their hands. The Notables, therefore, an assembly 
which had been occasionally substituted in the room 
of the States-general, was preferred by Calonne. ~ It 
consisted of a number of ‘ons from all parts of the 
kingdom, ered selected rom the higher orders of the 
state by the King himself. This mode of selection 
would render the delegation of power to them perfect- 
ly safe, it was expected; while their deliberations 
would be shorter, and more easily managed by royal 
influence. The writs for calling together this assem 
bly were accordingly issued on the 29th of December 
1786: they were addressed to seven princes of the 
blood, nine dukes and peers of France, eight field mar- 
shals, twenty-two nobles, eight councillors of state, 
four masters of requests, eleven archbishops and bishops, 
thirty-seven heads of the law, twelve deputies of the 
pays delats, the lieutenants-civil, and twenty-five ma- 
gistrates of the different towns in France. The total 
number was 144 ; and the opening of the assembly was 
fixed for the 29th of January 1787. 

It ought to have been the leading object of the mi- 
nister, to have laid before this assembly his plans as 
soon as possible, and immediately after their sanction 
of them to have dismissed them. This, at any pe- 
riod, would have been the wisest method ; but it was 
more icularly required at a time when Paris was 
filled with discussions on points that went far beyond 
the mere re-establishment of the finances, or the re- 
form of acknowledged and gross abuses. When the 
day of meeting came, however, the minister was not 

3 it was therefore put off till the 7th of Fe- 

; but, before this day arrived, Calonne fell sick, 

and the Count de Vergennes died. The loss of this 

statesman was severely felt by his colleague, as he had 

entered fully and warmly into all his plans, whereas 

the keeper of the seals was his avowed enemy, and the 

minister of the marine department was ally at- 

tached to Neckar. The for the household 

was the creature of the Queen, and, consequently, at- 
tached to what was called the Austrian system. 


At length, on the 22d of February, the first meeting Their first 


and plans now went far beyond the measures he had at of the assembly of the Notables took place. Calonne ™*¢ting, 

first and it was proper they should laid before it his plan for re-establishing the fisted as ate 

be s2 a ermanertas, asw —_ and ‘seca credit of the kingdom, which he pre-  '’°” 
than parliament. e€ was convin faced, inti t the it CAs 6 

that the state of the kingdom was such, both with re- ¥ pointing out the necessity of adopting it, or 


some other. He stated, that when he was appointed Calonne’s 
e to the office of comptroller-general of the finances, P!#”. 
litical re- the deficiency of the public revenue amounted to 
£3,330,000 sterling. is, it was evident, must be 


made up, as well as prevented in future, if the finances 
SP uAna  icahdianeraiea to a proper state: 

or purpose he proposed, that a terri impost, 
from which no olay or order of suet doth ‘be ex- 


empted, should be sanctioned by the assembly ; that 
the clergy, hitherto not considered liable to pay taxes, 
gem peace at a fair proportion to the exigencies 


ent and receipt of the 
taxes already existing, should be the subject ‘of minute, 


624 


Hisery- impartial, and strict investigation; and that, if these 
partial, vestigati 


measures were not adequate to the cure of the evil, the 
demesne lands of the crown should be mortgaged. 
If the minister expected that his statement and his 
plans would be implicitly received by the assembly, or 
at pr Ana vg nb me A te to — 
of discussion as would preserve the appearance 
independent authority in its members, while it did not 
essentially oppose the minister, he was most grievous- 
ly mistaken, He had the resources of 
France as very contracted, and her debt as large ; and 
om these grounds he had called w the assembly to 
eanction his plans: But before Neckar had retired 
the management of the finances, he had published a 
work, in which he represented France as possessing a 
surplus revenue of £425,000. It was not to be ex- 
pected, that the gloomy statements of Calonne would 
not be contrasted with the cheering statements of his 
predecessor. Before, therefore, the members of the 
assembly proceeded to discuss the plan itvelf, they in- 
i that there was no necessity for its ion ; 
and that, if the ministers were honest and able, France 
might easily, without any sacrifice or additional bur- 
den, be extricated out of her present difficulties.. These 
attacks on the ability and honesty of Calonne, were 
supported principally by the Archbishop of Toulouse 


FRANCE. 


go into Holland, and even sent tried and experienced 
soldiers for the’ , 


z 
8 


small influence in giving rise to these hostile indicas 
tions ; but as soon pay vse of the Stadtholder was’ 
re-established, and, of course, all pretexts for amna- 


F 
; 
ii 


ments taken away both from 

cabinet was anxious to replace pow atees 

footing... Britain had begun to feel 

sequences of Mr Pitt’s measures of finance, and, 

reviving commerce; and France felt too sensibly 

inability to pl herself into a new if i 

pew be ordted. The navies of both nations, | 
laced on the footi 


‘ore, were 
ment, and Pent was restored between them. |». 


| 


: 
ie 


: 


and the Count de Mirabeau ; the latter a man of bril- 
liant talents, of the most profligate principles and con- 
duct, and who was resolved that, his country. should, if 
he could possibly effect it, be plunged into such a state 
of anarchy, as would give room for the exercise of his 
talents, and the unrestrained play ‘of his most vicious 
and dangerous habits. 
Calonne's The minister soon found, that his plan met. the ap- 
piss op- probation neither of the nobility and. clergy, nor of the 
posed. ple at large. The ancient nobility and clergy had 
itherto been free from taxes; and, as patents of nobi- 
lity were easily procured, they were eagerly sought af- 
ter, for the of exempting the possessors from 
taxation. The nobles, therefore, both old.and new, 
were strongly averse to a plan whieh should oblige 
them to contribute to the exigencies of the state; and 
were supported in their opposition by the clergy 
and the magistrates, who also were exempt from taxa- 
tion. It might, however, have been expected, that the 
mass of the le would have regarded Calonne as their 
friend ; since, if his plan were carried into.effect, they 
would be relieved frem part of their burden. But at 
this period the people had no means.of making their epposition to it were now more. violent than before, as 
feelings or wishes known ; and besides, the measures of 
the minister, in other respects, had not been such as to 


evident, that their demands would go far to reduce the 
royal authority to that limited condition in which it 
had been before the reign of Louis XI. Louis, how- 
ever, had gone too far to recede ; and even if he could 


to recruit the finances of the kingdom? It was there- 
fore necessary to gain the good will, or at least toavoid, 


as much as possible, exciting the discontent and suspi 
cion of the assembly. ; and, fos hia paxposey tlie Ams 
bishop of Toulouse was appointed to superintend the 
finances, instead of Calonne. But he soon found:that 


ve placed the sovereign com: 


command or deserve favour and s . He pletely in their power. Louis, was thus placed ina 
was therefore eens doin hap here but, at he deter- 


iled, smpropeted by the nobility, 
clergy, and istrates, who were so blinded -by 
imperfect and selfish consideration of their own imme- 


ceived no su vantage, b ich, ‘ 
trary, had only increased the difficulties in which he 
was previously involved. On the dismissal of the as+ The w, 
sembly, royal edicts were issued for raising money ; to bles dis- 
these the parliament of Paris objected, in such peremp- missed. 
tory language, that Louis was under the necessity of 
holding what is termed a Bed of Justice, and elli 


France a- 
ninter- ¥inees between the 


in the Orange, again opened an opportunity for the cabinet 
disputes in of Versai ye ee -atho doa Seel es 
Kotan, _ had not the King of Prussia taken a decided partein 
‘21787 support of the Prince of Orange, it is that 
the , aided by the French, would have 


borne all j The cabinet of Versailles, 
Siesratr, did act Loven poder. nein thane in an 
_ open manner, though they permitted their officers to 


resign ! 
_ In the year 1787, the disputes in the United Pro- 
republican party and the Prince of 


enrolment as 
sure ; and to declare that the first person who should f 
eet ia ans be pus 


—— 


to wear a formidable aspect, 
a few days after the 


FRANCE! 


nished as. a traitor to his country. At this crisis, the 
eer nearby Be ve As soon 
as the discontents and opposition e Notables 

, large bodies of me bad 
been these, 
Jiament ‘had entered their pro- 


brought into Paris; and some 
signified to each individual member the King’s 


test, . 
The Parlia- pleasure, that he should immediately leave Paris, and 


ment ba- 
nished ; 


vw 


proceed to Troyes. The Parliament, probably fore- 
warned or ive of this measure, had previous- 
ly regi their opinion, that no permanent tax could 
legally be imposed, except by the authority of the three 
estates of the ki ; and’ had, at the same time, 
the necessity of calling them together. : 
or a short period, Louis endeavoured to p 
without the Parliament, but he found it impossible. He 
was and economical in his habits and expendi- 
tare ; but the savings thus effected went but.a little 
way towards the removal of financial difficulties, while 
they failed in.gaining him the confidence or approba- 
tion of his subjects. He himself, indeed, was not very 
; but the other branches of the royal family, 
particularly the Queen, and the Count D’Artois, were 
the objects of the Lets mere of the- Parisians. They 
could not be but sensible of the danger in which they, 
as well as the King, were 3 yet they acted in such 
a manner, as to increase that danger. The time for 
ty manners, and ical conduct, was e 
bye; yet the Count D’Artois did not accommodate hi 
self to the change of circumstances, but spoke and act- 
ed as if the sentiments and feelings of the people, and 
the influence and authority of the crown, remained ex- 
actly the same as og hag: been when Louis XVI. as- 
cended the throne. King at last yielded, and re- 
called the Parliament ; a kind of com ise took 
lace between them; Louis gave territorial 
duty, and the Parliament sanc- 
i of Toulouse 
of state. ese conces- 
of Louis, however, failed in concilia- 
i either as the effects of 
unjust just claims, ‘The King also soon found, 
ee eakr poses Hi 4 
that. the Parliament itself regard pels thelesizacst as a 
triumph, and that they returned still less di to 
submission and obedience; for, about the middle of 
November, after he had laid before them two edicts, 
one for a new loan of nearly 19 millions sterling, and 
Seceraieietgias, tskssdaciag thecs odie Ly -opeech, 
ir civil rights, introducing these edicts by a 5 
in which he intimated his e sented tones 
from the Parliament, a bold and animated debate took 
place, which was so offensive to the King, that he sud- 
denly arose, and commanded the edict to be instantly 
registered. - Scarcely had Louis sat down again, when 


te pers ing and consistant conduct; nor does he 

sauitahays boon fully aware of the bad consequences 

which would result from the display and exercise of a 
VOL, IX, PART 11. 


625 


stretch of authority, which interest or prudence might 
induce him soon to relax. His first action, after leaving 
the Assembly, was one of vigour and boldness. The 
Duke of Orleans was banished to one of his seats; and 
lettres de cachet were issued against two of the members 
of the parliament, who had been most violent in the 
— To hap ance robe aoe ian om against 
ose proceedings, Louis at first replied in aut! oritative 
: but about the beginning of 1788, he yielded, 
and the Duke of Orleans was recalled, and the two 
members liberated. 
. Hitherto the parliament of Paris had confined its ef- 
forts to opposing the measures of the King; or, when 
they did advert to the establishment of civil and politi- 
cal liberty in France, it was only in general terms; but 
they now directed their invectives against lettres de 
cachet, which had, the previous year, been remonstrated 
inst by the parliament of Grenoble. “These invec- 
tives again excited the severity of Louis; the parlia- 
ment was surrounded by troops, and the obnoxious 
members seized. . Their language on:this occasion was 
even more bold than it had ever been before; as they did 
not hesitate to tell the King, that his authority could only 
be esteemed and supported so long as it was founded 
er o-g Compared with this opposition to the royal 
ill, the measures of the Notables had been mild and 
respectful ; and Louis therefore resolved to’ assemble 
them again. As soon as they met, the keeper of the 
seals explained his Majesty’s pleasure, that a cour plenicre 
should be established ; this proposition was favourabl 
received by the Notables, but the parliament of Paris 
protested against it. This opposition, in connection 
with some serious disturbances that took place in the 
capital, at length induced Louis to recal Neckar to the 
inistration. 

This minister soon perceived that the royal authori- 
ty was very considerably weakened since he was in 
power before, and that he had only the choice of diffi- 
cult, and even hazardous, expedients. But decision 
was absolutely necessary ; and as it was of the utmost 
importance for the King to in the confidence and 
loyalty of his subjects, the minister strongly recom- 
mended that the States-General should be assembled. 
From the opposition which the parliament of Paris made 
to this measure, he augured that it would at least serve 
to pcr om influence. 

e principal difficulty respecting the States-Gene-~ 

ral, arose from the opposition of the nobility and ¢ 
to the representatives of the Commons being equal in 
number to the other two orders united. The Count 
D’Artois headed the party which contended that the 
representatives of the Commons ought to be confined 
to a third in number of the States-General. The opi-« 
nion of the Duke of Orleans was supported by Neckar, 
and sanctioned by the King. The number of deputies 
was fixed at upwards of 1000, and the representatives 
of the Commons were to be returned according to the 

population of the different districts of the ki 

- On the 5th of May 1789, the assembly of the States- 
General was opened by the King at Versailles, His Ma- 
jesty’s speech was conciliating and prudent ; he did not 
affect to conceal the discontents of the people, while he 
his firm conviction, that the causes of these 


_ discontents, so far as they were real and just, would be 


removed by the wisdom and patriotism 


the Assembly. 
He no longer used the lan 


ar 2 e of a sovereign, who ex- 
licit obedience: to his will ; on the contrary, 


d im 
e expressly peaeetenee Sane ae that of a just king 
; kK 


History. 


The Nota- 
bles again 
assembled, 
A. D. 1788. 


Neckar re- 
called. 


~ 


The States- 
General. 


Their first 
meeting, 
5th May, 
A. D. 1789. 


Slat h erases 
the Avent 


o <a and, as a preliminary step, an to 
4 i ~ chambers to verify their votes. To this 
the commons strongly objected; but as their objections 


were not attended to, they jo business sepa- 
rately ; the nobility did the same ; the clergy, however, 
offered their mediation between the contending 

>= these proceedings it was too evident that the 
Assembly was constituted in such a manner, as not 
to promise unanimity, and consequently that the ob- 
ject of its meeting would not be fulfilled. The dis- 
tresses of the state, which they were met to deliberate 
upon and remedy, could not be removed effectually 


and permanently, until a more equal and productive sys- 
tem of somite, ioee established. Nor could the at 


ified, until the abuses, 
seteat bch thay ed liked up their voice, had been 
put down; and yet as the nobility and clergy were 
principally’ concerned in both these objects, it was desi- 
rable that they should manifest a conciliating spirit. 
Between the period of its first rasp | and the begin- 
ning of June, several of the clergy, and a few of the no- 
bility, had agreed to act along eth the commons; but 
as the rest were refractory, the Abbé Sieyes, on on the 15th 
of that month, made.a motion, the object of which was 
to declare, that the commons, with snch members of the 
nobility and clergy as had united with them, were the 
known and acknowledged representatives of the nation. 
On the following day this motion was carried ; and the 
appellation of National Assembly was given to the meet- 


The Na- 
tonal As- 
sembly. 


Their bold "f neie very first measures Pay indieated the spirit 
measures ; which they were actuated. taxes were declared 
il egal, because ex had not received the. consent of the 
nation; but so as the National Assembly sat, they 
might be levied ; mn a moment it was dissolved, the peo- 
ple were no longer bound to pay them. The public 
debt was placed under the protection of the honour and 
faith of the French nation ; bs Toast edaces sna imme- 
diately appointed, to enquire into the causes and remedy 
of the dearth which then afflicted the om. 

Thus did) Louis find, that his authority was in a great 
measure wrested from him by the National Assembly ; 
and the great body of the nobility and clergy, by their 
refusal to unite with the commons, likewise saw them- 
selves shut out from power, and their privileges inva- 
ded. It was not to be Pe fpernnpca yal 

spp’.  tienitly sdbmit. On the 21st of June, when the 
ties of the National Assembly attempted to enter their 
place of meeting, the door wean claal.againit ther, under 
the pretext, that preparations were for the roy- 
al presence on the 23d. They immediately retired to a 
tennis court, where they unanimously 


took an oath to weer themselves as inse le, and 
to continue to mect wherever possib could. On 
they MO day, Leap mestat sles ef them, 


Bailly was declared peeuident of the National 


FRANCE. 


Assembly. On the 2 the King met the three orders 
in the gushed We oceed ings 


lic in 1 
ed, in which the subjects for deliberation, and 
es of the King, mm te bel ‘When his Majesty 
retired, > commanded the three : roel et 
The nobi almost unanimous . most 
We the commons a4 ny 


The crisis which now seemed fast i 

delayed for a short time, by the King’s desire 

quillity. This induced him to recommend the wen 

and clergy to join the commons ; and the junction ac- 

cordingly took place on the 27th of June. of the 

members of these orders, however, refused to obey the 
no 


ere were 


pit : 
or a dangeg he ely fe bate ; 
but ea sean 
feeling arose from an undefined and; vague desire. 

, Violent in its nature, and uncertain in its means 
or object. Srike catiosteana Patna Aeeatiads 
polis, and such the conduct of the a 
tase tanepneet. Cie seoiennainnen he king were 
se ms ne hey ld nt 
and firmness united, co! Digewthe him from 
the impending But no such qualities existed 
in his councils ; he aedines bkaekeeme 
liating ; but as such, his conduct was only. the more 
caleiilated to a harm, poser per esr 8 which he 
himself approved an 0 were done away, ps 1 
bably gat day, by the harshness of his 
advisers, aps Brey ECE ORL sk ke om 
sanction to onan large bodies of troops in 
capital and its vicinity. 
as might have been anticipated. — 
sufficiently strong to keep down the citi , while they. 
were exposed to be insulted by them; tie 
took place ; srid during, the:iritated tate of the gaublio 
mind, Monsiear Neckar was di dismissed cction in Panis 


permitted with themselyes into 
this concession = too late ; a 


le. 
pate i nh it et 
ed; the governor, w 
d to a place of execution, and his 
his body, was carried in triumph cease 


History. 


—\—" ‘be on the 


takes place. 


excesses in 
different 


al Assem- 
~ bly. 


FRANCE. 


The King now ived:that his sole reliance must 
y, since it was absolutely necessary to 
restore order and obedience before he could go on with 
his plans of reformation ; but the army, which had al- 
ways been characterised by their extreme devotion to 
the Monarch, openly declared that they would not fight 
against their fellow-citizens. No alternative theselors 
remained for the King, but concession. Neckar was 
tecalled ; the King himself returned from Versailles to 
Paris ; wridwiid obtiged So oububle to the speech of M. 
Bailly, (who had been chosen ca on delivering 
the keys of the capital, in which he plainly told him; 
that the le that day reconquered their king. 

* Louis already signified his approbation of the 
plan of forming a national militia ; or in other words, 
an armed body, who would obey not him, but the Na- 
tional Assembly; it had been accordingly formed, and 
the Marquis de la Fayette, whom we have already men- 
tioned as having gone to fight in the cause of American 
independence, was i colonel: this appointment, 
Louis deemed it t to sanction. At this period 
the more obnoxious members of the oe re ram as 
well as several of the nobility, determined to leave 
France ; this they were induced to do, not merely from 
Fr wet mrtg dro but because they hoped to 
i foreign powers to support the royal cause. 
these em> ts, the most cele’ were the 
Count D’Artois, the Prince of Condé, and the Marshal 


The King stil pursued his plan of concession and 
conciliation ; corn was t into the capital, in or- 
der to reduce its price there; and corporal punishment 
was abolished in the army. By these measures the 
hap were of Paris was preserved for a short time; 
but the provinces were in a state of complete anarchy ; 
the peasantry rose, and ed the churches and 
seats of the nob with savage fury: the more ob- 
noxious of the nobles were seized and exposed to the 
most barbarous and | ing deaths. 

The return of Neckar was celebrated at Paris with so 
much joy, that it was hoped his influence might restore 

ity and obedience ; but he soon found that cir- 
cumstances were radically and fatally changed during 
his absence ; and his very first attempt to procure a ge- 
neral amnesty was defeated. Fresh commotions arose, 
and were marked by additional excesses and cruelties. 
At St Denis, Caen, and S' , the conduct of the 
populace would have di most barbarous pe- 
riods of the most barbarous nations that ever existed; it 
was no longer the reformation of abuses, even by violent 
means, that they aimed at; but the gratification of the 
most diabolical passions. The revenge too, which they 
took, was, in most instances, iownsll in the extreme; 
and extended even to those who been their best 
friends and 


Geedoct of Had the members of the National Assembly been 
Nation- the enlightened advocates of liberty 


, and the true 
friends 


the 
tical or civil privileges of the people, Sot by om 
joyed by them, till they were restored to a sense of their 


627 


endeavouring to 
the capital and the provinces of France,—instead even 
of enacting laws which were applicable to the state of 
the country, and which’ might ually have condu- 
ced, at once, to restore the privileges and liberties of 
the people, and to repress their licentiousness ;—instead 
of acting in this sensible manner, they spent their 
time in di ing abstract propbsitions, which either 
were unintelligible, or could not possibly have any prac- 
tical application to the existing state of the country, 
Had France been in perfect tranquillity, and every law 
been passed which was essential,to preserve that tran- 

uillity, and to secure the liberty of the subject, such 
Senae ions might have been ‘excused, because they 
would have done little harm, and not have occupied 
time and abilities which had much more urgent de- 
mands upon them; but when the machinery of the 
state was in complete disorder, and at the same time 
working with the most mischievous and fatal rapidity, 
it was absurd and criminal in the highest d 5, to be 
discussing the principles on which it had been, or 
might be, constructed, instead of repairing its defects. 
Yet such was the conduct of the National Assembly. 
The abstract proposition of the rights of man, which, 
besides being abstract, and therefore improper for the 
discussion of the Assembly, was not very intelligible, 
occupied their time and attention at the very period 
when the smallest reflection, the most limited practical 
knowledge of mankind, might have convinced them, 
that the le of France could not be put in posses- 
sion of their rights with advantage to themselves, or 
with safety to the community, while they continued so 
forgetful of their duties, as to give themselves up to an- 
ar B plunder, and murder. 

The other discussions of the National Assembly were 
on subjects more practical, and therefore more fitted to 
their c er and situation; but even these should 
have been ed till they had proved their autho- 
rity over the people, by restoring order and tranquilli- 


ty. The feudal system, in all its branches, was abolish- 4 buses 
ed; the public burdens were equalized ; the most op- reformed. 


pressive taxes were repealed ; the clergy gave up their 
territorial rights ; and a resolution was passed to in« 

uire into the pensions granted hy the court. As the 
King did not oppose these pr: ings, he became po- 
pular for a short time, and was honoured with the ap- 
pellation of the Restorer of the Liberties of France. In- 
deed, it was now evident, that if he did not yield to the 
storm, he would be overwhelmed by it, for he had no 
supporters ; even the Swiss and French guards had 
deserted him, 

Could observation and experience have taught the 
National Assembly the folly of their conduct, in not be- 
ginning by ear p 4 the insurrectionary spirit of the 
people, they would have learnt wisdom by the events 
of éach passing day. In Paris corn was still dear ; and 
the le, let loose from all restraint, were still more 
quia a on to no eee bre a In 
the provinces, the , taking advan of the 
abolition of the fedal rights, plingel into the most 
dreadful excesses ; the nobility were murdered ; justice 
was set at nought ; and even the harvest, the means of 
their own fature support, suffered ftom their blind and 


ee fury. 
the revenue of the country was inadequate yer Financial 


the tumults which disgraced _ History. 


en the veto, tional Assembly to lay down the prin 


628 


History. falcation of man ‘of the taxes, payment of which was 
—rYm cluded or refused by the 


refractory Neck- 

ar, therefore, found his difficulties increase, while his 
means of removing them were diminished ; for he could 
not ex in the disturbed and discontented state of 
the country, that any financial measures would be well 
received, or could be rendered uctive. He soy 
fore thought it his duty, expressly to point out to the 
National “Assembly, chive when he attra there were 
in the royal treasury only 400,000 livres ; that the ex- 
iture immensely exceeded the revenue; and that 

blic credit was extinguished. In this state of things, 
he proposed a loan of thirty millions, at an interest of 
five per cent. ; but the Assembly, in the foolish excess of 
their mistaken patriotism, decreed, that the interest 
should be only 44 per cent. ; that no security should 
be given to the subscribers ; and that no period should 
be fixed for reimbursement. The consequence was, 
that, in 20 days, little more than two million livres 
were subscribed ; the finances became still more em- 
barrassed, and at length it was deemed expedient’ to 
vote a loan of 80 ions, at five per cent. to be re- 
deemed in ten years. They thus went into the con- 
trary extreme ; and, by the very favourable terms which 
po A rine and the large amount of the loan, gave 
pa le proofs of the wants of the state, and of their 
cnowledge or suspicion of the inability, or the unwil- 


po nee Lact porte ed men to supply those wants. 
Abolition of . “ ac s nee ie 


he next subject which occupied their attention, was 
the abolition of tithes. That they were a grievance, 
and detrimental not only to agriculture, but to the 
cause of religion, was acknowl by almost all the 
members ; but they undertook to abolish them, before 
they had well considered by what means this could be 
effected, so as not to injure any . They confound- 
ed the impropriate tithes with of the church ; that 
is, they confounded absolute property with what the 
state had set apart for the discharge of religious duty, 
and might therefore take away. The Abbé Sieyes on 
this oceasion, sup the rights of the clergy, and 
the Marquis de Mirabeau opposed them. The debates 
were long and eloquent; at last, a few of the curés 
having voluntarily surrendered their tithes, their ex- 
ample was followed by most of the clergy. This fund 
thus supplied, even if it could have been made imme- 
diately efficient and applicable, was by no means ade- 
quate to the necessities of the state ; and Neckar be- 
held a national bankruptey approaching. To avert 
this, as all the ar plans of finance had utterly fail- 
ed, he addressed himself to the patriotic enthusiasm of 
the people. The people were, in general, willing, but 
their means were , and they made no secret that 
they ex to be recompenced for their liberality, 
by a still further curtailment of the royal powers and 
privileges. 
The committee which had been appointed by the Na- 


| Asi — of anew 
constitution, expressly declared that the King ought to 


have an absolute veto on every law. This ae on oo 
™met with violent and geamelie opposition from the peo- 
ple ; and, while it was discussed in the Assembly, nu- 
merous guards of militia, and several pieces of cannon, 
were stationed in different of the capital. From 
the first meeting of the Assembly, all their debates had 
been carried on in a large hall, into which admission 
was perfectly free: the as might have 
heen foreseen, were absolutely destructive of freedom 


of discussion, as the members, either. fear, or 
the desire of popularity, weretop qaseagoinguaaiien 


FRANCE. 


ad that side of ion which knew 
pa" meet the wolletlon pce thesnoltienden fo who Be 
led the galleries. The month of August was consumed 
in debates about the veto, which at length was indi- 
rectly negatived by the decrees that were passed for 
the pene cme Fe recy oe amc 
in some respects rational and practical ; they were 
preceded by a declaration of the rights of men and citi- 
zens, sO ive and metaphyeical, where it w 

well founded, as to be of no utility ; and in.other points 
calculated to mislead and inflame the ignorant and al- 
ready maddened populace. The decrees the 
constitution, went to establish a limited monarchy, and 
to separate completely the legislative from the execu- 
tive powers: but it is unnecessary to give the details of 
this or of any other of the numerous constitutions which 
were made in France ; it is sufficient to notice the lead 
ing principles on which they were grounded. 
ligent observer, the state of the ca~ 


o the most 
pital at this period must have a very threaten~ 
ing. _ Parties ran excessively high ; and on neither side 


was there moderation. But the most alarming symp- nie 


lukewarm, and ing far short of what they ought 
to have atchieved. On the feelings of the lowest of the 
mob, this third party operated’ with wonderful 

most mischievous effect. The scarcity which still ex- 
isted, was ascribed to government. A report that the 
King intended to leave Versailles, and y the 
kingdom, was Yee ge Aa Tt and the most inno- 
cent actions of the royal family were grossly misrepre- 
sented. Unfortunately the Queen did not conduct herself 
with that reserved and prudent caution, which her, un- 


ord 
al cockade, which had been 


Paris, where, while the people were suffering under the 
pressure of farnine, they learned that a splendid enter~ 
tainment had been given at Versailles, as if to insult 
their misery, and that. the symbol of that constitution, 
from which they expected the removal of their griev- 
ances, had been supplanted by the symbol of that. go- 
vernment, to which they pe them. The populace 
were joined by the militia of Paris and, the ancient’ 
Fren ards; and the Marquis de la Fay 
formed fiat 
to exterminate those who had insulted the. national 
cockade, and even to depose the King, if 
rotect and relieve them, The Marquis employed 
is influence and authority in vain. An immense num- 
ber of women of the yt rank, ——- ecaipone bread, 
and rather encouraged than preven ry ’ 
set off for Versailles. As soon as they arrived, they/be- 


also arri~ 


_ He first presented himself to the National Assem- 
bly, and afterwards went. ae he King and royal 
family. The Queen was the. object of the 


fu ‘attempt was made 
on her life ; but she, as well as the rest. of the royal 
family, were saved by the rise of La Fayette; 


they were determined to go to Versailles, sailles 


FRANCE. 


proper weight, and to preserve to the constitution’ the History. 
—— 


> was dread- 
y in‘its actual circumstances, but as a dread- 
of what was to come. Before, around, 
and behind’ the royal family, were a mob of frantic 
women, debauched pend rents attended and cheered 


The success and triumph of the unprincipled and fe- 

, who were anxious to lay ee 

power, in order that they might ify their diaboli 
i was now nearly complete. having forced 


ig the , and in virtually 
Le preteen diab ab te ) dal bomitey eck 


629 


reality as well as the name of a monarchy. 


On the 19th of June, a motion was made to suppress Hereditary 
all hereditary titles, liveries, and coats of arms. This titles sup- 
was also carried ; and, of all the King’s ministers, Nec. Pressed. 


kar alone, a plebeian, bred and born in a democracy, 
and who always professed republican principles, 
advised his Majesty to refuse his assent to the decree. 
_ The French are fond of spectacle; and of this fond- 
ness it was now resolved to take advan’ The Bas- 
tile had been destroyed on the 14th of July the prece- 
ding year. As the anniv of this event was now 
approaching, it was 
oath 
plain which adjoins the capital, was fixed on for the - 
ceremony. . In the midst of it an altar was placed, and 
around a altar an amphitheatre was constructed, ca- 
pable of containing 400,000 le. At 4 o'clock in 
the evening, the Marquis de ayette ascended the 
oy and took an oath gi pst = the pane the 
, and the King: the deputies e r troops 
and militia te! pai ttt The Marquis was fol- 
lowed by the president of the National Assembly, who 
took an oath varying in substance a little from that taken 
thee military; and each deputy repeated aloud, after 
president, “ I swear.” The King also, s ing his 
arm towards the altar, took an oath to emplo the 
power to him by the constitution, for the main- 
tenance of the constitution, and the execution of the law. 
~ Neckar had long been convinced that his influence 


- The ipal proceedings of the National Assem was on the wane, and that, even if he still enjoyed it 
during the remainder of 1789, related to the undiminished, he could do no , either in restrain- 
erected ier hoary ts, and the con- ing the blind fury of political innovation, or in re- 
fiscation of the lands, ~ Early in the followi ing order to the finances; he was besides a vain man; 


and, as has been already remarked, more conversant 


that on that day a civic Civic oath, 
be taken. The Champ de Mars, a spacious 14th July. 


in detail than in general principles and comprehensive 
views. On the 4th of September he press, his re- Neckar re- 
signation. ’ signs. 

The hostile reparation: s of Germany, Spain, Italy;.,,._,; 
and Savoy, hal in the beginning of i791. assomed a porn of 
character that could leave little doubt they were intend~ Germany, 
ed against France, With respect to Germany, the Ger- &c. 


ee eer 


wnireas | ‘As the Assembly were sensible that their proceedings 


man princes, who territory 
of the Rhine, could not be indifferent tors of a 
revolution in their immediate neighbourhood, which 
had stripped the French nobili all their privileges, 
and, in many instances, had deprived them of their 
lives. Besides, the German its were not slow in 
following the example set them by their brethren in 
France ; so that what they had actually suffered, as 
well as the dangers they apprehended, stimulated the 
German princes against the Revolution. [n their ap- 
prehensions of future danger, the other princes, at pre- 
sent remote from the example and influence of the Re 
volution, were not slow in participating ; and these 
prehensions likewise took of several of the sove- 
reigns of E . There were also other considera- 
tions which influenced some of them: the Emperor of 
Germany was naturally anxious respecting the fate of 
his sister, the Queen of France, who was peculiarly 
obnoxious to the Revolutionists; and the King of Spai 


were viewed with suspi and by foreign could not behold with indifference one branch of the 
powers, they decreed that the French ; would ne- Bourbons stript almost entirely of regal power, and the 
ver embark’in any war with a view A tong wo nor King, as it were, the slave of his own le. 

ever their forces against the liberties of any peo- Parisians, alarmed at these hostile preparations; 
ple. tweet" femme og were suspicious that the King was consenting to them ; 
Lc pc of’ its unjust and 2 but and their suspicions were increased and strengthened 


by the departure, "in the ‘month: of February, of his 


on the north’ side 4+ 9.1791. 


H tery. 


Louis at- 
tompts to 
leave the 
kingdom ; 


630 
aunts from Paris. Nor were they satisfied by the de. 
claration of Louis, that, as the laws did not lay them 
under any restraint, he did not oppose their departure. 
They naturally ence hes the King had a design 

‘ following them, and of joining an emigrant 5 
which was Dow collecting on the borders of Alsace. 
All his motions were watched with so much jealousy, 
that, on the 18th of April, as the royal family were 
preparing to go to St Cloud, a rt was § that 
they were about to emigrate, and their were 
immediately surrounded and stopt by the people, La 
Fayette upon this, called out the national guard, . but 
they refused to act; and he was so much hurt at their 
refusal, that he resigned his command ; nor was he, 
without a very general and pressing solicitation, pre- 
vailed upon to accept it again. ‘ " 

The suspicions of the people respecting the intended 
flight of the royal party were well founded ; but it was 
delayed, till it was hoped it might be effected safely and 
certainly.. The Marquis de Bouillée, who commanded 
on the frontiers, removed the pera ua and re- 

ced them by such troops as he could de upon ; 
and in the whole of peng ta which the royal party 
were to pursue, every thing which could facilitate their 
escape had been pre with as much order and se- 
crecy as possible, the 21st of June, it was ascer- 
tained that the royal family had left the capital in.such 
a secret manner, that no doubt could be entertained of 
their intention ‘of quitting France, Immediately all 
was consternation and commotion, mixed with unbri- 
dled fury, among the populace. The National As- 
sembly were more cool and composed: they declared 
their sittings permanent, and assumed the government, 
As the route of the royal fygitives was unknown, 
messengers were dispatched in all directions. Their fate 
was not long in s . Monsieur and Madame 
arrived safely at Brussels; but the King, Queen, and 
Dauphin were arrested at Varennes, within a very short 
distance of the frontiers, This unfortunate att eX- 
cited in the multitude such an abhorrence of the King, 
whom they suspected of an intention to join the emi- 
grant army, and to invade France, that his most san- 
guine friends could now no longer hope he would re- 
gain their confidence or loyalty ; and this feeling of the 
multitude was cherished and exasperated by all those, 
who were determined to destroy even the name and ves 
tiges of a monarchy, and to substitute in its room, ei- 
ther an undefined and spomulayy democracy; or the 
unrestrained power of the mob; for about this period, 
those men began silently and secretly to. use their influ- 
ence, who afterwards P unged France into am unparal- 
leled state of crime and wretchedness. 

As the plan for the King’s flight had: been well ar- 
ranged, and consequently its success had been antici- 

, many of his friends , who had hitherto remained 
in France, now emi The Marquis de Bouillée, 
who was one of these, afterwards sent a very foolish and 
mischievous letter to the National Assembly, in which 
he denounced ven, ce to them, and the utter destruc 
tion of Paris, if lives of the royal family were in 

r. He added, that he would conduct the foreign 
armies into France, and that his letter was but the fore- 
runner of the manifesto of the sovereigns of Europe. 
As danger from abroad was nt aphabenigy 
the National Assembly considered it their duty to guard 
against it by every possible preparation ; but it was al- 
eo desirable to rouse the passions of the multitude to. 
such a pitch, as would induce them to come forward, 
as with one heart, in defence of their country. The 


FRANCE. 


letter of the Marquis de Bouillée had in some degree _ History 
this effect; but their purpose was still more y > 
answered, by the circulation in France of what was call- 
ed the treaty of Pilnitz, The authenticity of this Treaty of 
treaty has been denied; but whether authentic or not, Pilsits. 
as it produced a wonderful effect on the French nation, 
it requires to be noticed. Speenerte We aepertit 
tion treaty between certain of the powers of Europe, by 
which they agreed to make. war on France, and to re- 
compense themselves for the ces of the war, and 
the restoration of Louis to his fall authority, by annex- 
ing certain parts of the territories of France to their own 
dominions, In the mean time, the National Assembly, 
on the 3d_ of y uted the new constitu- 
tion to the King. For reasons already stated, it is un- 
necessary to give the details of it, especially as the lead- 
ng pencinien oe ue = is 9 ap noti- 

ore. The Ki i acupies the constitu- 
tion, the National Apmis Posen itself on the 30th 
of September. From its principal and professed: object 
having been the formation of a constitution, it is gene- 
rally denominated the Constituent Assembly. vey 
' The next Assembly, which was elected according to Meeting of 
the forms nae § in the new constitution, met on ‘e 
the 7th of October. The members of it were entirely 6=°r>¥ 
new, as the members of the Constituent Assembly, by 
their own decrees, were excluded from holding seats in 
it. One of their first decrees respected the emigrants, 
who were assembling in considerable numbers on the 
frontiers of France: the punishment of death was des 
nounced against them, if they should continue thus af- ~ 
ter the Ist ay-aqg 1792. Severe pores onan 
passed nst e refractory clergy, or those who re« 
fused Pa the civic oath; but the King refused to 
sanction these decrees, In order to ify this refu- 
sal, he intimated to the Assembly, that the Elector of 
Treyes, on whose territories the emi ‘ 


commencement of the following year. T intimation 
ve considerable satisfaction, and in some measure, 
er aoat time, restored the popularity of the King. 


tious, and per! am da howevy 
cir igh ceca wah teeee. But it was ims 
ible that Louis could long retain his popularity ; 

Fe! ce of those who 
by, Go. neat Sens eters 
an 


of November. At this time the mayoralty of Bailly 
expired; the candidates were La Fayette and Pe- 
tion ; a very few months before, the popularity of the 
former was so great, that no person would have wished 
oF sierecigo hare opposed him ; — Petion, a vio# 
ent republican, was elected mayor by a great majority. 

Ie ie evident from this, that the republiaens wet Oso 
not strong, but well organised ; in parties: 
Gait ier apine Sima, hemo ttt i 
the place of their assembling, they had received or as~ 
sumed the name of Jacodius... To. oppose them, some 


Among them were Rabaud, Sieyes, 
Talleyrand, Montesquieu, &c, 


FRANCE. 


The hostile preparations of the emigrants, and of the 

ign powers, still;went on ; nor were they delayed in 
the least by the death ofthe Emperor of Germany, or the 
murder of the King of Sweden. Asthe French minister 
for foreign affairs did not use corresponding diligence and 
exertions, he was accused, even during his absence, by 
Brissot, apprehended, tried at Orleans, and executed. 'The 
management of affairs was next placed in the hands of 
those, who would not fail to make all due ‘preparation 
for the hostilities which threatened’ France. “Dumourier 
was appointed minister of war, Roland minister of the 
interior, and Claviere minister of finance. This com+ 


» Hi r. 


pleted the triumph, and established the power of the re- . 


publicans. One of the first’ acts of this party was to 

confiscate the property of the emigrants ; their next was 

War decla- todeclare war, on the 20th of April, against the king of 

red, 20. and Bohemia, in consequence of the Imperial 

a 1792, Minister demanding the restoration to the German prin- 

ces of their feudal rights; the restoration of Avignon 

to the Pope ; and that the neighbouring powers should 

: have no reason for apprehension, the weakness of 
the internal ent of France. 

The French armies immediately invaded the Austrian 

; Netherlands ; but the plan of the campaign was contri- 

: ved with so little foresight or ee and, from the 

State of the want of discipline and experience in the troops, so misera~ 

ene and bly oocamaed it was productive of noadvantage to the- 

“Y' Prench. » Indeed it was evident, that unless their troops 

were more obedient to their officers, they would do more 

mischief to the cause of France than to that of the ene- 

my; and yet such was the state of the public feeling, 

both in the army and at Paris, that the evil seemed 

more likely to increase than diminish. In the capital, 

party spirit was very violent; but the Jacobins were 

evidently gaining ground ; and the measures they adopt- 

.ed for ineréasing their own influence with the people, 

and diminishing that of their opponents, could not’ fail 

of effect. They circulated reports of intrigue and con- 

spiracy in favour of the enemies of the country; the 

amob, credulous, easily alarmed, and now accustomed to 

regard the aristocratical party as deci hostile to 

their interests, as well as the lawful objects of their ven- 

, rallied round the Jacobins, and supported, in a 

violent and tumultuous manner, their most ex’ nt 

propositions. For some time the King yielded to them ; 

but, like all his former conduct during ‘the Revolution, 

after having given them his countenance, and’ thus in- 

creased their power, he altered his conduct, and, when it 

was too late, resolved to oppose them. ‘The ministry 

were dismissed, except Dumourier, who, by being thus 

pre see by the King, became an object of suspicion with 

the Jacobin club; he therefore resigned his office, and 

joined thearmy. About this time, Marat, afterwards so 

infamously notorious, appeared on the stage, and, by his’ 

i writings and es, ra Siu 

The mob © increase the unpopularity of the king. On the 20th of 

reeds mo tal armed ye marched t the ‘Assembly, 

“the Assem--under the pretence of presenting petitions ; ‘they after. 

bly. wards, to the number of 40,000, surrounded the ‘Thuile 


aft 


» Teries, and insulted the king. As soon as these disgrace~ 
fal events ‘were Known in the army, ‘La Fayette Teft it, 


and presented Himself at the bar of the National Assem. 

bly, where he expressed the indignation’ of eh 

and called upon the Rots to prevent the repetition o 

such’ scenes, by punishing the. promoters of them, and 

especially by dissolving the factious clubs. But the power 
8 


631 


of the Assembly was vain against elubs supported by the _ History. 
most numerous, the most desperate, and the most worth- ¥ 
less part of the population ‘of Paris; in them, in fact, 
was centered the government of the capital, or rather in 
‘the Jacobin club, which ruled ‘and moulded them at its. 
pleasure. Sey 
' 'To'these dreadful internal evils was now added an ap-- 
proaching invasion. The King of Prussia, in conjunce- 
tion with Austria, was marching against France with an 
immense force ; while the French armies were compara-- 
tively few in number, and ‘by no means equal to their 
opponents in respect to the discipline and obedience of 
the' soldiers, or the talents and:experience of the officers. 
But their deficiencies, in’ these ‘respects, it was hoped, . 
would be more than compensated by their enthusiasm, and 
by the co-operation of the people. ‘These, however, it 
was necessary to rouse, and for this purpose the Assembly. 
ordered a proclamation to be made that the country was 
in danger.' This object, however, was more ‘effectually 
accomplished, by a manifesto, issued by the Duke, of Manifestdof 
Brunswick, as ‘commander~ of* the invading ‘army, at oe 
Coblentz,'on the 25th of July.! In this’ manifesto, de: Vi. os. 
struction ‘to ‘Paris, and the ‘executio#’ bf" all who resisted, July. 
were'dendwnced ; and’ the safety of the royal family Was . 
declared to'be the only condition on which the capital, or » 
the National Assembly, could ‘possibly escapt the ‘sé. 
Verest ‘vengeance of the allied powers. ‘The ‘immedi. 
ate’ consequence of this ign ent ‘and impolitic ma- 
nifesto, was the union of all partiés, for their mutual 
defence, arid the support ‘of what they ‘conceived to be 
the'will’ of the nation, ‘and the independence of France. 
However’ they ‘might ‘differ? pnd! quarrel among them. 
selves, all felt and acted on the necessity, at the present’ 
mometit, of opposing the allied powers, who ‘entered 
France with sibt detMeritodi of vengeatice.” ‘The friends - i 
of the King soon fatally experienced the extent of mise 
chief to him and his cause, which this mabifesto produ- 
eed, The republicans, long anxious ‘for his deposition, 
had now ‘too good an opporturlity to be neglected ;— 
for ‘who, thought they, would dare to defend a King, 
who was such an enemy to France, as to have his safety 
put in competition with its liberty and ‘independence ? 
But jit was necessary, even yet, to proceed with caution 
in the deposition of ‘Louis: the republicans could not exe 
pect that the ‘National, Assembly would willingly 
to it, They had accused La Fayette before it, and. he had 
been acquitted ; and hence they inferred, that their mea-- 
sures respecting the King would not be well received by 
that Assembly ; it was therefore their object to excite the 
worst passions of the populace against him. 

In Paris, at this time, there were too many, who might 
easily be made the zealous instruments of the worst of 
crimes ; for, besides the mob of the city, 15,000 Mara 
seillois had arrived at the period of the confederation, 
on the 14th of July, not the Jeast behind the most.un- . 
principled ‘and ferocious ofthe Parisians in their hatred 
of royalty and order, and in their disposition to excite 
disturbance, and to commit murder. ith these, and 
the mob'of Paris, the republicans intrigued, and. the 
friends of Louis were not long in perceiving that his life 
was in danger. The palace, therefore, was guarded by 
a number of gentlemen, by the Swiss, troops, and. by 
12 pieces of cannon.. Mandat, the commander of the 
national guards, was at-their head, At midnight, on the 
Oth of August, the toesin.sounded, and the drums beat 
to. arms ; but the republicans knew that while Mandat 


682 


lived, their efforts against the life of the King would be 

unavailing ; they therefore contrived to persuade him to 

leave his post, and come to the commune, which was 

entirely composed of their own friends ; and as he was 

leaving the hall, he was shot, and Santerre appointed to 
command the national guard in his place. . 

Mamacreof On the 10th of August, Louis found himself placed in 

the 10th of such a perilous situation, in the palace, that he sought 

“> ection in the National Assembly. Immediately after 

left the Thuilleries, the insurgents, to the number of 

20,000 men, attacked the Swiss who guarded it ; a bloody 

combat ensued ; but the Swiss were overpowered, and 

most of them massacred... The republican party, now 

strong in the success which had attended their: first ef- 

forts, and in. the terror which they had excited, resolved 

to push the execution of their favourite object imme- 

diately ; the royal authority was suspended ; the nation 

_ invited to choose a convention ; commissioners sent to 

bag amt a army ; and the royal family imprisoned in the Tem- 

e,.2 3 ' 

y The influence which Lia Fayette. possessed, with. the 

army, it was hoped, by the friends of the king and of 

justice and order, would preserve them loyal and obe- 

dient ; but they were not to be depended upon, and.La 

Fayette judged it prudent to leave the camp,, soon after 


History. 


Flight and 
confinement 
dae toseek his safety in flight. He escaped, from, his own 
troops, but he was made prisoner by the enemy, and de- 
tained in, Austrian and Prussian dungeons for several 
years. The commissioners now found no opposition to 
the duthority of which they were empowered to. exercise 
over the army; but were received with respect, by Ge- 
nerals Dumourier, Biron, Montesquieu, Kellerman, and 
Custine. Dumourier, having removed the suspicions 
formerly entertained of him by the republicans, was 
appointed commander-in-chief, on the flightof La Fayette., 
is general was at the head of about 17,000 men, and, 
with this inadequate force, his object was to watch, for 
he could not hope to oppose, the progress of the. allied 
forces. These had entered France so numerous and well 
equipped, that the conquest of that country seemed cer- 
tain and near at hand. The Duke of Brunswick had 
50,000 Prussians ; there were 15,000 Austrians under 
Clairfait ; and the Hessians and French emigrants raised 
the total force to 90,000 men. Their success.at first was 
portioned to their strength and their hopes. Longwy 
and Verdun surrendered, and Paris ‘was already in alarm. 
This moment of alarm was not to be oyerlooked by 
the Jacobin party,—it was too favourable to their views, 
They declared that the safety of the country, and the 
destruction of foreign foes, could not be accomplished, 
while there existed in Paris so many domestic enemies 
of the people. The most horrid massacres accordingly 
took place, at which the forms of justice were either en« 
tirely neglected, or attended to in such a manner, as. to 
render the proceedings still more repulsive to humanity. 
For two days, the mob, under the direction of Marat, 
Roberspierre, and Danton, who now led the common 
council, had the entire possession of Paris; no person 
besides durst stir out of their house; the national guards 
at this crisis seemed disposed to interfere, but Santerre 
Was too strongly attached to the violent Jacobins to re- 
press cruelties which they had organized and directed. 
The massacres did not cease, nor was even the ap- 
pearance of order and tranquillity completely re-esta- 
blished in the capital, till intelligence arrived that the al- 


France. 


Masracres 
of the 2d 
and 34 of 
September, 


FRANCE. 


intelligence of the transactions at Paris had arrived; and 


lies had commenced their retreat out of France. For | 

some time after the reduction of Verdun, they had ad- 

vanced with little or no opposition; but as soon as Dus The allies 

mourier had organised his army, he opposed consider. "tes 

able obstacles to their farther and some battles 

were fought, in which the behaved with great 

coolness, and evidently shewed that they were improved 

in discipline. Notwithstanding this, however; and the 

additional circumstance, that the troops under his com- 

mand were much increased ; Dumourier would not have 

been able to save his country, had not sickness and fa- 

mine attacked the Prussians.',.The former origi 

from the soldiers eating Jarge \quantities of fruit, and 

from the unusual wetness.of the season; the latter took 

its rise from the inhabitents ‘absolutely refusing to carry 

provisions to the camp.of ‘the enemy. . It has-been.sus- ~ >" 

pected that, even in spite of the reduction in the str 

and spirits of his soldiers, which \sickness and e 

produced, the, Duke of Brunswick might have driven 

the French army before’ him, if the King,of Prussia had 

continued firm'to the cause of the allies. . However this 

may be, after a truce of eight ware he commenced his ree 

treat: He was not pursued, but Verdun and Longwy were 

retaken, and Thionville, which had been ly defended 

by, General Wimpfen was relieved. The Austrians were 

not more successful than the Prussians; for sha beees rhs ° 

Lisle for a fortnight without the least prospect of re- 

ducing it, they raised the siege. .On the side of Sayoy, © 

the French were the invaders, and they were received 

by the people with great joy and enthusiasm, ». The’ suc« 

cess which had attended the defence of their own. terri- 

tories, made them forget, that they, had declared they 

would not,invade the territories of other nations: not Successes 

only was Savoy invaded, but Spires, Worms, Mentz,, the 

and Frankfort were attacked and taken before the close 

of 1792. The last place, however, did not remain, 

in their possession, as it was recaptured on the 2d of. 

December in that year. In the Netherlands, the French 

were still more successful. On the 6th of Noyember,. 

Dumourier attacked the Austrians, who were strongly. 

fortified on the heights of Jemappe. The battle was most 

obstinate and bloody, but French enthusiasm, joined to, 

superior numbers, succeeded ; and this victory decided, 

the fate of the Austrian Netherlands...) 
In the mean time, the National Convention assembled}, National 

and as the republican party were by far the most. nume-. Convention, 

rous in it, and were besides sure of support from the, 

Parisians, they proposed, on the very day of the. 

meeting, the eternal abolition of royalty in France. This Royalty 

was carried by acclamation. The next day it was de- 

creed that all acts should be dated by the year of the 

Republic ; and the appellation of icitizen was universally 

adopted. . Still, notwithstanding these foolish and mad 

acts, San wae some poe. in the aaa 

not unite the. utmost profli of principle and, : a 

vity of conduct with their ‘lly i titer © mm : e p 

were the Girondists, or Brissotines ; the most celebrated = 

} 


anche ey, 


< 


and respectable of whom were Condorcet. Brissot. parties. 
The other party were denominated the Mountain, be-~ 

cause the members of it usually sate on the upper seats 

in the convention ; of these, the most p and in- 

famous were Danton, Roberspierre, Marat, and Collot ; 
D'Herbois. The Girondists. were anxious to punish : 
the perpetrators of the massacres of the 2d and: $d 

of September; but their motions to this effect were 

always eluded by the Mountain party, who had been 


a ~~ 


Hist chiefly i ental in these massacres, and looked for- 
= pics aw repetition as the means of intimidating 


: ° ¥ . a , ca . = 2 In 
ale eir opponents, and penis iy Git PORET I 
a, a, decree was passed, that all emigrants. when 
4 seer aulize doting ae 
Louis XVL 4 owe a) Sey | 

tion, that they would grant fraternity, and assistance to 
: all people who were anxious to, be free ; and the gene 
, were ordered to give assistance to, all such, On the 11th 
of December, Louis was ordered to the bar of the,Con- 
vention ; and the act. of accusation being. read, he was 
required. Peng President to answer to each separate 
charge. . These charges were very numerous ; some of 
them were of a frivolous nature; others related 
done either before the Revolution had defined and limit- 


his own y, but the 
rance,; ought not to be sey 
i rt. 


tranquillity and happi 
Ht pet eon ig he. look- 


cope nasioans of is’s mind, which had displayed it- 
So frequently H.40 Jebel, epng. th0 Ren tion, 
isappeared when his misfortunes reached their height ; 

is whole conduct was. firm, composed, and digni- 
fied ; and he met his fate ina manner which surprised 
and even his enemies. , 


and Great Britain are given in the article Bairain, and 
need not be repeated here. 

ecmapen. sf the Austrian Netherlands, Du- 

towards Holland: but he did not con- 

duct. his operations. with, judgment ; for, dividing his 

after ing as far 


FRANCE. 


'¥ i ; ey e following month, 
Trial of the Convention declared, in the name of the French na- 


633 


powers held at Antwerp, it was resolved to invade France History. 
for the express purpose of conquest. This resolution ““Y™™ 
was immediately begun to be carried intoexccution. The 
Austrians advanced ; and, alter five, different engage- 
ments with the French under General Dampier, in the 
last but one of which he was killed, they succeeded. in 
reaching Valenciennes, and. commenced. the siege of it. 
About the same time, the Prussians having repulsed the 
French, army under Custine, laid siege to Mentz. . The 
advantages and progress of the allies created great alarm 
in Paris, but were not, unacceptable to the party of the 
Mountain. , Their object was the destruction of the Gi- 
rondists ; and to effect this, nothing else was necessary 
but to render them obnoxious to the people, as the ene- 
mies of liberty, and the friends of the allied powers. 
The Mountain party, on all occasions of violence and 
injustice, used as their instruments the mob of Paris, 
which was now regularly organised. for, that. purpose, 
The capital was divided into forty-eight sections, and 
section had its commune, or common hall, in which 
most iropaelet and, unprincipled directed the pros 
ceedings. On the 15th of April, the communes of all 
the sections petitioned the Convention, that the leaders 
of the Girondist party should be impeached and expel- 
led. The Girondists retaliated by impeaching Marat ; 
but he was acquitted. This, was the prelude of their 
fall,. The Convention was now no longer an independent 
body, but was overawed by the populace and the Mountain 
party. The latter, however, were not so powerful in the 
provinces as in Paris. .Most of the southern depart- 
ments declared the Mountain party outlawed, and broke 
out into, open revolt. The northern departments, in 
general, adhered to them. Soon after their triumph, 
they lost. one of their leading members,—Marat, who Marat 
was stabbed by Charlotte Cordé, a woman who came to venwenardoig 
Paris for that purpose, and who gloried inthe execution Corie. 
of a deed, which she thought the cause of freedom and 

of her-country called upon her to perform, 

In a fortnight after, the Mountain party gained the as- 
cendency over the Girondists. They framed a new con- 
stitution, but it was never put in practice. They also 
established, or at least gave more vigour to the revolution- 
ary tribunal, the object of which was to try crimes 
against the state in the most summary and arbitrary 
manner. ' 

The allies, in the mean time, did not derive so much : 
advantage from the distracted state of France as might 
have been expected ; for, however the French might be 
divided among themselves, they seemed. resolved. that 
no foreign power should interfere in their quarrels, or 
trespass with impunity on. their national independence. 
Valenciennes: held out till the 27th of July, and Mentz 
nearly as long. The possession of these places seemed 
to open a direct and easy road into,the heart of France. 

But success produced its usual consequences ; the allies 

could not agree in their future plans, and .on this account ‘The allies 
divided their forces. Unsuccessful attempts. were made are unsuc- 
on Dunkirk, Cambray, and Bouchain, , Prince Cobourg °**"- 
was repeatedly attacked by the French under Jourdan : 

The French soldiers, animated, by the, presence of com- 
missioners from the Convention, pt ya spiritu- 

ous liquors, which were supplied them by crowds of wo- 

men who attended the, army, for this. purpose, and to 

carry off the wounded, ;and.supported by a formidable 

and well-served train of artillery, were irresistible. The 

. he a 4L A : 


Alarm at 
Paris. 


History. 


634 
Austrians retired, and maritime Flanders was again inva- 


—Y— ded, and partly conquered by the French. 


Chel war 


is the south frontiers 


of France, 


and in la 
Vendée. 


At this period, when they were victorious on their 
bert their enemies, a-civil war raged in dif- 
ferent parts of France. Lyons, ‘Marseilles, and Toulon, 
still opposed the authority of the Mountain party, and 
of course of the Convention, who were completely subser- 
vient to the yop cmhree hited git! On the 
Sth of August, Lyons was attacked by the conventional 
troops, and ¢ h soon reduced almost: to ruins, it did 
not surrender till the 8th of October, when its walls and 
public buildings were razed to the ground, and an im- 
mense number of its citizens destroyed, by firing grape 
shot among them; the usual mode of execution by 

guillotine being too slow and easy a death for the vora- 
cious cruelty of the conquerors. Marseilles, terrified at 
the fate of Lyons, submitted ; and Toulon put itself in- 
to the power of Lord Hood, who, however, was soon 
Bm to evacuate it. p . 

“This civil war was between two parties, each of whom 
was friendly to the revolution ; but the civil war in La 
Vendée was of a different character. In this district of 
France, the Bourbons had numerous and powerful 
friends, Divided from the rest of France in some de- 
gree by its situation, and much more by the difference of 
the manners, language, and habits of the people, La Ven- 
dée had not participated in the change of opinions which 
had produced the revolution. Into it, as a secure re- 
treat, cory Beg the priests who had refused to’ take the 
civic oath fied, and as the inhabitants were supersti-' 
tious, the priests did not fail to call in the aid of reli- 
gion to the cause of the Bourbons. At first, the insur- 
gents of La Vendée were rapidly successful ; they besie- 
ged Nantes, and even threatened “Paris ; but a te- 
dious war, in which the most dreadful cruelties were 
committed on both sides, they were reduced to apparent 
and temporary submission. ‘ 

The grand conflict between the allies and the French, 
in the months of October, November, and December of 
this year, was on the Rhine. As the latter did not deem 
themselves sufficiently numerous to oppose their enemies, 
they had erected very strong ‘fortifications at Weissem- 
burg, on the Lauter. On the 13th of October, general 
Wurmser made an attack upon them with all his force, 
and, notwithstanding their strength, he succeeded with 
little difficulty in driving the French from their lines ; 
from thence they retreated to Hagenau ; hence also 
were driven ; and a were subsequently defeated on 
the 25th and 27th. The design of the allies to.conguer 
at least parts of France for themselves, was now mani- 
fested ; for Wurmser refused to accept the surrender of 
Strasburg, wmless to his Imperial Majesty. As the de- 
feats which the French had suffered were ascribed to 

, or to a want of enthusiasm, commissioners 
were sent by the Convention to the army, who, by the 
severity of their measures, as well as by the doctrines 
that-they preached to the common soldiers, succeeded in 
rendering them victorious. This effect, however, must 
also be ascribed, in part, to the numerous reinforcements, 
which the measures adopted by the convention supplied 
to all the French armies, the nature of which will be af- 


the difference in the ardour and efforts of the army op- 
syed to him, after the arrival of the commissioners ; 

, by the middle of November, his advance and success 
were at an end—the French became the assailants. Not 


FRANCE. 


only the Austrians, but also the Prussians, were defeated 
in all quarters ; they could not withstand the immense 
umerical 


aided as it was by the maddening Heaton: 


aisinsialls the French, even in their strongly forti 


cole anet Mabe they were d aon peuorul ab tay 
most all o , riven th is 
onet. Generals Hoche and zru directed these 


wonderful atchievements of the French. The campaign’ 
terminated in this quarter by the reduction of Spires and 
Fort Louis. aoe 


We have already alluded to the means by which the. 


French armies were supplied with such a great numeri- 
cal superiority, as to com , in some _ for’ 
their want of experience and discipline: it will now be 
proper to explain them. As the Convention had ‘com=" 
pleted the business for which they had been elected,’ 
viz. the formation of a constitution, they ought to have 
dissolved themselves ; but under the pretext, that, in the 
state of France, their dissolution, and the election of a 
new assembly, might be dangerous 


m) : , the Mountain a 
which was still’ triumphant, determined that it 5 

continue till the end of the war. ‘They also succeeded’ 
in establishing what was called a i 


of public safety. Th 
rior committees ; and united in itself a wonderful degree’ 


of secrecy, dispatch, skill, and energy. It correspond" 
ed with all the Jacobin clubs throughout France, and’ 
sent cornmissioners, with unlimited powers, into all parts 


of the kingdom. It is evident that this form of govern-" 
ment possessed wonderful means of carrying all its mea- 
sures into complete effect ; and, as its members were ac~ 
tuated by one sole motive—that of establishing their pe- 
culiar principles,—these means were cted 
through inattention, or sacrificed to interest. In short, 
at this period, the whole population of France, with all’ 
its corporea ; 
wild and energetic enthusiasm, was directed by a body of 
men, who knew all the resources of the state, and who 


exercised their unlimited and almost unquestioned autho= ~~ 


rity, with a degree of talent, vigilance, secrecy, activity, 
and zeal, never perhaps before combined. were 
despotic, not less by the power which they actually pos~ 
sessed, than by the feeling which actuated France ; for 
such was the abhorrence o 
by foreigners, such the desire of rendering what they 
conceived to be liberty triumphant, that the people almost 
offered themselves to the of those measures, 
which, with different feelings, and under different circum 
stances, they would have as rand tyran= 
nical. Thus the decree for placing France in a state of 
requisition, by which all unmarried citizens, from 18 to 
25, were ordered to join the armies ; while the married, 
the aged, and even the women and children, were to be 
employed in various ways in the service of their mre 
by forging arms, making tents and clothes, attending the 
hospitals, preaching hatred against the enemies of the res 
public, &c. was not op ; so far from this, it produs 
ced all the effects which aia d ihe ic safety 
(from which it originated, anticips r i 
The Mountain party having thus succeede oben 
the whole population of France against their enemies, 
in psy Sees Raion tee toy me of 
armies, resolved to destroy the Queen and the Girondist’ 
party. Against the former acct re : 
abhorrent to human nature, that even the most depraved 


: (error 


qn. A revolu- — 
ment, the principal engines of which was the committe tionary go 
is superintended a number OPT TS eared 


1 and mental powers, stimulated by the most _ 


Pym 


History. 


_ Measures, 


TAD. 1794, sue of 


FRANCE. 


of the Mountain party were shocked, at their tendency : 
after a mock trial, she was executed’ on the 16th of Oc- 
tober. On the 30th of the same month, Brissot.and,20 
* others of his party were executed ; and the Duke of Or, 
leans, who united perhaps a greater: degree of personal 
and political depravity, than any man with whom»the 
revolution has cursed France, was afterwards put to death, 
by that very party whom he had materially contributed 
to bring forward to serve his own purposes, «and who 
now accused him of having aspired to the sovereignty 
‘from the commencement of the revolution." + 
As soon as the Mountain party had got rid of their 
abandoned themselves to the most extra- 


opponents, t ; 
vagant and most dreadful excesses. It seemed, in their 
mad and blind rage for innovation, as if they thought 


m 
ould daacan crea On ee ae 
provisionally ( ing republic, 
GaNOd Tadalde wo datacvere Whee, end taving 
completely succeeded in recruiting the armies, the Con- 
vention turned their thoughts to the state of the finances. 


them, .a law was passed establishing a maximum. 
This, however, it was soon discovered, increased the evil; 


ie arp pr PRE SA. Rare 
i assignats, by the sale lands belonging to 
the church, and to the emigrants 


i ie any 
ed by the revolutionary tribunals. The churches were 
plundered of their gold and silver ; even their bells were 
melted and cast into cannon. In order still farther to 


were manufactured and cast. The whole agricultural 
produce of the country was seized by the government, 
who distributed it to each district according to its popu- 
Neti Ape yaa 


Yet these very men, who seemed to have: bat one soul, 


then they acted forthe defence of France, were divided 
Into two most implacable parties. Roberspierte was at 


635 
triumphed, and by the middle of April all his most ac- _ History, 
tive opponents had suffered death. His own fate, how- 
ever, was not far distant ; for, on the 27th of July, se- 
yeral members of the Convention whom he meant to haye 
sacrificed, (among whom the most enterprising was Tal- 
lien,) accused him of tyranny: his arrest was decreed, fxecution 
and on the next day he was seized and executed. To of Rober-- 
him the Moderate party, as they were termed, succeed- ‘Pierre. 
ed; who, at the same time, that they stopt short of his 
atrocities, were undoubtedly inferior to him in talent, ac« 
tivity, and vigour; so that had not the great machine of 
the army been so admirably constructed, and so well sup- 
plied by Roberspierre and his party, it must have fallen 
in pieces, or at least worked with diminished effect under 
his successors. , 

The allies being now convinced that the French not’ 
only could bring into the field larger armies than they 
expected ; but that their generals possessed a very consi- 
derable degree of skill, and their troops steadiness and 
discipline, as well‘as enthusiasm, prepared to open the Campaign 
campai of 1794 with such a force, and on such a plan, of 1794. 
as, in their opinion, could not fail to render them gene< 
rally and permanently victorious. Their force amounts 
ed to upwards of 180,000 men, consisting of Dutch, 
Germans, and English, divided into six armies ; and 
their plan was, by getting within the frontier towns of 
France, to cut eir enemies from the interior. At 
first they met with some success; but the numbers 
which the decrees of the committee of public safety pours 
ed into the French armies, and the enthusiasm and are 
dour with. which even. these. raw troops were inspired, in 
a short-time not only deprived the allies of the fruits of 
their victories, but obliged them. to.act entirely on the- 

nsec He especially, was: eminently successful in ma 
ritime Flanders: Ypres surrendered to him, Charleroi 
was taken by Jourdan, who afterwards defeated the Aus- Grearens! 
trians at Fleurus. These misfortunes compelled the al+ cosses of the 
lies to retreat in every direction; and the French be- Fren 
held themselves advanced, victorious, to the confines of 
Dutch Flanders. On the Rhine, their success was equally 
erent, and from the same causes: before the-end of July, 
the Palatinate was in their possession. Iii the battles by - 
which these conquests were atchieved, they indeed lost 
immense numbers of men ; but their leading principle 
was to bring up superior forces every day till their ob- 
ject was accomplished ; and thus acting on their ene- 
mies with a , not only of greater weight, but of more 
rapid motion, they bore down all opposition, 

The only cases in which they were unsuccessful this 
eampaign, were in Corsica, and in their rencontre by sea 
with Lord Howe; the circumstances of both of which 
have been detailed in the History of Briain. 

From the pause which the Freuch army made, when 
it had advanced to the confines of Dutch Flanders, it 
was at first supposed that they did not mean to invade 
the United Provinces ; but aftera short pause, Pichegru - 
advanced, and the allies retreated before him, first across 
the Maese, and afterwards across the Rhine. On-the 
7th of November, Nimeguen was occupied by the French,’ 
when they again paused in the career of victory. On 
the borders of Spain they were equally successful ; the 
Spaniards were unable to stand before them, and the 
greater part of Navarre fell into their power, while, on 
the east side of Spain, Catalonia, by the conquest of Rew . 
sas, was left totally undefended, . 


636 


History. 
—_—— 


Tumults in 
Parm. 


Executive 
Directory 
established. 


Members 
of it, 


Peace with 
Prussia, 
A. D. 1795. 


It is now time to look to Paris, at once the scene of 
constant intrigue, and the mutual massacre of parties, 
and the source whence all the victories of the arm 
flowed. The Jacobins, though defeated, were not  di- 
spirited or inactive: they formed a most dreadful plot 
to regain their power ; and this plot, as usaal,-was to 
be carried into execution in Paris, for whoever ruled 
Paris ruled the kingdom; and in the most profligate 
districts of Paris, for hitherto whoever ruled there, ru- 
led the capital. The hall of the Convention was sur- 
rounded, on the 20th of May 1795, by. immense num- 
bers of abandoned and desperate women, who demand- 
ed bread, and the constitution of 1793; and the mem- 
bers were compelled to retire, till General, Hoche with 
the military, dispersed the insurgents, The Jacobins, 
however, returned to the charge in the evening; and by 
pointing some pieces of cannon against the hail of the 
Convention, intimidated the members into a promise 
that bread should be supplied, and the constitution of 
1798 restored. The troops again came’to the relief of 
the Convention ; and, by attacking the suburb of St 
Antoine, the t focus of rebellion, they succeeded in 
reducing the msurgents, and in restoring the authority 
of the Convention. Inthe south of France, where the 
Jacobins also endeavoured to regain their power, they 
were not more fortunate ; so that the Convention might 
have established themselves firmly, had they been ne 4 
sessed of that commanding talent and energy, which 
the state of France, both at home and abroad,’ at that 
time, imperiously demanded, But they were deficient 
in these respects; and their deficiency they were anxious 
to compensate, by the establishment of a new constitu- 
tion. The plan of this constitution was laid before the 
Convention, by the committee appointed to frame it, on 
the 25d of June. According to it, the legislature was 
to be composed of two assemblies; and the executive 
upc was to be entrusted to five persons, who were to 

called the Executive Directory. This plan was not 
received with much approbation at Paris; and an espe- 
cial provision made by the Convention, that at the ap- 
proaching election, the electors should be bound to re- 
turn two-thirds of the present members, or, if they did 
not, that the Convention themselves might fill up the 
vacancies, gave very great dissatisfaction. In this emer- 
gency, the Convention endeavoured to strengthen them- 


selves against the citizens of Paris, by an union with- 


the Jacobins ; and by this union, and the assistance of 
the troops in Paris, which were placed under the com- 
mand of Barras, Brune, and Bonaparte, the refractory 
citizens were compelled to submit to the Convention ; 
but the consequence was, that the Jacobins regained 
their ascendency. 

On the 27th of October, the Convention was dissol- 
ved, and the new legislature began to act. Their first 
measure was the election of the Executive Directory. 
Sieyes, Barras, Reubell, La Reveillere Lepaux, and Le- 
tourneur de La Manche were chosen. Sieyes, however, 
declining the honour, Carnot was appointed in his 

lace. All the members of the Directory except La 
eveillere Lepaux, had been connected with the Moun- 
tain party. 

At the commencement of the campaign of 1794, the 
King of Prussia had received a subsidy from Britain, 
on condition that he brought into the field an army of 
60,000 men ; but as this army never arrived, it was 
suspected that he was about to make peace with France. 
This suspicion was confirmed ; for on the 20th of April, 
1795, a treaty of peace with him was ratified by the 
Convention. Shortly afterwards, the Kings of Sweden 


FRANCE. 


__ of tlfe campaign of 1794, and before the conquest of Hol- 


and Spelt, and the cantons’ of Switzerland, also con- History. 
cluded a peace with France ;-and towards the end of 
August, several of the German princes followed their 
example. The rest were on the point of acting in the 
same manner, when victory began to desert the French 
standard. 4 , : 

this reverse, however, the military successes 
of the French had been very great. .We have already - 
mentioned, that, after the reduction of Nimeguen, their 
army halted in its career of victory. It \is le 
that they would not have invaded the province of Hol- 
land at this season of the year, (the winter of 1794-1795) ° 
had not the frost, setting in with uncommon severity, 
o oft for. ag Ba a 9s over the ice of 
very rivers and lakes, which it was hoped would 
have served as a secure protection, The allies in vain 


tempting to o their progress, they took ssi 
of hrneatoen ethene 


, without resistance, on the 16th of Ja- 
nuary 1795. They were well received fn dle, 
and increased their influence and popularity by the 
abolition of the Stadtholdership, 

Soon after this conquest, the Diet of Ratisbon seemed 


Holland 
subdued. 


isposed for peace. e allies, instead of overrunning 
and dividin arrardy as they had planned and 
ed, beheld the republic increased by an additi po- 


pulation of nearly 14 millions; while in the course even 


land, the French had taken 2000 pieces of cannon, and 
60,000 prisoners. The wish of the Diet, however, notwith- 
standing these wonderful successes of the French; and 
the probability that they would continue, was not, met 
either by Britain a ae The former was still sue- 
cessful by sea; and hoped, by nourishing and sw 
i sist palin ‘in La Vendée, to. ish that 
which the allied army had failed in effecting ; but, the 
most disastrous expedition to Quiberon extinguished 
her hopes in that quarter. wen 
Austria directed her efforts with more wisdom. . By 
the middle of June, the French were in possession of 
the whole left bank of the Rhine, except Mentz. In 
August, Jourdan crossed this river, in order to besiege 
Mentz ; while Pich succeeded in gaining posses- 
sion of Manheim. The Austrians having been driven 
batk, the siege of Mentz was begun ; but Jourdan was 


‘ 
5 
. 
h 


wc Bete 


_ 


soon obliged to give it up, in uence of a defeat 
which Pichegru experienced from Wurmser, 
It was now n for both the French armies to re- 
cross the river; and after had effected this, and - 
the Austrians had recovered eim, an armistice for 


three months was too. and 
In the mean time, the Directory and ‘the Jacobins 
were continually at variance, and, as usual, each endea- 
voured to enlist the citizens of Paris in their favour. 
The more respectable classes were decidedly inclined 


oe ee ee 


to su’ the di 3 but the mob, and the Legion 
of Pati, lvahaywrere called, isting of 10,000 men, 
were as zealous for the Jacobins. . ing on these, 


the latter attempted to carry into execution a plot, ac- 
cording to which, the members of the Directory were 
to be murdered, and a new directory and legislature 
appointed from among the most, violent. of their own 
party; but the plot was discovered, Py ea 
agents in it arrested. On. the 9th of June, this year, 

e Dauphin died in the pg aa pr fd soon Death of — 
afterwards delivered up.to the Emperor of Germany, the Dau- : 
in exchange for the commissioners, — Dumourier Phin- 
had sent prisoners to the Austrians, and for two French- 
men, who had been seized on their way to Turkey. _ ‘ 

As the campaign of 1795 had terminated unsuccess« i 


ee ee 


FRANCE. 


fully to the French on the Rhine, the Di Te- 
solved to exert their utmost endeavours to open that of 
1796, in such a manner as would restore their superio- 


rity, and regain their conquests. But when they 
for recruiting 


637 
ra, Bologna, and Urbino, were the fruits of this victory, History. 
the Austrians retirmg into the bishopric of Trent. | 
Naples and Tuscany fought and obtained peace. The * Conse 
siege of Mantua was the next object of the conquerors ; 1" 
but they were drawn from it by the re-advance of the 
Austrians under General Wurmser, who had been ap- 
pointed to su le Beaulieu. This general was not 
more successful than his ecessor ; and being obli- 

, after repeated defeats, to retire to the Tyrolese 

tier, Mantua was re-invested. After a month’s re- 
spite, the armies again tried their strength, and the 

ustrians being again defeated, the victors took posses- 

sion of Trent. They did not, however, at this time, 
long keep possession of this district, for Wurmser ; by 


to examine sarge aa = 
the armies, supplying them with the necessary pro- 
— and te , they found a lamentable defceney 
‘money. e assignats were excessively deprecia- 
ted; nor could their credit be any longer su 
by the most severe decrees, while an in issue 
only augmented the d iation. It was therefore 
resolved, on the 25th of March 1796, to dispose of the 
remainder of the church lands ; but it seems not to have 
entered into the of the Di , that, as the 


‘ os 
ee a 


a Gwe 


his manceuvres, drew them out of it ; and though he sus- 
tained another ee! yet, in his retreat, he succeeded 
in encouragin e garrison of Mantua, by throwin 
himself ito that place. The Austrian hay was ow 
placed under the command of Alvingi, who, at first, 
was b nbeng successful, but was at length driven across 
the Brenta by Bona . Mantua, however, still held 
out at the end of the year 1796. : 


The armistice in Germany terminated on the 31st of Operations 
May. In consequence of the success of the French at @™ Germe- 
the commencement of this campaign, the Archduke ny. 


igre, W en dag 
; . 


2 


ss SD gran I © 

lea 
greets 
ie 

3 

a 

ze 

e 

8 3 

a 


ing year, had the command of the third army 
Italian coast, from Nice to Genoa. The won- 
‘derful advantages of in Italy, and the de- 
feat of Jourdan, and retreat of Moreau, in Germany, 
‘portant. 
assumed the command, he 
threatened Genoa.. This induced Beaulieu, who com- 
manded the Austrian troops, to resolve on the attack 
of the whole French line ; but the attack being unsuc- 


As soon as 


trians, he defeated the former ; and, by his subsequent 
ing of Sardinia to 


the 
Lodi, im the Milanese. The bridge, at 
the Adda, was defended by 30 pi 
so very formidable, that all the 


Charles left the Palatinate, to force Jourdan down the 
Rhine. In this he succeeded ; but in the mean time, 
Moreau had crossed that river at Kehl, against him 
therefore the Archduke thought it proper to advance ; 
and Jourdan, taking advantage of this, again crossed 
the Rhine, and afterwards the Lahn, and gained pos- 
session of Frankfort. The Archduke, apprehensive 
that Jourdan and Moreau would form a junction, re- 
solved to attack the latter before it took place; but 
Moreau anticipated him, and the Austrians were com- 
pelled to retreat. Their army also, which was opposed 
to Jourdan, retreated, keeping up, however, a commu- 
nication with the main army under the Archduke. The 
line of their retreat was through Swabia; and, by the end 
of August, the three republican armies, under Moreau, 
Bonaparte, and Jourdan, were of the whole 
country from the frontiers of Bohemia to the Adriatic, 
with the exception of a part of the Tyrolese. 


riod, lese, and ea 
ed the Danube, the Em must have submitted 
to whatever conditions the French chose to dictate. 

The Archduke Charles being strongly reinforced, en- 
deavoured to oppose the advance of Moreau; but not 
su ing, he crossed the Danube, and attacked Jour- 
dan, leaving part of his army as a check on Moreau. 
Jourdan was now under the necessity of retreating, till, 
by the middle of ber, he arrived at Coblentz 
and Dusseldorf, from which places he had advanced at 
the beginning of the campaign. 

Moreau, in the mean time, endeavoured to drive be- 
fore him the part of the Austrians which were left to 
watch him’; but they, having been reinforced, he could 


: oreret 


not penetrate beyond the Iser. His communication 
with Jourdan was now completely cut off, and for some ee 
weeks he was ignorant of his fortune or movements. Moreau. 


F 
i 


As soon, however, as he learned: that he had been com- 
pelled to retreat, he was sensible that it was absolutely 
necessary for him to retreat also. In order to deceive 
the Pena who was opposed to him, he at first moved 
as if he meant to etrate further into Austria; and 
having thus compelled his adversary to fall back, he be- 
gan’ his retreat between the Danube at Ulm, and the 


Timtory. 


Campaign 
af 1797. 


Butle of 
Rivoli. 


638 
Lake of Constance. @n his rear the Austrian general 
hang incessantly: his route through the Black Forest 
was occupied iy numerous bodies of Austrians and 
armed peasintry, while his right flank was harassed by 
another arn ot 24,000 men, Notwithstanding the ex- 
treme difficulties of this critical situation, he continued 
his retreat in the most excellent order, and actually 
more than once turned = and the army 
thet was pursuing him. The dreadful passage of the 
valley of Hell, overhung with lofty mountains, and in 
some places only a few fathoms broad, was forced by 
the centre of his army in a mass, while the wings op- 
the Austrian armies that h on his rear and 
anks. On the 15th of October arrived at Fri- 
burg ; but he was soon afterwards forced by the Arch- 
duke to abandon all his positions on that side of the 
Rhine, except Kebl. This place also the Archduke 
was resolved to reduce ; but not being able to succeed, 
and the French, finding their whole frontier exposed, 
the latter evacuated it in the beginning of 1797. 

The first object of the Austrians in 1797, was the re- 
lief of Mantua. General Alvingi’s army was upwards 
of 50,000 strong. At first they were so successful 
against a division of Bonaparte’s army, that their im- 
mediate capture was expected. As soon as that gene- 
ral was informed of their critical situation, he hastened 
to their relief. On the 14th of January, a most obsti- 
nate battle took place at Rivoli. The centre of the 
French was on the point of giving way, both their 
flanks were surrounded, and the defeat of Bonaparte 
seemed certain, when, by a masterly manceuvre, he 
completely changed the fortune of the day, penetrated 
the right wing of the Austrians at various points, and 
threw them into such disorder, that 4000 of them 
threw down their arms. On the following day, 6000 
more were surrounded and taken prisoners. 
parte now hastened to meet that of the Austrian 
army which was threatening the lines of the blockade, 
and succeeded in capturing the whole of them. The 
defence of Mantua being now hopeless, General Wurm- 
ser capitulated. 

The humiliation of the Pope was the next object of 
Bonaparte. The forces of his Holiness were soon sub- 
dued, and he was compelled to sign a peace, dictated by 
the French general. 

The French government having failed in their at- 
tempt to reduce the Emperor to submission by the 
campaign on the western side of Germany, resolved to 
a into his hereditary dominions on the side of 

taly.. They, therefore, sent strong reinforcements to 
Bonaparte. On the other hand, the Archduke Charles 
took the command on the southern frontiers of Aus- 
tria ; but, instead of walang the enemy in the moun- 
tains, he was directed by the council of war at Vienna 
to descend into the plains, and defend the rivers. The 
consequences of this absurd plan were fatal to the Aus- 
trians, who were driven from all their positions, and 
lost their principal magazines. In fifteen days Bona- 
parte took 20,000 prisoners, and effected the 
of the Alps, His way to Vienna was now open; but 
not insensible of the to which even his success- 
ful progress had exposed hin, he wrote to the Arch- 
duke on the 31st of March, ing peace. The 
latter replied, that he had no Pithority to treat ; and, 
in the mean time, the inhabitants. of the Tyrol rose 
en masse, Neither they, however, nor the ular 
Austrian armies, were able to stop the the 
French, who, on the 2d of a forced the strong de- 
files between Friesach and Newark. This success, and 


FRANCE — 


soothen defect wibichastine Anptalens moteinal sei 
, indu _Emperor ap ew ge on 


were to 


hile these operations were going 
Carasny’ apamie iinaten ied 7 
vented the Austrians on the Rhine from sending rein- 


were still divisions and di 
government at Paris. A decided majori 
Ag = — 
were e Moderate ; but, in consequence of 
some violent Aliscanions respect finance, and the re- 
storation of the propert emigrants, the legisla- 
tive and executive fretthes became professed i 
to each other. General Hoche, with a division of | 
army, was brought into the neighbourhood of Paris 


Italy by the opposite . The latter surrounded the 
Thurs, and made Pi : 

ite faction pri ; Carnot escaped, but 
Barthelemy was put eo net afterwards 
the councils, in a most 
ner, voted the I 
own members, and 12 other 
were Barthelemy and Pichegra,_ In Fyne "the 
displaced directors, the legislature chose Merlin and 
Francis de Neufchateau. About this time. the nego-. 
a with England, conducted by Lord;Malmsbury, 
‘ai “ 


= 


duct of the French towards the Pope, Switzerland, and 
arin happen teares dhe Romaicaeeeeeean 
ances ween the 
ion of the inhabitants who remained faithful to his 
oliness. In the course of these disturbances a French 
eral was shot, and Joseph Bonaparte, who was 
there as plenipotentiary, demanded his passports, and 
returned to nate. iy Ee, Ags ne qoveied she 
ion of Vienna, Spain, , t 
protecti ee Ee ent 


they would not in an 
pry. ecg inst Rome, subverted the dominion 
of the Ro- 


Pope, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the 
man le. Ever since the first successes of 
parte in Italy, the French had instructed their 
to demand, or take by apo, one mearm 
intings, antiquities, &c.; but on capture 
tes, Tistead of being sent to Paris, as) the. 
ther dines Resi. been, were, eh one aa 
In Switzerland, French principles had been 


fully ; [ 
solved to take advan of this circumstance, 
duce this country. A eee similar to that which 


th 


Z 
a 


i 
4% 
E 


soon found, that not only a large portion Sf the inka 


? 


story- tants of this canton, but also of the army, were disaf- 
, fected. Notwithstanding this, they imprudently de- 
, creed the rising of the people in a mass: the people did 
rise, but they dissolved the government, They were, 
; however, by no means willing, that the French should 
interfere in their disputes, and therefore offered terms 
‘to them, which were rejected. The enemy continued 
to advance ; the Swiss in vain them, and in- 
jured their own cause by murdering their officers, af- 
ter acomplete defeat that they suffered early in March. 
Berne capitulated, and most of the other cantons fol- 
lowed its example. A new constitution was framed at 
Paris for this country ; but the inhabitants of the small- 
er and more democratic cantons refused to accept it, 
and took up arms. At their head was Aloys Reding, a 
man of superior purity of patriotism and talents ; but 
all his efforts were imavaling, the confederacy being 
soon dissolved by the arts and the overwhelming power 
French. Scarcely, however, had an accommo- 
ce, when new commotions arose, which 
madness of ir ; even the women 
into the midst of the battle; and the robust 
mountaineers egg Beare Frenchmen to death in 
rt The F: retaliated, by the infliction of 
ies of cruelty that they could devise ; and, af- 
but aaa contest, overthrew the inde- 
or of Naples. he prudently placed 
i aples having impruden 80 
lence in the cigshehiotione of the S of 


— 
L 
g% 


é 
i 


j 


. 
vi 


i 
5 


aay ote 
; 
2 


the Nile, as to declare war against the French, to 
; advance to the re-conquest of Rome, the Di re- 
o solved to crush him. This was an easy task ; the Nea- 


: 
abi 
! 


troops, being driven from Ca- 


a 


against France. The Rus- 
commenced hostilities in the Levant, 
soon after they heard of the victory of the Nile; and 
being subsidized by Britain, they marched an army of 
45,000 men to the confines of Germany. Austria, how- 
Soe ait first afraid to en a gerne 
not giving a satisfactory answer to the French, who 
declared, that thie entrance of the Russian into 
would be considered as a declaration of war, 
, on the 13th of March 1799, ordered the 

i against the Em- 


sdivitied'@n Hie sdaypits 
soon reduced the Grisons; 


FRANCE. 


’ 


639 


but he was defeated in his next enterpr:ze. the re- History. 
duction of the post of Feldrich, which was held by "Vv" 
the Austrian General Hotze. The Austrians, how- 

ever, could reap little advantage from this success, but 

deemed it prudent to retreat into the Tyrol. The Arch- 

duke was opposed to Jourdan, and he was more suc- 

cessful ; the French general being obliged to retreat 

with considerable loss. Jourdan was soon afterwards 
removed, and Massena appointed to command his 

army. 

But the most important scene of operations this year Operations 


was Italy, where the Austrians were successful in se- kane 
veral en, ts, even before the junction of the Pro, soa 
Russians, This event took place about the beginning’ a ustrians, 


of April, and Suwarrow, who assumed the’comman 

of the combined army, resolved to pursue a bold plan 
of operations. Moreau was bse saree to him, but the 
Russian general deceived his adv , drove him from 
his entrenchments on the Adda, and obliged him to re- 
treat to Pavia, after having suffered a dreadful: loss. 
Moreau shortly afterwards gained some successes over 
a detached part of the Russian army, but Suwarrow 
adyancing, he was obliged to continue his retreat. At 
this crisis, Macdonald, who commanded the French 
army in the south of Italy, a forward for the pur- 
of joining Moreau. But he found that it would 

bow viously necessary to attack the allies; and Moreau 
endeavoured, by circulating a rt that he was about 
to receive reinforcements, to withdraw the attention of 
Suwarrow from Macdonald. The latter began his ope- 
rations on the 12th of June; and succeeded so far as 
to enter into Parma on the 14th; but his progress was 
arrested on the 17th. As soon as Suwarrow was inform- 
ed of his advance, he left Turin at the head of 20,000, 
and came up with him on the banks of the Tedone: 
for three days, there was a succession of desperate 
battles; and the victory was at last obtained by the 
Russians, in consequence of General Kray, who com- 
manded the army besieging Mantua, arriving, in direct 
opposition to his orders, with reinforcements. 
Suwarrow was indefatigable in his pursuit of the beaten 
army, and having surrounded their rear guard, it was 
obliged to surrender: the remainder took refuge in the 
Apennines and in the Genoese territory. Moreau, in 
the mean time, was victorious over the Austrian Ge- 
neral Pellets ; but his victory availed little, in con- 
sequence of the success of Suwarrow, and the Italian 
fortresses fell into the hands of the allies. Soon after~ 
wards, in consequence of a political change in Paris, 
Joubert was ordered to supersede Moreau, who, how- 
ever, continued in the army as a volunteer. It was 
the plan of Joubert to bring Suwarrow to battle as 
speedily as ible ; and being reinforced by the re- 
mains of Macdonald’s army, he succeeded in his plan 
at Novi, on the 15th of August. Scarcely had the en- 
tt commenced, when Joubert was killed, and 

oreau resumed the command : the victory was doubt- 
ful, till it was decided by the right flank of the French 
being turned. This division immediately fled, and the 
rest of the army joined in the retreat, whieh they con- 
tinued till they took up a strong position in the Ge~ 


po elon = ag The surrender of Tortona was alm 
the only t of this victory. : . 
The Directory, thus unsuccessful in Italy, resolved In Switzer 
to make Switzerland the scene of operations, and 4nd. 
to adopt a new plan. In the month of August, Mas- 
sena had the command here of 70,000. men; and be~ 
ing superior to the Archduke, whose position he threat- 
ened, Suwarrow marched to his relief. But the ca- 
3 


Return of 
Bonaparte 
from Egypt. 


A. D. 1799. 


Declared 
first consul. 


State of 
Italy, 
A. D. 1800, 


6410 
binet of Austria, jealous of the success of the Russian 
general, ordered the Archduke to go into Suabia with 
upwards of 50,000 men, and Switzerland was thus left 
exposed. Of this Massena resolved to take advantage, 
by attacking the remainder of the Austrian army before 
Suwarrow joined them, The French were successful, 
though the combat was long and obstinate, , Massena 
next advanced to meet Suwarrow ; and surrounded him 
in such a manner, that it was thought impossible he 
should escape ; but that general having discovered one 
pass in the mountains unoccupied by the, French, he 
made his way through it, with the loss of his cannon 
and baggage. Disgusted and indignant at the want of 
support from the Austrians, he withdrew his forces to 
the neighbourhood of Augsburg, and. transmitted his 
complaints to Petersburg. _ In the mean time, the Di- 
rectory had sunk into contempt ; and by their disputes 
among themselves, as well_as)the imbecility. of their 
conduct, promised an easy overthrow to any daring ad- 
venturer. Such a man was Bonaparte, who at this 
time returned from his expedition to Eaypr; an account 
of which is given in the Histories of that country and of 
Barrain. Bonaparte had several friends,in the councils 
and Directory, the most active of whom were Sieyes 
and Talleyrand. After several discussions,. they resol- 
ved that a consulate should be formed, and Bona) 
laced at its head. This scheme was concealed from 
Moreau, Berthier, and the other generals who were 


then in Paris, The majority of the assembly of Elders . 


agreed to the proposal ; but as the Jacobins preponder- 
ated in the Council of Five Hundred, they resisted. it. 
Bonaparte, however, rushed into their hall, while the 

were deliberating, on the 10th of November 1799, wit 

a military force, and expelled the a sag Three chief 
magistrates were appointed, with the a tion of 
Consuls; of whom [eres was at the a Cam- 
baceres and Lebrun the other two, . The senate was to 
be composed of 80 individuals; 100 .were to form a 
tribunate, and 300 a legislative body. In order to ren- 
der this violent change of the constitution less obnoxi- 
ous, it was decreed that the First Consul should hold 
his. office only for ten years, and the other two for five 
years. This change was.defended, on the ground that 
it was necessary to give to the government a greater 
degree of consistency. and stability than it had.hitherto 


possessed, 


One of the first measures of Bonaparte, after he had 
gos the supreme,power, was. to propose peace to 

ritain; but his proposal being. rejected, he began vi- 
gorous and extensive preparations for hostilities in Italy, 
and on the Rhine ; while an_army of reserve, amount- 
ing to 60,000 men, was erdered to be assembled at 
Dyoo, under his immediate command, 

An Italy, at the beginning of 1800, the French re- 
tained scarcely any of their conquests, except the re- 
public of Genoa, and this the Austrians were preparing 
to wrest from. them. In the city of Genoa,,.Massena 
took the command, and resolved to defend it to the last 
extremity. In the beginning of April, the Austrian 
general. Melas, and a. British fleet, invested it so.com- 
Pletely, oad the oe i aap with France was cut 

jeneral } ving thus prevented. the possibi- 
m4 of its relief, left aa — it, and march. 
with the main, bod opine. the French general Su- 
chet, whom, on the 7th of Ma penne defeated. In 
consequence of this defeat, te the Var, and 
entered France, and the Austrian general. became mas- 
ter of the whole department of the maritime 


On the Rhine, General.Moreau was.o “to Ge- 


FRANCE. 


neral Kray ; but the latter was fettered by the orders 
which he received from the council of war at Vienna, 
whereas Moreau refused to act according to the instrac- 
tions sent him by the Chief Consul, ¢ 
own judgment and observation convinced him they 
were wise and practicable. The plan of Moreau was 
to cross the Rhine; in this he su and drove 
Kray before him as far as Ulm: here he fortified him’ 
self ; but Moreau, popes wha og such a manner, as to 
threcten to cut him off from his i the Aus. 
trians were obliged to fight at Hochstet. The French 
were victorious, and the Austrian general, after in vain 
endeavouring to the enemy agein at Newibhe. 
was obliged to k to Ingolstadt. The electorate 
of Bavaria was conquered: the hereditary dominions of 
Austria were threatened, and at Vienna the 

demanded . ; 


Large Se 
ected at D marched th peated 

co) at Dijon, |, as soon as the i 

opened on the Rhine, towards Italy. The First Conail 


left behind. Thus was effected the 
rous and well-appointed army over the 
terprise so extraordinary, that the Austrians, rom 
firm conviction that it was absolutely impracticable, ne- 
ver thought of SRECSIDG i Aosta, the of Bard, 
Ivria, Romagno, and Vercelli, were taken, The Tes- 
sino was.crossed ; Milan, entered without opposition ; 
valuable magazines were captured at pian As 


centia fell into the possession of Bonaparte, who, b: 
his sudden and unexpected appearance, and by his sub- 


sequent masterly maneuyres, completely out-genera 
Melas, ey acs Pili 

He did not arrive, however, in time to relieve Genoa; Fall of 
for Massena, after one of the most i defences Genoe. 


recorded in history, ing which 15,000 of the inha- 
bitants are said to have:pessshed a Haeens SR ‘amin 
was compelled to surrender to Austrian and Bri- 
tish commanders on the Sth of June. _ As soon as Ge- 
noa fell, Melas dispatched General Ott. with 30 batta- 
lions to check the progress of the French, who hitherto 
had not pene farther than Piedmont; but -that 
al having suffered a dreadful defeat at Mon 
elas collected his whole foree between ssanc 
and Tortona. Here, on the 14th of June, was fought 
the battle of Marengo: for nine hours the Austrians 
Were victorious ; but an imprudent, or ee 
ment of General Melas, which was instantly k .<. 
vantage of by General Dessaix, who made ver 
change with a body of fresh cavalry, turned the fate of 
the day.. The victory was purchased by the death of 
Dessaix, to whose memory due honours were paid by 


his grateful countrymen, aak 
The Austrian general, intimidated by, his defeat, re- 
uested a‘truce, which was. d_on condition, 

Genta should be surrendered, as well.as the princi 


where his "™ 


Battle of 


Peace of 


Amiens, 
A. D. 1802. 


Extent of « 


Bonaparte’s 
aa 


ge 


FRANCE. 
One of the first measures of Bonaparte, after he had History. 


fortresses in Piedmont and the Milanese. General Kray 
was desirous of extending this armistice to Germany, 
but to this Moreau would not consent; and two battles 
were fought without much advantage on either side. 
The French, however, . in eee _ 
at length opened themselves a into the heart 
Bavaria. At this period, Count St Julien arrived with 
proposals of peace from the cabinet of Vienna, and the 
armistice was extended Ste This none 
did not lead to peace, for the Emperor, encow 
Britain, resolved to the chances of another cam- 
es therefore recommenced in bay 
A Moreau was’surprised by the activity, near- 
ly defeated by the i ity of the Austrians ; but 
the Austrian abandoning his strong ee 
the fatal battle of Hohenlinden was fought on the 3d of 
December. In this battle, the Austrian centre was 
ierced, and their wings thrown into confusion ; their 
toss was dreadful ; their route complete. Pushing into 
U Austria, the victorious French reached the banks 
‘Ems. ‘The cabinet of Vienna was alarmed ; the 
Archduke, who had been deprived of the command of 
the army, was recalled ; but all his skill and efforts were 
in vain; and the Emp mournfully saw that peace 
alone could ‘save him from utter destruction. The 
treaty of Luneville was the consequence. 

Soon after Mr Addington became prime minister of 
Britain, a negociation was with France, which 
terminated in the peace of Amiens, on the 22d of 
March 1802. 

At this period, the territories of the Frerich republic 
‘were very extensive, and her extended even be- 
yond these territories. With ce, as it existed: 
viously to the Revolution, was inco the N 
lands, and that part of Germany which lies on the west 
of the Rhine, as well as Geneva, the duchy of Sever 
and the principality of Piedmont. The Dutch repu 
Tic was completely eatin! to the will = rye 
the Swiss possessed scarcely a larger portion of nation 
in lence. Spain, one the appellation of anally, 
was in fact a vassal state. The Ci — republic was 
completely under the yoke of the First Consul, who 
had been appointed its Presiden t for ten years. This re- 
public not only bane sige oe the Milanese, but also a 
considerable part of the Venetian territories, the duchies 
of Mantua, Modena, and Parma, and some of the dis- 
be Salerro Rome. A vassal king go- 
verned Tuscany, which was thus in reality p' un- 
der the power of France ; and the Ligurian republic 
equally subservient. Over all this immense tract 

. therefore, extending from the Ems to the 
of Gibraltar, and from the Atlantic to the Adria- 

did Bonaparte, as First Consul of France, exercise 
an absolute sway. 

But his power in fact was-not limited, even when this 
immense territory was included within it. The Emperor 
of Germany the German Princes had suffered so 
much from French invasion, that they durst not ques- 
tion the authority of 3 the King of Prussia 
had very recently displayed his devotion to his wishes, 
as well as an unjust regard to his own interest, by the 
seizure of Hanover ; and the new ror of Russia 
‘was too recently and mystetiously fixed on ‘the ‘throne, 
to come forward against the power of France. ; 

‘Britain alone, therefore, which had'so long, and with 
such wonderful perseverance and sacrifices, ‘resisted 
France, came out of the contest untouched in’ her na- 
tional ce, s “ 


VOL, 1X. PART 11. 


‘mation, than 


641 


placed France at peace with all her enemies, was the 
re-establishment of the Catholic religion. For this purs 
4% concordat or convention was concluded between 

im and the Pope, of which the following are the most 
important articles. No bull, &c. of the court of Rome, 
to be circulated or put in foree without the authority 
of government: No nuncio, ] , &c. to exercise his 
functions in France, without the consent of the govern- 
ment: No person to be named a bishop who is not a 
Frenchman: No bishop to quit his diocese, without 
leave from the First Consul: No festival, with the ex- 
ception of the Sabbath, shall be established without 
the ission of government. The nuptial benediction 
shall be given to those only, who shall prove in due 
form that their marriage has been contracted before a 
civil magistrate. ~ All religions were tolerated and pro- 
tected, and special rules were laid down for theiz 
idance. 
ar this concordat, Bonaparte 


ten years were to be the duration of his authority ; he 
was now, however, appointed for life, and the power 
conferred upon him of nominating his successor. Short. 
ly after this, his plans for another war to deve- 
themselves. On the 21st of Fe 1808, a view 
the state of France was laid before the Legislative 
Body and the Tribunate, the most i ing and im- 
portant part of which related to the dispute with Bri- 
et oom the retention of Malta. The nature 
and result of this di 


, we shall not here enter into, 
subsequent war, are fully nar- 

in the History of Brirary. 
parte resolved on hostilities with Britain, 


As soon as Bona- 
he marched 
an army into Osnaburgh and Hanover, and gai 


gained 


possession of these districts without opposition. On Declared 
eclaret Emperor, 

25th April 

1804, 


the 25th of A 


il 1804, he was d Emperor, by 
a decree of 


Tribunate of France, to the following 


When the national will (it was said) could manifest :it- 
self freely,it declared for the unity of the supreme power, 
and the hereditary succession of that power. This desire 
had been for a time extinguished by the tyranny of the 
family of the Bourbons, and the nation were oven to 
adopt a democratical form of government ; from this 
form, however, only the miseries of anarchy proceeded ; 
and the state was in the most extreme » when 
«« Bonaparte, brought back Providence, suddenly 
a for its salvation :” t the rane ree | for 
life, and the power granted to the First Consul of’ ap- 

inting his successor, could not prevent internal in- 
trigues; in order, therefore, to avoid them, and at the 
same time to follow the example of all great states, an- 
cient and modern, and to comply with the first wish of 
the nation in 1789, the i ought to 
be declared itary. This declaration the nation 
now makes more strongly and generally than ever ; 
and her gratitude and affection point out Bonaparte, 
Jrom whom and his family France expects more than any 
other, the maintenance of the rights and liberties of the 
—_ + That there is no title more suitable to his glory, 

to the dignity of the supreme chief of the French 
at of Emperor. , 

Such was the decree of the tribunate, which was fol- 
lowed by voting, “ That Y Bonaparte, the 
First Consul, be proclaimed Emperor of the French, 

4M ° 


ined great popularity Bonaparte 
with the mass of the nation ; and as he was almost ido- appointed 
lized by the soldiers, he experienced no difficulty in in. 600%! for 
creasing his power. When he was chosen First Consul, !- 


Sloatery. 


642 


and in that capacity be invested with the government 


—Y— of the French Republic: “ That the titleof 


Causes of 
the Revolu- 
ton, 


and the imperial power, be made hevoditery in hints 
mily in the male line, according to the order of primo- 
iture,” 

This vote was carried by acclamation, Carnot being 
the only person who spoke against its ion. The 
Senate and the army followed the example of the Tri- 
bunate, intreating to become Emperor of 
France. Thus easily and tranquilly did Bonaparte ob- 
tain the object of his desires. ; 

- Ashe had been long married without children, he 


was allowed to adopt the children or grandchildren of good 


his brothers, when they arrived at the 
rovided he had no legitimate children. On the fai- 
eae of both legitimate and adopted heirs, the crown 
was to be enjoyed by his eldest brother Joseph, and 
his descendants; and, failing them, by his next bro- 
ther, and his descendants, &c. The members of the 
imperial family were to be called French Princes, and 
the eldest son the Imperial Prince. Every Emperor, 
within two years after he came to the throne, was to 
swear to maintain the integrity of the French empire. 

Thus that revolution, ere ak es for the ex- 
press purpose of establishing a government,— 
Uhich, shortly after its commencement, destroyed the 
‘king and the monarchy, and during which the very 
‘suspicion of being attached to the royal cause ex 
the susi party to certain death, terminated im the 
establishment of a military despotism. 

We have hitherto deferred a a develope- 
ment and explanation of the causes which produced, ei- 
ther directly or indirectly, or generally or partially, this 
revolution, as well as of the causes to which we ought to 
ascribe the rapid and total change in the nation, from an 
a tly strong and sincere attachment to liberty, to 
at least an acquiescence in military despotism ; and of 
those causes which contributed to the astonishing, and 
almost un eled successes and victories of the French 
arms. All these we have hitherto deferred entering 
upon, in order that we might view them in connection 
with each other ; for, in our opinion, these three events 
are intimately and necessarily connected, springing out 
of each other, as well as all of them, in some measure, 
originating ‘from the same circumstances. We shall 
mow consider them in their order. 

I. With respect to the causes which produced the 
French revolution, meg directly or indirectly, either 

ially or generally, in France, it may be proper to 
olan some general remarks on the caus which al- 
ter the character or fate of nations. Before philosophy 
had lent her aid to the lessons of experience and ob- 
servation, so as to draw from them their legitimate con- 
sequences, it was that the fate of a nation de- 
on the character and conduct of the leading 


of eighteen, 


‘individual or individuals insit-; and when that charac- 


ter and conduct were pointed out and . i it 
was taken for granted, that the icular circum- 
stances in the national history, which had attracted at- 
Scienty accounted for, Hut philosophy taught sat 

iently acco’ for. i taught, that 
no individual can operate changes, or poodle effects 
of an extraordinary nature, in any country, unless he 
act on materials suited to his purpose ; and that, as he 
must have been formed by the prevailing spirit and 
“habits of the nation on which he is su to operate, 
the very existence of such a character as his,is a proof 
that the nation was tending towards that change, which 
owas solely attributed to the influence of his character 


_we may regard these writings as having 


FRANCE. 


pre-eminence she did in warfare, or the advantages re- 
is 
correct, the history of Prussia, after the. of this 


and regards himself as a com of the 
most individuals can do Tittle pote oh — 
through the earoompae esd of the nation, by conform. 
ing to its character, employing its prejudices and 
feelings in the schemes which =, 


opinions and wishes of the French 3 but it 
uld be recollected, that on the mass of the 

these writings could have little er no influence, as | 
few of them they were read, nor could they have been 
understood had they been read... The hypothesis that 
ascribes the French revolution to this cause, confounds 
two distinct circumstances; or rather , that 
when it has accounted for one part of the 2 
it has accounted for the whole. The events of the re- 
volution sufficiently prove, that, even at its commence- 
ment, it was indicated not more by a change in the 
character, opinions, and conduct, of the more intelli- 
gent classes of the French community, than by a change 
in the characters, opinions, and conduct, of the. 
mass of the people, on whom the writings of the phi 
sophers could have had no influence. While, therefore, 
way, in some degree, for the revolution among the 
higher and more intelligent classes, we ought not to 
consider them as being exclusively the cause, even 


with regard to them, and certainly as by no means 
the cause with regard to the mass le pe — 

Nearly the same remarks will to the second Return ¢ 
veause to which the French revolution been attribu- 


ted. It has been.said, that, by the return of the officers #4 “Mt! 
and soldiers who served in America, principles and feel- yica, 


ings of liberty were spread over France, which, meet- 


of such men as Montesquieu, the ph 
Voltaire, Rousseau, Helvetius, &c. produced on the Ph¢' 


a 


ee 


FRANCE. 


ing with favourable circumstances, developed them- 
etlochp dasdilep pale’ apdvesintirdltendeidjuene ilnitelths 
pe mr But, in the first place, it may well be 
t whether any great number of the officers and 
en ee ee inci 
and feelings of liberty there. - er rpm mae 
(especially in France at that period) seldom — 
to the nature of the cause for which they fight, 
or fee] much ven weed for liberty. Some, no doubt, 
went to America from the laudable desire of assisti 
in establishing the independence of that country ; am 
many who went from motives, may have return- 
ed with a change in their sentiments favourable to li- 


dered by their government ; fought there, as they would 


ery gen 

spirit of liberty, yet it by no means follows that they 
had it in their power to Defuse thie spirit into any large 
portion of their countrymen. Indeed, the remarks of 
travellers confirm this ; for while, even before the Ame- 
rican war, and much more so after it, they observe; 
that very free notions respecting government and reli- 
x | eer Re Rem the hi classes of the 
rench nation, they do not mention that such notions 
ie were entertained by.the mass of the people ;. and: we 
should recollect, that in France, at this time, there was 

no middle class in the country at large. 
The next cause which we shall consider, attributes 
the Revolution to the despotism 


at the period of the Revolution, this despotic govern- 
Feedom 


and the the subject, it had ever been 
period. To this cause, therefore, the 
ascribed. 


ing observations, it will be sufficient- 
that in tracing and 


operate lest effect. 
In the first » the causes which operated to pro- 
ution as they existed in the higher and 
classes of the community, may be 
kinds; those which originated 
liberty, and those which ori- 
a desire to throw off particular 


i 
) 
= 
: 
: 
u 
& 
s 
i 
1 


643 


me by the crown. The provincial noblesse be- _ History. 

held with contempt and indignation the follies, the “~~ 
fligacy, and the power of the higher nobility. The 

inferior y regarded their superiors with the same 

feelings ; but, more especially, “ the practising lawyers, 

almost entirely excluded from the chance of becoming 

j wished eagerly for a change of affairs, not 

doubting that their talents and professional skill would 

render them necessary amidst any alterations that might 

occur.” In short, there was a mutual repulsion among 

the leading classes of the community, arising from a 

change in their feelings and wishes, without this change 

being accompanied by a corresponding change in their 

situation, or in-the conduct of government towards 

them: 


It-ought also to be meas a say these who 
wished, or were prepared for a Revolution, i 
poe -it, either she realization of oe rong od 

opes respecting liberty, or the removal of their par- 
ticlar igrievances, there were; in Paris particularly, am 
immense number of desperate and unprincipled ns 
sons, who eagerly looked: forward toa convulsion which 
they had no doubt would be, the accompaniment of a- 
Revolution, and frem which they anticipated the full 
indulgence of their most violent and depraved. pas- 
sions. 1 

The causes which revolutionized the great mass of 
the people, are quite distinct from those we have just 
enumerated. When, indeed, the first symptoms of the 
Revolution became manifest, many thought it would 
not spread over the nation, when they reflected how ig- 
norant the people were, how blindly-and obstinately at- 
tached to old establishments, how-passionately devoted 
to their monarch, and every thing that concerned him ; 
and that, though oppressed by the nobility, and neglect- 
ed by the government, they seemed quite insensible to 
the miseries of their condition, and exhibited more stri- 
king symptoms of content and happiness than nations 
— freer a highly favoured. How ae were 
such a people: , and changed so: com; yas 
to hear of rae nce of their monarch with expe 
tion? The cause when explained is very simple. ‘The 
peasantry, though accustomed, .were not utterly insen- 
sible to the tyranny of the nobles; nor could they be- 
hold with indifference, scenes of profligate and wanton 
extravagance displayed at their chateaus, at the very 
time when their own cottages were the abode of misery 
and famine. . Though utterly ignorant: of the meaning 
of political liberty, they knew what was meant by  be- 
ss from the ressions, taxes, and vexations to 
which they were subject, and still more keenly did they 
enter into the prospect of having it in their power 
to retaliate on the nobility the ode they had suffered 
from them. In short, at the commencement of the Re- 
volution, they received, or seized on power ; and v 
naturally became attached to that-event, from whiak 
such a blessing in their estimation proceeded. Had the 
Revolution only promised them — liberty, they 
would have regarded it with indifference ; with them it 
would have found no su ; but addressing itself 
to their ions and feelings, they rose in favour of it, 
and in their exultation, at their liberation from the op- 
pressions under which re had long groaned, and at 

re their mi 


been 


Among 
mass of the 


people. 


the ruin of those who misery with 
indifference, or perhaps essentially contributed towards 
it, they forgot their loyalty, and beheld in their mo- 


narch only the chief of their oppressors. 
We are now to consider the circumstances in which . 


644 


Mistery. the nation was which allowed or wor 
—\—" those distinct causes to operate together with the 


effect. 
Embarras- We have already noticed the embarrassed state of 
ed wate of the French finances at the termination of the American 
> finan war in 1783; and that the government, finding all their 
ineffectual towards the bringing them into order, 
were at last compelled to assemble the Notables. Thus 
were collected at Paris most of those men who were 
desirous of a change ; and who beheld themselves in a 
condition, from the wants of the government, the appeal 
which had been made to them to t measures for 
the supply of those wants, and their own strength, to 
use their efforts for the accomplishment of their wishes. 
Their objects, indeed, might differ ; for while some 
wished merely to curtail the power of the crown, in or- 
der to restore the privileges of the nobility ; others 
wished to attack the power and privileges both of’ the 
crown and the nobility. Under these circumstances, it 
is evident, that the former was placed in a situation of 
peril, and that the objects of the nobility were not 
so likely to be attained as those of the other , since 
had to concert their measures in such a manner 
as at the same time to act against the crown, and agai 
that party. But in this view of the causes of the Revo- 
lution, the nature of the place, where those desirous of 
a were assembled, must be taken into considera- 
tion, In countries, where the mass of the people have 
been long habituated to regard themselves as interested 
in the acts of the government, and privileged 'to express 
their wishes and opinions regarding those acts, it is im- 
ible that the population of the capital, however nu- 
merous or intriguing, should possess an undue share of 
influence ; but the case is different in countries where 
the le do not think themselves authorised or quali- 
fied to discuss the measures of their rulers, expecially i 
the connection and communication between the capital 
and the provinces is by no means intimate, lar, and 
frequent. In such countries, the population of the capital 
gives the colour and tone to the feelings and actions of 
Cote of the provinces ; and whoever wields 
it, wi a machine, by means of which he may almost 
certainly succeed in overthrowing the government of 
the country. ‘This was very strikingly the case in Pa- 
ris, not merely from the political ignorance and bon- 
dage in which the —_ of Frahor haiileng been kept, 
but also from the peculiar character of the ulation 
of the capital ; in which, even before the Revolution, 
there was to be found a greater laxity of principles and 
conduct, and more intrigue, restlessness, and s 
tic depravity, than existed in any other capital of Eu- 
— There was also in it a] number of what are 
men of letters, who would willingly lend their 
talents to the ion and support of any doctrines, 
to the en on of any schemes or acts, however 
unjust or cious, 
t is not to be wondered at, therefore, if all the parties 
in the Revolution aimed princi at gaining over the 
population of Paris, which, both trom its influence as 
the population of the capital of France, and from its 
peculiar reach mo 8 Cnet such a state of 
thingy could not fail to be of essential service to their 
views, ; ' 
Character of Those who first a as the leading actors in the 
the first tremendous drama the French Revolution, were, it 
movers of may “be allowed, without any great stretchvof candour, 
den. men who at least did not contemplate or approve of 

violent and unjust changes in the state ; but at the same 


Influence 
of Paris. 


FRANCE. : 


ture—by 


principles 
Lon oe of their own unfitness, and of the total want of 
Le ets wr me a even for gradual and 
te reform. Thus ignorant, they roused: and 
armed the worst passions of the multitude ;_ i 
led into them ee eee them 
their own er. consequences were as 
be , when we reflect on ceocnadenedtaueen. 
pulation of Paris, on whom they at first acted, and who 
afterwards became the instruments of more daring and 
unprincipled leaders. Shy o) Cowen OEy ® 
‘ Rill, however, it must be admitted, that it isdifficult 
to trace the formation, or understand the real features 
of the characters of such men as i Danton, 
Marat, &c. cepted eonalatiede a 
cruelty ; that no conception of the obligations 
pv: and justice, is too: ~ : but these horrid 
ualities were strangely mixed with some species of 
Ciotism; and even in theranidst of--unlicnited power, 
they seem to have had little or no ambition, and cer- 
tainly made no attempts toenrich themselves) 


- IE. With respect to the causes of the wonderfulimi> Causes of _ 


litary successes of the French, it appears to us that the 


three causes principally contributed to these successes, success of 
on previous to the'revolution, the Frenchy 


- In the first place, 
certainly as far back as the of Louis XIV. the 

the and 
most 


ly privileged, ‘ lee been distinguished by their love of 
glory, an a : weak and evanescent, 
and vi > 


at other times 

extinguished, that 

versal empire. ‘This meee —= ror National 
characteristic passion; i : > glory. 
ened and encouraged: by all the circumstances of the 
Revolution. pectry ha +N) Chieti Hayept 

-’ For, in the second place, there came imaid of this etiona 
passion, the strong 
which all nations, even ia 
slaved, - ina or less 5 

ary fe tr ica te oo eh 
ted to political slav " Sanbeecasiienn tpteaeneaiae 
political liberty ; consequently to promise it to 
ee was to promise them that which could neither 
excite their hopes nor enter into: their’ conceptions. 
But, as soon’as they understood that their'country was 
about'to be attacked, that and almost instinc- 
tive love of national i endence, which operates'in = 
the breasts of the inhabitants of all countries, broke — 


case of France, too, this love ——e 
was tly aided by their love of national glory. » ‘They 
wanbas lend the idea, that France, the Great Na- 


= 
‘ e 
of the Revolution, in the abolition of feudal services, 


and of those ions which are much more 

carl igecuvaliy hit thaspthe raniol iti bapa 
ence and liberty, by. the le at | , in all coun- 
tries, they were roused to the cause and exist- 


23 


le were so igt 


ing of national independence, independ- 


AS Oho 


‘ 
—~ 


a a 


4 
a 
4 


» 
& 


i> 


FRANCE 


History. ‘ence of that Revolution ; knowing, that if they did not 
=~" succeed; they would be reduced to their former state 


of jon and misery. - . 
_ In the third place, it was of the ay essence of - 
Revolution, to create, or, more properly 
nourish and bring forth to notice, and beesicvn ind 
of every description ; and these talents were directed 
with single and undeviating energy and perseverance 
toone end. The military ardour, which was at first 
excited by the love of glory, and the wish to be instru- 
mental in rendering France mistress of the world, and 
by the determination not to permit foreign nations to 
destroy her national independence, or the effects of the 
Revolution, was cherished and strengthened by the 
conviction that: the path to the highest commands-was 
open to talents and'merit. Thus her armies were filled 
with soldiers, who despised death, and who fought with 
that enthusiasm which such passions and hopes natu- 
rh et while they were led by officers, se- 
solely on account of. their merit and fitness, for 
the command to which they were’ appointed. _ At the 
head of the. ’ t also, there were, at almost 
every period of the Revolution, men admirably caleu- 
lated tb direct the efforts of the great machine which 
the Revolution had put in motion. . Even the despotic 
and arbitrary nature of this government, such as it ex- 
isted in the time of Roberspierre, contributed to the 
success of their arms ; for it was the and secre- 


Ne eee 
goes national independence. fl 
When we reflect therefore on the operation of all 
. these ‘causes ; that nearly the whole powers, both men- 
tal and , of a lous nation, were directed 
to one object, in the attainment of which all were con- 
vinced they had the highest interest, and that all class- 
es were further stimulated to exertion and perseverance, 
by the knowledge, that, while they were securing the 
—— interest, and the apes which nr one 
tion had brought them, were treadi e 
which would certainly conduct them to sitet teak 


and influence in the state than they previously pos- 
sessed, we shall not be astonished at their military suc- 
cesses. But, in order more y to develope the 
causes of these successes, we reflect on the ene- 


mies they had to contend with. In the first the 
people of most of the countries which they invaded 
Saereen to receive ean eee from a belief 
t: came to destroy ressions under 
which they suffered. In the second lads the councils 
and armies of their its were directed by much 
inferior talents, and by men who, besides their inferio- 
’ vity invtalents, did not feel the operation of the same 
powerful motives for exertion and perseverance. There 
me a8 nernen see ear that: many of them pro- 
ved ‘to their country, and fell before the influ- 
ence of French gold, not less than by the superiority of 
the French arms. Lastly, France was a single power 
against'a combination of powers ; the pressure of e 
defeat, brought into more closeand compact union 
the members that formed her oe we while 
success, speaking rerfully to their love of national 
_ glory, eq 7 ‘prodaced the same effect. On the con- 
trary, the combined powers had within them the ele- 
ments of discordance and disunion ; they were jealous 
‘ef each other, and strongly disposed to separate, either 
_ danger to whi ey were all exposed from the:French 
Revolution; was not sufficiently strong, or so continual- 


/ 


645 


ly present to their apprehensions, as to banish their 
mutual jealousy ; w fi " 
proved, that if they succeeded in putting down the 
Revolution, they would not fail to quarrel among them- 
selves about the spoil. Such to usto have been 
the principal causes which produced the military suc- 
cesses of the French, On their side, great enthusiasm, 
great talents, great exertion and perseverence, the strong 
motives of panne a and the love of naan! 

and in ndence, all operating to one single ob- 
4 On rr of the allies, talents neglected, and 
prejudices hurtful to their cause persevered in; no com- 
mon bond of union; mutual suspicion and jealousy ; 
an inadequate sense of their own danger ; and treach~- 

and disaffection among their subjects. 


their: selfish views too plainly ~~ 


History. 


III. With respect. to the change of the French go- Causes of 
vernment, froma democratic form at least to a military the esta- 
despotism, it will be found, on examination, not to have Dlishment 


been 
ly to 
simple and natural causes. 

In the first place; the real change was not great ; for 
it would be difficult to point out any period of the Re- 
volution, in which the people were not, subjected to a 
most arbitrary government—a government which well 
fitted them even. for a military despotism. We shall 
not examine whether the state of France, threatened 
by numerous foes from without, and convulsed with 
intestine divisions, did not require and justify the ar- 
bitrary and. severe government which was exercised 
oyer it ; the cause or justification of this government is 
not now the object of inquiry. The fact is indisputable, 
and it accounts, in our opinion, for the ease with which 
the French passed from the forms of a democratic go- 
vernment, toa military despotism. Besides, we should 
always recollect, that the French: people had no con- 


ception of political liberty ; and if some idea and love of © 


it sprung up, at the commencement of the Revolution, 
it was whethanad by the tyranny and oppression. which 
soon succeeded. 

In the second place, the real change which took place 
from the form, of democracy. to military despotism, may 
be traced to obvious and satisfactory causes. The na- 
tional love of glory disposes all Frenchmen to a military 
life ; and throws round the military character a splen- 
dour which conceals its tyrannical and. oppressive na- 
ture. This splendour round the character of Bona- 
_ was, to the eyes of Frenchmen, of the most bril- 

iant and dazzli kind : he had gone further towards 
the realization of their fond hope; that France would 
attain universal empire, than any of their monarchs, 
and ae they not only submitted, but were fa- 
vourably disposed, to the military government of aman 
who had ave so much, and hon date their actual 
sovereign, they hoped would. perfect the great under 
taking which They had so near their hearts.. A people 
whose fondest wishes were centered in national glory 
and universal empire, could not but be at Ltoa 
military government, as the best suited to the accom- 
plishment of those wishes, and toa man. who they knew 
would conduct that military government with the great- 
est skill and» success. Even those who were not in- 
fected with this national and characteristic passion, hail. 
ed Bonaparte as the man who had put an end to the 
convulsions that had so 1] ‘agitated France; and 
though they still apprehended that his character, and 
the character of the people at large, would keep France 
in almost continual war, yet they at the same time 


at in reality, and that the change which actual- & ™it1y 
place was produced by the operation of very jn France. 


Asm 


Ubtory 


646 
trusted that, under him, the internal state of the king- 


=~ dom would be quiet, and they would at length be freed 
© D. 1805. from a rapid succession of tyrants. 


Bett'c of 
Austerlitz, 
Nev. 27. 


But there was another circumstance that reconciled 
the French le to a military government,—from the 
extension and long duration of the military system, a 
large portion of the population were interested in it. 
Their relations and friends were in the army ; and if 
France were to become pacific, or if her. government 
were not military, they would be thrown useless and un- 
supported on the world. Thus the same causes, which 
in part contributed to produce the military successes of 
the French, operated to render them fit subjects for a 
military government; and the Revolution, by increasing 
and calling into more energetic and general action their 
love of glory, as well as by destroying all the habits of 
settled and regular life, also fi them for a govern- 
ment which would cherish and flatter that love, and 
indulge their restless and irregular habits. 

We shall defer at present the consideration of the 
effects on the character and condition of the French 
produced by the Revolution, as some of these effects 
were greatly heightened by the —— of the system 
which Bonaparte established and acted upon after he 
became Emperor ; and therefore the subject will after- 
wards fall more properly under our notice, We shall 
now resume the hi S 

Moreau had long been the object of Bonaparte’s ha- 
tred and jealousy ; but no opportunity occurred of crush- 
ing or removing him, till the spring of 1804, when, in con- 
sequence of an accusation that he was implicatedin a de- 
sign torestore the Bourbons, he was seized and sentenced 
to be imprisoned ; but his popularity with the army was 
80 great, that Bonaparte commuted this sentence to ba- 
nishment for life to the United States of America. 

Symptoms of approaching hostilities with Germany 
had been long apparent in France ; but did 
not leave Paris to put himself at the head of his armies 
till the 24th of ber 1805. ' As soon as he reach- 
ed this place, he issued a manifesto denouncing what he 
called the third coalition, which he attributed to the 
gold and hatred of England. » As the ions and 
result of this war are detailed in the History of Austria, 
we shall run rapidly over them here. The French army 
consisted of five dvidons: they crossed the Rhine the 
day after —— reached Strasburg. Hostilities 
commenced on 7th, when the Austrians a ore 
feated in attempting to the passage 
the French across the bridge of Donawert. The iain 
Austrian army was under General Mack’; but his con- 
duct, either from incapacity, or from the interference 
of the council of war at Vienna, was such, that the 
French advanced rapidly with upwards of 200,000 
men, while he had not ve 80,000. Swabia, Fran- 
conia, and Bavaria, were overrun in a very short time. 
Mack was entrenched at Ulm, where, on the 15th day 
of October, the 3d day after firing the first shot, his 
army was so dreadfully beaten, that he was obliged to 
espitulate on the 17th, The Archduke Charles, at the 
head of 95,000 men, in vain endeavoured to prevent 
this dreadful disaster, by a id march from Italy ; 
but coming up too late, a not being sufficiently 
strong to oppose Bonaparte, the latter pushed on to- 
wards Vienna, which he entered on the 12th of Novem- 
ber. Austria, having been joined by Russia, resolved 
to hazard the fate of another battle, which was fought 
at Austerlitz on the 27th of November. The engage- 
ment commenced at sunrise; in less than an hour, the 
left wing of the allies was entirely cut off; and this 


FRANCE. 
was the forerunner of their total defeat. Onthe Sthof — 


December an armistice took place, which was followed 
by the treaty of Presburg, on the 26th of that month: 
Bw treaty, France was confirmed 


as King of Italy ; and to this kingdom the Ex 
Germany ceded his part of the states of Venice. ‘The 


succeeded in destroying, and thus adding to the of 
France. The whole peninsula of Italy had been 
to the French empire; Russia had been obliged to re- 


treat to her own territories 5 Austria had been saved 


Amiens, 

In the annual 7 
French empire at thi iod were described. 
the 110 departments of Fr 
the protection of the Imperial 
Venice, Istria, Dalmatia, and Naples. The 
France were, Bavaria, Wirtem » and | 
sides several other of the principal powers in’ 
Each succeeding coalition whi a had 
had only increased the te om the territory 
the boundary of the Rhine; the union of Helland 


e 
i 
: 
F 


: 
: 


f 


i 
: 


Hl 


, and wished now for repose, 
order that emia 0th : 


ly proclaimed King of Holland. xt 
Fy inthe year 1806, Mr Fox became Prime Mi- 
nister of Britain, in 
Pitt, and he immediately agen to put into execution 
such measures as he thought were likely to bring 
a peace with France, the object that had always been 
nearest his heart. The particulars of this are 
given in the History of Brrrain, and need not 
be repeated here. It is sufficient to observe, that it did 
not produce ; that Russia refused to ratify the 
treaty which her minister had made with France ; and 


in the possession Presburg, 


A.D. 


F 
i 


e 
( 


Britain ab 


<a 


FRANCE. 


re 
i 


Hy 
i 
: 
A 


hom he 


Fea 
i 
1 


g 
i 
BE 
& 

2 
i 
F 
F 
g, 


LAH] 
i 
z 
: 


FE 
gs 
A . 
E 


r that just before the commencement of hostilities, he 
} refrained from any attempts at reinforcement from other 


ragoons 

infantry, unable to resist them, 
thrown, into confusion, the day was 
Prussian army nearly annihilated, 40,000 
wounded, and taken, including about 20 


~ 


if 
fe 


i 
l 
a 


as 
: 


r bare, be shee 4g sy of the Rus- 
w assistance 
gaged in, the contest 4 


, hind Eylau. 


647 
Those Princes .of Germany who had joined the King _ History: 
of Prussia in this short and unfortunate war, were 6 
severely punished by the conqueror. The Elector of alae hse ay 
Hesse, and the young Duke of Brunswick, were de- 
prived of their dominions; Mecklenburg was taken 
ion of; the Elector of Saxony, however, was 
ied, as he had .been compelled to act inst 
rance. Hanover was occupied ; and Fulda, sel, 
and Hamburg, were taken possession of in the name 
of Bonaparte. ; 

_ In the mean time, the Russian army destined for the 
su of Prussia, had crossed the Vistula under gene- 
i The French also advanced into Po- 
land, and, by their manceuvres and superior force, obli- 
the Russians to recross the Vistula. Their retreat, 
wever, having enabled them to join strong reinforce- 
ments, the in advanced, and fixed their head-quar- 
ters at Puituck. Here, on the 26th of December, a 
dreadful battle was fought, which continued for some 
time with considerable vicissitude ; but. at length ter- 
minated in the defeat of the Russians, who fell consi- 
derably back. Bonaparte, however, found his army so 
much weakened by his dearly bought victory, that this 
circumstance, the severity of the winter in this 
country, induced him to go into winter quarters. The 
King of Prussia, still more dispirited by the misfortunes 
of his ally, endeayoured to procure peace, but in vain. 
It has already been. mentioned, that Bonaparte had 
made his brother Joseph king of Naples. _ It may, how- 
ever, be proper briefly to narrate the events, which de- 
eh a ath locate aly eae 
made wi , but itting an 
A eloaltcanieh army to embark at Naples, which — 
to act against France, he incurred the Teclentnae of Bo- 
naparte. Josnh Bonaparte was sent with an army 
against him ; the Neapolitan troops could make no re- 
sistance ; the kingdom was in a. very short time over- 
run and subdued ; and Joseph Bonaparte entered his 


capital in triumph. ; 
Although Bonaparte, after the battle of Pultusk, 
deemed it to go into winter quarters with his 
main army, yet the rest of his forces were by no means 
idle. Silesia was invaded ; and on the Sth of January 
1807, Breslau surrendered.. The other fortresses in this 
country did not hold out long afterwards. Other diyi- 
sions of pis eniay Wap enone in besieging Stralsund, 
Colberg, and tzic. But the efforts of Bonaparte 
were principally directed against the Russian army, 
which early in 1807 was in great force. About the end 
of January he quitted Warsaw, (where he had done 
nothing towards the re-establishment of Poland, though 
by promising this he had gained over the Poles to hi 
interest, ) and joined his army. rations immediate- 
ly commenced, the result of which was, that the Rus- 
sians were obliged to retreat, and take up a position be- 
ere Bonaparte attacked them ; the con- 
test was desperate. At one period of it, a thick fall of 
snow i ted the view of the French divisions, and 
for a considerable time they were empons to extreme un- 
certainty and danger, At length Marshal Davoust suc- 
ceeded in ou’ the Russians, who retreated, butnot 
in the least disorder, (See EncLanp.) Both partiesclaim- 
ed the mitoey ; in fact, the battle was indecisive, except so 
far that the French compels the Russians to retreat on 


Battle of 
Pultusk. 
Dec. 26. 


Battleot 
Eylau, 
AsD. 1807, 


iietery. 


A. D. 1807. 


surrender 
ef Dantzic. 


648 


upwards of 60,000 troops; and Bonaparte ordered 
strong reinforcements from France and 6 

In the mean time, the siege of Dantzic was prosecu- 
ted with great vigour, anc it was obstinately defended. 
consisted of 16,000 men, On the 24th 


The garrison 
of April the bombardment ; and in one night 
three attempts were made by French to gain the 


citadel, but they were ineffectual. As the relief of this 
place was an object of great importance to the allies, 
they resolved to attempt it: the Russians first advan- 
ced for that purpose, but they failed, and suffered a very 
severe loss. The Prussians next endeavoured to pene- 
trate to Dantzic, but they were soon obliged to abandon 
their en i ap recta! pw boca ray ing a 
ing prepared for the assault, the governor, (his garrison 
bein reduced to 9000 men and there hang no hope 
of relief,) agreed to surrender. This conquest was of 
great importance to Bonaparte, as Dantzic strengthen- 
ed the left wing of his army, while the centre was ’sup- 
ported by Thorn, and the right = Praga. 

As Bonaparte found that the forces of Russia were 
more formidable than he expected, he endeavoured to 
reduce the number of his enemies, by detaching Swe- 
den from the allies ; but not succeeding, the war against 
that power was carried on in Pomerania with such vi- 
gour and effect, that the Swedish general to an 
armistice, which, however, was to be submitted to his 
Swedish Majesty. He did not approve of it, and-re- 
solved to take the command of the army himself. As 
soon as he landed in Pomerania, he directed his thoughts 
to the fortifications of Stralsund, which the French 
were at that time besieging. His army consisted of 
about $0,000 Swedes, and 4000 Prussians. But we 
must suspend our account of his operations, till we 
bring the nartation of the contest between the French 
and Russians to a close. ; 

Bonaparte, after the battle of Eylau, and the fall of 
Dantzic, resolved to his positions, that he 
might be able to resist the attack of Russians, who 
now seemed di to become the assailants. On the 
5th of June, the Russians did attack them, and gained 
some advantages. On the 8th, Bonaparte arrived and 
took the command. He immediately ordered an attempt 
to be made to recover the positions they had lost ; the 
French were successful, and not only regained their po- 
sitions, but forced the Russians to fall back. From the 
5th to the 12th of the month, there had been constant 
engagements, in which the loss was very considerable 
on each side, On the 138th, Bonaparte had pushed the 
Russians back to Friedland. Here, on the 14th, the 
anniversary of the battle of Marengo, he determined to 
attack them. The battle lasted from five in the morn- 
ing till seven at night, At the close of the day, near- 
ly all the French force fell on the centre of the Rus- 
sians: It gave way, and they lost the battle. Their 
loss was very great, and they were pursued as far as the 
Niemen, where they were joined by large reinforce- 
ments from Russia. In ey ee of this, the Rus- 
sian general resolved to hazard another battle, and cros- 
sing the Niemen, stationed his army on a great plain to 
the right of the town of Tilsit, The fall of Konin 
was the immediate consequence of the battle of Fried- 
land, the garrison evacuating it, and joining the Russian 


army. 
While Bonaparte was advancing towards ‘Tilsit, an 
overture was made by the Russian general Bennin 
to the Duke of Berg, for an armistice, On the 22d of 
June, it was oapad ; and, on the 24th, an interview 
took place between Bonaparte and the Emperor of Rus- 
4 


dered to be assembled at Bayonne. 


FRANCE. 


sia, on a raft on the 
betw 


formed out of the provinces conquered. i 
the head of which Jerome was to be Fi 
the kings of Holland and Naples, ; 
of the Rhine, were acknowledged; and ia 
Prussia agreed i i 


peek aA ee Waa dope weak | 
vourite object of Bonaparte, by means of which, and 
the exclusion of British commerce i 
he foolishly hoped to reduce Britain to a compliance 
with his terms. i guts 

The of Tilsit was not immediately followed by 
the cessation of meee Vath er ee 
but as Bonaparte now no other enemy against 
whom to direct the immense force he 
north of Europe, it was not to be expected th: 
could long resist him. The King of Sweden finding 
that his ~ ‘now for the defence of Pomerania were una- 


coast. 4) LRh wit tote 
During the absence of from France, a mes- 
sage was communicated to the'senate in the month of 
March, stating, that it was to anti the 
conscription of 1808 ; but that the conscripts would be 
permitted to remain in France for six months, to be 
trained and disciplined, after which would be lia- 
Nie toihe Cle) ae eres is is the first 
instance of the anticipation e conscription, a mea- 
sure which was afterwards frequently resorted to, Ve- 
soon after Bon “s return to Paris, he addressed 
the legislative body and the tribunate on the situation of 
the empire, the conquests which France had atchieved, 
and his desire for a maritime peace. This a Ty 
As the Dutch bore impatiently the loss of their com- 
merce, and as Louis was disposed to commiserate.them, 
Bonaparte obliged him to issue very severe decrees 
against the introduction of British goods ; and in order 
to shew to the world what a mere puppet of a king Se 
was, the strong fortresses of the Maese, the great 
warks of ‘Holland within 
the limits of the latter. He next 
sion of Portugal, and an army « 


against France, were taken with 
40,000 ‘was or- 
This, however, was 
for the present productive of no \ ree pore <3 
= wing m the Prince Regent of Portugal to’ 
razils. ; a 
Although pam ty had long shewn himself 
the willing instrument of parte, and the resoure 
of that country were entirely at his mee BF Ft 
he had proved his devotion in such a dr ' 
to himself, by engaging in a war with Britain, that had 
nearly comp the ruin of his ki »—yet Bona- 
The ambition of. his 


Tuteca not content. of ) 
and relations on the thrones of Europe had 


seized him; and though Joseph Bonaparte was made 

king of Naples, yet he resolved to remove him to Spain, 

and place Murat, who me —— his 
lace. His designs on Spain had another object. While 

ns remained under her" imbecile government, 

that government was sufficiently sed to act. 

his guidance, yet the resources of the kingdom were in 


¢ 


§ 
4 
{ 
' 

Convention © 
with Swe- 


FRANCE. 


_ Mistery. such a dilapidated state, and there was so little energy 

Re cither in it eouncils or people, that the 09 ration of 

Spain was of little benefit to the furtherance of his views, 

against Britain. The dethronement of the 

ing of , and the accession of Joseph Bonaparte, 

ee ore Seontie As . The oe he 

1 to persuade to resign hi ne in 

favour of his son Ferdinaid! and to entice Ferdinand 

into France, and to surrender his claims to him,—the 

insurrection of the Spaniards,—their answered calls to 

Britain for assistance,—the battles that were fought be- 

tween pares She French,—the retreat of Sir John 
r M 


} pe Hecht Beck. seid lige aaa 
selves, in the intermediate period, to the operations 
: in the other parts of Europe, and the inter- 


The same system of concealment and resenta~ 
tion which Bonaparte had practised all his re- 
verses, he extended to the affairs of In 1808, 


his reverses, and the enthusiasm as well as the extent 
of the opposition to him in the Peninsula, were well 


: ee ean nt Che Bester clactoeste of Magence, 
Emperor seems to have entered into the views of 

nteibu 
contributions, 
to one third, were paid up. 


649 
Though Austria had been long preparing for the’re. History, 
newal of hostilities with France, yet She cad not issue 


a formal rein a war till the 6th a Avci 1809. 
At this peri e had an army consisti nine Corps, state of 
each Se ts consisting of 30,000 men? te first six were x armies, 
under the immediate orders .of the Archduke Charles; A. D. 1809; 
the seventh was under the Archduke John in Poland. 
Besides these, there were two corps of reserve, one of 
20,000 men commanded by Prince John of Lichten- 
stein ; the other of 10,000, under General Kinmayer ; 
and about 25,000 partizans in the Tyrol, Carinthia, and of 
and on the confines of Bohemia. The French were not those of 
inferior in respect to numbers, and they orrapeed thie France. 
following positions ; a corps entirely of French at Ra- 
tisbon, under Marshal Davoust; another under Mas« 
sena at Ulm; and a third under Oudinot at Augs- 
burg: three divisions of Bavarians were posted at 
Munich, Landshut, and Strasburg: the Saxons were 
e under the walls of Dresden; and the Poles 
near Warsaw. - 

As soon as Bonaparte learnt that the Austrians had 
crossed the Inn, he left Paris on the 13th of April; on 
the 17th he arrived at Donawert, where he fixed his 
head quarters ; on Oe A ee Sern Se AS the 
French began to unite, At Ingolstadt o! 

was unfolded ; Wo? pourra sd wage tp 

Austrians, whose line was extended from Neustadt 
to Landshut; to break the line, and come between 
the Archduke Charles and the corps commanded by 
his brother, In uences of the successes of the 
French, particularly at Eckmuhl, the Archduke was 
forced to cross the Danube at Ratisbon, in order to 
form a junction with General Bellegarde, who had been 
employed in Neihng the French in check, on the fron- 
tier of Bohemia. ° Archduke finding he could not 
defend Ratisbon, was obliged to continue his retreat ; 
and Bonaparte, followin course of the Danube, ad- 
vanced rapidly towards Vienna ; on the 10th of May, Bonaparte 
he appeared before this city, which, after some show of °**'s Vi- 
resistance, he entered. In the mean time, the Arch. “"* 
duke Charles, having learnt the fate of Vienna, moved 
down on the left bank of the Danube, for the pi 
of watching the motions of the French ; and fixed his 
head quarters, on the 16th of May, at Ebersdorf. Bo- 
naparte immediately formed the design of attacki 
him here, and for this purpose m along the sou 
bank of the river, till he reached the distance of about 
six miles from Vienna, at which place its breadth and 
rapidity are broken by two islands. At this point 
he resolved to cross it. As the French advan 


the 
Archduke retreated, and the right wing of the former 
was posted near the v of ing, while the left 


was su the vi of Aspern. Here on the 
21st and 22d two dreadful and sanguinary battles were 
fought: the battle of the 21st was terminated only by Battles of 
the darkness of the night, at which time the F =, tae 
were driven from Aspern, but still retained Essling. 
On the morning ofthe 22d they regained Aspern; but 
by 60 attacks, the Austrians succeeded in driving 

from it and Essling. In the night between 
the 22d and 23d, they retreated from the bank of s 
po ravine tas up a position on one of the 


In the mean time, the war was ing in Italy, Operations 


_ where the Archduke John, and the Viceroy Eugene in Italy. 
Beauharnois 


» were opposed to each other. At first the 

Archduke was successful; Padua and Vicenza were 

taken, the Adige crossed, and Venice threatened ; but 

the Viceroy having been reinforced, retook Padua and 
4 N 


Tt istery. 
a 


Batile of 
Wigrar, 
ith 
July, 1809. 


The Tyro- 
lese, 


Peace be- 
tween Aus- 
tria and 
Vrapce. 


and tith van 


650 


Vicenza, crossed the Brenta, and drove the Austrians 
before him. At this period, these hostile armies were 
sent for, in order to remforce the grand armies on the 
Danube; but as they were proceeding towards Austria 
from Italy, they met at'Raab, where a severe engage- 
ment took place on the lath of June, the anniversary 
of the battle of Marengo. The battle began at two 
o'clock in the afternoon, and though the’French were 
superior in numbers, victory was long doubtful; at 
length, the troops of the Hungarian insurrection, un- 
accustomed to service, gave way, and the Austrians 
were forced to save themselyes by flight. The Arch- 
duke Charles retreated to Comorn, in order to secure 
his junction with the grand Austrian army ; while the 
Viceroy about the same time accomplished the same 
object. 

On the 4th of July, the whole army of Bonaparte 
was concentrated in or near the island in the Danube, 
where the Archduke Charles had not deemed it pru- 
dent to attack them. Fone. having been feinfor- 
ced by the Viceroy, resolved to cross the river, and 
the issue of another engagement with the Archduke ; 
for this’ purpose, in a very short space of time, three 
bridges were thrown across it, by which he intended 
to pass, and another bridge opposite to Essling, erected 
in order to draw off the attention of the Archduke to 
this quarter. In the short seg of two hours, during 
‘the night of the 4th, while the Austrians were expect- 
ing to be attacked on their right, near Essling, the 
French the Danube, and on the morning of the 
5th appeared drawn up on the left of the Austrians, 
“This masterly manceuvre, by which the Archduke had 
been completely deceived, gave Bonaparte a great ad- 
; which he did not fail to profit by, in the ob- 
stinate but decisive battle of Wagram, which was fought 
on the evening of the 5th and during the 6th of July. 
During the movements on the former day, the 
Archduke was obliged to give up his entrenchments ; 
and on the 6th, Bonaparte, having strengthened his 
centre, attacked the weakened centre of the Austrians ; 
the consequence was, that the latter gave way, and the 
wings, bemg thus exposed, also retreated. After this 
battle, all thoughts of serious resistance to Bonaparte 
were given up. sae ty for an armistice were,car- 
ried to him from the Emperor Francis, which was 
agreed to, and signed immediately. By one article it 
was stipulated, that the Austrians were not to afford 
any succour to the Tyrolese. 

These brave and bold mountaineers, as soon as they 
‘earned the rupture between France and Austria, re- 
solved to use their utmost efforts to shake eff the yoke 
of Bavaria. At first they were successful; the Bava. 
rian troops, though 27,000 strong, having been defeat- 
ed by them. A still greater force was then sent against 
them under Marshal Le Febre, consisting of French, 
Bavarian, and’ Saxon troops. These they could not 
venture to meet in the field, but, taking advantage of 
the nature of their country, they destroyed thousands 
of them as they through the gorges of the moun- 
tains, by precipitating masses of rock on them. When, 
however, the armistice wes Concluded between France 
and Austria, their cause became hopeless, though they 
continued, for some time afterwards, to fight obstinate- 
ly for their national independence. 

On the 14th of October, a treaty of peace was signed 
at Vienna between France and Austria. By this trea- 
ty, the latter ceded to the former all her sea coast ; and 
the kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged, so 
as to become sufficient checks on her, Prussia was re- 


FRANCE. 


— 


compensed for her neutrality by the cession ha of 
Gallicia ; and_the Emperor Francis agreed to acknow- 
sole Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain. Such were the 
leading articles of this treaty, that were communicated 
to the world at the time: but the Emperor Francis ob- 
tained these favourable terms only by a sacrifice of a 
domestic nature, which we shall therrapes have occa- 
sion to notice. lake ; 
Soon after Bonaparte’s return to France, the meet» 5... 
ings of the legislature were opened by a speech from grecch to 
him. In this speech, the events of the year 1809, and * 34 legi 
the state of France at the close of it, were, as usual, ture. 
the principal topics. He was marching, he said, on 
Cadiz-and Lisbon, when = was under the necessity of 
treading back his steps, and planting his eagles on the 
ramparts of “Vienna. ‘Tianes wiontee hall te the rise 
and termination of this fourth Punic war. He next 
adverted to the Walcheren expedition ; and, in short 
and unsatisfactory terms, to the state of Spain, . The 
annexation of Tuscany and the Roman states were next 
dwelt upon; but that part of the eo of Vienna 
which had put him in possession of the Illyrian pro- 
vinces, and thus brought the French empire contiguous 
to the empire of Constantinople, seemed the favourite 
topics of this speech. “I shall find myself in a situa- 
tion,” he observes, * to watch over the first interests of 
my commerce in the Mediterranean, the Adriatic, and 
the Levant. I will-protect the Porte, if the Porte with- 


draws herself from ‘the :fatal influence of 1 
shall know how to punish her, if she suffers to 
be governed by cunning and perfidious councils.” In 


the course of 1809, Bonaparte had advanced one step 
towards blotting out even the nominal independence of | ~ 
Switzerland, by declaring himself the Mediator of that 
country. This he adverted to in his speech; and at 
the same time he hinted, that changes might F 
necessary in Holland, as she was equally mjured: 
France and England, and yet was the debouche of the 
principal arteries of his empire. cas 
vere oe having thus succeeded in all his plans of 
izement except what regarded Spain, and be- 
ing doubtless convinced that that country also would 
soon be reduced ; having fixed all his brothers (except 
Lucien) on thrones, began’to reflect on the le 
of his own vast empire, on the event of his death. There 
was no probability of his having issue by Josephine ; 
besides, even if there were, his power would be much 
more firmly consolidated, if he were united with some 
of the ancient sovereign families of Europe. .Consider- 
ations of political ambition always weighed most in his 
mind ; but by such a marriage, not only would his em- 
pire be , and, if there were issue from it, 
rendered secure after his death, but his mal vani- 
ty would be gratified. The divorce of the Empres 
osephine, to whom he appears to have been anh at: 
tached, was therefore agreed upon ; and she, though 
equally attached to him, seems to have consented to 
this measure without reluctance, It took place in De- 
cember’1809; but it was not till the 27th of February 
1810, that it was publicly and certainly known whom 
he intended to marry. On that day, he anced, 
by a message to the Senate, that Berthier had been 
sent by him to Vienna, to demand for him the hand of 
the Archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the Empe- 
ror Francis. The ceremony of marriage was perform- on4 
ed on the 11th of March at Vienna, the Archduke Maria 
Charles representing Bonaparte on this occasion! > Louisa, 
Early in 1810, Ponsa began to unfold his de- 4- D. 1810, 
signs upon Holland. Frénch army of 40,000 men j 


w " $\ 


4 


FRANCE. 


| Mistory: occupied it ;. but at first he’ seemed disposed to be con- 
- tent-with the annexation of only part of it,—the left 
bank of the Waal. As tis, baer. did not ide 
his purpose of totally excluding British goods, about 
the middle of June 20,000 French ti assembled in 
the neighbourhood of Utrecht, and on 29th of that 


> : 


fore resi tis throne, but at first only in favour of 
Holland an- his son. Soon afterwards, however, H was an- 
aco nexed to France. As a justification of this measure, 


Bonapertic inj ammree 6 the Conservative Senate, 

7 , that, in consequence of the English orders in 

council meee arenes 18 Sone 
es. 


internal navigation between France and the Baltic. 
About the same time, the Hans Towns and the Valais 
were annexed to France; and the Count of Semonville, 


i ‘genius that ever nature in her munifi- 
Seals waitiaeat Tad cas , and held in his trium- 
hands, the scattered wrecks of the empire of 

A to the plan of the annexation of Holland, 


Amsterdam was to rank as the third city in the French 


Rome, 
amounted to 88,080,443 persons, not including the mi- 
ly bearing arms. After these annexations, 

at 43,000,000. Hanover was annex- 


RFE a | 
bs ‘S85 
° 1 


a 
4 


te 

i 

at) 
iE 
8 
eF 
i 
:* 
s= 


ce 


ly intimated that 
content with the em 


pire of Charlemagne, the most 

decrees were passed at Paris. 
ants of both sexes were obli 
kept by the Prefect of 
‘olice. By another decree, the liberty of the 


nent... Not only were military governors appointed at 
the ports of Germany annexed to France, but at Dant- 
zic, Colberg, &c. for preventing its introduction. Ge- 


neral | , who commanded the army employed on 

~ this service, had his head quarters at the for- 
mer. All English merchandize, whether taken 
by or sea, was ordered to be burnt. 


As, however, the prohibition of colonial produce crea- 


651 

ted great dissatisfaction in his dominions, a decree History 

was passed on the 25th of March, 1811, enjoining the ““y"~" 

culture of the beet root and the plant woad, to supply _ 

the place of the sugar cane and indigo; and so confi- 

dent was Bonaparte of success in this scheme, that the 
rohibition of the sugar and indigo of the Indies, as 

English commodities, was announced for the Ist of Ja- 

nuary 1813. 

On the 20th of April, the Empress was delivered 
of a son, for whom was revived the title of King of 
Rome. On the 17th of June, the French national 
ecclesiastical council was opened at Paris ; the proceed- 
ings and result of which were kept a profound secret ; 
but it is generally supposed that they were not eens 
ble to the wishes of te. On the 29th of June 
the minister of the interior presented the usual annual 
exposé of the state of France. On these state papers no gxposé for 
implicit confidence can be , as they evidently 19]1.- 
contain much of what mi; false, and much nat is ex- 
aggerated ; yet, by a ul comparison of them with 
one S: with what the other official papers furnish 
us with, and with what ’we know must have taken 
place, we may be able to glean some interesting and im-- 
portant facts from them. The expont of this. year 
states, that, “since the last session, the empire re- 
ceived an addition of 16 departments, five millions of 

, a territory yielding a revenue of 100 millions of 
ivres, 300 of coast, with all their maritime 
means, The mouths of the Rhine, the Meuse, and the 
Scheldt, were not then French ; the circulation of the 
interior of the empire was circumscribed ;. the produc- 
tions of its central departments could not reach the sea 
without being subjected to the inspection of foreign 
custom-houses. These inconveniences have for ever 
disappeared. The maritime arsenal of the Scheldt, 
whereon so are founded, has thereby re- 
ceived all the developement which it needed. The 
mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe, place in 
our hands all the timber that Germany furnishes. The 
frontiers of the empire lean on the Baltic ; and thus, 
having a direct communication with the north, it will 
be easy for us to draw thence, masts, hemp, iron, and 
such other naval stores as we may want. We at. this 
moment unite al] that France, Germany, and Italy pro- 
duce as materials for the construction of ships.” 

This statement of the exposé deserves particular at- 
tention, as it at once points out the extent and resources 
of the empire of Bonaparte, at the.period when it was 
at its test height ; and demonstrates the extreme 
ae and madness of that ambition, which, not satisfied 
with such an empire, brought it to ruin by aiming at 
enlarging it. 

The restlessness of this ambition, which, when there pyrijoy en. 
was no opportunity for. making. real accessions to the Jargement 
French empire, employed itself in the nominal annexa- of the 
tion of territories, which in fact had been before annex- French 
ed, was displayed by the decree of the 5th of August ; 7" 
by which the territories belonging to the kingdom of 
Italy, situated on the left bank of the river that flows 
between Parma and Modena, were united to France, and 
its course, from its mouth to its source, was to be the 
future boundary between France and Italy, the boun- 
dary then proceeding along the Apennines to the fron- 
tiers of Tuscany. 

On_the 19th of September, Bona 
on a tour to the coast; visitin logne, where he. 
caused the attack on the English frigate, noticed in the 
History of Barrarn, and thence proceeding to Ostend, 
Flushing, and Antwerp, where he minutely examined . 


te left Compeigne 


\ History. 


Bonaparte's 
measures in 
Holland. 


Disputes 
between 
Russia and 
France. 


Gperations 
in Spain, 


652 FRANCE. 

all the works that were going on in the dotk yards, ,a officer in the French ice, espe- 
and the ships that were Building. From Antwiep he ally as an engineer, and poe eden ibe 
went to Amsterdam, whence, on the 13th of October, which hhe Gould btrenythen' the Soctifleetions, or 

he issued a decree for assembling in council the depu- the of the Nothing, however 
ties to the legislative body, from the Dutch departments. could w the valour of the British, who carried 
In consequence of this meeting, a number of decrees the place by storm, after ring a severe loss, on the 
were issued, the most important of which were to the 7th of April. Soult had pus to relieve this 


following purpose: The departments and their bounda- 
anes al Sere of the French system of taxation 
into Holland, on 1st of January 1812—the establish. 
ment of two imperial manufactories of tobaceo—roads 
with their tolls—canals—aqueducts for conveying wa- 
ter from Amsterdam to the Hague—the proportion 
of the budget in Holland for the year 1810, by which 
the revenue is fixed at 95 millions of livres, and the 
at 111 millions—the establishment of two 
academies and secondary schools, on the French plan, 
&c. Bonaparte returned to Paris on the 11th of No- 
vember ; and soon afterwards issued an order for the 
immediate call of 120,000 conscripts of the year 1812. 

This increase of his forces was occasioned by the dis- 
putes. which, during 1811, had arisen between the Em- 
peror of Russia and Bon : the former, the 
treaty of Tilsit, had to exclude British goods 
from his dominions ; but the consequences of this mea- 
sure were so extremely prejudicial to the finances of his 
empire, already nearly exhausted, and to the interest of 
his nobles, many of whom depended entirely on the 
interchange of the uce of their estates for the 
merchandize of England, that Alexander was induced 
to connive at the infraction of the treaty in this 3 
This gave umbrage to Bonaparte ; and as Alexander, 
moreover, would not yield up Finland to Sweden, which 
Bonaparte required him to do, the difference was im- 
creased and exasperated, The whole year 1811 passed in 
negociations and discussions between France and Rus- 
sia; but as neither party was prepared for war, hosti- 
lities were deferred. Bonaparte still saw the Peninsu- 
la not only unsubdued, but requiring almost constant- 
ly fresh ao 3 ; and the Emperor Alexander, fatally 
convinced of the ruin attending the bere peep of 
hostilities, before eve’ ing was and prepa- 
red, resolved not to pr Bar, Sabo hastily. 

But though Bonaparte was afraid to act in a decided. 
ly hostile manner towards the Emperor of Russia, the 
King of Prussia received no such scrupulous treatment 
from him. Indeed he seemed resolved to humble that 
monarch as much as ible; and obliged him, much 
against his will, to join the confederacy of the Rhine, 
and to place a considerable body of his troops under 
the orders of General Rapp, the French commander on 
the southern coast of the Baltic. This confederation 
was now extremely powerful: At the beginning of this 
year, the states composing it contained a territory of 
5703 square leagues, with a population of nearly 15 


millions ; and the contingent of troops, which its 39° 


members furnished, was fixed at 118,682 men: these 
were taken, in the autumn of 1811, into the pay of 
France. See ConreDERATION oF THE Rute. 

As the history of the war in Spain, which is given 
under the article Brirrain, terminates with the reduc- 
tion of Ciudad Rodrigo, in January 1812, we shall re- 
sume and continue it in this place, 

“ The preservation of Ciudad Rodrigo being of the 
utmost consequence to the French, Marshal Marmont 


A. D. 1812. marched to its relief; before he arrived, however, it 
surrendered. 


. Lord Wellington’s next en ise Was 
Badajos, which had been rapelt time blockaded by 
General Hill. This place was commanded by Philip- 


expr, bowechwlemlernscre deve he commenced 


again retreated. : 

of Marmont were at Sa- 
‘and of Soult at Seville. 
Lord Wellin at Fuente de Guinaldo. 
His Lordship, at this time, formed a plan to cut off the 
communication between the French army of Portugal, 
and that before Cadiz ; and, for this 
ries of masterly manceuvres, he made h 
the bridge of Almaraz, on the eastern side of the pro- 
vince'of Estremadura. Here again Marshal Marmont 


_ Thenext 


his Lordshi Boggs toate. igh 
is ip’s Marmont, however, 
he was not able, or didjnot deem it prudent, to attempt 
preventing the loss of Reem r im e to’ 
its recapture. A ingly, ected his ‘on 
the Douro, Pe and 19th of June. et 


refuse battle ; but beasts fi , 
however, a communication * some forts in the nei; 
pourhood of the city, which still held out... 

these forts Lord Welli 
having reduced them, he forward against Mar- 
mont. The latter retired, crossed the Douro, and took 


to Lord phage 
in order to draw Marmont away it, he moved 
such a direction, as seemed to threaten Madrid. — 
French general also, about the same time, endeavoured 
to carry into execution a scheme for cutting off the com- 
munication between the British army and Ciudad Rod. 
rigo ; and, for this purpose, having reinforeed, he 
moved in such a manner, as to threaten the left of the 
British. Lord Wellington, on ria ene retreated a 
little, so as to render it secure; an i 
thus foiled, attempted to turn the right. Lord Wi 
lington now manceuvred in such a manner, as would 
not only protect it, but enable him to take ad 
any blander which Marmont might commit. Thus 
several days were spent. Marmont, constantly ma- 
neeuvring to turn the right of the British, wi | Lord 
Wellington, making correspondent movements, in order 
to defeat his object. At last, Marmont, in his anxiety 
to out-manceuvre the British army, d the 
per defence of his own, extending his line to the 
so far as to weaken the main body considerab 
fault Lord Welli instantl 
vantage of it. The centre 
attacked with such successful and 
that they were soon beaten. The ri, 

5 


- 


g 


s bravery, 
would have as 


urpose, by a se- 
master of 


7 


Badajos tae 


ken, 


7th April, 
1812, 


— ) 


a et... 


aphersion: M 


i This Battle of 
Frc a took ad. S#lamanca 
of the French were 


History. 
atti Siteal 


Consequen- 


ces of it. 


.- now dark, but the French were pursued ; and. 


FRANCE. | 
an amicable adjustment, Bonaparte prepared for war, by _ History. 


ily shared the same fate, but it was reinforced by 
troops that fled from the left, and held out till it 
was attacked in front, when it also gave way. 2 was 
, during 
the battle and pursuit, suffered so severely, that only a 
few | to Valladolid. Marmont himself was 
Joneph Bonaparte bad left Madrid with the army of 
<—y 
the centre, in the hope of being able to join Marmont 
before his engagement with Lord Wellington ; but, on 
learning the issue of the battle of Salamanca, he retreat- 
ed in such a manner, as he trusted would draw off his 
ip from the it of the defeated army. In 
this also he was inted, and Madrid was now 
abandoned to its fate. Nor was this the only result of 


’ the battle: Soult withdrew from the South of Spain ; 


aud the siege of Cadiz, which the French had continued 
so long, was raised. The object of this general, 
wradhes Marmont, was now to com roe tata 

en un- 


he would 


vin ined J 
drid to its fate. 


able to protect it ; but Soult ha- 


Bonaparte, th ish general 
the scuachy st bandeaing tas 


The commander, full 
and that, till it was reduced, 
i could not safely advance against Mar- 
it with gveat-ohill aid bravery. Little 
pression had been made on it, when his Lord- 

ship learnt that Souham, who had succeeded Marmont, 
Hil hee the foes of Mad her athoageand 

; , was close! 

‘It. This intelli {induced his Lordshi peach 
don the siege; and, in his retreat, he was y fol- 
Souham ; and General Hill retreating in such 
‘direction as to join his Lordship, and being followed 
It, in a short time the two British and the two 
armies were united. As, however, the latter 


: 


mn 


653 


retaining possession of the Prussian fortresses in the 
north of Germany, and sending large bodies of troops 


lities ; but finding that i icable, he used his ut- 
most endeavours to render the resources of his vast em- 
pire available, in the event of a war with France, and he 
courted the friendship of Britain. The organization of 
the army was also improved. By these measures the 
Emperor Alexander saw himself, at the end of 1811, 
possessed of forces amounting to nearly 400,000 men, 
300,000 of which he could bring against the French. 
When the dispute between France and Russia began, 
the forces which Bonaparte could have spared, in the 
event of an immediate war, were comparatively few ;_ 
he therefore protracted the negociation, till he had as- 
sembled a more numerous, and, in every respect, a bet- 
ter mee army, than he had ever before led into the 
field. The contingent of the confederation of the 
Rhine was augmented. The King of Saxony was call- 
ed upon to join in the war, on the ground that Russia 
threatened the Polish possessions, which Bonaparte had 
iven him. From the southern extremity of Europe, 
urat marched his Italian troops. The King‘of Prus« 
sia reluctantly contributed nearly all ‘his army ; and 
Austria was called u to fulfil her engagements, by 


“which, in the event of a war, she was to awe France. 


e Peninsula, 


All the best trvops that Bonaparte had in 
In short, all 


were marched to the north of Germany. 
Europe, from the to the Baltic on its western 
side, and from the extremity of Italy to the same sea 
on its eastern side, and from the Atlantic Ocean to the 
confines of Poland, was leagued, under Bonaparte, 
against Russia. For such an immense army, about to 
invade a country nearly barbarous and desolate, it was 
necessary to provide enormous stores of provision, am- 
munition, &c. These were all brought up to the north 
of Germany, and such arrangements {or their convey- 
ance made, as Bonaparte expected would furnish him 
with a regular and full supply, till the Emperor Alex- 
ander was intimidated into submission. For there can 
be no doubt, that he expected, by the formidable na- 
ture of his preparations, or, at most, by the decisive 
blow which he firmly, believed he should soon be able 
to strike, that Alexander would sue for peace, on such 


Russia pre- 


there. Nor was the Emperor Alexander idle ; he en- pare for 
deavoured, indeed, to prevent the recurrence of hosti- war. 


4 
a 


conditions as he chose to give. 
On the 9th of May, Bonaparte having collected an Campaign 


much more numerous than the former, they obli- 
army of at least 400,000 men, set out from St Cloud, of 1812. 


Lord Wellington to continue his retreat to the con- 


n 


of Portugal. On the 6th of June he crossed the Vistula. On the Bonaparte 
State of the At the close of the campaign, the French armies, ex- 22d of that month, he formally declared war against crosses the 
hostile ar-  ¢lusively of ‘those which were wholly occupied by the Russia ; and two days afterwards, he crossed the Nie~ Niemen. 
mies. desultory warfare of the Spaniards, consisted of about men, and entered the Russian territories. 
104,000 men ; of these, 72,000 infantry, and 2000 ea- Hitherto the Russians had made little or no resist« 


valry were under the command of Soult, who directed 
the armies formerly under the command of Joseph Bo- 
naparte, and Souham. Suchet, in the south of Spain, 
had with him 18,000 infantry, and 4,000 cavalry, to op- 


ance ; but as they had marked out the first line of de~ 
fence poe banks of the Dwina, it was supposed that 
there would seriously oppose their invaders. ‘The 
plan on which they had resolved to act was, however, ~naahog 


pose the Spaniards there, and an Anglo-Sicilian force, 


which lately landed. to the French ar- 
mies, were about 70,000 Bri Germans, and Portu- 
guese. But of the French, a proportion consisted 


We have already mentioned the causes of the dispute 


between the ‘or Alexander and Bonaparte. As 
the esac snage pall place in 1811, did not promise 


different. Knowing the impetuous activity of Bona- 
parte, and that he had been accustomed to astonish - 
and intimidate by the rapidity of his movements, and 
by advancing into the very heart of the country which 
he invaded, they h to draw him on into the inte- 
rior-of Russia, far from his resources, and to places 
where he could not support his army by plunder and 
contributions. They-also. anticipated the effects of a 
Russian winter, if he should be mad enough to con- 
tinue in it till this season. In order that this plan should 
be carried into complete and successful execution, it 


History. 


—_—\ 
A. D. 1812, 


Bonaparte 
rvtiers Wil- 
na 


Rattles at 


Witepsk. 


654 
was necessary the inhabitants and soldiers of the 
par der en at pea as the Russiahs were, 
both of them incapable of being seduced by the arts of 
the French,—even deaf to the promises of mips 
when that blessing was to come froman enemy. In 
short, the attachment, both of the Russian peasantry 
and the Russian army, to their and their coun- 
try is so strong, that no temptation, no difficulty, can 
possibly shake it. But the plan of the Russians 
was to draw Bonaparte into the interior of their vast, 
desolate, and barbarous empire, yet they at the same 
time determined to oppose him wherever they could 
do — advantage, and thus weaken him as he ad- 
vanced, 

Such was the plan of the Russians, and they acted 
up to it with a patriotic perseverance which does them 
infinite honour. Bona , indeed, was successful, in 
so far as driving back the Russians and advancing con- 
stituted success: he even succeeded in dividing one of 
the Russian corps from the main army. But as he ad- 
vanced, he found no signs of intimidation on the part 
ef the Em 3 no ‘proof of attachment or submis- 
sion from the people ; and he must have been sensible 
that he was leaving his resources far behind, while he 
could not hope for regular and sufficient supply from a 
country never well cultivated or fertile, now laid 
waste and deserted by the inhabitants as he 
Those disco ing circumstances, however, did not 
appear so ifestly while he was in Poland and Li- 
thuania, as the inhabitants of these districts, not at- 


tached to Russia, and mo ee Bonaparte’as their li- 
berator, received him wi stinde and joy. On the 
28th of June, he entered W. which he did not leave 


till the 17th of July. His transactions during this stay 
are not clearly known ; but though he was stationary, 
the different divisions of his army were on the advance. 
His plan now began to unfold itself, and he seemed to 
be aiming at once on the destruction of the main Rus- 
sian army, and. the occupation of Petersburg. On 
the latter enterprize, a corps under the command of 
Marshal Macdonald was sent. The rest of his army 
followed the line of the retreat of the Russians. 
a At es the Dees had an eee 
ut as the corps which Bonaparte had succeeded in se- 
parating bad not yet come up, this was abandoned, 
and a position at Witepsk occupied. On the 24th of 
July, they arrived here, one of their corps having been 
pocvioney dispatched to the north to cover Peters- 
urg. On the 25th, 26th, and 27th, three battles 
took place; the Russians fi t obstinately ; and hav- 
ing succeeded in weakeni e French, again retreat- 
ed. In the mean time, Marshal Davoust, who had 
been sent after the Russian corps which was ted 
from the main army, came up with it, and brought it 
to action: but the result was not favourable to him, 
and he found himself so weakened that he was not able 
to prevent its rejunction. The French army which had 
marched on the route to Petersburg, was equally un- 
fortunate. The plan of its was to cross the 
Dwina, come round upon Riga, and thus cut off the 
communication with the odpitale. But in consequence 
of his losses on the 30th and 81st of July, in two very 
severe actions, he was obliged to.recross that river, and 
the communication between Petersburg and the main 
Russian arm 
on leaving Witepsk, retreated on Smolensk, 
~~ eee: but on account of the nature 
country, e extreme difficulty of procuring 
provisions, he was obliged to disperse hie different corps 


FRANCE. 


was thus rendered secure. This:army, 


gu ; 
this of the Russian empire, there were no maps 
sufficiently accurate and minute for his purpose, and 
the fied at his approach. He thus advanced, 


£ 
& 
es 
: 
2 
2 
: 
i 
g 
5 
ts 
8 


: 


till the middle of August. From this place he 
ee ae he at length thes 
the Russians to a cape p hare 9 
had acted on 
ght the F 
great 
retreated. Soon afterwards, the command of 
monereupen sha tie ot eee 
improve upon the , 
se Tolly,be. dliieions a poeanapenty apt persevering re- — 
sistance to the enemy, but still retreating, even after 
success. On the 18th of August, the French having 
thrown a bridge over the Borysthenes, crossed that ri- 
ver; and.as it was now evident that the Russians meant 
to retreat in the direction of Moscow, Bonaparte en. 
deavoured to cut them off from that place. In thisvat- 
tempt, however, he did not succeed at this time ; and 


Ee. = 


Hi 


. 


rick 
uth 


natures with the French. aang ney 
ee d have reached Moscow. without. 
ing, preferred attacking Kutusoff, The force on each Battle of 
side was nearly equal, amounting to about 120,000 Berodina 
men; Son tiated the French, by the obstinacy of Rus- 
sian defence, the incursions of the Cossacks, who con- 
tinually harassed their march, and. the losses occasion 


tillery and infantry, for the purpose of supporting their 
centre. At six o'clock in the morning 
September, commenced the attack, by 
tempting to carry the Russian line by main force. 
contest was murderous, but the issue unfav 


) ing confusion, , disorder, and dismay, 
testa heeeragee peerage 

tack should be made-on the heights ; ra 
most sanguinary contest, was partially rogoenatel ee 
these ions were going on in one part army 
i va the Fae were: the assailants, and 
drove back the French. Thus the conti- 
nued with varying success, till night ; and.though the 
French were undoubtedly masters. of one.part of the 
field of battle ; yet, insother parts, they were so much 
beaten, that Bonaparte judged it. prudent to draw off 


his forces. 
3 


boy gem gioel 


A.D. 181 


1 


FRANCE | : 655 


The Russian general, having thus succeeded in the ceed: this Murat, who commanded the cavalry, attempt- _ Histor. 
~ great object of the campaign, which was to weaken Bo- ed; but he was defeated with dreadful loss. In conse- 3 ene 
~ na as much as possible, and at the same time to quence of this defeat, Bonaparte was compelled to aban- 4 gt ek 
draw him farther into the country, resolved to abandon don his intention of retreating by the route of Kalouga; )..¢2 Mos. 
Moscow to its fate; and this he was the more disposed but-in order to deceive Kutusoff, he began his march coy, 
to do,-as the French army after the ‘battle had been in that direction, and afterwards turned off on the road 
reinforced by a corps under Marshal Victor. Bona- to Smolensk. He himself marched with the van of 
parte now saw the capital of Russia within his reach: his army, surrounded by the Imperial guards: the 
and though, by the persevering refusal of the Emperor Viceroy of Italy brought up the rear. 
Alexander to treat, he could hardly expect that the | As soon as Kutusoff was informed of the route which 
ion of it would bring him to terms, yet he look- the French army had taken, he began his march in a 
ed forward to it as a place of refuge against the seve- parallel line, leaving it to the other divisions of the 
rity of the Russian winter, and as the probable depo- army, and especially the Cossacks, to hang on the rear 
sitory of those articles of provision po refreshment, and the flanks of the enemy. No words can paint the Their dis- 
¢ French Which his army so much wanted. How great then misery and sufferings of the French during this retreat. 4sttous re- 
nter Mos- must have been his mortification and disappointment, ‘ Scarcely had they, worn out by a day’s march, along “°** 
. when, just as he was entering Moscow, he beheld the brokenand deep roads, during which they were constant- 
flames ing it! The patriotic governor, and no _ly obliged to be either on the alert, or actually fighting, 
less patriotic inhabitants, nobly sacrificing their vene- lain down on the wet and cold ground, to obtain a little 
rated city,—their own homes and property,—rather than rest or sleep, when the Cossacks rushed into their camps, 
that the French should derive any advantage from and before the men could prepare themselves for re- 
them. 3 « sistance or defence, many were killed—all were thrown 
Theirdread- Of the hopelessness of the situation of into confusion and dismay, and their artillery and stores 
fal situa- and his army, at this time, it is searcely possible to carried off.” While they were thus exposed to the 
~ form an idea: he had indeed conquered Russia, if that sudden and irregular attacks of the Cossacks, Kutusoff 
could be called ar which consisted in advancing \seized every opportunity of bringing them to battle. 
into the interior of a country; after most severe and On the 24th of’ October, he attacked them most vigo- 
obstinate fighting, where no provisions were to be had, rously ; the French fought with desperation, but their 
where all fled from his approach, and in reaching the ee was at length worn out, and they were com- 
pell 


— sage of that country, only to behold it in flames. to retreat with the loss of 16 pieces of cannon. 
winter was approaching,—a Russian winter,—he After this defeat, Bonaparte pushed forward before his 
was at the distance of 500 or 600 miles from a hospi- army towards Smolensko, the Imperial guard alone ac- 
table climate, and from his resources; on all sides of companying him in his rapid and disgraceful flighty 
him were an peasantry, and an army accus- _It is impossible to describe the losses and sufferings ,,,, Rus 
tomed to the climate, acquainted with the country, and of the French till they arrived at this place. About the ;., “eh 
constantly increasing ; whereas his army could receive beginning of November, the Russian winter set’in with ter sets in. 
no increase ; nor even continue at its present force, di- - more than usual severity, and on the first day of the 
minished as it must daily be, by fatigue, want of pro- frost nearly 30,000 horses perished. ' «All possibility 
visions, and the severity of the climate. In this dread- of ing forward their artillery was now at an end: 
ful crisis, Bonaparte continued his usual and favourite the spirits of the soldiers completely deserted them ; 
system of deception, His bulletins, calculated to de- they crawled on, exposed to the most dreadful cold, 
ceive his subjects, meee the climate of Russia as exhausted with fatigue and hunger, emaciated and al- 
mild, the stores of Moscow as amply sufficient for all most naked. The road was literally blocked up with 
the wants of the army, and the peasantry as rejoicing the dead and the dying ; they had no power to defend 
in the presence of their invader. Notwithstanding the themselves against the C s, who constantly hover- 
approach of winter, he lingered in Moscow, inthe vain ed round them: they had no inclination to do it : death 
hope that the Emperor Alexander would agree to peace; to them would have been a blessing: at the sight of 
but he knew too well that the possessor of the an- the Cossacks they hoped their miseries would soon be 
cient capital of Russia was in fact at his mercy; and terminated ; but their enemies were not so merciful 

ely refused to negotiate. * as to put them to death ; piercing them with wounds, | 
. At length, the proud and obstinate spirit of Bona- stripping off the little covering they had, they left them 
parte gave way, and he resolved to retreat ; but even in the snow, there bleeding and naked, to the rigours - - 
this was represented in his bulletins, as only a lateral of a Russian winter. Whenever the French’ entered 
movement on . His resolution, however, any village, where there was the least chance of repose 
was formed too late: he left Moscew, as soon as or food, they exerted their little remaining poten 
ever his army was refreshed and prepared for retreat, and crawled on their hands and feet to seek it. Fre- 


and before the of winter was so near, he might quently, just as they had stretched out their hands to 
have unparalleled disasters which befel seize a little food, or vont, the threshold of a wretch- 
him ; but by delaying it till the middle of October, he ed hut, under which they Tooked for shelter from the 
rendered it im for him to far, before weather, perhaps for a few minutes sleep, the remnant, 


the severity of a Russian winter would attack his troops, of their strength failed them, and they expired.” 

v he vetime for the enemy to complete their opera- It may well be conceived, how little able such an 
tions for har them. These preparations, indeed, army was to resist the regular Russian en 3 yet oc- 
were extensive. On every side the Russians were col- casionally despair lent them strength, and they fought 
lected ; and especially immense numbers of Cossacks, obstinately, but never successfully, In addition to their 

calculated for this mode of warfare. —. miseries, they lost all confidence in Bonaparte, and in 

Before Bonaparte could leave Moscow, it was ne- fact could no longer be said to compose an army; ig- 
to drive back the grand Russian army, which norant of the roads, and s‘raid to meet with the Cos- 
-occupied the Kalouga , by which he meant*to pro-| sacks, they wandered in all directions, or actually laid 


History. 
—_—\— 
A. D, 1812. 


Bonaparte 
quits his 
army. 


Its im- 
moense loss. 


Plot at Pa- 
rls. 


656 


theniselves down to die. Every day witnessed the di- 
minution of their numbers, by defeat or the effects of 
famine and the climate ; but their most serious loss took 
place at Krasnoi, where Kutusoff completely routed 
them ; the division of Davoust, nena 24,000 strong, 
being for the most part, killed, wou ao gr 
soners, A few days afterwards, the division of Ney 
attacked the Russians, but they were repulsed, and be- 
ing surrounded, 12,000 laid down their arms, But it 
is not possible, within our limits, to icularise all 
the disasters to which they were : The e 
of the Beresina, however, must not be omitt 


dreadful destruction, both from the flames and the ene- 
my. After this their retreat to Wilna was not so dis- 
astrous; before, however, the troops arrived there, Bo- 
naparte left them, travelling in a incognilo, 
along with Caulincourt, and returned to Paris on the 
18th of December. Murat was left in command; but 
he soon followed the example that had been set him ; 
and the command of the di ized remains of this 
once most numerous and formidable army devolved on 
the Viceroy of Italy. The loss of the French in this 
campaign cannot be estimated lower than 300,000 men; 
and this loss was entirely occasioned by the mad and 
obstinate ambition of Bonaparte ; for when we recollect 
that, “ at the close of summer, he led an immense 
army into the very heart of Russia—into a country, in 
which winter reigns with most intense and unbroken 
severity for half the year ; that in front, and rear, and 
both sides of this army, were immense bodies of troops, 
inured to the climate, and cutting off all chance of pro- 
curing provisions ; and that this army, when compelled 
to retreat, had to march upwards of 500 miles, without 
shelter, almost without food and clothing, on roads 
broken up, or rendered nearly impassable by the snow, 
exposed to the most intense cold, and harassed night 
and day by clouds of Cossacks, we may be astonished 
at the insane rashness of Bo , but we cannot be 
—- that nearly the whole of his army was de- 
stroyed,” 
hat division of the French army which marched on 
eae oem 8 , shared the fate of of Figend 
my ; for, not being able to gain possession iga, an 
beng aeiminlgteanned by the Russians, while Bona- 
parte would not allow it to retreat, till he himself had 
retired, it suffered nearly in an equal , both from 
the enemy, and the severity of the climate. 
ose thera an! ag ya woe 
r ’s advance into Russia as 
onuet of cat county, and his possession of Moscow 
=a completion of hi telanrtph.. ‘The real state of 
the case, however, was known at Paris; and even he, 
soon after he left Moscow, could no longer ,conceal it. 
His twenty-ninth bulletin exposed his disgrace and dis- 
asters in more complete nakedness to the citizens of 
Paris, than they ever before witnessed. They be- 
lieved, or hoped, that his situation was even more des- 
perate than he admitted. A report of his death was 
spread, Part of the national guard betrayed symptoms 


of open opposition to his government; but the plot, 
mii hiliag’ Lae stich Seelggueces eodlipeminn teemaaiens. 
ed, and the ringleaders a: . The intelligence 


of it is su to have contributed to induce Bona- 
parte to quit the army, and ¢eturn to Paris. 
As the yoke of Bonaparte had been impatiently 


FRANCE. 


‘were ha ve: may easily be collected 
tory whi 


disposal ; and shortly in the annual ex- 

pee a very flattering account of the state of the 
rench empire was published, in which its 

Nering appaisteh the ieupovee tiuaeetitamag te ab- 
ving appoi press darir 

seen koh taeda of April, and ar- 

rived at Monta eaters This ap a a 

12 corps, besides mperial 2 different di- 

visions were-directed to in such directions, as 


borne by the Prussians, the defection of a corps of them, ; 
er al P amp i 
on to ae aa fe poh neryricing ,. ” 
, who commanded army, being thus : a 
weakened, and being, moreover, harassed by the Rus- A.D. 1 


sians, retreated in eth he ee 
berg to its fate, directing his flight to the Vistu 
Across this river the remnant of the French also fled, 
pursued by their unwearied and implacable 
The king of Prussia, being still 


the defection of his generals, and to 
the French; but he was ae 
parte recovered from his losses, he might again 
duced under his power. In these circumstances, on 


the 15th of Febri 1818 he made ps aac 


truce, on condition the Russians’ 
hind the Vistula, sand Nas Plog oe tigen So 
ving Prussia enti ign occupation. 
h cr pendnan eg i agreed. Setiea 
mean time, Bonaparte was deserted by the Austrian *”! % ‘he 
auxiliaries, who, indeed, had been of very little service 
during the campai 

The French still continued their retreat; for a short 
time they a as if’ 
Berlin; but finding the 


be re- 


ing morning, 
when they were received as friends anid deliverers. T 


from Dresden and Leipsick—the king 
adhering tne Sirti ae 2d of A 
sians and Prussians ght together against 
hinting in the vigniy 46 Luneburg: the combat 
and sanguinary, but a complete vi 

tala by tbe allow. The Russians 

divided into three armies ; one had crossed the. 
order to drive the French towards the Maine; 
cond was employed in the siege of Dantzic and 
and the third was posted at Custrin and 
Prussians were distributed in Saxony, 
burgh, and Rostock, and also invested Stettin. i 
Crown Prince of Sweden, who had long ——- 
assistance to the allies, was at nd, to 
take the command of 50,000 men. Fi 

of the extent of country over which the 


rom 
the loss of 
ch the French had sustained, 
Notwithstanding this loss, however, 
more important loss of his best soldiers, 1 
which had been given to his mil reputation, 
naparte resolyed to hazard another campaign ; for 
he exerted all his activity and vigour in 
the resources of France, in order again to 
ona formidable footing. By a senatus cons 
11th of January, 350,000 men were placed at. 
afterwards, 


E: 


i 


fe 
2 if 


3 
2 


ae 


arm 
¢ 


F 


to form a junction near Jena and upon the Saale. . The 


by Hanpe- and the Emperor of Austria, from a m 


' 


ory. head quarters of the Russian army, now commanded 


by Witgenstein, in uence of the death of Kutu- 
cof, were tthe north of Leipsic; the Prussians, un 
‘Blucher, were to the south of that city. 
The first battle was fought in the plain of Lutzen. 
“It was brought on by che ttssiin general, who wished 
to prevent the junction of the different divisions of the 
French army. r to avenge the 


th em tea wae ed F. 
wron eir coun sustain rance, 
the ry a ; and ite soon became general along the lon. 
Thev: in front were several times taken and re- 
taken, and the action continued with great till 
seven of the evening of the2dof May. Theallies:kept 
possession of the field ; the 3d of May passed without 
fighting, and on the 4th Bonaparte retreated. But his 
zetreat was not continued far ; for the allies, though vic- 
torious, had so weakened themselves by their victory, 
that or could not oppose the advance of the French 
to the Elbe, which river they crossed at Dresden on the 
6th and 7th; and at this place Bonaparte fixed his head 
uarters. The King of Saxony having now joined the 
rench with his forces, the allies continued to retreat, 


and took up a position on the heights overhanging the 


Spree, with the centre of their front line behind Baut- 


‘ resolved to attack them, with his 
main army in front, while the divisions of Ney, Lauris- 
ier, turned their right. The latter part of 
this plan was foreseen, and frustrated by the Russian 
General, who ordered these divisions of the French to 


be separately attacked; this took place on the 19th. 
At four in the morning of the 20th, the d attack 
by the Frénch main army commenced ; after seven 


hours hard fightin so far prevailed, that the allies 
: soe poe er kirchen. . On the 21st 


good order, and presenting a formidable front to the 
ry oars was entered by Lauriston on 


of 
of the necessity under which the al- 
ee eee Seer eee cree om pets 
or, their or to put them out of ern 
advancing foe, Hamburgh was evacuated by 
short time, and an ineffectual resist« 
re yes rench, 
| hitherto been successful, and had dri« 
before him; but his successes and his ad- 
dearly purchased ; he therefore listened 
. uf Austria, who oe his mediation. 
consequence of it, a cessation of hostilities took place, 
and that a congress should ‘be held at 
But this congress produced no pacific result ; 
r, became 
, as soon as he saw that he was 
for The Crown Prince 


. 


apie st? 
th = 


E 
z 
5 


ene of tl pe rae, Semenal ten. 
minating in favour of the allies, their advanced guard 


encamped on the heights above that city on the 26th 
of Au On the following day, the French aban- 
their before Dresden, and withdrew into 


FRANCE. 


6ST 


though estimated at 130,000 men, thus defended, the History. 


allies resolved to move: but their enterprise was un- 
successful ; and on the following day, the 28th of Au- 
gust, the French became the assailants, the allies oc- 
cupying a very extended position on the heights round 
the city. In this engagement, General Moreau, who 
had come over from America to oppose Bonaparte, was 
mortally wolnded. The result of it was, that the allies 
retreated in the evening, having sustained a very con+ 
siderable loss. _They were pursued by a large division 
of the French under Generals Vandamme and Bertrand ; 
who were at first successful, but being unexpectedly 
attacked on. all sides by fresh corps of the Austrians 
and Prussians, Vandamme and 10,000 of his men were 
taken prisoners. 


A. D. 1813. 


Death of 
Moreau, 


_ The allies were also successful in Silesia, the reco- Success of 
very of which from the French was entrusted to Blu- the Allies: 


cher. Having defeated Marshal Macdonald, and taken 


18,000 prisoners, on the banks of the Katsbach, on 
the 2d of September, he encamped near Gorlitz, and 
in an address to his troops, congratulated them on the 
deliverance of Silesia from the enemy. ; 

On the 6th of this month, the Crown Prince of Swe- 
den having collected the Swedish and Russian armies, 


was informed that about 70,000 of the French, under pattle of 
the command of Ney, were in full march upon Juter- Juterboch. - 


boch, inorder) to attack a very inferior corps stationed 
there. He immediately ordered the Prussians under 
Bulow to support this corps, while he advanced as 
quickly as possible. The Prussians fought nobly against 
much superior numbers; and as soon as the columns 
of the Prince’s army began to appear, the French re- 


treated. Inthis action they lost nearly 18,000 men, and . 


80 pieces of cannon. 

different directions ; but Bonaparte, not cured of that 
obstinacy which had occasioned the ruin of his army at 
pi, ee: in remainingin Dresden till he found 
that the allies, by directing their Coat efforts towards 
Leipsic, would completely cut him off from France, un- 
ae uitted it. On the 7th of October, therefore, 

e 


he whole of the allies now approached Dresden in» 


resden in company with the King of Saxony, , 


and took up a position in the neighbourhood of Leipsic; . 


About this time, he was desert 
ria, who ordered 55,000 of his troops under General 
Wrede, to act with the Austrians. The allies having 
collected their respective armies round Leipsic, resolved 


by the King of Bavas - 


to attack the French in various points. Several very - 


severe battles took place in consequence of this, in all of 
which the French were defeated ; and at length they 
were obliged to concentrate their whole force in the im- 
mediate suburbs of the town. On the 16th of October, 
the grand army of the allies made a general attack to 
the south of it; but after a dreadful slaughter, they 


could not succeed in dislodging the French. The 17th : 


was chiefly occupied in pre’ 


contest. the morning of the 18th, the different ar- 


ing for a renewal of the - 


mies of the allies advanced from the villages round gatite‘og ; 
Leipsic, for their grand attack on the city.. During the Leipsic. 


battle, some Saxon and Westphalian regiments abandon- 
ed Bonaparte, and went over to the allies. Few contests 
are on record, that have been more dreadful or more 
decisive than the battle of Leipsic; the result.of which 
was, that the French lost, in killed, wounded, and pri- 
soners, 40,000 men, and 65 pieces of artillery: seven- 
teen German battalions also deserted from them and 
joined the conquerors. On the morning of the 19th, 


the King of Saxony sent a flag of truce to the Emperor « 
, BDieitt 4 


658 


History. Alexander, requesting bim to spare the town; but an 

ray immediate assault was ordered, and by eleven o'clock 

ix, the allies were in possession of it two hours after Bo- 

had made his escape. In it were taken the 

rear guard of the French, amounting to 30,000, and 

their sick and wounded, nearly 22,000, besides their 
magazines, artillery, and stores. 

The retreat of the French was marked by the most 
extreme confusion and disorder; and if we take into 
account, that it was made at a more favourable season 
of the year, and through a country better adapted to a 
retreating army, it cannot be deemed less disastrous 
or disgraceful than the retreat from Russia. The line 
of their retreat was on Frankfort: they were followed 
by the Prussian General D’York, while the combined 
Austrian and Bavarian army was posted at Hanau to 
intercept them. Here, on the 29th of October, a par- 
tial nt took place, in which the French were 
successful. On the 31st, Bonaparte fixed his head 
quarters at Frankfort; and on the 2d of November 
he arrived at Mentz, whence he proceeded shortly af- 
terwards to Paris. 

On the 14th of November, he replied to the address 
of the Senate in language of apparent frankness, ac- 
knowledging his disasters, but appealing to the French 
His decrees. nation for support under them. Two decrees were im- 

mediately passed, one imposing additional taxes, and 
the other ordering a levy of 300,000 conscripts, as the 
enemy had invaded the frontiers on the side of the Py- 
renees and the north, and as those of the Rhine and 
beyond the Alps were threatened. The natural effect 


Bonaparte 
arrives in 
Paris. 


Holland, of his reverses now began to appear: a revolution 

Hanover, broke out in Holland, which, being assisted by the Eng- 

&c, recover lish, terminated in separating that country from France. 

=. Hanover also was entered, and liberated by the Crown 
Prince of Sweden. Bremen and Embden were reco~ 
vered. ‘The Viceroy of Italy, unable to cope with the 
Austrians, abandoned Trieste and the Dalmatian coast ; 
and Dresden and Stettin, with their numerous: garri- 
sons, surrendered to the combined forces. 

Declaration . The allied sovereigns, who had assembled at Frank- 


ofthe Allies, fort, published a declaration on the Ist of December, 
laying open their views with regard to France. Against 
that country they did not make war, but ‘against the 
insatiable ambition of Bonaparte, to whom they had 
already offered fair and honourable terms of peace, but 
in vain. It was for the advantage of Europe, that 
France should be independent and great. This they 
did not wish to prevent; so far from it, if they succeed- 
ed in their plans, they would leave her so; but they 
were also determined that their states should, for the 
future, be also’ independent,—no longer liable to the 
tyranny and ambition of Bonaparte. The last twenty 
years had witnessed unparalleled calamities: heaped on 
Europe: They trusted they had now in their power to 
put an end to these calamities, and they were resolved 
to do so. This declaration, so moderate and liberal; 
displeased Bonaparte. There was nothing in it on 
which he could lay hold, as manifesting an intention to 
injure the honour or weaken the just power of France ; 
he therefore replied to it in general and ambiguous 
terms, in his speech before the islative Body on 
the 19th of December, maintaining, that the allies alone 
were to blame if peace had not been concluded, as he 
had adhered to their preliminary basis; adding, how- 
ever, that if peace were made, it must’ be on terms con- 
sistent with honour. ; 
In the month of December, the allies crossed the 
Rhine and invaded France. This operation was per- 


who invade 
France, 


FRANCE. 


formed with titde or no opposition at various points, — 
not a single French army appearing in the field to de- == 
fend the frontier,’ The fort of Huningen, in 4-18 


Alsace, was invested, and the allied troops spread over x 
that province and Franche Under: these cir- vy 
cumstance, Bonaparte issued a on the 26th of i 


December, announcing the mission of senators, or coun- 
cillors of state, into the military divisions, to act as 
commissioners extraordinary, armed with powers to 
provide and organize the means of defence; and thus, 
in fact, suspending all the magistracies, and other au- tries 
thorities in the country, and the immediate to rouse 
agency of military despotism to every part. ‘There frevcl 
were thirty commissioners inted, who were to be 
attended by as many law aftcats, These efforts, how- 
ever, were unavailing, and their result proved at once, 
that the French people were wearied out with calami- 
ty, and were disposed to regard the allies rather as 
friends than foes, and that the authority and power of 
Bonaparte were drawing to a close ; for he must have 
expected, either that the people would have .risen of 
their own ee called upon to defend their 
country, or that he possessed the means of ‘co: i 
their services on this occasion ; neither of Stach tok ‘ 
place to any considerable extent. 
We must now furn to the affairs of the peninsula, In Affairs of 
December 1612, the French main army, now under the the Peni 
command of Drouet, was in the nei ) od of Sa. Sa 


lamanca and Valladolid, occupying various on the 
line of the Tagus. | Joseph Dishesiencalan Matis) i 
and Soult had his head quarters at Toledo. all 
the central parts’ of Spain were in the power of the 
French. Lord Wellington was at Freynada, on the 7 
frontiers of Portugal, about the middle of Mareh ; 4 
ly all the French troops were withdrawn from La\Man- 
cha, and the army of the south was concentrated ‘be- 
tween Talavera, Madrid, and Toledo,—Joseph Bona- 
parte having quitted Madrid. These movements; and 
others connected with them, indicated that their plan 
was to retire from the central provinces, and take 
strong positions in the north and north-east. In the 
south-east of Spain, Suchet had been obliged to quit 
Valencia, in consequence of some successes gained by 
the Anglo-Sicilian army under Sir John Murray. In 
April, the main French army was'still occupied im mo- 
ving from the Tagus to the Douro ; but theirforce was 
much weakened, as, during February and March; near- 
ly 25,000 men had been:sent into France, to assist Bo- 
naparte in his German campaign, ius parece 

These movements and indications:of the French, de- 
termined the plan of Lord Wellington. On the 26th 
of May, he fixed his head quarters at Salamanea, Here 
a slight skirmish’ took a His army afterwards con- 
tinued to advance to Toro, the French persevering in 
their plan of Rey pe central provinces. -On the 
jth fo ar Lord Wellington crossed the Carrion, and . 
soon after ‘'reconnoitered a strong position which» the 
French oceupied at Burgos. ‘This, however, they did. 
not defend; but retired with their whole force in the 
night, marching towards the Ebro, on the road to Mi- 
randa. On the 14th and'15th Lord Wellir ‘cross- 
ed that river, and continued his march’ towards Vit~ 
toria. ia 

Joseph Bonaparte was now the nominal commander 
of the grand French army ;* but ‘the aetual command 
was vested in Marshal Jourdan. The army consisted of 
the whole of the armies of the south and the centre, of 
four divisions, and all the cayalry of the army of  Por- 
tugal, and-some troops of the army of the north. -On 


FRANCE 659 


the 19th of June, it took up a position in front of Vit- 
toria. On the 20th Lord Wellington’s army halted, 
and his Lordship reconnoitered the French. On the 
21st he attacked them, and gained a most signal and 
glorious victory. The retreat of the French was:so ra- 
pid, that they were unable to draw off their ba; 
and artillery, the whole of which fell into the of 
the victors. The French retreated by the high road to 
country, first to Pampeluna, and on the 25th 
the road of Roncesyalles into France ; a brigade of 
army of Gallicia, under General Castanos, driving 


- them across the Bidassoa, the boundary river, over the 


idge of Irun. 


most importance, the Marshal collected about 20,000, 
and advanced towards it. Sir John Murray, not deem- 


scehliceinelshiatbtatsl aiunecbret tas conduct. 

In the mean time, the main French army 
had actually evacuated the Peninsula, and entered their 
own country, part of their troops still maintained them- 
so cisidainneelteeeipiet ey Cony anu esatvod 
its and strong positi seemed resolve 
to keep possession. inst them, therefore, a detach- 
ment of the British were sent, who succeeded in dis- 


would retire quietly before their conquerors; but Bo- 


purpose i 
greatly distinguished himself in the south of Spain, was 
inted, by an imperial decree, commander in chief 


July,;and on the 24th collected at St Jean the right 
left wings, amounting in all to 30,000 or 40,000 


the French to abandon a y 
ip to be “ one of. the and most diffi- 
cult of access, that he had yet seen oceupied by troops.” 


Spanish frontier was entirely freed from the presence 
and occupation of the French. 
The strong fortresses of Pam and St Sebastian 


August, which cost the British many lives. This, how- 
ever, didnot deter Sir Thomas Graham from renewing 


the attack; but the attempt seemed nearly desperate, History. 
when the assailants having made repeated but fruitless 
exertions to gain an entrance, no man surviving the A.D. 1813. 
attempt to mount the narrow ridge of. the curtain, he 

adopted the eritical and venturous expedient of order- 

ing the guns to be turned against the curtain, the shot of 

which passed only a few feet over the heads of the men 

at the foot of the breach. This manceuvre, joined to 

the success of the Portuguese in another quarter, deci- pay of st 
ded the fate of St Sebastian. But Soult. was too deep- Sebastian. 
ly sensible of its importance to permit it to fall, male 

out making an effort to relieve it. He therefore made 

several desperate attacks on the allied army ; but, 

though several of them were directed against the Spa- 

ni and Portuguese, they repulsed them with great 

bravery and iness; and on the 18th of September 

the castle of St Sebastian surrendered. j 

On the 7th of October, Lord Wellington crossed the Lord Wel 
Bidassoa and entered France; but he did not com- lington en- 
mence offensive operations till the fall of Pampeluna had tts France 
disengaged the right of his army from its blockade. 

Having now all his forces at liberty, he resolved to ex« 
ecute a grand operation against the French. Ever 
since the prs age of August, they had occupied a 
position, with their right upon the sea, in front of 

the town of St Jean de Luz, their centre on a vil- 
lage and the high grounds behind it, and their left 

on a strong height. This position, naturally advan- 
tageous, they had fortified with t skill and care: 
Lord Wellington soon determined on his plan of at- Battle of st 
tack ; but the execution of it he was obliged to defer, Jean de 
in uence of the heavy rains, On the 10th of No. 1.u2. 
vember, however, the weather proving favourable, he 
commenced his attack, the object of which was to force 

the centre of the enemy, and establish the allied army 

in the rear of their right. The various attacks to ac- 
complish these objects began at day light, and it was 
night before the rear of the right of the French army 
was gained. On the next morning they were pursued 
across the Nivelle, and on the following night they re- 
tired to an entrenched camp in the front of Bayonne. 
As, however, they still held posts on the rivers Adour 
and Nive, Lord Wellington caused a series of man- 
ceuvres and operations to take ip on the 9th, 10th, 
11th, 12th, and 13th of December, the result of which 
was, that the French were driven from most of their 
positions, and obliged to confine themselves to the vi- 
cinity of Bayonne. 

In the mean time, Suchet, in the south-east of Spain, 
seemed resolved to maintain himself, notwithstanding 
the retreat of the French main army from the Penin- 
sula, Sir John Murray having been recalled, Lord 
William Bentinck had assumed the command of’ the 
Anglo-Sicilian army. His first operation was to re- 
sume the siege of Tarragona, which Sir John had aban- 
doned on the advance of Suchet. But the Marshal again 
advancing with nearly 25,000, Lord William Bentinek 
was obliged to imitate the example of his predecessor, 
and retreat upon Cambrilly. ' 

By the middle of January 1814, part of the allied Advance of 
army occupied Langres, an ancient and considerable the Allies 
town, 100 miles within the French frontier: till they peNerrrs 
reached it, there was not a single shot fired at them by “*”:?°!*- 
any body but the military. Bonaparte had not yet quit- 

Paris, and had not been able to collect any consider- 
able force. The troops he had mustered were under the 
command of Marshals Victor and Marmont, the former 
of whom advanced into Alsace, to oppose the Bavarians, 
under General Wrede ; but not being able to cope with 


660 


tlistory. them, he abandoned this 

PONE Ss nan cme ote 

tinue his retreat to Luneville. By the middle of Ja- 

nuary, the Cossacks, who had entered France in great 

erm the gave a clear proof, in what a defenceless 

state it was, by pushing on between Epinal and Nancy, 
unsupported by any regular troops. 

The second French army, under the command of 
Marmont, was opposed to Blucher, whose had 
crossed the Rhine near Coblentz and Manheim ; but 
he found it necessary to retreat before the Prussian ge- 
neral, and take up a position behind the Saare. Even 
here he could not long continue; for by the end of 
January he had fled to Verdun, while Victor was at 
Commency ; and the additional which Bonapart 
had under the command of Mortier and Mac- 

; donaid, were at Chaumont and Namur, The allies, at 
ikea —— Lorraine, as far as the Meuse, all 
Alsace, Franche Compté, and t of Burgundy. 
Such, however, was the aubhvaien a of Baenpaens 
‘that he had not yet quitted Paris. Notwithstanding the 
tations of his force, and the favourable dispo- 
sition of the French, which were given in the French 
official news his means to cope with the allies 
were soi uate, that he resolved to sue for peace. 
The allied sovereigns had taken up their head quarters 
at Chatillon ; and thither Caulincourt, Bonaparte’s mi- 
nister, was directed to proceed. But peace was not 
, even by the most sanguine ; for though the 
allies were sincerely disposed towards it, and the Em- 
peror of Austria was suspected of a leaning towards his 
son-in-law, which retarded his cordial co-operation with 
~ them, yet the character of Bonaparte left no doubt, that 
his sole object was delay, in order to augment his for- 
ces ; and , if he were again successful, his conduct 
would be as ambitious and overbearing as before. A 
congress, however, was held at Chatillon, which was 
attended by the allied sovereigns in person, and by 
Caulincourt on the of Bona , and Lord Castle- 

— on the part of Great Britain. 

n consequence of the rapid advance of the allies, the 
more young and active members of the Bourbon famil 
left England, and embarked for the continent tow 
the end of January. This step they took entirely of 
their own accord, since none of the allied powers had 
given them reason to believe that they would declare 
or support Louis XVIII. On the contrary, they had 
solemnly not to interfere in the internal go- 
vernment of France, and were even disposed to treat 
with Bonaparte. But the Bourbon princes knew their 
adherents were numerous in different parts of France, 
and these they wished to increase and animate by their 
‘presence and example. 

of- ‘The situation of 1 Bonaparte, already extremely em- 

the national barrassing, was rendered still more so, by the stoppage 
bank. of the.national bank of France. By the report e 
directors, it appeared that their ready money amounted 

only to £600,000, which, from the ess of the 

holders of notes-to obtain payment, would be exhaust- 

ed ina very few days. In order therefore to prevent the 

draining of the bank, it was announced, that whatever 

number of notes might be presented for payment in the 

course of the day, not more than the value of £20,000 

would be paid ; and that no-one would be paid, unless 

he were the bearer of a number delivered to him by the 
mayor of his quarter. This measure was by no means 
calculated to remedy the evil effectually ; and even as 

far as it was efficacious, it only produced an evil of 


Congress at 


FRANCE! 


pana ya wren mg) oe, Pao ame 
Atlength, havi: Maria Louisa 

regent, left Paris on the 25th of nuary. The French leaves 

armies were retreating from different quarters towards ‘ join 

Chalons on the Marne, for the of i 

within the em the Meuse. — allied armies were 

concentrating eeasy same point. Blucher 

by the way of Nancy Toul, and Schwartzenberg, 


who had the chief command of the Austrian and Rus- 

sian armies, by and Chaumont, About the 

beginning of Feb , these ~— armies came 

entirely ito communication with other, when two 
of Austrians were placed under the command of 

Blucher. ‘This general immediately made his disposi= 

tions for attacking the French, who rested their 

at Dienville, their centre at La Rotherie, and their 

near Tremilly. After somepartial movements and ope~ 

rations, by which part of the allies got possession of an 

important position, which in vain 

to recover, a most t took place at pie of 

La Rotherie. Bonaparte led on his in person, Rotherie. 

and at first was successful ; but the allies, ing under : 

the eye of their sovereigns, and animated by the exam- 

ple of Blucher, who bore a deadly hatred to Bonaparte, 

opposed them with superior firmness and perseverance. 

The battle lasted till ten at night, when the Russians ? 

remained masters of Ia Rotherie,: th the French 

held the ground beyond it, and at midni + 5 

the 


Ist of Feb ; were in ion of the hei 
Brienne, paves ra their Night hed diane at 
commencement of the Bonaparte, fully 
mer ape ws wae es wrgegieninnens 4 
e many desperate attempts to regain it, but being 
deponedligdibenbar te person, he was in all of them 
uns 3; and at last he was to retreat 
with a loss of 40 pieces of cannon, and 4000 prisoners. 
He retreated first to Troyes, and afterwards to Nogent. 
On the 5th of February, Marshal Macdonald was de- 
feated by D’York, between Vitrey and Chalons. _ 
The allies followed the beaten and retreating foe as 
rapidly as they could. On the 7th of February, they 
entered Troyes, where Prince Schwar' fixed his 
head quarters, Marshal Blucher about 20 miles a 
to the north of this town. The Fre beheld Indifference 
these disasters of their monarch, and the advance and of the 
successes of the allies in general, with equal indifference. French. 
Notwithstanding Bonaparte painted in the most dread- 
ful colours the cruelties 


quire them to rise in favour of the Bourbons ; and even 
in some cases, as 
parte at Chatillon, 
pressions of the 


sov As therefore 


, in favour of their im 
felt no affection for Bona~ 


pearance, almost 
coethent that wee santyicigaanialite ni 
Bonaparte finding himself. Y 
both the allied armies, pursued his usual plan of direct 
ing his whole force, first against one singly, in the 
if he succeeded, of overwhelming the other: and as 


FRAN CE on 661 


follow him. Before, however, he did this, he made a 
bc saser ay movement to the north of Nogent, 
where he a a Russian corps, and took the whele 
of them prisoners. On the 14th of February, having 
joined Marmont, he advanced against Blucher, who 
ing inferior in numbers, and particularly in cavalry; 
formed his infantry into squares, and retreated. Bona- 
parte followed him, but nce series a attacks 
were almost incessant and very desperate, he made little 
or no impression, not one of the squares being broken. 
In order to intercept the retreat of Blucher, Bonaparte 
had ordered a corps*of cavalry to push forward and. get 
into his line fa Blucher forced his hx oer: by 
opening a fire of artillery and musketry.. At 
pi he reached Etoges, but rae was assailed by a 
of infantry, which had ap arge through bye 
caadecatihia flanks and rear ; was therefore again 
under the necessity of renewing the attack, and was 
again successful. In the mean time, the entrenched 
camp, which Bonaparte had formed for the protection 
of his army of reserve at Soissons, was assailed by Ge- 
neral Winzingerode with such impetuosity, that near] 
3000 men were taken, and the town itself was entered. 

While was pursuing Blucher, the grand 
army put itself in motion on the left. On the 11th of 
February, a division of it carried by assault the town 
of Sens, 82 miles south-east of Paris, and afterwards 
joined the Bavarians under General Wrede. Other di« 
visions of the allies advanced nearly in the same direc- 
tion; so that by the middle of Lebtumy; they had 

themselves about 40 miles along the course of 

e Seine. Marshals Victor and — to sere soe 
protection of this important river been entr i 
alarmed at the advance of such superior numbers, aban- 
doned the left bank, and destroyed the bridges ; these, 
however, being soon re-established, Prince Schwartzen- 
berg, the commander in chief of the allies, fixed his 
head quarters at Bray. The allies, however, had now 

baggy wrk"> so much, and thereby so — 

ir line, Bonaparte returning quick] m 
pursuit of Nam. YS some advantages owe part of 
the grand army, in uence of this the com- 
mander in chief united the whole of it behind the Seine. 
Part of it was posted near a bridge over this river ; this 

repeatedly attacked, but was repulsed three 

times with great py, dag As, grein it was “e the 

im ce for him to gain thi ition, he re- 

ered the attack the fourth time, and Caan ing pos- 

session of the bridge, passed over a considerable part of 
his army. 

Blucher, though he retreated before Bonaparte, no 
sooner found that his adv: was gone against ano- 
ther part of the allies, than he resulved again to ad- 
vance; his object evidently being to press on, if pos- 
sible, to Paris itself. After having prevented Oudinot 
from crossing the Seine, and _ obli Marmont to re- 
treat, even after his junction with Macdonald, he push- 
ed forward in such a manner as to render the allies 
masters of the whole line of the Marne for above 80 
aa. Seagate tg Heenan ca > comer ti eam 
sity of again turning his principal attention to Blucher; 
for it is observable, that whenever the French armies 
in this campaign were commanded by any of his mar- 
shals, they were unsuccessful. Bonaparte alone seémed 
to be able to procure them the chance of success. It 
was therefore absolutely necessary, that he should march 


' with the utmost rapidity alternately from the grand History. 


array of the allies to Blucher,. and from Blucher'to the 
grand army. At this time, his object was to prevent 
the junction of this general with Winzingerode ; but 
being foiled in his project, he could not retreat without 
a battle. Between the 4th and the 9th of March, va- 
rious skirmishes took place between his troops and 
those of Blucher ; on the latter day, the Prussian ge- 


neral determined to give battle at Laon ; he was, how- Battle of 
ever, anticipated by Bonaparte, who, taking advantage Laon. 
‘of a thick mist, attacked his right and centre, and obli- 


ged him to fall back to the very walls of Laon. ‘As 
soon, however, as the mist disappeared, Blucher’s army 
regained the nna which it had lost; and\a severe 
contest ensued on their right and centre. ‘The most 
important partvof the engagement, however, took place 
on the left of Blucher’s army, which the French attack- 
ed under 2 heavy cannonade. But Blucher immediate- 
ly reinforcing his left with two divisions, and ordering 
his whole army to advance, the French were not only 
repulsed, but actually borne down, and thrown into 
very great confusion, retreating towards Rheims. Jn. 
this engagement Bonaparte lost upwards of 70 pieces of 
cannon ; and the number of prisoners was immense. 
The negotiations at Chatillon were still going on, 
the allies, notwithstanding their successes, adhering to 
their former proposal to treat with Bonaparte as the 
Emperor of France. When he was unsuccessful, he di- 
rected Caulincourt to listen to their terms, but as soon 
as ever he gained the most trifling advantage, he dis- 
emp his characteristic haughtiness, and actually be- 
aved as if the allies were in his power. He seems, 
even at this time, to have calculated on the lukewarm- 
ness of Austria; and it is not unlikely that the nego- 
ciations were kept open longer than they would other- 
wise have been, and better terms were offered to him, 
in consequence of the connection between him and the 
Emperor of Austria.- He might be strengthened, too, in 
this belief, from. the circumstance that the Austrian 
army hitherto had done very little for the common 
cause, Blucher not having been sup , as he might, 
and ought to have been, by Prince Schwartzenberg. 
At length, however, even the Emperor of Austria 


t 


was convinced that no peace could be made with Bona- Rupture of 


e Negocia« 


parte ; accordingly, on the 18th of March, the final and {; 
complete ru e of the ope took place. Im- tillon. 
mediately this event, Bonaparte directed all his 


efforts in a most desperate manner against Blucher: for 
two days he poured his battalions against the immove- 
able army of that general; but finding that he could 
make no impression, he bent his efforts southwards 
against the grand army of the allies. On the 21st, the 
two armies were near, and opposite each other, ready 
for battle ; but Bonaparte, perceiving that he had not 
the smallest chance of success, moved off his columns 
on the road to Vitrey. At first he proceeded in’ a 
northern direction, but afterwards turned to the east 
on St Dizier, and thus found himself on the 24th of 
March exactly where he was on the 26th of January, 
when he opened the campaign. 


Let us now turn our attention to the movements and Operations 
operations of Lord Wellington. Though his army was * ” southy} + 
in the south of France, yet from the vicinity of its ° “™"°* 


situation to the foot of the Pyrenees, the weather was 
so very unfavourable, that he could not advance till the 
93d of February. His first movement was across the 
Adour and two other rivers: These were successful; and 


by the 27th of February, the whole army had taken up a 


—— 
A. D. 1814. 


on at Cha~ 


History. 


—\— 


A.D, 1814 


Buttle of 
Orthes. 


662 


ition within four miles of the French forces under 
Soult, poe ip in ers pala lt 8. 
_——< ition of the Fren eral was very 
strong, his oh tern al thrown back, edt both his flanks 
advanced on very commanding heights, Lord Welling- 
ton resolved to attack him, His plarwas, that Marshal 
Beresford should turn the right of Soult’s army,. while 
the third and sixth divisions attacked his left and centre; 
but the fourth division, to which the attack on the right 
was entrusted, meeting with = opposition, and being 
unable to possess itself of the heights, on which the ene- 
my was placed, Lord Wellington changed his plan, and 
turned the third and sixth divisions against the right of 
the French; and thus forced him to abandon the heights, 
lest he should be completely surrounded. We have 
been thus more than usually particular ‘in describing 
the manceuvres of the British during the battle of 
Orthes, as they afford a striking proof of the charac- 
teristic rages and decision of Lord Wellington’s 
mind. While these operations were going on in this 
part, Soult found his centre attacked and his left threat- 
ened, by the British division of Sir Rowland Hill ha- 
ving carried a position on which it appuyed: Here, 
however, the French having a numerous artillery, made 
a vigorous and formidable resistance, but the two points 
of the base line of his position, (for it was in the form 
of a triangle,) being hard pressed by flank-attacks, and 
the centre at the same time yielding to the British, he 
gave orders for a retreat. At first his troops retreated 
without confusion ; but soon disorder spread among 
them, and they dispersed and made the best of their 
way, in the same manner as they had done in the battle 
of Vittoria. In the night they retired across the Adour, 
the British being so much exhausted that they could 
not pursue them to any considerable distance that night. 
On the 24th, however, they continued the pursuit to 
St Sevre, where General Beresford having crossed the 
Adour, advanced to the chief town in the department of 
the Landes. At first Soult retreated in the direction of 
Bourdeaux, but being defeated by Sir Rowland im an 
attempt to defend his magazines at. Aireon the Adour, 
he changed:his route, and retreated in the direction of 
Toulouse, The main British army followed him, while 
Sir John Hope be; the siege of Bayonne. Such 
was the battle of Orthes,—certainly one of the most 
general and hard fought in which Lord Wellington 
had been engaged since the commencement of the Pe- 
ninsular war; and it may be added, that not only in the 
positions which Soult fixed on, but in his condnis du- 
ring the engagement, he fully made out his claim to 
talents and perseverance as a military man. 

The e of the south of France, notwithstanding 
all the efforts to represent the =e as even worse 
than the Cossacks, received Lord Wellington and his 
army as friends; treating them with the utmost confi- 
gence and kindness, and evidently shewing that they 
dreaded more from their own soldiers than from them, 
But though they openly expressed their wish to receive 
back the Bourbons, Lord Wellington could not pro- 
claim or support their cause, as the negociations for 

se with Sosenetl were still going on. As soon, 
wever, as the city of Bourdeaux, which had suffered 
dreadfully from the revolution, and éspecially from: the 
measures of Bonaparte against commerce, and in which 


FRANCE . 
issued by the mayor; deputies were sent to Louis XVIII, History, 


and the British were im 
protect it against the forces of 
ton accordingly gave directions for 
march thither; and the Duke of 
been for some time with him, though not acknowledged 
or received publicly, hastened to shew himself to the 
citizens of Bourdeaux.’ The reception both of the Bri- 
tish and of the Duke was most flattering, not only in the 
town, but in the country throagh which 
In order to bring the affairs of this part of France to 
a conclusion, we shall proceed with our narrative of 
them, premising that about this time Bonaparte had 
been forced to abandon the government of France, 
and Louis XVIII: had been owledged king. In- 
telligence of these events had been immediately trans- 
mitted to Lord Wellington and Soult, but it unfortu. 
nately did not arrive in sufficient time to prevent anos 
ther battle, Soult had taken up a strong position neat 
Toulouse ; on the 8th of April, part of Lord Welling- 
ton’s army moved across the Garonne; between this 
river and the canal of were the fortified 
heights, that formed the chief strength of the French 
position: his Lordship resolved at once to storm these 
in front, and to turn the right of the enemy, while a 
lete du pont, which they formed on the onal protect 
their left, should be threatened. The 9th ‘of) April 
was spent in preparing for these attacks ; and on the 
10th they were orniéd into execution. ‘They were in 
all points so well planned, and so admirably executed, 
that at the close of the day, the French were ‘com+ 


* 


of his army to 
ro Soles hdl 


‘ 


pletely hemmed in, the allies having established them- Battle of 
selves on three sides of Toulouse, and the road to Car- Toulouse. 


cassone being the only one left open. In the night of 
the 11th, Soult drew off his troops by this road; and 
Lord Wellington entered ‘Toulouse in triumph the fol- 
lowing morning. The close of the campaign in the 
south of France was marked by one unfortunate event : 
Before Bayonne, which Sir John H invested, the 
French had a fortified camp, from which made 
a sortie at three o'clock of the morning of the 13th of 
April, The nee of the British army were driven 
in, and Sir John Hope, in his gallant attempts’ to su 
ort them, came: une ly on part of the French: 
his horse, which was shot dead, fell upon him ; and in 


. this situation he was made prisoner. , 


Although the allies in the north and east of France 
had at different times, since the commencement of the 
campaign, reached within a short distance of Paris, yet 
they had always been obliged to fall back, in consequence 
partly of a want of concert, and partly of the wonderful 
rapidity of Bonaparte’s movements, who, with a force de- 
cidedly inferior, contrived to pass from one point to ano- 
ther, so quickly and unexpectedly, as sometimes to de- 
feat, and almost always to retard the plans of the allies, 
As soon; however, as Austria began to act ina more de- 
cided manner, he was rendered sensible that his fate 
could not be much longer protracted, unless he had re- 
course’ to some desperate expedient, and that expe- 
dient completely succeeded. On the 23d of March, 
the army of Prince Schwartzenberg directed its route to 
Vitry, which was in possession of the Prussians. 


“ naparté also marched on the same place, for the’ pur- 


pose’ of uniting with Ney and Macdonald, who were 


there were many merchants descended from British 
families, learned that Lord Wellington had’ entered 
France, that Soult was entirely defeated, and that his 
retreat was towards Toulouse, it determined to declare 
for the Bourbons. A proclamation to this effect was 


advancing from St Dizier; but the’ Austrians having Bonspate 
reached the place before the French, he threw himself’ .¢ into the 
into their rear; while he formed a communication with rear of the 
the army of Blucher. Perhaps at the time Bonaparte Allies. 


found himself obliged to adopt this measure; perhaps 


Bourdeaux 
declares for 
the Bour- 
bons. 


History. 
A.D. 1814. 


eS ee 


—_- 


FRANCE. 


it was the deliberate consequence’ of a concerted plan’; 
for, whoever has studied his campaigns, must know 
that he often obtained success, by doing those acts, 
which, by their very boldness and rashness, so astonish- 
ed and pepese his opponents, that, from the effects 
which they produced on them in this respect, their 
success in a great measure originated. In this case, 
the tea & Bonaparte, if his measure was preconcert- 
ed, which most probably it was, was to get into the 
rear of the allies; and threaten their communication 
with Germany. It may be urged that his force was not 
ea to destroy the communication ; but it must be 
recollected, that he could receive reinforcements from 
the garrisons of the towns on the frontiers, provided 
nothing occurred to prevent ‘his’ rea¢ them. It is 
not likely, however, that he would have abandoned 
Paris to its fate by thus getting into the rear of the 
allies, and leaving the road to the capital open to them, 
had he not believed that the measures taken for its 
safety were perfectly ; for he must have known, 
that whoever aris possessed France, so much 
influence does the capital possess over the provinces. 
The defence of ‘this city had been entrusted to Mar- 
mont, under whose command the national guards, and 
such other as could be spared for this object, 
were placed. allies, disregarding the position of 

in their rear, resolved to strike a d and 
decisive blow, by advancing in a body to Paris. There 
can be no doubt, that in it they had a strong party; 
even some of Bonaparte’s fayourites and former ad- 
visers, iving that their lives and all they had gain- 
ed in his service were put in extreme jeopardy, by his 
rashness, resolved to abandon him and court. the fa- 
vour of the allies. The mass of the lation too, 
were at least indifferent about him; they did not, there- 


fore, regard the or probable entry of the ak 
lies as any evil or disgrace ane consequently resolved 
not to oppose it, ially as their ition would 
have been fruitless. ‘The of the allies, which ad- 


inst the capital of France, amounted to w 
wards of 200,000 men. On the ni ht of the 24th, 
three divisions of the French arrived at Vitry, in the 
of joining there ; but were imme- 
itely attacked ‘by allies, and eytedtgre: This 
is one proof among many others, of the imperfect 
intelligence which the Freneh possessed, even in their 
own country; and indicated,” , a8 much as any 
other circumstance, the decline, not only of the autho- 
rity, but of the popularity of . In conse- 
of similar want of intelli , both respecting 
situation of Bonaparte, and the advance‘of the al- 
lies, aiconvoy, consisting of 5000 men, who were pro- 
teeting a large quantity of provisions and other neces- 
saries of the utmost importance to Bonaparte, were 
met by the allies, and after a gallant resistance, com- 
pelled to’surrender. ~~ 
By this time Bonaparte’ had reached St Dizier, but 
there learning that the allies, unintimidated by his 
throwing himself into their rear, were still pushin 
on for Paris, and being moreover ill provided wi 
many necessaries for ‘his army, he? resolved to hasten 
back to the capital as quickly as possible. In this 
march he was ly followed and constantly harassed 
by Winzin with 10,000 horse and 40 pieces of 
cannon. the 28th and 29th of March, ie allies 
crossed the Marne near Meaux. On the night of the 
29th, Mortier entered Paris, where he found about 
8000 and 30,000 national guards, under the 
<iliiel eofemaand of Joseph Bonaparte. This force 


663 


took up’a strong position néar the city, with their right History. 
A. D..1814. 


on Belleville, and their left on Neuilly. As soon as the 
allies approached Paris, a flag of truce, with a procla- 
‘mation, stating that the object of their march was to 
‘otect and benefit, not to injure France, and that they 
‘oped to meet with the good wishes and concurrence of 
every Frenchman in their endeavours to destroy a go- 
vernment, which had occasioned so many evils, not 
a to the rest of Europe, but to France itself ; they 
‘did not come to revenge their own wrongs on French- 
mien, nor to imitate the conduct of Bonaparte in every 
country which he had invaded ; they hoped, therefore, 
that the people of Paris would follow the example of 
the citizens of Bourdeaux and Lyons, both of which 
had deserted the cause of a man who had been the 
curse of France. The flag of truce, however, was re- 
fused admittance, and it was’ therefore resolved to at- 
tack the enemy on the heights above Paris. In the 
centre of the position of the French army on these 
heights, there were several redoubts, and on the whole 
line, 150 pieces‘of cannon. It was snore a that. the 
grand army should attack the heights at Belleville; 
while the Silesian army directed its attack against Mont- 
martre. Marshal Blucher made his own dispositions 
for the attack. 
After an obstinate resistance, the heights of Belle- 
ville were carried; and 43 pieces of cannon and a great 
number of prisoners were taken. 


martre, from which the French were also driven with ™ 
the loss of 20 pieces of cannon. Marshal Marmont, 
seeing no chance of saving the capital, now sent out a 
flag of truce, ing an armistice for two hours, and 
intimating a Nedra to receive the propositions of the 
allies, at the same time agreeing to abandon all the 
sitions which he retained without the barriers. To this 
proposal Prince Schwartzenberg agreed; and the next 


day, the allies entered Paris, amidst the acclamations The Allies 
of the populace, by whom they were received as pro- enter Paris, 


tectors and liberators. 
Before these events took place, Bonaparte, who had 
arrived at Fontainebleau, sent Caulincourt to the Em- 
peror of Russia; but the Emperor absolutely declined 
receiving a message from him. On the 2d of April, 
the French Senate, which had been assembled on the 
day before, at the desire of the Emperor Alexander, by 
Talleyrand, in his character of Vice Grand Elector, pas- 


sed a decree deposing Bonaparte, and absolving all per- Bonaparte 
sate to him as their sove- deported. 


sons from their oath of all 
véign. ‘The command of the national guard was en-~ 
trusted to a French general ; but General Sacken was 
appoi to the military command of the city. A pros 
visional government was established, consisting of Tal- 
leyrand, Montesquieu, Jaucourt, Bournonville, and the 
Duke of Dalberg. -As soon as this provisional go= 
vernment was formed, they published an address to the 
army, telling them that they were no longer the sol- 
diers of Napoleon. : : : 

The Emperor Alexander, on his entry into Paris, had 
issued a proclamation in the name of himself’ and_ his 
allies, promising that the conditions of peace, ‘which 
they were willing to grant to France, should be now 
much more favourable than they would have been if 
the le of Paris had adhered to Bonaparte ; and that 
the limits of France, as it existed previously to the Re« 
volution, should be scrupulously preserved. This pro- 
clamation concluded with calling upon’ the provisional 
government to prepare a constitution, which would suit 
the French people, A constitution was soon framed, 


Nearly at the same Battle of 
time, Marshal Blucher commenced an attack on Mont- Montmar- 


664 


tustory. and immediately presented to the Senate ; it was read 
AD isl 4a twice, and a Sdatitision inted to examine it. On 


wy. Ste 
the evening of the Sth of April, the commission made 
its _and the ‘constitution was adopted unani- 
Louis mously. By it, Louis was to be chosen sovereign, ac- 
XVII ing to a charter, of which the following are the 
chowen soy. most important articles: The French call to the throne 
constitution Louis, the brother of the last king. The ‘executive 
framed, | power belongs to the king. There are to be 150 sena- 
tors at least, and not more than 200, named by the king; 
their dignity hereditary; and revenues allotted to them. 
The princes of the blood and of the royal family are 
members of the senate. The legislative remains 
as before ; it shall not sit for more ve years: 


The king may convoke, adjourn, and dissolve it ; ‘but 
in this last case, he must call another legislative body 
in three months at the latest. The king, the senate, and 
the legislative body concur in the making of the laws; 
but those relating to contributions can be p' 
only in the legislative body. The sanction of the king 
is necessary for the completion ef a law. The legisla- 
pric: dhe a thier on ion: their sittings are 
open. No member of the senate or legislative body 
can be arrested, .without a previous authority from the 
body to which he belongs. The ministers may be mem- 
bers either of the senate or legislative body. “Equality 
of proportion in the taxes is a matter of right: no tax 
ean be im or received, unless it has been’ pre- 
viously consented to y+ the legislative body and the 
senate. The law shall fix the amount and the recruit- 
ing of the army. The independence of the judges is 
nteed; they are to be for life, and irremovable. 
he institution of juries is ed. The king has 
the right of . The person of the king is sacred 
and inviolable ; but all his acts must be signed by a 
minister, who are sible for them. The om. 
of worship and conscience is teed. The li 
of the press is entire, with the exception of the lega 
ression of offences resulting from the abuse of that 
liberty. The public debt is guaranteed; the sales of 
the national domains are irrecoverably maintained. No 
Frenchman can be ted for opinions or votes he 
may have given. right of individuals to petition 
every constituted authority is ised. The present 
constitution shall be submitted to th acceptance of the 
French le. Louis Stanislaus Xavier shall be pro- 
claimed king of the French, as soon as he shall have 
signed and sworn by an act ‘stating, “ I accept the 
constitution. I swear to observe it, and cause it to 
be observed.” This oath shall be |, when he 
shall receive the oath of the fidelity of the French ‘nation. 
At this time Louis was so infirm in his health, that 
he was not able to leave England immediately ; but his 
brother was appointed Lieutenant-General of France, 
and repaired to Paris, where he was received with great 
enthusiasm. He declared his readiness to adhere to 
the constitution in the name of his brother, although he 
acknowledged he was not authorised to that effect. As 
soon as Louis was sufficiently strong, he left England, 
souis enters and on the $d of May made his solemn entry into Pa- 
Patis. ris. ‘“ When he came to the palace of his fathers, a 
vast crowd collected in the garden, appeared, by their 
lively acclamations, to solicit the presence of his peajey. 
The King presented himself in compliance with the wi 
es ofhis people. The Duchess D’A was at his 
right hand, and the Duke de Berri at his left. Short- 
ly afterwards, the daughter of Louis XVI. made way 
for Monsieur. The instantly embraced his bro-~ 
ther, and the acclamations were redoubled. The en- 


FRANCE. 


thusiasm was at its height, when the King, raising his 
‘ara tavioady fk creed SAR eS «You are my 
children, I_ speak to you from my heart, 1 embrace you 
thus.” The od him, by crying out, 
* Long live the Jong Sie eee 

On the 30th of May, the definitive treaty of peace 
was signed at Paris, of which the follo ‘are the 
principal articles: The limits as is January 
Ist 1792, are restored to France. Holland was to 


the harbours of Antwerp and are to dod 


up to her. vet Soe eee ee argh 
ipotentiaries of 


be held lrg eve by the e he 
powers rope, to regula’ te the arrangements requi- 
site to carry this treaty into full effect. — fy pery 

Before Marshal Marmont agreed to give up Paris, 
he stipulated with the allies for the’ of 
Bonaparte, and that a provision should be made for his 
future support. “On the night of the 4th of April, a 

roposal was brought to the allies from “2, 

e would abdicate in favour of his son ; but as he was 
already deposed by the provisional government, no’ at- 
tention was we it. He pein Ae sove- 
reignty in ing terms: “ The allied powers 
having proclaimed that the Emperor 
only iege ed eA the nag praterstyre Re the of 
Europe, the ror n, to his oa 
dectited, that he ehodeces for himself and hiehere 
thrones of France and Italy ; and that there is no per- 
sonal sacrifice, even that of life, which he is not ready 
to make to the interest of France.” Afterwards a for- 
mal treaty was concluded at Fontainebleau een him 
and the allied powers, by which the titles of Bonaparte 
and of all bis family are guaranteed to them at Baars 
lives ;—the island of Elba: is appointed his ce, 
of which he is to hold the full sovereignty, with an an- 


renounces 
the sove- 


Treaty with 
him, 


nual revenue of two millions-of francs, In rent charge in 


2d aah eo he By the fourth article, 
duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastella, were grant- 
ed in full sovereignty to the Empress, to to her son 
and his descendants in a right line. By the sixth ar- 
ticle, a rent charge of 2,500,000 francs was decreed to the 
branches of Bonaparte’s family ; and by the seven- 
teenth article, he was allowed to take with him to the 
isle of Elba 400 men, and to retain them there as his 
To all of pape fa ser dae Sake oa 
its sanction, except so ‘ar as regarded arrangemen 
for ing the Italian duchies to Maria Louisa, and 


conveyed with as little ay as possible, 
journey, especially in the south of France, he 
gq in danger of his life, from the violent 
which ist hi 


the mob expressed against him, 
: he narrative of events that 


Before we proceed to 
render even the extraordinary transactions which the 
Revolution had hitherto given rise to, comparatively 
tame and common place, we shall offer some remarks, 
First, on the causes which produced the liberation of 
the continent of E from the dominion of the 
French, and also the overthrow of Bonaparte ; and, Se- 
condly, on the condition and character of the French 
people at the time when Louis XVIII. ascended the 
e. 
: 3 


Departs for 
Elba. 


amieeprinayel 1018, nesriy. Gaara hchovot ‘the con- 
urope was subservient to the will, and con- 
ducive to the interests of Bonaparte. In the Peninsu-) 
la, indeed, he had not been equally successful ; but, at 
this period, it seemed as if it were only necessary for 
him to pour into it all his force, in order to reduce it 
to reluctant and restless submission, and to compel 


Prom the Emperor of Austra, after the humili 
i submitted in the marriage of his 
, though no cordial and zealous 
co-operation beh 


1 peut ee 2 


nr en ee ached om ae rH mM 
naparte ; and though, at is period, ———— 
to struggle to regain his liberty, aan 


Of these dissimilar materials he was the animating spi- 
rit ; and from the success which had hitherto 

his arms, there was great reason to dread that the em- 
ire of Russia would henceforth be obli to contri- 

ochecstheran veiles'et teen aniees ——. 
two 


her plunderers over the conti- 
the seat of a war, in which ~ 
conquered,—her capital at the mercy 

and indebted for her independence, and 


Causes of 
the downfall more deeply to interest the mind, than the contrast 
of Bona- which these events afford: Were the intervening period 
parte, not specified, we should be apt to conclude, that such 
an essential and wonderful of affairs, could not 

have been wrought out, but after the of many 

years. The causes which produced this unparalleled 
change, in such a short period of time, are natu- 
for ; ule fortunately for the gratification. 

of curiosity, as well as for the more im 
ses of history, considered as philosop 


rpo~ 
g by 


pu 
teachin 
te explained. 


great reverses. In him existed not mere- 
ly that restless and insatiable ambition, which he 

sessed in common with most conquerors ; but an i 
nacy so blind and c ing, as to convert even his 
great military talents into the causes of his ruin. It is 


blasted the of the conqueror of Europe so utter- 
| Iy'and ‘hopeleadly, as his own fool-hardiness and obsti- 
} did in the short space of afew months, during his 
1X, PART It. 


FRANCE. 


665 


campaign of Russia. When we say utterly and hope- History. 
lessly, we mean in reference to his character; for, 
could experience have taught him wisdom and modera- 
tion, not even his losses in Russia could have driven 
him from the throne of France. But in the campaign 
of 1813, he — created unto himself great reverses ; 
— ambitious, and domineering, when partial 
temporary success attended his arms ; faithless and 
unprincipled during the negociations into which the al- 
lies entered with him, and obstinate when he met with 
defeat.. By advancing to Moscow at the commence- 
ment of a Russian winter, and continuing in that city 
so long, he destroyed nearly the whole of his army. 
By obstinately clinging to Dresden, till the allies had 
actually cut him off from France, he brought on the 
battle of Leipsic, which completed the destruction of a 
second army. The same scenes were repeated during 
the short campaign of 1814, when his means were few- 
er, his opponents more numerous, and his ruin near- 
er at : still he might have been saved,—the al« 
lies would have left him on the throne of France: te 
their terms he listened when unsuccessful ; but no 
sooner had he gained even a doubtful and hard bought 
victory, but he most foolishly and fatally for himself, 
but most fortunately for E , allowed his ambitious 
faithlessness to become so apparent, that the allies were 
convinced - that his eeeaearh iene was absolutely neces- 
to the repose and inde ence of Europe. 

ut though Bonaparte ria the principal cause of his 
own destruction, yet there were other causes co-opera- 
ting, which would indeed have been ineffectual of 
themselves, but which, aided by the man against whom 

were directed, became formidable and successful. 

t the commencement of the French Revolution, the The sound- 
sovereigns of E , for a short time, united against & Policy of 
it; but narrow and blind self-interest ; mutual jealouiny iat 
and ion ; and an imperfect knowledge of the 
evils with which it was fraught, dissolved the confe- 
deracy. Afterwards they were stimulated or goaded by 
England to an unwilling and unequal contest. At 
length fatal and dearly ht experience convinced 
them, that the only means of preserving even the name 
of ind ence, and the remnant of power that France 
had left them, was by cordially and zealously uniting 

inst her. This union, however, could not have been 
effected during the plenitude of Bonaparte’s power ; 
but after that power was reduced by the obstinacy of 
the possessor, their union became essentially conducive 
to the restoration of European independence. ; 

At the commencement of the French: Revolution, The hatred 
the sovereigns of Europe regarded their subjects with excited’by 
a suspicious and apprehensive eye, as much more likely Ep eny 
to assist than to repel the French; and instead of en- poo, 
deavouring to bring them over to: form a common 
cause with themselves, still farther irritated and aliena- 
ted them by their conduct. Besides, the people were 
too eager to receive the soldiers of a nation, which had 
solemnly declared, that they made war only on thé pa- 
lace, but brought peace and liberty to the cottage. A 
very shortexperience convinced the sovereigns, thattheir 
surest defence against France was in the confidence and 
loyalty of their people ; while the people fatally expe- 
rienced, that, by being liberated from the dominion of 
their native princes, and placed under the government 
of France, they only exchanged one tyranny for another, 

—a y to which they had been long accustomed, 
and which was relieved by. many acts of protection and 
kindness, for one which was novel,—which broke in 
upon those comforts that the former tyranny had left 
efi and which, as being inflicted by strangers, and 
Pp 


History. 
—_—\o 
A. D. 1814. 


‘The war in 
the Penin- 
sula. 


State of 
France 
when Louis 
ascended 
the throne. 


Of the mili- 
tary. 


666 


with all the insolence and poatigccnite which unparal- 
leled success had given rise, was infinitely more oppres- 
sive and int . Thus suffering under a common 
evil, the sovereigns and people of Europe were made sen, 
Sai) nevviond imagined donee Ft 
viously |, and were 

— no geune pean ee area nd 
independence. An cppeetanitg ly was wanting 

for the spirit of hatred an acm against France 
to burst forth into action ; and this 9; nity was af- 
it was chiefly 


forded by the man himself, against w 
to be directed. 

The events of the peninsular war may justly be.re-, 
garded as forming another subordinate cause of the de~ 
struction of Bonaparte. This war most decidedly proved 
that the French soldiers were not invincible; that even 
when opposed by an inferior force, they might be con- 
quered ; while the genius and the successes of Welling- 
ton imed to Europe, that the most celebrated of 
the French Marshals had at length met with their mas- 
ter in all the art of war. Thus, even before the Russian 
cannpalers the charm of French invincibility was bro- 
ken, But the war in the Peninsula gave another cheer- 
ing lesson to the continent of Europe ; for it taught it 
be could be effected by a people resolved not to sub- 
mit to their invaders, though that people struggled un- 
der the disadvantages of a vernment, and re« 
ceived little assistance even from their own regular army. 

Such appear to have been the principal causes which 
led to the liberation of Europe. ‘ 

The condition and character of the French nation, at 
the period when Louis XVIII. ascended the throne, is 
an object of investigation, not less interesting or impor- 
tant than that which we have just been examini 

It was supposed by many, that the reverses of 
parte in Russia, and the dreadful misery which, by his 
ambition and obstinacy during that campaign, he had 
inflicted on his surviving soldiers, would have com- 

letely rooted out their confidence and attachment to 
Bim. So far, however, was this from being the case, 
that even the additional proofs of his falling fame and 
fortune, and the additional experience of misery, near- 
ly equal to that of the Russian campaign, supplied by 
the cami of 1813 and 1814, neither deprived him 


of the attachment and confidence of his soldiers, nor 


FRANCE, 
perdi eS a 
Frow tn could the Mara, the acre or the sols YEE 


be friendly to the reign of Louis 


Bonaparte ? ; 
‘The mass of the French nation were. weary of the Of 


with satisfaction and plosaurié ;dneh tron aiyp ecddinaey?! 


been 

siante the Revolution, Louis was preferred by them, 
to Bonaparte, because under the former anticipated: 
the annihilation of the conscription, the restoration of 
peace, and the enjoyment of some portion of civil and: 
palicical liberty. But it. is Scnpentile that: they 

ve freed their minds from all apprehension, 

ong with the restoration of the. Bourbons, property» 
might be rendered insecure; feudal privileges and tythes: 
might be revived; and those re-established: 
which, in some measure, had driven that family from: 
the throne. By the mass of the French nation, there« 
fore, by all the landed proprietors, by the farmers; and: 
by the, , all the measures of Louis's. govern« 
ment would be watched with suspicion and anxiety. 

The. mani ing and commercial classes 


bation, and with confidence unweakened by doubt. 
suspicion ; for the Revolution had brought to them no 
peculiar privileges, had freed them from no. iculai 
grievances ; on the vontrary, it had been a constant 
source of calamity. They therefore hailed the accession: 
of Louis as the commencement of an era most favourable 
to their interests ; and perhaps, less than any other class 
of the. French nation, felt di io teaabde in 
which he had been seated on the throne of his ancestors, 


the absolute triumph of the peinginies of pure monarehy ; 
the enjoyment of the King’s confidence, and an ample. 


portant and efficient part of the population. They had reward for their long suffering loyalty. With senti~ 
been so long accustomed to themselves as superior ments and hopes similar to. these, many.of the emi- 
to their countrymen, and grants must have returned to: France ; fully persuaded 


of the esprit de ng and such facilities of arting in con- 
on 


terly impossible that they could Ba gate Louis with an 
other feelings but those of mingl contempt and in 
tred:—of contempt, because his Sonstitetional indolence, 
increased by the inactivity of age and infirmity, and 
by the habits of a lite ife, rendered him disinclined 
and unfit for a mili ife ;—of hatred, because, had 
he been inclined and fit for such a life, the very char- 
ter by which he held his throne from theallies, and the 
mass of the French people, absolutely forbade him to 
follow the career of that man, under whom they had 
been bred. In short, the military were attached to a 
life of what they called glory, that is, to a life of con- 
quest and plunder,—their thoughts, feelings, and habits, 
Tite. But the 


that, as the allies had conquered that country and ex 
pelled Bonaparte, there could be no obstacle to the 
completion of spe hop the {> 

Such is a brief sk of the condition and character 
of the different classes of the French people at the pe- 
riod when Louis ascended the throne ; and this sketch 
is sufficient to shew the nature, the extent, and the im-' 
minence of the dangers and difficulties with which he 
was encompassed, The manner, too, in which he came 
to the throne, by the assistance of the enemies of France. 


2 
of those enemies over most of whom she had formerly 
triumphed, but who now beheld her prostrate at their 
feet, could not fail to create something like aversion to 
Louis, even in the breasts of those who,, from loyalty, 
from interest, or from purer motives, rejoiced at his ace 
cession, as consummating the overthrow. of Poniperiea 
for the love of national glory is so strong in the breast 


r : ‘viewed. Of the ma- 
the restored dynasty with less mixed a TT nt cane” 
un 


were all moulded in conformity to such a 
allies had invaded. France, had dethroned Bonaparte, 
and bad seated Louis in his stead, for the express pur« 


of a Frenchman, as not uently to overcome ev: . 
other principle, sentiment, ling. = os poor 
Louis was by no means equal to the embarrassing si- of Louis 


ALD. 1814. 


FRANCE. 


tuation in which he was placed. In his character there 
was no decision eonepnatere er and yet all 
these qualities were imperiously called for. With the 
military he never could be , and even if he 
‘could ity with them must have rendered him 


jobnoxious to the allies, and the mass of the French na- 


tion ; yet almost his first measure was to court the mar- 
shals and of : By a fatal inconsist- 
ency, w he courted their support, he lent himself to 
the intrigues of the emigrants, or at least did’ not, with 
sufficient promptitude, put down their extravagant pre- 
tensions to their former privfleges. Thus he doubly alie- 


confidence and attachment. Such 


_ Soon after his entry into Paris, he formed his minis- 
try. At the head of it was M. D’Ambray as chancellor ; 
T: foreign affairs ; 


King, as members of the chamber 
for life. This list com nearly all the 

and other chief ity of the time prior to 
lution, with some of the new titles; among 
latter were T. d, Clarke, Lebrun, Berthier, 


men, named by 


opened by Louis, in a speech too plainly shewing the ne- 
ee ecdne eas tothe ania vice ol ibeiow of 
; for he was particularly careful to impress on the 
and through them on the nation, that the lo- 

Seer eee een ned veneezes! ne blennet t 
monuments of their valour remained ; and that the 
chefs d'ceuvre of the arts would belong to them hencefor- 


it, bore a considerable resemblance to that of Great Bri- 
tain ; but in some points it differed from it, for the King 
of France was invested with the privi not only of 

ing but of adjourning both the bers. By. 
i igi two ways— 


in 
respecting them to 


ministers were introduced into the chamber of 
to present a law on this subject. The 
was divided into two parts, the first respected the publi- 


press. According to the first, every work of above 30 
sheets 1 be published freely, without previous exa~ 
mination; but the liberty which was apparently given on 
this part of the projet, was in a great measure withdrawn, 


667 


by the proposal that the director-general of the press 
might order all writings under 30 sheets to be commu- 
nicated to him before al printed. The 5 Aten 


~of censors was to be vested in the King. No journals 
or periodical ings were to appear without the King’s 
authority. According to the second of the pro- 


law, no person could be a printer or bookseller, 
without the King’s licence, which might be withdrawn ; 
and all printing establishments not Loaued might be 
destroyed. The projet concluded with a proposal that 
the law should be revised in three years. 
This projet was referred to a committee, who de- 
cided by a mere majority of votes, that previous censor- 
ship ought not to serve as the basis of the law. When 
the report of the committee was brought up, several 
bold and eloquent speeches were made in favour of the 
liberty of the press, which seemed to prove that more 
practicable ideas of the nature and object of government 
-were beginning to prevail in France ; but the painful re- 
avleaes os the same men who spoke thus freely and 
warmly. on this important topic, gave applause, appa- 
rently oe zealous and saaedh es +4 ieee of Pena. 
parte, forces the mind to withhold from them the rarer 
and more useful tribute of disinterested patriotism. In 
the sitting of the 11th of August, the Abbé Montesquieu 
the chamber of deputies in defence of the plan 
of the law, which had been submitted tothem, conceding, 
however, on the part of the King, certain amendments, 
to the effect that no censure should apply to a work ex- 
ceeding 20 sheets, and that the law shenld cease to ope- 
rate at the end of session 1816. After an animated de- 
bate, the law, as amended by the concession on the part 
of the crown, was adopted by the chamber, there being 
137 votes for it, and 80 against it. , 
The only other topic of considerable interest and im- 
ce, which came under the discussion of the cham- 
rs, related to the restoration of the unsold estates of 
the emigrants. A law to that effect passed the cham~ 
ber oe dapaties by alarge majority ; it was then carried 
up to the chamber ‘of peers, where it passed by a majo- 
rity of 100 votes out of 103 present. On this occasion 
Marshal Macdonald ounced a discourse of great ef- 
fect, at the close of which he announced his intention of 
proposing a projet of a law, the object of which should 
to t life annuities to those of the emigrants, 
the sale of whose estates had left them unprovided 
for! The nature of the law was most mali- 
ciously misrepresented in one of the Paris journals. 
According to the statement in it, Marshal Macdonald 
asserted that the military of all ranks’ were willing’ to 
contribute a portion of their pay to create a fund for 
the oer of the Pee ope The effect, and pro- 
bably purpose of this misrepresentation, was to 
increase the ill-will of the soldiery, already sullen and 
irritated, not only towards the emigrants, but also: to- 
wards the King and the government. The offending: 
journal was immediately suppressed ; but such was e1- 
ther the timidity or the indecision of the government, that 
in a short time it was again permitted to be published. 


History. 
—— 


‘A, D. 1814. 


On the pro- 


perty.of the 


emigrants. 


On the 10th of December, Marshal Macdonald pre- Discontents 


sented tothe chamber of 
of indemnity for the emigrants: he estimated at 300 
millions the amount of confiscations or sales made, and 
of course the amount of indemnities to be provided ; 
and he proposed to replace the value of the confiscated 
and sold estates by an annuity of 2} per cent. 

Such were the two principal topics that came under. 
discussion before the chambets during 1814: they were 
not only important in themselves, but they had a ma- 
terial influence on the stability and permanence of 
Louis’ government ; for the very limited liberty grant- 


a sketch of his system in France. 


History. 


—/ 
A. D. 1814 


State of the 
military. 


Rumours 
of Bona- 
parte’s re- 
turn. 


Genjectures 
respectin.- 
Ashe 


of it 


668 


ed tp the prem alarmed and alienated the republican 

party, which were now beginning to assume consis- 

tency and strength; and the very agitating of the sub- 

ject relative to the property of the, emigrants, crea= 

ted serious and general apprehension in the minds of 
ely spread 


the very numerous and wi class. who had 


urchased confiscated estates. Discontent and dissatis-~ 


action began to manifest themselves in different parts 
of the kingdom. Among the a pee from which 
Louis, or rather his brother, had promised to libe- 
rate the French, were the droits reunis, or indirect 
taxes; but though the minister of finance, and af- 
terwards Talleyrand, officially reported the prospects 
of France, with respect to the produce of the taxes, 
and manufactures, and commerce, as v oe 
yet the King could not redeem his pledge that 
droits reunis should be taken off. In consequence 
of which, the collection of: them created such serious 
discontents, that his Majesty was obliged to issue an or 
dinance, which at once proved the serious nature and 
the extent of the evil, and the inability or apprehension 
of the government, to crush it effectually by vigorous 
measures, 

But all these signs of approaching misfortune to 
Louis, were ambiguous, or trifling, compared to those 
which might have been gathered from the conduct, the 
feelings, and the power of the military. To them the 
King had delivered himself up, even more completely 
than he had done when he first ascended the throne : 
Soult was minister of war, and consequently had an 
op nity of forming any plans which his former at- 

ts might suggest. e had, indeed, taken the 
oaths of fidelity to Louis; but weak and credulous must 
that man have been, who could put faith in the oath of 
a soldier of the revolutionary school, one of the most 
fa aay and eer poo agen of which was, that 
mili glory was of such paramount obligation, as 
to justity any means by which it could earn ty 
The King, therefore, had cast himself, bound hand and 
foot, into the power of his enemies, while he had ne- 
glected to make friends of the people. 

In the mean time, Bonaparte, in the isle of Elba, was 
nearly forgotten; when, to the astonishment and dis- 
may, not only of the French King, but ef all Europe, 
he suddenly landed near Cannes, in France, on the Ist 
of March, The arrangement of the plan, in confor- 
mity to which he was invited, or induced to land in 
France, is not accurately known. The following cir- 
cumstances, however, are either well substantiated, or 
highly probable :—Almost immediately after his depar- 
ture i France, his. numerous_ partizans, y 
among the soldiery in the southern provinces of the 
kingdom, began to talk in mysterious terms of the vio- 
let season, and to express a strong wish for its arrival. 
To those who compared and considered these terms, it 
was soon evident that Bonaparte was expected in France 
at the return of the violet season ; but it was not easy 
to ascertain whether this expectation was ded on 
any promise he had made, or plan which they knew 
was forming, or whether it was vaguely taken up by 
his admirers. The expectation, however, grew strong- 
er and more general as the spring a : there 
is good reason to believe that the ministers of Louis 
were informed of it, and that it would probably be re- 
alized: but what measures of ution could be ex- 
pected from men who were either lesgnedi ‘with Boba: 
parte, or who were so ignorant of the state of France, 
and of the character of the sovereign of Elba, as to 
see no danger to their sovereign from either? 

It is not so easy to trace the framers of the plan for 
bringing back Bonaparte, or the arrangements thst were 


FRANCE. 


made for carrying that plan into execution. We know, 
however, that Louis was disliked, both by the military 
and republican party ; and it is highly probable 
the restoration of Bonaparte was planned and achieved 


of defeat ; the lat- 


acquired, fter 
down to the observance of a free constitution. ‘ 
Bonaparte had been attended to the isle of Elba by 
commissioners from the allied po ; but soon after 


rectly charged with the 
Ge fo absence of 
sailed orto Ferrajo, on the 26th of F 4 
with about 1000 men, very few of whom were F 
men, the rest being Poles, Corsicans, Neapolitans, and 
Elbese. Generals Bertrand and Drouet 


It was soon a dot th eddiaeta ane, 


i 


F 
: 


i 


cing. Grenoble was the first military 
rison town at which he arrived; here a 
General Marchand was posted : the 
ful, but the soldiers, on a short 
joined his ranks. So quick and unmolested was 1 
that on the 8th of March he reached Lyons. 
As soon as the intelligence of Bonaparte’s landing 
sequences of Louis 


2 
773 
zEee 


is, but he was not active 
in his behalf; and the troops with whom he marched 
against Bonaparte refused to act. Ofall the traitors to 
their a: Marshal Ney was the most he np ipled: 
pea oversea = og xeon bse bec i chan 
to take parte, or alive: troops were ‘ 
under his command for that p : he advanced ap- 
ee a but on the 14th of March, when 
parte had reached Lons le Saulnier, he joined him, 
and issued a proclamation to his army, in which he de~ 
scribes the Bourbons as unfit to reign, and recommends 
his troops to join the great Napoleon. 
Under these circumstances, the zeal of the friends of 
Louis was of no avail. Monsieur and the Duke of Or- 
leans had advanced along with Macdonald to Lyons; 
were disaffected, and the people either 


Baws 


History. 


y 


4 
hf 


——_— 


He esca) 


Treachery 
of the Mar- 
shals and 


j 


the army, | 


but mabe pore A 
indifferent, and unwilling to expose themselves to dan~ _ 


FRANCE. 


regiment which should take Bonaparte alive ; but 
no regiment‘moved to obtain the reward. 

Measures Louis, finding that the army was decidedly against 

of Louis. him, endeavoured to attach the republican party to his 
interest, by promising them a freer constitution ; but, 
at the same tirne, he impolitically threatened the French 
nation with the invasion of 300,000 foreigners, if Bo- 
naparte should triumph. ' In reality, surrounded as he 


sence, in keeping down such parts of the 
wiventies pe ‘allesage, un panyi 
, and accom 
him, he idly from Lyons towards Paris. On 
pms eh a vanced brevet iy 
40 leagues from the capital. In evening of the 19th, 
. Louis left Paris; and, at 4 o’clock in the net | 
puss of the 20th, Bonaparte entered it.’ The d 
Louis was unmolested ; and, during his j into 
the Netherlands, he no insult the peo- 
ple; and even the soldiery treated him with silent 
His addres. | As Soon as Bonaparte landed at Cannes, he issued 
sestothe addresses to the French people and to the army. In 
oy these addresses, et hehe gen ib Bes 
. suf. 


‘Trinciple on which 
in future to act ;—to forget that 
pe tes orb ne py aps mea but not to suffer any 
in their affairs, In subsequent official 
declarations, however, the breach of some of the arti- 
cles of the te mer was seed for tae tering 
the jenna, Was assi for his ing re- 
ied the throne of France. fod 


were the preservation of peace with the allies, 
and the with the terms on which the repub- 


* the sove- filled with declamation against the Bourbons, as 
reignsof a not fitted for the French , from which 
Europe. _ therefore the nation had 5 ca upon 

him as their liberator; and with sentimental ons 


ad ear t:< Gani nvaciae torn 
to 


paring to act most vigor: inst him, he had re- 
course to the usual methods of deceiving the French na- 
tion, who were now inning to be alarmed at the 


probable consequences of his return, by representing 


669 


him, and by fixing the day History. 
of the arrival of the Empress, as a proof that the Em- ~~ 
peror of Austria would not support the Bourbons. A. D, 1815. 
The most superficial knowledge of human nature 
will not permit us to believe, that a man of such a 
decided character as Bonaparte, with military and des- 
potic habits so long indulged and so strongly formed, 
could, during his short residence in Elba, become a 
sincere convert to and liberty. His declara- 
tions, therefore, in favour of both, must be traced to 
the same miotive. Perceiving that war was inevita- 
ble, and that the people required a strong stimulus to 
rouse them, and being under the controul of the. re- 
publican » he consented to the drawing up of an 
additi act to the constitution of the F'rench empire, Promises 
In this, there were certainly many excellent enact. the French: 
ments ; but even if France had remained at peace, they — gy 
must, ‘with the habits and feelings of her population, © 
have been completely nugatory.. In order to give the 
of the free and general acceptance of this 
act, and to afford the Parisians a spectacle, a 
decree was passed, ordering the assembly of 20,000 re- 
ives of the whole people, after the ancient man- 
ner of the Franks, in the Champde Mai. . 
soon found that his newly acquired power Isurrec- 
was likely to be shaken, not merely by foreign war, but-tions against 
by internal commotion, while the despotic authority, him in dif- 
which he had formerly exercised, was peremptorily de- ‘mt parts 
nied him by the chambers. Nearly the whole of the west, ° “™"°* 
and many districts of the south of France, were rising in. 
favour ot the Bourbons, animated by the presence of the 
Duke de Berri at j the Duke d’Angouleme on the- 
shores of the Mediterranean, and the Duchess d’Angou- 
leme at Bourdeaux ; and though these illustrious per- 
sonages were soon compelled to leave France, yet they 
had succeeded in raising a spirit of resistance, not less 
formidable from its extent and union, than from its de- 
termined character. In La Vendée, that former abode 
of loyalty to the Bourbons, a reguiar and successful ware 
fare in their behalf was carried on. ; 
As soon as the allied powers were informed of the 5.5... 
ing of Bo e, they issued a declaration, dated gions of the 
the 13th of M in which he was declared to have de- allies, 
prived himself of the protection of the law ; to have ma- 
nifested to the universe, that there could be neither peace 
nor truce with him ; to have placed himself without 
the-pale of civil and social relations ; and to have ren- 
dered himself liable to public vengeance, as an enemy 
and disturber of the tranquillity of the world. Against 
him, therefore, and in sup of the legitimate sove- 
reign of France, wae ved to make war. This de- 
elaration was strongly censured in England, as encou- 
raging the assassination of igs cae ; and though this 
interpretation was explicitly an a gy disavow- 
ed by the British ministry, yet, in the treaty among 
the allied powers, which was formed on this declara- 
tion, it was thought proper to omit these passages. By 
this treaty, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, 
agreed each to furnish 150,000 men ; and not to lay 
down their arms until Bonaparte was completely depri- 
ved of the power of exciting disturbances. When this 
treaty was ratified by Great Britain, a declaration was 
annexed, that there was no intention to interfere in 
the internal government of France: To this declaration 
the rest of the allies gave their formal and solemn 
assent. Even before the treaty was ratified, the allied 
troops were in motion towards the frontiers of France ; The Eng- 
and two formidable armies, under the Duke of Welling- lish and the 


Prussians 


the English as friendly to 


' ton and Prince Bluchet, were soon assembled in the vie oe ile in 


cinity of Brussels, . The aii, under the Duke of Wel-- 4}. Nether. 
lington were composed of British, Germans, Dutch, lands. 


670 


History. and Belgians: Those under Blucher, of Prussians and 


Saxons ; but, in consequence of the mutinous spirit of 


A. D, 1815 the latter, most of them were sent back into Germany. 


The preparations of Bonaparte were by no means 
<glienthethe to those of the allies, nor hi Ae to the 
means which France afforded; for aT ie by the 
exposé, that, on the Ist of May 1814, land forces 
of France amounted to more 520,000 men of all 
descriptions, besides 122,597 on half pay, and.160,000 
ptisoners. By the treaty of Paris, all the prisoners 
were to be restored; and, before the return of Bona- 

, they all had returned to France, except a few 
Russia. Hence it would appear, that there must 
have been at least half a million of soldiers in France. 


Bonaparte’s How it happened that Bonaparte could avail himself 


inadequate 


forces. 


Assembly of 


of the services of so few of these, does not clearly appear. 
oe tempt ae + ioaepr ae rance 
not uipment and su a large ar- 
my ; and it is eee that the sepcthioan were 
very unwilling to place a numerous army under his con- 
troul. To this party, he found himself obliged more and 
more tosuccumb. When he first reached Paris, his mi- 
nisters were Gaudin, Maret, Fouche, Davoust, Savary, 
and Bertrand. Anxious to confirm the idea that he had 
abandoned his love of conquest, and his ic ha- 
bits, Carnot was taken into the ministry, Lucien 
Bonaparte was persuaded to leave Italy and come to 
Paris. But all these pledges of a reformed character, 
—his declaration, that he would not com- 
mence hostilities,;—and even the new constitution, and 
the assembly of the Champ de Mai, failed to stop the 
of the royalists, or to rouse the mass of the 

le in his behalf. 
he manner in which the members of the assembly 


the Champ of the Champ de Mai were chosen, the character of 


de Mai. 


Bold pro- 
ceedings of 
the cham- 
bers. 


those members, and their number, cannot accurately 
be ascertained: From the known policy and practice 
of the French government at all times, as well as from 
the peculiar necessity which at this period existed, of 
imposing upon the French nation and the allies, by the 
appearance of a zealous devotion to , there 
can be little doubt, that the Assembly of the Champ de 
Maiwas in a great ayia 2 up (to use a technical 
but expressive phrase) for effect. At the same time, it 
must be acknowledged, that in many parts of France 
very liberal, or perhaps licentious, notions respecting li- 

again began to prevail; and that from these 
parts, it is probable, deputies, freely chosen, and anxious 
to discharge their duty, were sent. 

On the 7th of June, a few days after the assembly of 
the Chamn de,Mai, Bonaparte went in state to the pa- 
lace of repyesentatives, to open the session of the cham- 
bers. The oath of fidelity to the Emperor and the 
constitution having been taken, he uncovered himself 
for a momen ards covered himself—and then 
addressed them in a speech, of which the most important 
topics were, the free constitution which France had just 
received,—the formidable coalition against the indepen~ 
dence of the country,—the actual commencement of 
hostilities, in the capture of a French frigate by an Eng- 
lish man of war,—and the assemb) that had been 
formed, and the communications which were carried on, 
with Louis at Ghent, in the same manner as with. the 
emigrants at Coblentz in 1792. He concluded, by al- 
lading to the probability, that the first. duty of prin- 
ces might soon call him to Re Soe. ae ORY. 3, that 
the army and himself would ge their duty, while 
he trusted that the peers and representatives would 
give to the nation an example of confidence, energy, 
and jotism, and, like the Roman senate, swear to 
die rather than survive the dishonour of France. On 


FRANCE. 


rupted by calls for the order of the day, 
Ga at Leet bguact hick coumoetacpiarenaen t 5 ‘ 


and on another member moving, that the army had 


on the ex ground, that, till the soldiers had benefit- 7 
ed ah em they ought not to receive its thanks and q 
gratitude. i 
Bonaparte still Teapewed in the capital, notwithstand- Probable 
ingen was actu commenced, and it seemed his {i030 
policy to attack the h and Prussians, before the quitting - 
rest of the allies them, or invaded France in Paris. ; 


a 
a quarters... The cause of his delay is not known; 
ut it 


his troops would figh ie ntadiedine teenie , a4 
wo t most : 
; but there were other cir- 


of his to be trusted. Among the fo were | 
Berthier his most intimate and lobes tried friend : 
and com 
Ms 

is most 


ployed: and even Soult. had no 
mand assigned him. The force which t 
collected for the defence of the immense frontier of 
France does not appear to have exceeded 250,000 men ; 
| 
Bh ge IN His force in 
under Rapp near Strasburg, and under Suchet, on the lands. 
borders of Switzerland and Italy. Of Be alls meee “my 
were yet come up, except the English, na utch, | 
Moder th Waloune. ea 


and i 
un- : 
spreedied SOOO, the for . 


citer 


at present in hostilities agai | the 
of inia, &c. were to invade 
ue 


of the Kin, 


ing ag and on the next day, at four. I> 
ing, he left Paris, having nominated Generals Sebas- June 14. 
capital, dere POF=, 
tion and.nature would allow. On the 14th, he atrived 
at Avesnes, where he issued an order of the day, res 


FRANCE, 671 
_ History’ minding his troops that the 14th was the anniversary tre it had various weak points. It ran from the Brussels _ History. 
pers. of the battles of and Friedland, attd-that «+40. road tothe right about 4 mile and a half in length ; and 
a SS every Frenchman who had a heart, the moment was then turned very sharply to the right, and crossed the A. D. 1815, 
_ arrived to mer or perish.” The position of his road from Nivelle to Namur : these two roads cross each 
> > army was as S: Imperial head quarters.at other,so that the British position formed nearly a quarter 
a Beaumont; the Ist corps commanded by General circle. At the turn of the bottom of a slope, was a farm 
D’Erlon, at Solfre on the Sambre ; the 2d. com- and orchards, called Mount St John, whi was the key 
manded by General Reille, was at Ham-sur-Heure; of the position, and the front of the centre. On their 
corps commanded by General Vandamme, was left, the British communicated with the Prussians at. 
of Beaumont; and the 4th corps com- Wavre, through Ohaim. 
manded. by General Girard, was at Phili ille. The At half past 10 o’clock in the forenoon of the 18th, patile of 
were established on the bre; these Bonaparte teem to put his troops in motion; and, Waterloo, 
he attacked at day on the morning of the 15th, about an hourafterwards, one of his corps attacked the June 18. 
and in the course of the day drove them from the river, country-house on the right of the British, where the 
and made himself master of the ground from Thuin to Nassau troops were posted : these were obliged to give 
Prussians, Fleurus, a distance of about 16 miles, on the Namur way; but the house itself’ was so well defended, that 
_June15. road ; whilst on the Brussels road, he forced back a the French could not gain possession of it. This at« 
i to Quatre Bras, about 12 miles from tack on the right of the British centre, Bonaparte ac- 
the Sambre. Bonaparte in this affair evidently hadthe companied with a dreadful fire of artillery ; under the 
advantage, and seems to have surprised the allies. cover of which, he made repeated attacks of cavalry 
Battleof Qn the 16th, the Prussian army was posted on the and infantry, sometimes mixed, and sometimes sepa- 
‘igny ,, heights between Bril, and Sombref, occupying the vil- rate, from the centre to the right: but the skill of the 
lages of St Amand and Ligny, situated in its front. It Duke of Wellington, and the admirable moral courage 
i 3 the 4th aoe was not and physical strength. of his), were unconquer« 
vanced in able. Against one of these a of the French ca-« 
about three valry, General Picton, who was with his division on 
] : Ney, w he had at the road from Brussels to Charleroi, advanced with the 
kength called to the army, was ordered to put himself bayonet. The French; struck with astonishment at 
at the head of the 2d corps, and attack General Picton’s the circumstance of i advancing to the charge of 
division, the corps of the Duke of Brunswick, and the cavalry, fired, and then fl At this moment, General 
‘assau i which the Duke of Welli had Picton was unfortunately killed. The English life. 
dispatched in of the Prussians, and which had guards next advanced against the 49th and 105th regi- 
rae Saga dy $n about half past two o'clock. ments of French ee : to their support i cuiras« 
The. ject of Bonaparte was to gain possession Siers came up: most sanguinary cavalry fight per-~ 
of St Amand ; and he succeeded after a vigorous re« haps ever witnessed, was the consequence ; but the Bri- 
sistance. He next advanced against Ligny, where the were victorious, and the cuirassiers were annihilated. 
combat was of a most desperate and sanguinary de- — The battle had now lasted upwards of five hours ; 
scription. The Prussians, with their gallant commander, during which Bonaparte had lost an immense number 
were urged on to use their most strenuous efforts, of men, by his desperate charges, without being able 
every feeling of a national or individual nature, which to make any decisive impression... The Duke of Wel-. 
can men to brayery and vengeance ; for five hours _lington, with the skill of a consummate general, kept his. 
the near this village with doubtful success, troops entirely on the defensive; but though he thus 
while the Prussians by retaking a part of the village had saved their strength as much as possible, yet they 
of St Amand, regained an advantageous position on a wend beganning fo beeen: Sekt Ise com- 
height near that village. Still, however, the French mander frequently turned his anxious and vigilant eye 
were gradually overpowering the Prussians by their to that quarter where he expected the Prussians to arrive.. 
superiority of numbers; anxiously did Blucher look for © At break of day, the Prussian army had began to 
i of the move; the 2d 4th corps marched to take up a po 
pe Oe rags up, and the lat- rpc whence they mi 7 Pte yg —— on the rear, 
ter with difficulty mai i tion at Quatre if circumstances prov: vourable, e 1st corps was. 
Pes which he to operate on the right flank of the French ; and the 3d 
pushing it corps was to follow slowly in order. About 5 o’clock,, 
Bonaparte perceived the advance of of the Prus-« 
sian army, which at first he seems to have supposed to 
have been the division of his own army under Marshal 
Grouchy, who had been posted on the rear of the allies 
irassi to'take advantage of their anticipated defeat, _ As soon, 
main body of the Prussian army was taken in the however, as he ascertained that it was the Prussians, he 
at the same moment, the French cavalry succeed- his attacks with cavalry and infantry, supports, 
i ing several attacks of the Prussian cavalry : by artillery, in a more desperate and, m OuS | 
rt the success of : the Prussians. manner than ever; but the British were immoyeable, 
At last, about seven in the evenings he made.a last ef. 
not come up, afterwards to Wavre. fort, putting himself at the h of his guards. He 
The attack made by Ney on the English at Quatre succeeded for a moment in driving back the Bruns- 
Bras was equally desperate in its nature, but not so wickers ; but the Duke of Wellington, putting himself 
successful to the French in its result; for all their at their head, and animating them by a short speech, 
charges were repulsed in the steadiest manner. In this restored the combat. At this critical moment, the Prus- 
affair the Duke of Brunswick was slain. _ © sians came up: General Bulow advanced nip hi the. 
In of the retreat of the Prussians, the rear of the right wing of the French ; and Marshal. 
of Wallington retired on Waterloo. ‘The posi- Blucher had joined in nm. with a corps of his army 
tion which he occupied was , but towards the cen« to the left of the British army, by Ohaim, The Duke 


| 
| 
: 
| 


raih 
ue 
i 
i 
He 


54 
a2 
af 
| 
: 
i 
: 
F 


672 


of Wellington headed the foot-guards; spoke a few 
words to them, which were replica to by a general hur~ 
rah ; and his Grace guiding them on with his hat, 
they marched at the point of the bayonet, to close action 
with the imperial guard: but the latter began a retreat, 
in which they were imitated by the whole French ar~ 
my. The British, completely exhausted, left the pur- 
suit to the Prussians, who, coming fresh to battle, soon 
changed the retreat of the French into a rout, the most 
pose gtelte Eprom ever known. In this battle, nearly 


ilistory. 


—— 
A. D. 1815. 


Total 9 300 pieces of cannon were taken, and upwards of 14,000 
feat of the prisoners. ‘The loss of the French in killed, especially 
* on the 16th, when the Prussians neither gave nor re- 
ceived quarter, was immense; on the 16th and 18th, 

it could not have amounted to less than 40,000 men. On 

the 16th, the Prussians lost about 16,000 men; and on 

the 18th, the Duke of Wellington’s army about 13,000. 

and ruin of ~ No battle, perhaps, ever was fought of a more obsti- 
Bovapartes nate description, or more decisive in its consequences. 


In this one battle of Waterloo, the fate of 
was sealed, and his empire again overthrown. In this 
one battle, the fame of the Duke of Wellington was 
raised to a summit it cannot possibly surpass; and the 
British soldiers proved that they were worthy of being 
commanded by such a 
who fiiesto ° On leaving the field of battle, fled as ra- 
Paris, and pidly as possible to Paris, where he arrived onthe 21st, 
abdicates and convoked a council of ministers. On the 22d, the 
the throne. two chambers declared: their sittings’ 
Bonaparte was given to un 
was expected. ° a ee ee 
which hedeclared his political life terminated ; and pro- 
claimed his son, under the title of Napoleon TI, His ab- 
dication was accepted by the Chambers ;: but the ques- 
tion was evaded with regard to the title of young Na- 
poleon, A commission of five was chosen to exercise 
rovisionally the functions of government: the mem- 
beed were, Fouche, Carnot, Grenier, Caulaincourt, and 
Quinette. At first, the Chambers seem to have enter- 
tained some hopes that the of the allies might 
have been arrested; but on the representation of Ney, 
that it was impossible to collect 25,000 men, they voted 
that an nny eters be made to negociate an armis- 
tice with the Duke of Wellington. 
In the mean time, the Duke and Prince Blucher 
were advancing rapidly towards Paris. The latter was 
unsuccessfully by Marshal Grouchy, who hav- 
ing united some of the fugitives from the battle of 
Waterloo with his corps, at last reached the capital 
with about 40,000 men. With these, and some of 
the national guards, &c. an attempt was made to pre- 
vent the Prussians from taking a position’ on the left 
of the Seine, the only part whereon defensive works had 
been thrown up. the failure of this .attempt, and 
the refusal of the Duke of Wellington to negociate an 
armistice, Paris was surrendered to the allies by a mili- 
tary convention, the principal stipulations of which 
were, that the French army should march out of it, and 
take up a position behind the Loire ; that the duty of 
the city should continue to’ be performed. by the nation- 
al guards ; that public and private property should be 

; that no person should be called to account 
for his conduct or opinions; and that the convention 
should be common to all the allied powers, provided it’ 


FRANCE. 


were ratified by the powers on whom the armies were 
dependant.* On the 8th of July, Louis entered his ca- 
pice! again, She prone aeeeenene ae cham- 


council, 
such others as the ki 
sponsible ministers, The latter are in number eight: con- 

ror of Talleyrand, president of the council, and’secre- 

tary for foreign affairs; Baron Louis, minister of finance ; His mini- 
Fouche, Duke of Otranto, of the police ; Baton ier, ***** 
the department of justice, and keeper of the seals ; Mar- 

shal Gouvion St Cyr, the a t of war; Count de 
Jaucour, the marine ;and the Duke de Richelieu, the 
household. Theappointmentof Fouche, aman moredeep- 

ly stained with the crimes of the Revolution, than per 


. 
; 


iy 
- 3 
be wr gy er principal surviving actors in that dread- { 

drama, excited universal astonishment and indigna- 


banks of the Loire ; and at length sent in a haughty, 

reluctant, and suspicious submission to Louis, commu- 

nicated in an address from Davoust, who commanded 

it, more like the state paper of an i t sove- 

sign, than the penitent submission of a‘ rebellious and 
ated general. Even after Louls had re-ascended ; 

the throne, the armies of Bavaria, Russia, and Austria, 

were obliged to fight their way to Paris; and-in those 


instances, where entered into n f - with 
Bonaparte’s generals, the latter were left in a condition : 
of i dence on their legitimate sovereign, and al- . 
most placed on a level with the victorious allies.. Not: 
withstandi e presence of nearly 300,000 troops of : 

the allies, seditious cries and movements constantly agi- — a 


prc eevee Nata In many of the provin= France, 

ces, a spirit of disaffection shews itself openly. In short, 

to judge from the present state of France, we should con- 

clude, that it was not the conquered but the victorious 

country, and that Bonaparte, instead of being an exile, 

was still on the throne. In this alarming crisis, the 

measures of Louis are timid and vacillating. A few of 
s creatures, who swore allegiance to Louis, | 

and then betrayed him, have been ordered to be arrest- . 

ed and tried ; but it is extremely doubtful, whether 

this order will be followed Aart Bac eee to take . 

them ; and if they are taken, by whom are orenbe 

tried ? by men as guilty as themselves! The para- 

mount feeling which thus ‘agitates France, is that of 

wounded self-love; the di and humiliation ‘of be« 

ing conquered, which, in the time of their success, they 

most insultingly poured on other nations, is returned : 

on themselves ; the demoralization which the national 

character has suffered during the Revolution, has be« 

come so deeply seated, aud so constitutional, that the 

severe remedies which have been applied serve’ only to 

irritate and inflame. Hence there-is reason to-aj 

hend, that it will require a considerable time, 

and measures of consummate wisdom applied ‘with ex 

treme caution, to restore France to that state, in which 7 


to Aen wot ne rae safe, and useful member of 
the community of urope.” e aye 


ss 


F - ‘ : ‘ r #00. iti 
fate of Bonaparte, after his second) abdication, is rather the subject of biography than of | historyy yet we shall-here sub- 


« the 
ere Before the allies reached Paris, he quitted that 


ital and went to r ~vesse pace Rrepeset en, 

him and his attendants to America. The British government, however, informed of his plan, b ed this part of the ’rench coast so 
, that he found himself compelled to surrentier to Captain Mai of the Bell , who commanded the blockading : 

‘In this ship he was to the coast of , but not suffered to land ; ‘and about the middle of August, he was sent ‘to the island- 
of St Helena with part of his suite, to be kept during the remainder of his life. ‘ pave ote Lay é' 


Bountaries, 


FRANCE. 
“STATISTICS. 


a CHAP. I. 


Boundaries and Extent of France—Progressive Geo- 
graphy—Division into Provinces and Departments 
—Military Divisions. 


By the treaty of Paris in 1814, the kingdom of 
France was reduced within the same limits that bound- 
ed it previously to the Revolution ; but its extent of 
aeedgmen deat for Avignon and the coun- 
ty of the Venaissin, which had formerly to 
the Pope, but which had been i ted with France 
before January 1792, were to be integral and 


permanent parts of that kingdom by the treaty. alluded 
to. 


France, as itis bounded at: present, is marked out, 
-as one of. the separate ki of Europe, by natural 
limits on three of its si These are, the Channel 
between it and England on the north ; the Bay of Bis- 

on the west, and the Pyrenean mountains and the 
eRnlatasDtek voset catalan chek: anxithie lent, north- 
east, and south-east, its limits are not accurately fixed 
by nature. On the east, it borders on Germany and 
Switzerland ; on the north-east, on those provinces 
which formerly composed the Austrian Netherlands, 
but which are now united to Holland; and on the 
south-east, on Savoy and Piedmont. It extends from 
the 424 to nearly the 51st degree of north latitude, and 

ds above 11 degrees of longitude ; the most 


of Alsace | 7 degrees eastward of the 
ssondeedaf Grecruteh, the most westerly part of 
Brittany rather more than 4 westward of the 


same meridian. _ Were it not for this province, which 
stretches about 100 miles farther into the’Atlantic Ocean 


than any other part of the ki the form of France 
would be almost a square, the breadth and length 
pretty nearly equal, 7. e. about 560 miles. 


rete vrenecws sitieinpeh beadenaostenenes 
ing inthe na : 
we ee ae eee RE 
orekes it 28,054 ; Defer, 31,278; Sanson, 31,657: the 
medium of these is 28,642. — reckoning 15 
miles to a degree, fixes the extent of France at 10,000 
square miles; the Marshal de Vauban makes it 30,000 
leagues, or 140,940,000 arpents ; Voltaire 130,000,000 
arpents. Tem gives it an extent of 138,837 
ical miles ; but as he reckons only 60 
piitastalaednaeonecthie. doutibens spnethlin-anaiiiendute 
119,224,874 acres. Panclon, by cov: ing his map with 
shot to every indenture of outline, fi the kin, 
to pa py arpents, each of 100 y at 
22 perch, or 13444 toises ‘e to the arpent ; 
instead of which, the arpent of Paris contains but 
900 toises. A ing to this measurement, France 


arpents ; observing that, by the 
amount is 125,000,000. Abonne 
calculates it at 105,000,000.; and the author of 

logie sur l’ Edit de Nantes, at 185,600,000. M. Neckar 
seems to have been the first who ascertained the area 
of France with considerable accuracy. According 
to him (not including Corsica) it ds 26,951 
leagues square, of 2282 toises, or 156,024,213. arpents of 

VOL. IX, PART IL. 


into four parts; G 


673 


Paris, which is equivalent to 131,722,295 English acres, 
‘This calculation is nearly adopted by M. Jorse, author of 
the Credit Nationale, wid reckons that France contains 
27,000 oe 2282 toises, 5785 arpents of Paris to a 
league, and also by Mr A. Young: This gives to France 
156,225,720 arpents. The committee of the first Na- 
tional Assembly stated it soon afterwards at 26,463 
square leagues; and this is probably pretty accurately 
the area of France as it is now bounded. 

The progressive geography of this kingdom presents 


Statistics, 


Progressive 


very differént limits and divisions at different times. geography. 


The ancient Gaul, as has already been remarked in the 
History of France, comprehended a larger portion of 
territory than France now contains. Under the name 
Gallia, was originally comprehended Gallia Cisalpina, 
and Gallia Transalpina: the former was entirely on the 
south side of the Alps, and the latter contained all the 
present France, and that part of Germany and Belgium 
westward of the Rhine.- According to the Abbe du 
Fresnoy, ancient Gaul, by which hemeans Gallia Trans- 
alpina, was bounded on the south by the Pyrenees, the 
Mediterranean Sea, and the Var; on the east by the 
Alps and the Rhine ; on the north by the same river ; 
and on the west by the ocean. The Romans first il- 
lustrated the geography of Gaul, which they considered 
as divided into three chief regions, the Celtic, Belgic, 
and Aquitaine. The bounds of Gallia Celtica were the 
ocean, the Seine, the Marne, the Saone, the Rhine, 
and the Garonne. Gallia Belgica was bounded by the 
Seine, the Marne, the mountains of Vosges, the Rhine, 
and the ocean; and Gallia Aquitania by the ocean, 
Garonne, and the enees. Augustus divided Gaul 
ia Narbonensis, which compre- 
hended , Foix, Vivarres, Provence, Dauphiny, 
and Savoy ; Aquitania, which was of larger extent than 
it had been in the time of Julius Cesar, and compre- 
hended all the country between the Pyrenees, the ocean, 
and the Loire ; Lugdunensis, the Jargestof all, which 
was bounded by the ocean, the Loire,.the Seine, the 
Marne, and the mountains of Vosges; and Belgica, 
which was-bounded by the ocean, the country of Caux, 
the Seine, the Marne, the mountains of Vosges, and 
the Rhine. 

The Notitia Imperii, which was made in the fourth 
century, ts us with another division of Gaul; 
for there it is 


divided into five great provinces ; Lug- 
dunensis, Belgica, Germania, Vienensis, and Aquitania, 
each of which are subdivided into several others. The 
EmperorConstantine the Great divided Gaul into seven- 
teen provinces or governments, six of which were con- 
sular, and eleven under certaii presidents sent by the 
Emperor, who resided in the capital cities. The names 
of the provinces and the: capital cities were, 1. Nar 
bonnensis prima, capital city Narbonne; 2. Narbon- 
nensis secunda,. capital city Aix.in Provence ; 3, Vien- 
nensis, ital city; Vienne in Dauphiny; 4. A 

Graize and Pemine;. capital city Moustenon in Ta- 
rentaise, a province of Savoy ; 5. Alpes Maritime, ca« 
pital city Embranin eas pm ; 6. Lugdunensis prima, 
capital .city. Lyons ;_ 7. unensis secunda, capital 
city Rouen ; 8. Lugdunensis tertia, capital city Tours ; 
9. unensis quarta, capital city Sens in Champagne ; 
10. Sequania, capital city Besangon; 11. Aquitania 
prima, capital city Bourges; 12. Aquitania secunda, 
capital city Bourdeaux ; 13.. Novempopularia, capital 
city Auch in Gascony ; 14. Germania prima, capital 
city Mentz; 15, Germania. secunda, capital city Co- 

4 ©. 


In the time 
of the Ro- 
mans, 


In the 4th 
century. 


Statistics. 
—_— 
In the time 
of the 
Franks, 


Union of the to 


provinces, 


674 


logne ; 16. Belgica prima, capital city Triers ; and, 
17. Belgica secunda, capital city Rheims. 

After the death of Clovis, the dominion of the Franks 
was divided into a ar viz. Oesterric, or the East- 
ern Kingdom, called by corruption Austrasia; and 
Westerric, or the Western Kingdom, called Neustria. 
The former contained all old France, as it existed in 
the time of Clovis; that is, all the co that reach- 
ed from the Rhine to the Loire, and the country be- 
hind the Marne, jwhich the Franks had. conquered, to- 
gether with Rheims, Chalons, Cambray, and Laon, 
which was from that time a separate kingdom, the seat 
of which was Metz in Lorraine. Aquitania was not 
comprised under the name of France; nor Burgundy, 
even after it had been conquered ; nor the lower part 
of Brittania Armorica, which was at this time an inde- 
a state. Neustria contained all the country that 
ies between the Loire and the Meuse, and was divided 
into three kingdoms: 1. France, the capital of which 
was Paris ; this comprehended what is now called the 
Isle of France; 2. Orleans; 3. Soissons. Afterwards, 
when the Franks had subdued the Visigoths and Bur- 
gundians, two other kingdoms were erected, Aquitaine 
and Burgundy. 

Beate Pesach historians and geographers are of opi- 
nion, that under the Merovingian race of kings, the 
territory of France had nearly the same limits which it 
now possesses; that under the Carlovingian race near- 
ly the whole was wrested from the sovereign by the 
abuse of the feudal system ; and that, under the Cape- 
tian dynasty, nearly the whole was recovered. The 
iginal domain of the crown under Hugh Capet seems 

ve consisted of Picardy, the Isle of France, and 
the Orleannois. Berry was the first province that was 
reunited to the crown: It was governed by Counts, who 
continued in ion of it till about the year 1100, 
when Eudes Aspin sold it to King Philip I. who united 
it to his dominions. Touraine and Normandy were 
confiscated to. the crown, or conquered under Philip 
Augustus. 0 aye was next annexed, by inheri- 
tance, under Philip the Hardy; but, according to 
some, it was not absolutely united to the crown till the 
reign of King John im 1316; Cham e@ was go- 
verned by its Counts till 1274, at which period, Jane, 
who was the last Countess, was married to Prince Phi- 
lip, son of Philip the Hardy ; and thus this province 
was united to France, though the final and permanent 
usion did not take place till 1961, in the reign of King 
John. The province of Lyonnois came into:the ypos- 
session of the crown under Philip the Fair; Dauphiny 
under Philip de Valois. Poitou, Aunis, Limosin, and 
Saintonge, were conquered by Charles V. ; and Guienne 
and Gaseony by Charles VII. Maine and Anjou were 
acquired by inheritance, under Louis XI. The same 
monareh seized the duchy of Burgundy as an escheat 
to the crown, and took possession of all Provence on 
the death of Charles, King of Sicily, who was Count 
of Provence. Anne of Brittany, the only daughter of 
Francis II. the last duke of that province, married 
Charles VIII. and afterwards Louis XII. by the last 
of whom she had two daughters, the eldest: of whom 
married Francis I. who united Brittany to the erown 
of France in 1532, Under: this monarch, Auvergne, 
Bourbonnois, and Marche, were confiscated and:united 
tothe crown. Bearn, Foix, and a: of Gascony, 
were the patrimony of Henry IV. and thus were united 
to France when he ascended the throne of that kingdom, 
Rousillon formerly belonged to Spain ; but Louis KLIK 
took it in 1642, and it was afterwards yielded to France 
by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, ‘The house of 


‘ 


FRANCE. 


Austria had Artois till the reign 
but he having conquered great 

to ps bine V. King of Spain, and afterwards 
by Ch Il. his son. Alsace was yielded to the 


French by the of Ryswick, in the reign of Louis 
XIV. Franche Compté continued subject to the house 
of Austria till Louis XIV. seized it in 1668, but he was 


obliged to restore it the next year: He seized it again 
in 1674, and it was confirmed to him by the treaties of 
Nimeguen and Ryswick. That part of the Low Coun- 
tries which France retains by the recent treaty of Paris, 
were acquired by conquest in the reign of Louis XIV. 
Lorraine was the last acquisitior of France before the 
Revolution, wer os of it, the three rere “eer 
Metz, Toul, and hedung/spedingsaubilerlaaty I. and 
cee: weeitabnemer: Arvin Se in 1648: 
the other parts of this province, the ¢ of Lorraine 

rly so called, and the duchy of Bar, were seized 
by. ouis XV. and afterwards ceded to him by treaty. 


Before the Revolution, France was divided into $2 pjvisions 
distinct governments, 18 of which are in the circuit, before the 
The first na- Revolution 


and 14 in the middle of the ki 
tional assembly, by its decrees of the 15th of January, 
and the 16th and 26th of February 1790, divided France 


As, however, the divisions as © 


into 83 di 

they exhend eho the Revolution are still 
referred to, and as a an tee . 
n to the right understanding of the history 
tha img kingdom, we shall saeamraeatied pare te 
corresponding” ents. Itis ) ever, to 
premise chat cach ent is Sobdivided inte 3, 4, 
or 5 districts, called communes arrondissements. These 
districts are again divided into cantons, and, lastly, each 
canton is composed of a certain number of communes, 
that is to say, of towns and villages. A commune is 
sometimes a single town, and sometimes a union of se= 
veral villages, nape @ mayor and communal mu- 
nicipality.. Allthe considerable cities are divided into 
several communes, pesamenese 


I. The: province of Flanders, or the territories which Flanders. 


Franee | in the western part of the Nether- 
lands before the Revolution, and. which she still retains. 
This forms the department of the North, which con- 
tains 6 districts, 60 cantons, and 671 communes;; its 
territorial. extent is 6030 kilometers,—24 kilom smo es 
being very nearly equal to 7 square miles, of 60 toa 
i The principal edn this department is 
ouay. > 


II. The province of Artois forms the department of Artois. 


the Straits of Calais, which contains 6 districts, 43 can~ 
tons, and Yg53 communes’; its territorial extent is 
70424 kilometers; its oe town is Arras, - 
IK. The principal part 
ment of the Somme, which contains 5 districts, 41 can- 
tons, and. 848 communes. Its territorial extent is 
a kilometers; its principal town is Amiens: — 
IV. 


Normandy is divided into the departments Normandy. 


of the Lower Seine, the Eure, the Orme, Calvados, 
and the Channel. The Lower Seine contains $° dis- 
tricts, 20:cantons, and 79 communes ; its territorial ex- 
tent is 63724 kilometers; its principal town is’ Rouen: 
The department of the Eure contains 5 districts, 86 
cantons, and 8438 communes ; its territorial extent is 
61824 kilometers ; its principal town is Evreaux. The 
department of the Orme contains 4 districts, $8 can+ 
— and 627 communes’; its’ a see ae 4 6875 

ilometers; its principal town is Alengon. epart- 
ment of Calvados seanal 6 districts, 87 cantons, and 
896 commues ; its territorial extent is 5640 kilometers ; 
its principal town isCaen. The department of the Chan- 


of the same monarch ; Statistics. 
part of it, it was ceded = 


Picardy forms the depart- Picardy. 


ae 


i 


Same Hwee fe Owe 


v The of the Isle of F 

_V. The province le rance is divided in« 

the departments of the Aisne, the Oise, the Seine, 

the Seine and Marne, and the Seine and Qise. The 
ants ape ieee arm 


VL The province of Champagne contains the depart- 
ments of the Ardennes, of the Marne, eee 
Marne, of the Aube and the Yonne. The 


repel on Chat The department of the 
i contains 3 districts, 28 cantons, and 552 
communes; its territorial extent is.6540 kilometers ; 


Adosmaben teen The department of the 
contains 5 districts, 26 cantons, and 423 com- 


territorial extent is 7740 kilometers ; its principal town 


is Auxerre. 
VU. The of Lorraine is divided into. the 


province 
ea 
osges. lepartment euse con« 
tains 4 districts, 28 cantons, and 591 eommunes ; its 
territorial extent is 6275 kilometers ; its principal town 
is Bar-le-duc. The ‘he department of the Moselle contains 
4 districts, 30 cantons, and 934 communes; its territo- 
rial extent is 65524 kilometers ; its town is 
Metz. The of the Meurt contains 5 dis« 
tricts, 29 cantons, and 718 communes ; its territorial ex- 
tent is 6430 kilometers; its principal town is Nancy. 
The department of Vooges containa 6 districts, 80 can: 
tons, and 550 communes ; its territorial extent is 65224 
kilometers ; its principal town is Epinal. 
ince of Alsace is divided into the de« 
partments of the Lower and the Higher Rhine. The 
department of the Higher Rhine contains 5 districts, 
39 cantons, and 703 communes ; its territorial extent is 
6030 kilometers ; its principal town is Colmar. The 
t of the Lower contains 4 districts, 
37 cantons, and 616 communes ; its territorial extent 
is 5695 kilometers ; i 


FRANCE. 675 
Statistics. nel contains 5 districts, 48 cantons, and.669 communes; is 7660 kilometers ; its p principal to Nant The Statistics. 
—"\— its territorial extent is 6890 kilometers ; its principal department of Morbihan romain iekieioes shane” 


tons, and 231 communes ; its territorial extent is 70674 
kilometers ; its principal town is Vannes. The 

ment of the North Coast-contains 5 districts, 47 can- 
tons, and 376 communes ; its territorial extent is 75674 
kilometers; its principal town is Saint Brieux. The de- 
partment of Finisterre contains 5 districts, 43 cantons, 
and 287 communes ; its territorial extent is 72924 kis 
lometers ; ite principal town is Quimper, 


X. The province of Maine is divided into the de. Maine, 


partment of the Maine and the Sarthe. The 

ment of the Maine contains 3 districts, 27 cantons, and 

288 communes ; its territorial extent is 54524 kilome- 

ters ; its cipal town is Laval. The department of the 

Sarthe nfincipa tome ed 33. cantons, and 413 com- 

munes ; its territorial extent is antes kilometers ; its 
principal town is Leillans. 


XI. The province of Anjou octal the —— of Anjou. 


the Maine and Loire, which contains 5 districts, 34 
cantons, and 385 communes; its territorial extent is 
- kilometers ; its principal town is Angers. 

- The province of Tourraine forms the depart- 
— of the Indre and Loire, which contains 3 districts, 
24 cantons, and 311 communes ; its territorial extent is 
64523 kilometers ; its principal town is Tours, 


XIII. The province of Orleannois comprehends the Orleannois. 


ents of the Eure and Loire, the Loire and Cher, 
and the Loiret. wnat 57 of the Eure and Loire 
contains 5 districts, $6 cantons, and 843 communes; 
its territorial extent is 61824 kilometers ; its principal 
town is Chartres. The department of the Loire and 
Cher contains 3 districts, 24.cantons, and 309 communes; 
its territorial extent is 67174 kilometers ; its principal 
town is Blois. The department of the Loiret contains 4 
districts, 31 cantons, and $63 communes ; its territorial 
aero is 70473 kilometers ; its principal town is Or 
leans. 

XIV. The province of Poitou comprehends'the 
ments of Vievere, the two Sevres, and La Vendée. The 
pony re of Vievere contains: 5 districts, 31 cantons, 

344 communes ; its territorial extent is 7340 kilo- 
meters; its town is Poitiers. Thedepartment of 
the Two Sevres contains 4 districts, $1 cantons, and 
363 communes; its territorial extent is 63373 kilo« 
meters ; its cipal town is Niort. The department 
of La Vendée contains 3 districts, 29 cantons, and 324 
communes ; its territorial extent is 72424 kilometers ; 
its principal town is Fontenay. 

XV. The province of Berry 

ts of the Indre and the Cher. The department 
of the Indre contains 4 districts, 23 cantons, and 275 
eommunes ; its territorial extent is 7395 kilometers ; 
its chief town is Chateauroux. The department of the 
Cher contains $ districts, 29 cantons, and ‘807 com~ 
munes ; its territorial 2 ee is 7385 kilometers ; its 


— town is Bourg: 
eS The Niverneks yfiwns the department of the Nivernois. 


Nievre, which contains 4 districts, 25 cantons, and’380 
communes ; its territorial extent is 7866 kilometers ; 
its town is Nevers. 


+ Poitou, 


ends the de- Berry: 


VII. The Bourbonnois forms the department of Bourbon- 
the Allier, which contains 4 districts, 26 cantons, and nois. 
850: communes ; its territorial extent is 74274 kilome- 
ters ; its | town is 


IX. The Brittany comprehends ‘ 
ia, the Ile and Villame, the Lower Loire, 

orbihan, the North Coast, and Finisterre: The de- 
partment of the Ille and Villaine contains 6 districts, 


iy 43 cantons, and 352 communes ; its territorial extent XVIII. The province of y forms the d Burgundy. 
( on aparece its principal towm is Rennes. The ments of the Cote d’Or, the Saone and Loire, and the = * 


| ctctine sd ateendnieemandaeiia Sitio 
, 45 cantons, and 209 communes ; its territorial extent 
1 


Ain. The departm 


ent. “of the Cote d’Or contains 4 dis« 
tricts, 86 cantons, and 783 communes; its territorial 


676 


Statistics. extent is 9192} kilometers ; its principal town, Dijon. 
—vo" The department of the Saone and Loire contains 5 dis- 
tricts, 48 cantons, and 609 communes; its territorial 
extent is 89124 kilometers ; its principal town, Macon. 
The department of the Ain contains 4 districts, 32 can- 
tons, and 416 me f its territorial extent is 5675 
kilometers ; its principal town is Bourg. 

XIX. The province of Franche 
the departments of the Higher Saone, the Doubs, and 
Jura. The department of the Higher Saone contains 
3 districts, 27 cantons, and 640 communes ; its territo- 
rial extent is 55824 kilometers; its principal town is 
Vesoul. The department of the Doubs contains 4 dis- 
tricts, 25 cantons, and 605 communes ; its territorial ex- 
tent is 5340 kilometers ; its principal town is Besangon. 
The department of Jura contains 4 districts, $2 can- 
tons, and 728 communes ; its territorial extent is 52374 
kilometers ; its principal town is Lons-le-Saulnier. 

XX. The Pays d’Aunis forms the d ent of the 
Lower Charente, which contains 6 districts, 37 cantons, 
and 506 communes ; its territorial extent is 72474 ki- 
loenetnan 3 oe principal ons Saintes. 

XXI. The province intonge forms the depart- 
ment of the Chercuta, which contains 5 districts, 28 can- 
tons, and 455 communes; its territorial extent is 6310 
kilometers ; its principal town is Angouleme. 

XXII. The province of Marche comprehends the 

ts of the mae Vienne, and the Creuse. 
The department of the Higher Vienne contains 4 dis- 
tricts, 26 cantons, and 224 communes; its territorial 
extent is 60024 kilometers; its principal town is Li- 
moges. The department of the Creuse contains 4 dis- 
tricts, 25 cantons, and 296 communes; its territorial 
extent is 59024 kilometers ; its principal town is Gue- 


Franche 
Compté. 


Pays 
a’ Aunis. 


Saintonge. 


Marche. 


ret. 
Limosin. XXIII. The Limosin forms the department of Cor- 
rege, which contains 3 districts, 29 cantons, and 294 
communes ; its territorial extent is 58574 kilometers; 
its principal town is Tulles, 

XIV. The province of Auvergne comprehends the 
departments of Puy de Dome and Cantal. The depart- 
ment of Puy de Dome contains 3 districts, 50 cantons, 
and 458 communes; its territorial extent is 8450 kilo- 
meters ; its principal town, Clermont. The department 
of Cantal contains 4 districts, 23 cantons, and 270 com- 
munes ; its territorial extent is 59374 kilometers; and 
its prerns town is Aurillac. 

V. The ince of Lyonnois is divided into the 
departments of the Rhone, and the Loire. The depart- 
ment of the Rhone contains 2 districts, 25 cantons, and 
261 communes; its sowie asimatie 2935 kilome-~ 
ters; its principal town is Lyons. department of 
the Loire = 8 districts, 28 cantons, and 327 com- 
munes ; its territorial extent is 5135 kilometers; its 
principal town is Monbrison. 

.XXVI. The province of Guienne is divided into 
the departments of the Gironde, the e, the Lot 
and Garonne, the Lot, Aveyron, the Gers, the Higher 

renees,,and the Landes. The department of the 

ironde contains 6 districts, 48 cantons, and 580 com- 

munes ; its territorial extent is 1170 kilometers; its 

cipal town is Bourdeaux. The ent of the 

ogne contains 5 districts, 47 cantons, and 642 com- 

maunes ; its were steep ie re sr ; = 
town is. Perigueux. department 

and Garonne contains 4 districts, 38.cantons, and 
~ ae any extent -is fae sm e- 

3 its principal town is Agen. ‘The t 
the Lot contains 4 districts, 41 cantons, 440 com« 


Auvergne. 


Lyonnois. 


Guienne. 


FRANCE. 


pore = oi Cahors. ap antn Sen of A Fas 
incipal town is ‘ t veyron: 
contains 5 districts, 43 _and 589 communes; its 
territorial extent is 94774 
town is Rhodez. The 
districts, 30 cantons, and 700 communes ; its 
extent is 70474 kilometers; and its principal town is 
Auch, The department of the Higher Pyrenees con- 
tains 3 districts, 26 cantons, and 501 communes ; its 
territorial extent is 49874 kilometers ; and its 
town is Tarbes. The department of the Landes conta 
3 districts, 28 cantons, and 368 communes: its territo~ 
rial extent is 9475 kilometers; its principal town is 
Mont de Marsan. re bag! 
XXVII. The province of Bearn forms the depart- Beara. 
ment of the Lower Pyrenees, which contains 5 districts, 
40 cantons, and 660 communes ; its territorial extent is 


pe ere vi its principal town is Pau, 

XXVIII. The province of Foix forms the department Foix. 
of the Arriege, which contains 3 districts, 20 cantons, 

and $87 communes; its territorial extent is 5050 kilo- 
meters ; its princi i rn 4 
XXIX. vince of Rousillon, forms the depart- Rousillon. 
ment of the. Eastern which contains 3 dis- 


tricts, 17 cantons, and 249 communes ; its territorial 
extent is 3874 kilometers ; its principal town is Per- 


, XXX. The province of Langu 
est eae of the Tarn, the Higher Garonne, the 
H t, the Aude, the Garde, the Ardeche, the Hig! 
Loire, and the Lozere. The ent of the Tarn 
contains 4 districts, 35 cantons, and 356 communes ; 
its territorial extent is 6080 kilometers ; its princi 
town is Castres. The department of the H 
ronne contains 5 districts, 42 cantons, and 691 com- 
munes ; its territorial extent is 80774 kilometers; its 
rincipal town is Toulouse. The department of the 
erault contains 4 districts, 36 cantons, and 333 com- 
pe ery am ae RC a kilometers 5 Peg 
rincipal town is ier. epartment 
Var mit m 4 Gintsieen 31 cantons, and 436 com- 
munes ; its territorial extent is 65424. kilometers ; its 
principal town is Carcassone. The department of the 
Garde contains 4 districts, 38 cantons, 365 communes; 
its territorial extent is 6280 kilometers ; its principal 
town is Nismes. The department of the Ardeche con- 
tains 3 districts, 31 cantons, and 335 communes ; its 
territorial extent is 5710 kilometers; its principal town 
is Privas. The department of the Higher Loire con- 
tains 3 districts, 25 cantons, and 272 communes; its 
territorial extent is 52824 kilometers ; its 
town is Le Puy. The department of the Lozere con- 
tains 3 districts, 24 cantons, and 193 communes; its ter= 
ritorial extent is 5390 kilometers ; its principal town is 
Mende. 
XXXI. The province of Dauphiny comprehends the Dauphiny. 
a shih lew; the Drome, and the Higher 
Alps. The ent of the Isere contains 4 districts, 
44 cantons, and 558 communes ; its territorial extent is 
8940 kilometers ; its principal town is Grenoble. The 
of the Drome contains 4 districts, 28 can- 
tons, and 360 communes ; its territorial extent is 6927 
kilometers ; its principal town is Valence. ‘The de- 
t of the Higher Alps contains 3 districts, 23 
cantons, and 185 communes ; its territorial extent is 


5650 kilometers ; its pri town is Gap. 
XXXII. The ce of Provence contains the de- Provence. 
ts of the er Alps, the Var, and the Mouths © 


of the Rhone. The dopeineen eel: 


fe 8 ta 


eae 


FRANCE. 


tains 5 districts, 28 cantons, and 260 communes; its 
territorial extent is 7412} kilometers; and its principal 
town is Digne. The department of the Var contains 4 
districts, $2 cantons, and 210 communes; its territorial: 
extent is 7510 kilometers ; its principal town Toulon. 
The department of the Mouths of the Rhone contains 
8 districts, 26 cantons, and 108 communes ; its territo= 
rial extent is 5315 kilometers; its principal town is 


Aix. 

Avignon and the adjoining territory, which belonged 
to the P. before the Revoluti 7 tte nowin 
ted with France, and form the nt of Vaucluse, 


which contains 4 districts, 22 cantons, and 150 com- 
munes ; its territorial extent is 3700 kilometers ; its 
principal town is Avignon. 

The island of Corsica is formed into the two depart- 
ments of the Golo and the Liamone. The department 
of the Golo contains 3 districts, 39 cantons, and 235 
communes ; its territorial ae ~ $2674 ne ; 
its principal town is Bastia. e department of the 
Liamone contains 3 districts, 21 cantons, and 156 com- 


of division. 
; 5. Stras- 
burg; 6. Besangon ; 7. Grenoble; 8. Marseilles; 9. 
Montpellier; 10. Toulouse; 11. Bourdeaux; 12. Nantes; 
pay eo Seereste Rouen; 16. Lisle; 17. 
ijon ; 18. Lyons; 19. Perigueux; 20, Bourges; 21. 
Tours ; 22. Bastia. —s 


CHAP. II. 


Face of the Country—Mountains—Rivers—Etangs 
—Sea Coast Canals—Soil—Climate 


Tue face of the country in France is generally level ; 


elevations, deserving the name of mountains, occur- 
ees and in the southern provinces ; 


Aix to Italy. 

leme, have, in 
serts : 
most of the province is deficient in beauty. Picardy is 


of France. spc te Re BR 
and its marshes resemble 


even in 


_ France, and extend into sev branches. 


than any other province of France: the Vivarrais and 
the adjoining part of Dauphiny are the most romantic. 
The ue beauty of the hilly parts of France is 
much increased by the rich and luxuriant verdure of 
the chesnut trees, particularly in the Limosin, the Vi- 
varrais, Auvergne, and other districts where they are 
common. € is 

The most level tracts are the French Netherlands on 
the north ; on the western side, extensive morasses oc- 
cur in the department of La Vendée and the adjacent 
districts. From the mouth of the Garonne nearly to 
the borders of ‘Spain, the coast consists of a flat, sandy, 
and barren tract, called the Landes. The other parts 
of France are, in general, agreeably diversified with 


gentle risings and depressions. 
The principal mountains are, 1. The Cevennes, which 
are the principal centre of the primitive mountains of 


According 
to Delametherie, the principal branch runs along the ri- 
ver Ardeche towards Alis ; another branch traverses the 
Rhone, on the side of Tournon and Vienne, towards 
the plains of Dauphiny; a third branch forms the 
mountains of Beaujolois, passing by Autun, &c.. till it is 
lost at Avalone. This branch is about 70 leagues long, 
but in general very narrow, not ing in most 
places much above a league ; the fourth branch se 
rates the basin of the Loire from that of the Allier, 
and forms the mountains of Forez; the fifth’ branch 
the basin of the Allier from that of the Cher, 
and passes by Clermont to Montlucon ; the sixth branch 
stretches towards Lim ; the seventh stretchés from 
the Dordogne towards the Charent ; and the eight di- 
vides the Dordogne from the Garonne. The lofty Can- 
tal and-Mount D’Or seem to be part of the Cevennes, 
‘oceeding from the main ridge in a north-westerly 
ine. The northern of the chain is styled the Puy 
de Dome; its elevation above the level of the sea is 
about 5000 feet ; Cantal about 6200, and the Puy de 
Sausi, which is the highest point, about 6300. | This 
enormous assem _of rocks covers an extent of 
120 miles, and is chiefly basaltic. 


677 


S. ‘tisties . 


Mountains. 


Cevennes, 


2. On the eastern border of France, the low and yocges, 


rounded chain of the Vosges begins, on the frontiers of 


Cham and Franche Compté, and running. south- 
ele pena to the course of the Rhine, terminates in 
Jura. 


3. A chain of the Alps crosses the three departments AJps. 


of the Maritime Alps, Lower. Alps, and Upper Alps, 
and afterwards stretching to the north, divides France 
from the kingdom of Italy and Switzerland ; perha 
the Vosges may also be ded as a branch, of the 
Alps. In the department of the Drome, another branch 
of the Alps takes its rise, which crosses. the d 
ments of the Ardeche, Loire, Rhone, Saone and Loire, 
and Cote D’Or, as far as Dijon. 
4, The chain of the 
of France from the port of Vendres, on the coast of the 
Mediterranean Sea, to the Atlantic hi on e a 
of Spain. Its greatest breadth is 40 leagues ; its highest 
pt 1751 te oo above the level of the sea; the 
length about 212 miles. Mont Perdu is the highest 
elevation of the Pyrenees ; Mont Canigou is the chief of 
the Eastern Pyrenees ; the hill is of difficult ascent ; it 
is 1440 toises above the Mediterranean ; the summit of 
it is covered with loose ts, the ruins apparently 
of a rock once higher. The high cliffs of Canigou are 
composed of gneiss. The Pyrenean chain appears at a 
distance like a shaggy ridge, presenting the segment of 
a circle fronting France, and descending at each extre- 


ees stretches on the south Pyrenees. 


Rivers. 


Seine, 


Leire. 


678 FRANCE. 
Statistics. mity till it disappears in the Ocean and the Mediter- 


ranean. To the south and west they only 
dreadfal sterility, while on the north east the de- 
scent is more gradual, and affords frequent woods and 
pasture: near the summit of Mount is a consi- 
derable lake, more than 9000 feet above the level of 
the sea, which throws its waters into Spain. 

Numerous rivers spread like veins through the whole 
of France, diffusing beauty and fertility as they pass. 
Of those the greatest number take their rise in the 
central ridge, and discharge their waters'into the Bay 
of Biscay. 

1. The Seine’ rises in Burgundy, not far from Dijon; 
it afterwards runs through Champagne; and waters 
Troyes, where it formerly m to be navigable; but 
now it does not carry boats till it comes to Merz: at 
Montereau it is joined by the river Yonne ; afterwards 


it crosses the isle of France, where it waters Melun, . 


Corbeil, and Paris; before, however, it reaches the ca- 
pital, it is considerably augmented by the Marne, and 
six leagues beyond Parisit receives the Oise. The prin- 
ci + place by which it flows, after it leaves Paris, is 
Rouen : it empties itself, by a large mouth, into the 
sea at Havre de Grace. This river carries, near Paris, 
heavier vessels than any other river in Europe, in 
portion to the length of its course and the breadth of 
its channel. The whole length of its course is about 
250 miles. The valley of the Seine, above Rouen, is 
PP ow in point of breadth, beauty, and fertility, to most 
the river valleys in Europe. In some places it has 
worn its channel h about 50 strata of chalk. 

II. The Loire rises in Languedoc : its course is first 
to the south, then to the west, and then to the north: 
it afterwards turns to the north-west, near Semur, where 
it receives some small streams from Burgundy, which 
province it divides from the Bourbonnois: it next en- 
ters Nivernois, where it washes Nevers, and receives 
the Allier ; thence running along the province of Ber- 
ry, which it divides from Ditesiuicis; it waters the city 
of Orleans ; here it turns to the south-west, and passing 
Blois, Amboise and Tours, receives the Cher, the In- 
dre, and afterwards the Vienne. It next runs by Sau- 
mur, and shortly afterwards is augmented by the ‘wa- 
ters of the Sarthe, which comes from Angers: leaving 
Anjou, it enters capers washes Nantes, and widen- 
ing its channel, in which are several islands, it falls in- 
to the sea between Croisic and Bourgneuf. Its course 
is estimated at 430 miles ; and it is navigable to the dis- 
tance of 80 or 90 miles from its source, From Angers 
to Nantes it is generally considered as one of the finest 
rivers in the world; the breadth of the stream; the 
islands of woods ; the boldness, culture, and richness 
of its banks, all conspire, (in the opinion of Mr Young, ) 
to render that part of its course eminently beautiful ; 
but, during the rest of its course, its character changes, 
and it loses all its beauty. The benefits which it ren- 
ders to commerce and industry are incaleulable ; hence 
it is bordered by rich and populous cities, and its banks 
announce fertility and abundance ; ‘but the quantity of 
loose sand which it carries down, renders its course un- 
certain and deceptive, especially from Orleans to the 
sea. To prevent the dangers aria from shoals, which 
shift with the frequent variations of the current, water- 
men are constantly employed in placing little branches 
of willows on these shoals, and in preceding large bar- 

, which are commonly united to each other in num- 
more or less considerable ; a little boat always at- 
tends them, with a pilot to lay down the buoys. To 
confine this river to its bed, a lnge dots has been con- 


and from that period care has been taken to keep it in 


repair. ' sis 25 feet, and 
their breadth 40 ; the aniddle is pavelor i, and 


III. The Garonne rises in the valley of Adan, in Ca- Geronne. 


talonia, between Valentine and St dens; where its 
course changes from the north-west to the north-east, it 
receives the Ger ; it receives several other small Pro Fed 
before it comes to Toulouse, ‘at which place it ag: 


turns to the north-west ; it afterwards forms an island, 


and receives the Sarebel Grenada. On its junction 
with the Tarn, it ——— its course to the west. Se- 
veral other streams fall into it, but none of ‘any consi- 
derable note, before it arrives at Bourdeaux.” Below 
this city it forms several islands, and receives the Dor- 
dogne, which rises in the mountuins of Auvergne ; after 
their junction, both lose their names, and are called to- 
gether the Gironde. The Gironde enters the sea near 
the town of Cordovan, by two channels; thé whole 
course of this river is about 250 miles. The shoals in 
it, between its mouth and Bourdeaux, are innumerable, 
and of so dangerous a nature, that few ships that get 
on them are ever able to get off; the bottom being a soft 
mud, and sandy, they make a bed for themselves, and 
in a tide’s time are swallowed up. The Garonne 
gins to be navigable about?Toulouse ; from whence to 
Bourdeaux it carries the ppt ne . ‘The tide flows 
up nearly 30 leagues from the mouth of the river, and 
it is said that when it is flowing in, there two 
different levels on the surface ; that which is towards 
the sea being considerably higher than that which is 
towards the source of the river. : 


IV. The great river of the south of France is the Rhone. 


Rhone. It springs from the glacier of Furca, near the 
mountains of Grimsel in Switzerland. After issuin 


from the lake of Geneva, it takes a western course ti 
it reaches Lyons, where itis joined by the Saone, which 
forces the Rhone into its own direction. Below Lyons 
it is joined by several rivers, the principal of which are 
the Isere and the Durance. Pursuing its course to the 
south, according to the direction which it received from 
the fost with the Saone, it disembogues itself into 
the Mediterranean by two principal channels, the one on 
the west, the other on the east, which form a small 
island called Banduff. Only very small vessels can en- 
ter this river by the west channel; the other entrance 
is the deepest, and by this the tartans, and other ves- 
sels which go to Arles, enter the Rhone. In several 
laces this river seems to have-changed its course. It 
Jivides itself into two branches just above Avignon, 
which unite again ‘a little below it, forming a pi 
considerable island, | It appears from many old ised 
and charters, that the branch which at present runs 
without the walls of iat Soe once had its channel 
where is now the centre of the town; and, by the same 
evidence, it is proved, that several centuries there 
was no water at the foot of the heights on which the 
town of Villeneuve stands, where now runs the princi-_ 
pal branch of the Rhone ; and, by examining the coun- 
try on the right bank of this branch of the river, where 
there is a valley, it was found that'the soil of this val- 
ley is very similar to that which now forms the bed of 
the Rhone, and that it has the same level. It is also a 
well-known fuct, that the river had only been kept 
from making its way into its former channel by means 
of very strong dykes ; and on a ridge of rocks that bor« 


—— oe 


oe eee 


a 


-Etangs. 


FRANCE 


rings have 


vineyards ; chateaux om comman eminen- 
ces ; cottages embosomed in trees, from the 
view ; the busy traffic of the river, and vil- 
lages on 


it 
a 
F 


Fi 
: 
? 
i 


iE 
ha 
Fie F 
i 


i 


streams of the Rhone, 
we shal} notice ‘ the Isere, and the Durance. The 


tions, and can only be crossed near Valence 
boat of a peculiar construction. The Durance also ri< 
ses in the mountain Genevre, on the borders of Savoy, 


to all proved abortive. 

France is almost entirely destitute of lakes. There 
are indeed a few in Provence and Upper Languedoc, 
but they are of little depth, and over a consi- 
derable surface of ground, and by no means either plea~ 

ing or picturesque in their . Some of them 
in Upper Languedoc have i and ne 
pe ur Pt to the purposes of agriculture, the 
coast of these two inces, there are, however, a great 
number of inlets of the sea, which the French call etangs. 
They have a communication with the sea a 
narrow channel, by which they are supplied with thei 
waters, which are consequently salt. From the size of 
some of them, it might be supposed, that they were'ca~ 


pared Another pipe 


679 


pable of being converted into harbours; but though the Statistics. 
d; they are of ne “"Y—" 


waters cover a great extent of 
depth; and incapable of being navigated, except by fish« 
ing boats. » The principal etang on the coast of Lan« 
guedoc, is the. de Thou; on the coast of Pro« 
vence, the Etang de: Berre. »:The latter is about twen< 
ty miles long and’sixteen broad, and communicates 
with the Mediterraneam Sea by a narrow channel, in 
which are three islands, 

The Artesian wells 


the mode: appears to have been originally followed; _ 
they are now by: no means*uncommon in the north of 
France. The mode consists in boring, and then dri« 
ving a wooden pipe into the cavity. ' Through this 
pipe the borer is: made'to: act, and increase the depth: 
is then driven in, so’as’to sink the first 
still lower. By a continuation of this ss, the 
length of pipe is carried to a very great depthif necessa« 
eh and water is conducted from: the lower springs to 
ie surface, ; 


ing the sea coast of France, we must content Sea coast. 


ourselves with a few arid unconnected noti- 
ces. In thirty leagues of coast, Languedoc has not one 
harbour, whereas Provence abounds in them. 

his seems to arise from the'sand, and other accretions, 
which = aw i down, being ae to the 
westward on side of Languedoc; and this country 
being every where flat towards the sea, these accumu< 
lations elevate the’shore, and render the coast'extreme- 
ly shelving, and full of shoals. The coast of Proverice; 
on the contrary, is for the most part oe are rocky, 
and besides, inclines ually to the southward, from: 
the mouths of the to near Toulon. The flat 
cow on the coast’ of the rtments of La 


Chalchtwaad Tus Vendée, appears evidently to have 


been once by the sea. This is cularly 

iking in one where a vast mi plain is 
bounded to the east*by a , cliffs, which 
exactly like cliffs on the sea j and to the west by 
the sea itself, with the islands of Rhe, renee wy oh 
constantly in sight. In the department of Finisterre, 
chai adah 1S "ron dsigeaben especially during the 
prevalence of north north-west winds. Cultivated fields, 
and whole villages with their inhabitants, have been 
overwhelmed by it in one night: The states of Brit- 
tany maintained, at a considerable expence, a high 
dyke, planted with broom, and 600 toises in length, at 
the foot of which the sand accumulates ; but this dyke 
is frequently broken down. From the side of Lesne- 
ven in i , a dreadful sandhill threatens destruc- 
tion to the commune of St Pol. 


The principal canals in France, are that of Langue- Canals. 


doc, which unites the Mediterranean and the Atlantic ; 
that of Burgundy, which joins the Loire to the Saone ; 
those of Briare and Orleans,'which unite the Loire to 
the: Seine ; and that of Calais, which communicates 
with the canals of the Netherlands. ing to the 
article InLanp Navigation for a more particular de- 
scription of these canals, we’shall here confine ourselves 
toa cu notice of the most celebrated. Ubit 


I. It is supposed, that the Romans had a design to Canal of 
join the Mediterranean and the Atlantic nearly at the Languedoc. 


same where the canal of Languedoc is formed. It 
was several times thought of during the reigns of 
Charl e and Francis I. In the year 1598, under 
Henry IV. this plan was again examined, and found to 
be practicable. Cardinal Richeliew was determined to 
have it‘executedy but was prevented by more important 


may be noticed in this place: Artesian 
The name is derived from the:province of Artois; where wells. 


680 
Statistics, affairs. Atlength Louis XIV. inted commissioners 
—Y~" in 1664, to examine more narrowly the icability of 
this undertaking ; and in their the director of 


the king’s revenue in edoc, M, Riequet, under- 
took the cxecution ; but it is said, according to some 
ore teenage acy ing to Andreossi, an able 
mathematician, work was begun in 1666; 
and completed in 1680. Narouse is the highest place 
between the two seas. Here a basin 1200 feet long 
and 900 broad was made, which has at all times seven 
feet water, which is conveyed by means of a sluice to- 
wards the ocean, and by means of another towards the 
Mediterranean Sea. In order that this basin may ne- 
ver be dry, another is made 7200 feet long, 3000 broad, 
and 60 deep, two sides of which are by two 
mountains, and the third by a —_ and strong mole, 
through which there runs an aqueduct, that carries the 
water to the other basin. Great difficulties arose in the 
execution of this work, in consequence of the uneven- 
ness of the ground, and the mountains, rivers, and 
brooks. The unevenness was remedied by means of 
sluices, of which there are 15 towards the ocean, and 
45 towards the Mediterranean... The mountains were 
dug through. The most considerable of them was 
Mount Malpas, which was dug through the space of 
720 feet. The difficulties arising from rivers and s, 
were obviated by means of bri and aqueduets. . It 
is 150 miles in length, and has 26 falls. The most 
considerable is that near Bezieres. This is at the end 
of a reach 30 miles in length, and the fall is so great as 
to require eight gates. It is 60 feet wide, and 6 deep: 
12,000 men worked at it. Theexpence was L.1,600,000, 
and it costs above L. 12,000 a year to keep it in order. 
The canal fallsinto the Garonne, about half a mile be- 
low Toulouse ; but the pace ae of the river isso in- 
different till its junction with the Tarn, being full of 
shoals and sand banks, that the boats upon it cannot carry 
any depth of lading, and it often requires many of them 
to take the lading of one boat: from the canal. It is 
therefore projected to carry the canal on.to the Tarn, 
by which means the navigation between Bourdeaux and 

oulouse would: be ly facilitated. The canal of 
Brien, so called from the Archbishop of Toulouse, after- 
wards prime minister and cardinal, was planned and 
executed, in order to join the Garonne at Toulouse with 
the canal of Languedoc. The necessity of sucha junc- 
tion arises from the presen ion of the river in the Tarn, 
being absolutely impeded by the weirs, which are made 
across it for the of corn mills. It passes arch« 
ed under the quay to the river, and one sluice levels 
the water with that of the Languedoc canal. It is broad 
enough for several —— to abreast ; but this ca- 
nal is seldom used, Mr oung remarks, that while 
the canal of Languedoc is alive with commerce, that of 
Brien is.a desert. 

II. The canal of Briare takes it name from a. small 
city situated onthe river Loire. It was made in order 
to have a communication between this river and the 
Seine, by means of the river Loing ; for which p 
they have been obliged to make the water go.over hi 
by means of dams and sluices. This canal was begun 
in the time of Henry IV. and: finished under his son 
Louis XIIL. It begins from the. Loire-at Briare, and 
passing by Montargis and Chatillon, falls intothe Loin 
at Cepoi. Formerly the duties paid by boats amoun 
to very great sums annually ; but they have decreased 
considerably since the et of Orleans was made, By 
means ofthe canal of Briare, a communication has been 
opened between Paris and the sea, and even between 


FRANCE. 


‘Caius Marius, to ore a want of a safe and com- 


that metropolis all the inland provinces that are 
situated on the Saiiientinenecond akeareines 
that fall into this. : ‘ ’ 


iis Duke 

1682, and finished in 1692, by the care of Philip 

of Orleans, pecenent father. During the 
; halal yee 

Calonne, was 

i Soa the Seine a theta Meleenions In 

feast St Quintin to Carabeay,:in the lineiak the-cansly the 

country rises so much, that it was necessary to carry it 

in a tunnel under ground for a considerable 

under many vales as well as hills. Near Belle i 

it is 10 French feet wide, and 12 high, hewn entirely 

there are ma- 


livres. 
Other canals were projected and during the 
Revolution ; the aonnneirceee bee was, a se- 


former were to be united by a canal from the Rhine at 


Basle to the lake of Geneva, ing through the lake 
of Neufchatel. . Another pil 


ronne ; and, lastly, by the restoration of a canal for~ 
merly made from the Rhone near Lyons, to the Loire 
at Roanne, all these rivers were tobe united ; the Seine 
already communicating with the.Loire by means of 
the canals of Briare and Orleans, It was also 
posed to restore a canal which was made in the time of 


——— 


mouths of the Rhone. 


modious navigation at h 
existence, 


remains of this canal are still in 


ly they served to fill up the annual exposé i 
panna daca were either not begun, or not carried on 
Pahoa t. png 

The soil of France varies much in different parts of Soil. 
the kingdom ; but it may be remarked, that there is 
scarcely any kind of soil in it, which in England could 
be called a clay soil. The soils may be classed as fol~ 
lows: : 

I. Fat loam, of different degrees of tenacity. The Loame. 
northern district of this soil extends over Bie prowess 
of Flanders, Artois, Picardy, Normandy, and the Isle 
of France, On the coast, it may be said to extend from 
Dunkirk to Carentum in Normandy. From thence to 
Coutances, the land is chiefly poor and stony, and con- 
tinues so, h with some variations, to Ina 
line a little to south of the coast before Caen, the 
first considerable change of soil from Calais is seen, In 
Normandy, on the side of Alengon, rich loams on a eal~ 
careous bottom are met with. Dunkirk to Ne- 
mours is not less than 180 miles in a right line; fron» 4 


a eo odule 


FRANCE. 


Soissons to Carentan is another right line of about 200 
miles; from Eu, on the coast of Normandy, to Chartres, is 
100 miles. The breadth of this rich district in some places, 
i about Caen, &c. is not considerable, yet the 
will be found to contain not a trifling proportion 
of the kingdom. The fertile plains of Flanders and of 
Artois, are perhaps the richest parts of this valuable soil, 
which here consists of ‘deep friable mould, rather incli- 
ning to clay than sand, on a calcareous bottom, bearing 
evident marks of having once been covered by the sea. 
From Paris to near Cambray, by the road of Soissons, 
this loam is more sandy, but equally valuable and fertile. 
About Meaux, there is as fine soil as can possibly exist. 
It consists of-an almost impalpable powder, and of admi- 
rable texture and friability. In some places it is 18 feet 
deep, resting on a stratum of white marl. The line from 
Paris through Picardy is inferior ; but all the arable 
part of Normandy, which lies within the limits above de- 
scribed, is a rich, friable, sandy loam, in some places of 
a reddish colour; and very deep. The calcareous loams 
» are of much greater extent than the loams which have 
been described. To the east, they stretch across Cham- 
From Metz to Nancy, all is calcareous, but-not 
chalk. In the southern parts of Alsace, limestone land 
abounds. Immense districts of Dauphiny and Provence 
consist of the same kind of soil.._ Indeed, the chalk dis- 
trict extends east to about St Menehould, and south to 
Nemours and Montargis, or even farther, for it reaches 
‘Auxerre in another direction, There is also much cal- 
‘careous loam in is, Poitou, and through Tour- 
raine to the Loire. Most of the course of this river is 
calcareous. The chalk district, therefore, may be re- 
as stretching not less than 200 miles east and 
west, and about as much, but more irregularly, north and 
south. The next considerable district of fertile soil, is 
the plain of the Garonne. Through all this plain, wher- 
ever the soil is found excellent, it consists usually of a 
deep, mellow, friable, sandy loam, sufficiently moist, and 
in many places calcareous. The plain of the Garonne is 
entered about Creissensac, in passing to the south from 
the Limosin. Its fertility increases all the way to Tou- 
louse, where it is uncommonly rich. Its richness, how- 
ever, ny prem as we approach the Pyrenees. The 
breadth of this plain is every where inconsiderable. Ano- 
ther tract of rich soil is found in the vale, which stretch- 
es from Narbonne to Beziers, Moi ier; and Nismes ; 
but its fertility is inferior to those that have been previ- 
ously described. The soil of the Lower Poitou resem- 
bles that of the richest parts of the Lincolnshire fens, and 
is indeed of the same nature, being for the most part 
Jand drained, or gai from the sea. To the 
south of the Loire, in the direction of Bourgneuf, there is 
a tract of rich loam. Alsace, in respect to soil, resem- 
bles Flanders, but it is inferior to it.. The whole fertile 
part of the narrow plain of Alsace, hardly presents a sur- 
face of more than 1000 square miles. The flat, and 
chiefly calcareous vale of Auvergne, which commences at 
Riom, is a tract of fertility. The whole surface is 
a real marl, but mixed with such a proportion of soil as 
to be most valuable and productive. The French natu- 
ralists who have examined it, assert the depth to be 20 
feet of beds of earth, formed of the ruins of what they 
style the primitive and volcanized mountains. The best 
on brig feng farther than from Riom to 
‘aires, scarcely more than 20 miles. Mr Young calcu~ 
VOL, 1X. PART I. . 


681 


lates, that the whole of the fertile districts of France, Statistios. 


which we have just described, amounts to about 28 mil- 
lions of English acres. [*s 


IL. The district of heath is chiefly in the provinces of H 


Brittany, Anjou, parts of Normandy, ‘and Guienne, ‘and 
Gascony. The five departments into which Brittany is 
divided, are reckoned to contain 1609 French square 
miles ; the cultivated land amounts, according to some 
calculations, to less than one-third, and the heaths to 
3,006,000 acres; according to other calculations, two- 
fifths of the whole province are uncultivated ; and some 
authors assert, that of 39 parts 24 are lande, which 
amounts to three-fifths. _Some:of the heaths -are ‘so ex- 
tensive, that a house is scarcely seen in ten leagues. The 
soil of the best part of the heaths in Brittany, is com- 
monly gravel, or gravelly sand on a gravelly bottom, of 
a very inferior and barren nature. In many places -it 
rests on sandstone rock : none of it is calcareous. An- 
jou and Maine are equally noted for the immensity of 
their heaths, which are reported to extend 60 Jeagues in 
one place. The soil of these heaths is, however, in some 
parts tolerably.good, and might be rendered useful by 
proper skill and labour ; consisting of gravel, sand, or 
stone, generally a loamy sand or gravel. The Landes, 
as they are emphatically called, lie west from Bazadois 
and Condomois to the sea coast, between the country of 
Labour on the south, Guienne on the north, and the 
ocean on the west.. They are divided into the greater 
Landes between Bourdeaux and Bayonne, and the lesser 
between Bazas'and Montmarsan. \ They are sandy tracts, 
covered with pine trees; cut regularly for resin, broken 
and enlivened however with cultivated spots for a teague 
or two. When the Moors were expelled from Spain, 
they applied to the court of France to be allowed to set- 
tle on, and cultivate these lands; but permission was not 
granted them. They are:said to contain not less than 
300 square leagues, or 1,468,181 English acres,. occu- 
pying a large: portion of Gascony. Though the:soil of 
these Landes is among the poorest in France, it is not uts 
terly incapable of cultivation, and even the pines-with 
which it is covered yield from 15s. to 20s. an acre: 


eath 


ict, 


III. The district-of chalk, as distinguished from the chalk 
calcareous loams already noticed, is chiefly in the pro- district. 


vinces of Champagne, Sologne, Touraine, Poitou, Sain« 
tonge, and An, ois. The chalk provinces contain 16 
‘millions of acres. The soil of Champagne in. general. is 
thin and poor. The southern part, as from Chalons to 
Troyes, has from its poverty acquired the name of pow- 
illeux, or lousy. Sologne is one of the poorest and most 
unimproved provinces in the kingdom. It is a flat, con- 
sisting of a poor sand, or gravel] lying every where on a 
bottom of clay or marl, so very retentive of water, that 
every ditch and hole is full of it, except in the.dryest 
seasons. Touraine is betters Itcontains some consicer= 
able districts, especially.on the south of the Loire, in 


which good mixed sandy and gravelly loams:reston a” 
caleareous bottom. Considerable tracts in.the northern , 


parts of the province, however, are of a very-inferior 
soil, not better than the predominating soil of Anjou and 
Maine. Poitou consists of two divisions, theupper and 
the lower, the latter of which has already been mention 


ed as resembling the fens of Lincolnshire.» The upper _ 


division is generally a thin loam, on an imperfect quarry 

bottom,—a very inferior stone brash, A great part of 

Angoumois is a thin and poor chalk. 
: 42. 


Statisti 


District of 
gravel, 


District of 
stony soil. 


District of 
various 
loams. 


Mountain- 
ous district. 


682. 


1V. The district of gravel is chiefly in the Bourbonnois 
and Nivernois. The gravel in the latter is of little va~ 
lue, three-fourths of he. province being covered with 
heath, broom, or wood ; but notwithstanding the inferi- 
ority of the soil, these provinces are reckoned by Mr 
Young ationg the most improveable in France. 
form one vast plain, through which the Loire and Allier 
pass. The better parts of them consist of a sandy soil; 
and in some places the sub-soil is calcareous, In a few 

, good friable sandy loams are met with. 

V. The district of stony soils is chiefly in Lorraine, 
Burgundy, Franche Compté, &c. In Lorraine, there are 
commons of immense extent, which scarcely yield any 
thing. From St Menehould to the borders of Alsace, 
the soil is entirely stony, but of various kinds. Most of 
them are of the kind denominated stone-brash in Eng- 
land, ‘or the broken triturated surface of imperfect quar- 
ries, mixed by time, frost, and cultivation, with some loam 
and vegetable mould :” much is calcareous. © Districts of 
rich and even deep friable loams occur in Lorraine, but 
they are of inconsiderable extent. The soil of Burgundy 
varies much. The best part of it lies in the line from 
Franche Compté to the Bourbonnois by Dijon. . Here 
sandy and gravelly loams predominate ; but even in this 
part of it there are spots of poor granite soil. . The sub- 
division of the province called Bresse, is a most miser- 
able country. The grounds alone on a white clay or 
marl, amounting it is said to nearly 250,000 acres. The 
stony soil of Franche Compté is in general good. From 
Besancon to Orechamp, the country is rocky quite to 
the surface. The rocks are calcareous. A reddish 
brown loam rests on the rock. In the hilly parts, a red 
ferruginous loam, schistus, and gravel, predominate, Part 
of Alsace consists of soil of nearly the same character. 

VI. The district of various loams, mixed with sand, 
granite, a stone, &c. is chiefly in the Limosin, 
La Manche, Berry, &c. The loams of the two former 
are friable, and sandy ; e on granite, and others on 
a calcareous sub-soil. the granite, there are two 
kinds ; one hard, and full of micaceous particles, the 
grain coarse, with but little quartz, hardening in the air 
in masses, but becoming a powder when reduced to small 
pieces. This is very unfertile, as neither wheat, vines; 
or chesnuts will grow on it. The other sort is in hori- 
zontal strata, mixed with great quantities of spar. On 
it these plants thrive well. This kind of granite. and” 
chesnuts together, on entering Limosin ; but on 
the road to Toulouse, where there is about a league of 
hard this treé disappears, Berry has a poor soil, 
Chengde oa pon eaten ot Sologne. In some places 
it is sandy or ately in other places the loams are 
more tenacious, ying on quarries of stone or. lime. 

VII. The provinces of Auvergne, Dauphiny, Provence, 
the Lyonnois, Languedoc, and Rousillon, contain the 
mountainous district. The mountains that surround the 
vale of the Limagne of Auvergne are various. The white 
argillaceous stone in the hills, between Riom and Clermont, 
is calcareous. The volcanic mountains (as they are deem- 
ed) are more fertile than the others, except where they 
are composed of tufa, or cinders, which are so burnt as 
to be good for nothing. The calcareous and clayey 
mountains are 3 and the basaltic, when “spina eg 
sed, form excellent clay. The base is commonly 

considerable mountains, in the tract from fo'Puy 
ontelimart, are also what are deemed volcanic, pay 
shal are also extremely fertile. Provence and Dauphiny, 


FRANCE. 


bea pe exception vallies, are moun- 

Of Gen date the driest with respect 
to to soil in the sandy grayels abound ; 
and the course of the Durance is so ruined by sand and 
shingle, that, on a nyse ny above 130,000 


mountainous districts of Bain Pro yvence: 


is mountainous in many parts, > Ston, 
and rough, with much waste land. ig of z 
province of Languedoc are mountainous. The vale | 
are rich, Rousillon, is in general calcareous. Mu 
it flat and very stony, as well as dry and barren. 
Mr Young observes, “ that the proportion of poor 
in England to the total of the kingdom, is greater than 
the similar proportion in France; nor have they any 
where such tracts of wretched. blowi sr ee alg aay 
met with in Norfolk and Suffolk. 
and wastes, not mountainous, which a 
and which are so frequent in Brittany, deeuitean 
Guienne, and Gascony,. are infinitely better — our 
northern moors; and the mountains, of Scotland and 
Wales cannot be compared, in. int of soil, with those of 
the Pyrenees, Auvergne, Dauphiny, Provence, and Lan- 
guedoc.” According to the same au 
are the proportional areas of the several divisions of the 
kingdom, classed according to their respective.soils:.. . 


juan 


Rich district of the north-east, 


containing the provinces of. rh ye oy xii 
Flanders, Artois, Picardy, | | +f 
1 each pt a , pip 
ME iw. ale 8 18,179,590  Hihels aaa 
Plain of the Gitetng. se mie ene %y654,564, Was 
Plain of Alsace ore ee ev € © 687,880 é 7 

Lower Poitou, &c. . «|.» sssinies 
Rich loam. - 25,380,070, 


The heath district of Brittany, 1 
Anjou, and parts of Nor-) 
mandy, a ee HEAD IAA 

The heath district of Guienne, 
and Gascony...» « » ++ + 10,206,085 

Heath _—_ 25,513,218 

The TF aniggctie: district ete Dau-. 
phiny, Provence, -ae 98,707,087 

The chalky district of Champagne, Sologne, . isa 
Tourraine, Poitou, Saintonge, Angoumois,, . 

&o, . ses vin ea a win nin 4 « 16,584,889 

The district of gravel of ese Bourbonnois., 

8,827,282 


and Nivernois Mae» 

The district of stony soils. in ‘Lorraine, Bure | 
gundy, Franche Compté, &c.+ +. +++ * 20,412,171 

The eet recon teens Kise hereon sant toe 

Berry, La Manche, &c. ... 8, 

Total, 131,722,711 


It is to be dena, however, that this admeasurement 
includes the whole surface of the kingdom; deductions 
ought therefore to be made for roads and rivers, &c. Ac- 


a Mea 1 Unie 
2” 
i fod 


ore dere Generat 
result. 


f 


_ 


, FRANCE | 683 


‘Statistics, cording to"M. Neckar, there are 9000 leagues of roads 


in France. On the supposition,that their average breadth 
is 10 toises, this will give for the whole area occupied by 
roads, about 193,207 acres. A much | space must 
be allowed for rivers; so that probably the number of 
acres. may be estimated at 131,000,000, the proportional 


areas of the different divisions of soil remaining the 


same. 

The climate of so extensive ‘a kingdom as France must 
be very various; but perhaps, on the whole, it is more 
favourable to the sustenance and comfort of human life, 
than any other in Europe. The climate of the northern 
districts is hotter, and at the same time more moist \in 
summer, than the counties in the south-west of Eng- 
land. In the department of Finisterre, the sky is ob+ 
secured by an almost continual mist.’ In Brest and Mor- 
laix, it rains almost i 3 and the natives are said 
to be so habituated to dampness. and wet, that too dry 
seasons prove prejudicial to their health. The heat in 


in the north of France are heavy, and conti-~ 
nue longer than they generally do in England. In the 
winter, heavy snows and severe frosts are experienced 
to a greater degree than in the south of England; 
and it is remarked there, whenever there is a long and 
sliarp frost)in the north of Europe, it is felt much more 
severely in Paris than in London. 

The central division of France possesses a wonder 
fully fine climate, especially the provinces of Tourraine 
and the Limosin. - In man there is no snow, and 
frosts are not frequent. There-are no fogs and vapours, 
as in Bretagne, nor the t humidity of Normandy ; 
peas cae Pre | ree from the burning sun of the 

provinces. The air is light, pure, and elastic. 
spring is a continuance of such weather as is seen 
in abont the middle of May.” The harvest be- 
gins about the! Jatter end of June, but is sometimes so 
late as the middle of July. The great heats are from 


5 


ject to violent storms of rain and hail, the latter occa- 
sionally beating down and destroying all the corn and 
vintage on which it may fall. Frosts also sometimes 
happen in the spring, even so late as the end of May 
and. beginning of June, so severe as to turn the leaves 
of the walnut.trees quite black, and to render it neces« 
sary to cover the fig trees with straw. Autumnal frosts 
also not unfrequently occur earlier in the central pro- 
vinces of France than they do in the south of England. 
On the 20th of September 1787, Mr Young says, there 


~ happened so smart a one on the south of the Loire, be- 


tween Chambort and Orleans, that the vines were hurt 
by it: The high country of Auvergne is bleak and 
cold ; and all the district within reach of the mountains 
of Vosges are affected by the snow that falls upon them ; 
a circumstance which. sometimes occurs as late as the 
end of June. ; 
In the south of France, particularly in | Provence, a 
continuance of dry and hot weather may be ex 
the months of June, July, and August, and 
& part or perhaps the whole of September. The greatest 
4. 


heats seldom occur till the 15th of July, nor after the «Statistics. 
15th of September. Harvest generally begins the 24th “-\— 


of June, and ends the 15th of July: the middle of the 
vintage is about the end of September... During the con- 
tinuance of the hot weather, or les grandes chaleurs, as 
they are called, scarcely. any persons who can. avoid it 
think of quitting their houses in the middle of the 
day. During the.end of autumn and the beginning of 
winter, violent rains frequently fall; but, in the inter= 
vals between the rains, October and November may be 
regarded as the pleasantest months in the year.. In Des 
cember, January, and February, the weather is gene» 
rally fine; but, after February, the Vent de bize is very 
frequent. This wind seems to pierce through the body, 
and dry up all the humours, It is a strong north or 
north-east wind, accompanied generally with a clear sky, 
but sometimes with snow, It seldom lasts for'more than 
three days at a time. This wind blows. with’ peculiar 
violence and bitterness about Avignon ;, the winters there 


are sometimes rendered by it most distressingly cold; _ 


and the Rhone is covered with ice sufficiently strong to 
support loaded carts, and the olive trees sometimes pes 
rish to their roots. Some parts of the coast of Pro« 
vence, as about Toulon and Hieres, are still milder than 
about Marseilles and Aix; but the northern and more 
mountainous parts of the province often experience very 
severe weather in the winter, and are as cold as Eng~ 
land, but with a much clearer and purer air. 


The chief disadvantages of the climate of the south of Disadvanta- 


France are the plague of insects, and the peculiar vio- 
lence of its storms, especially in the mountainous tracts, 
The flies are excessively troublesome in the olive district 
of France; they not only bite, sting, and hurt, but they 
buzz, tease, and worry. The mouth, eyes, ears, and 
nose, are full of them ; they swarm on every thing eat« 
able; fruit, sugar, milk, every thing is attacked by 
them in such myriads, that if they are not driven away 
incessantly by a person, who has nothing else to do, to 
eat a meal is impossible. Sometimes it is absolutely ne- 
cessary to darken the room, in order to keep it tolerably 
clear of them. In the stables, they are obliged to che« 
rish the spiders, that their webs may. catch the flies, 
who would otherwise be an actual torment to the horses, 
In the night, the gnats are very troublesome; and, be- 
sides the torment of their bite, render sleep extreniely 
difficult to be procured, by their constant and loud noise. 
The author of the Essai sur la Mineralogie des Pyrendes 
describes a thunder storm near Bareges as extremely ims 
petuous and formidable; the cataracts rushing down the 
sides of the mountains, carrying ruin and desolation. 
along with them; those meadows, which a few hours 
before were covered with verdure, now buried under 
heaps of stones, or overwhelmed by masses of liquid 
mud, and the sides of the mountains cut by:deep: ravines, 
where the track of the smallest rivulet was not before to 


be discovered. The hail storms in the south, and even j,,.) 
in the central provinces of France, are not unfrequently storms, 


most dreadful and ruinous in their consequences. About 
thirty years ago, a violent storm of hail swept a track of 
desolation in a belt across the whole kingdom, to the da- 
mage of several millions sterling; and no year ever 

without whole. parishes suffering to a very consi- 
derable degree. In the south of France, where the hail 


storms are the most common and the most violent, it is - 


calculated, that, on an average, one tenth of the whole: 
produce is damaged by them. Young colts are some- 


684 


Statistics times so severely wounded by the hail as to occasion their 
death; and it has even been asserted, that men have 
been known to be killed by the hail, when they could 
not procure shelter. 

The climate of France naturally divides itself into 
four zones, according to the vegetable produce which 
each affords. The most northern of these divisions bears 
a considerable resemblance, in its vegetable produce and 
in its climate, to England: the second differs from the 
first principally in exhibiting here and there a few vine- 
yards: in the third, fields of maize begin to make their 
appearance ; and the fourth is distinguished from the 
preceding by the intermixture of olives, mulberries with 
corn, vines, and maize. The line of separation between 
vines and no ‘vines is at Coucy, ten miles tothe north 
of Soissons ; at Clermont in the Beauvoisis; at Beau- 
mont'in Maine; and Herbignac, near Guerande in Brit- 
tany. The ‘line of separation between ‘maize and no 
maize is first seen on the western side of the kingdom, 
in going from the Angoumois and entering Poitou, at 
Verac, near Ruffee: in crossing Lorraine, it is met with 
between Nancy and Luneville. If these lines between 
vines and no vines, and between maize and no maize, 
be drawn on the map of France, it will be found, that 
they proceed in an oblique line from the south-west to 
the north-east, being parallel’ to each other. The line 
which the vines forms is nearly unbroken ; but that form- 
ed by the maize in the central part of France, proceeds 
no farther north than the southern part of the Limosin. 
The line of olives is also pretty nearly from south-west 
to north, in the same oblique direction. In proceeding 
to the southward from Lyons, they are first met with at 
Montelimart ; and, in proceeding from Bezieres to the 
Pyrenees, they are lost at Carcassone. Hence it ap- 
pears, that there is a considerable difference between the 
climate of France in the eastern and western parts ; the 
eastern side of the kingdom indicating, by its produc- 
tions, 24 degrees of latitude of more heat than the 
western. 

Having made these general remarks on the climate of 
the different parts of France, we shall next proceed to 
lay before-our readers an abstract of the most careful 
metecrological observations, as they respect the thermo- 
meter, barometer, wirids and rain. 

I, The annual heat of London and Paris is nearly the 
same; but, from the beginning -of April to the end of 
October, the heat is greater at Paris than at London. 
If the annual temperature of London’ be-represented by 
1000, the average degree of cold in January by 1000, 
and the average coe of heat in July by 1000, the an- 
nual temperature of’ Paris may be represented by 1028 ;’ 
the average d of-cold of Paris in January by 1040 ; 
and of heat in July by 1037. ‘The annual temperature 
of Bourdeaux will be represented by 1090; the average 


Division of 
the climate 
into four 
zones. 


Tempera- 


ture, 


degree of cold in January by 925 ; and the average de-" 


gree of heat in July by 1139. ‘The annual temperature 
of Montpellier will be represented by 1170; the average 
degree of cold in January by 850 ; and the average de- 
gree of heat in July by 1196. ° 

' In the centre of France, the greatest heat averages 
27 degrees of Reaumur’s thermometer, and the greatest 


cold 7 degrees: in the north of France, the test heat 
is 28° 2’, and the least 6° 6’: in the ehet of Wiiaibh the 


FRANCE. ¢ 
test heat is 24° 8’, the least 9° 5’: in the west of 
runce, the greatest heat is 24°, and the least 6°. In 
the south-east, at Mon » the heat is 28° 1’, 
the least 3°.7’.. At Marseilles, meteorological ob- 
servations of nine successive years an average of 


25° 3’ for the heat, amd 3° 1) for the least. 
IL. In the neighbourhood of Paris, the barometer ne= po: omoter, 


ver continues twenty-four hours without ing. . The 
barometer rises and falls sooner in Seceettiae. 


than in the eastern. M. Burckhardt, after 15,000 baro- 
metrical observations, in order to calculate the influence 
of the winds on the barometer in France, found that 


the south wind gave, for 2 mean height, 27 inches 11.3 
lines, while an east wind raised the ‘to 28 inches 
1.9 line. He also found, that the tht of the baro- 


meter-on the Mediterranean shores of France was 28 7 
inches 2.2 lines, while its height on the Atlantic shores 
was 28 inches 2.6 lines. i wy / ; 
In the centre of France, the greatest height of the 
mercury in the barometer, on an average of several years, 
is 28 inches 5.7 lines, its least height 27 inches 3.3 lines : 
in the north of France, the greatest height is 27 inches . 
10.10 lines, the least 26 inches 8.5 lines: in the west, - : 
the average height of the mercury in the barometer is eg 
28 inches $ lines: in the north-east, at Montpellier, the 
greatest height is 28 inches 5.3 lines, the least 27 inches 
5.5 lines. At Marseilles, the height of mercury 
in the barometer is 28 inches 7.2 lines, the least 27 inches 
3.7 lines. ; son 
III. It appears from the result of observations made Winds 
by M. Cotte, at 86 different places in France, that along | 
the whole south coast of that kingdom, the wind blows q 
most frequently from the north, north-west, and north« 
east: on the west coast, from the west,. south-west, and 
north-west ; and on the north coast, from the south 
west. In the interior parts of France, the south-west =» © 
wind blows most frequently in 18 places; the west wind 
in 14; the north in 13; the south in 6; the north-east 
in 4; the south-east in 2; the east and north-west, each 
of them, in one. About Dunkirk, according to the’ 
same author, the prevailing winds are the ‘south-west. 
As, however, the result of other observations differ:from 
those given by. M. Cotte, we shall subjoin them, © ? 
According to these observations, in the centre 
France, the prevailing winds are the south-west and 
north-east ; in the northern districts the south-east wind. 
is most common ; in the eastern districts the north-and 
south-west winds ; in the west of France the north-east 
is the prevailing wind; inthe south-east at Montpellier, 
the north and north-east are the prevailing winds; and 
at Marseilles the south-east and north-west. 
IV. The mean quantity of rain that falls at Paris isp ~ 
22 inches ; the evaporation is generally greater than the 
rain; the mean evaporation being $3 inches. In the 
centre of France, the average quantity of rain is rather 
more than 20 inches; the number of rainy days in the 
course of the year 164. In the north of France there 
are 126 rainy days; in the east 145; in the west 150 
rainy days ; in the south-east, at Montpellier, there are | 
74 rainy days, and the quantity of rain is u is of 
27 inches—a proof of the violence of the rain when it 
does fall. At Marseilles, the quantity of rain is rather 
more than 21 inches, and the number of rainy days 57. a 


——sS Se 


~ 


CHAP. III. 


~ Natural History—Mineralogical Geography—Ba- 
sin of the Seine—Basaltic district of Auvergne—Geo- 
logy of the Pyrenees—Strata in different parts of 
’ Fesnce—Miseillancons Mineral icalremarks—Mines 
of Gold, Silver, Copper, Iron, &c.—Coal Strata and 
Mines—Jet, &c.—Salt Springs of Salins, &c.—Mine- 
ral Waters—Natural Curiosities—Botany of France— 


As our limits will not permit us to enter minutely and 
fully into the natural history of Franee, we shall content 
ourselves with noticing, in the first place, the most im- 
portant and curious features of its mineralogy and geolo- 
gy ; subjoining to this notice, an economical, account of 
the principal, mines, and a brief sketch of the mineral 


i waters and natural..curiosities-most. deserving of atten- 
& tion: in the second place, the Botany of France: and, 
= lastly, the most interesting parts of its Zoology. 
_ Mineralogy I, With respect to the and of 
_ antligeology. France. Modern French geographers, in a branch of 
= that science, to which they have properly given the epi- 
thet physical, have divided the kingdom into what they 
‘ call basins; that is to say. into several great plains, 
through which the principal rivers: flow, and which are 


formed of several ridges of mountains, either original, 

L that is of granite, or secondary, of caleareous and other 

materials. Of these basins, the chief are, 1st, The ba- 

sin of the Loire, and all the rivers that fall into it. 2d, 

of the Seine and its branches. 3d, Of the Garonne. 4th, 

Of the Rhone and Saone. There are likewise some 
smaller ones, but of much less account. 

As the basin of the Seine, or of Paris as it is fre- 
quently called, is the most interesting to the geologist, 
and has moreover been very carefully and scientifically 

‘Pillustrated. by the labours of Messrs Cuvier and Brog- 
niart, in their Memoir on the Mineralogical Geography 
of the environs of Paris; of M. Lamanon, in his Me- 
moir on the gypsums and their fossil bones ; of M. Des- 
marets in -his description of Montmartre, and by other 
authors, we shall confine our account to this basin. 

The basin of the Seine is separated for a long space 

_ from.that of the Loire, by an. extensive high plain, the 
greater part of which bears the name of Beauce. This 
plain is bounded towards the north-west by a higher and 
more broken district, from which the rivers Eure, Aure, 
Orne, Maienne, Sarte, &c. arise. On all other ‘sides, 
the plain of Beauce overlooks every surrounding dis- 
trict. The slope from it, towards the Seine, is divided 
into two inclinations, one of which, on the west, looks 
towards the Eure, and the other, on the east, looks to- 
wards the Seine. These two inclined plains, however, 
are not straight, but in all directions unequal and rug- 
ged, the slopes are generally very abrupt, and all the ra- 
vines, valleys, and wells dug in the high parts, shew that 
one prodigious mass of fine sand covers the whole surface, 
passing equally over all the other soils, or inferior plat- 
forms, which this great plain overlooks. The edge of 
this platform, towards the Seine, forms. the natural li- 
mit of the basin of Paris, on this side. From below the 
two extremities of this platform, issue two portions of a 
platform of chalk, which extends in every direction to a 
great distance, forming the whole of Higher Normandy, 

icardy, and Champagne. In some parts of the two 


FRANCE. 


685 


latter provinces, the chalk is covered with sandy plat- Statistics. 
forms, similar to that of Beauce. ; weary 

Hence it appears that the materials which compose 
the basin of Paris have been deposited in a vast gulf, 
the bottom of which is chalk. This chalk lies in hori- 
zontal beds, with flints, and is wholly, or in part, covered » 
by certain argillaceous, siliceous, calcareous, gypseous, 
and alluvial strata. The basin, measuring directly from 
Epernay to Gisars, nearly from east to west, is 87 Eng- 
lish miles in length, and from Nemours to the neighbour~ 
hood of Noyon, nearly south and north, it is 70 miles 
broad. On the south-west, from near Nemours to the’ 
mouth of the rivulet called the Maulde, a direct distance 
of about 45 miles, it is limited by a covering stratum of 
Beauce sand, and in all its remaining sides by the na- 
ked chalk stratum. The chalk is undoubtedly the most 
ancient, and the sandy platform the most recent of the 
formations in this basin. Between them there are two 
great strata ; the first, lime, either siliceous, containing’ 
no shells, or lime with coarse shells; the second, which 
is named by the French geologists gypso-marley, is 
not generally spread, but merely scattered in spots, very 
different from one another in thickness and in their com- 
ponent parts. These two intermediate soils or Strata, as 
well as the two extreme strata of chalk and sand, and 
all the vacuities which they have left, are partly filled by 
a fifth sort of soil, mixed also with marl and silex, which 
may be called fresh water soil, because it abounds in 
fresh water soils only. 

If each of these large strata, however, are subdivided, Strata in 
there will appear 10 distinct kinds of strata in the’ basin the basin of 
of the Seine. Of these we shall give a short sketch, be- P*"* 
ginning with the lowest. ; 

1. Chalk, either in distinct beds and with few flints, 
or with many layers and nodules of flint, constitutes the 
first formation. In it are found 50 species of fossil re+ 
mains. 

2. The second formation consists of plastic clay ; 
white, grey, slate-grey, and red potter’s clay, from four 
inches to 52 feet or more in thickness. This contains no 
fossils, but in some parts fragments of bituminous 
wood. 

3. The third formation consists of sand, coarse, red, 
or bluish grey, without fossils ;—of coarse limestone in 
beds, alternating with their marls and clay; the lower 
beds are sandy, containing greenish earth, and though . 
hard, decompose quickly on exposure ; they contain ex- 
traneous fossils in good preservation, amounting to more 
than 600 species ;—of soft greenish earth, exhibiting on 
its lower surface brown marks of leaves, and stalks of ve- 
getables ;—of grey and yellowish strata, of different de« 

of hardness, and of building stone rocks ; these con- 
tain shells.;—of hard earth, containing seams full of 
shells ;—of hard calcareous ruble marl, and soft calca- 
reous marl beds, without fossils ;—of calcareous sand, 
sometimes agglutinated, and containing chert, quartz 
crystals, and variegated crystals of carbonate of lime ; 
and of hard calcareous ruble marl, and soft calcareous 
marl beds without fossils. 3 

4. The fourth formation is still more various than 
the third; it consists of two distinct parts, viz. the 
fresh water formation, containing a mass of selenitous 
gypsum in thin beds, with numerous marl beds, with- 
out organised fossils; next marl strata; then a second 
mass of gypsum beds, with thin marl beds, containing 
fossil fish ; then marl strata again, and above them ano- 
ther mass composed of three parts, with mar! strata ine 


—y—" sum, columnar gypsum, and 


Gypsum 
quury of 
Montmar- 
tre. 


686 FRANCE 
Statistics. tervening between each; three parts are siliceous gyp- 


m in thin. beds, con« 
taining skeletons of unknown birds and quadrupeds, 
bones of tortoises, skeletons of fishes, and of mammifere, 
and sometimes fresh water shells, The uppermost parts:of 
the fresh water formation consists of a white calcareous: 
bed, with large siliceous trunks of palm trees; of marl! 
beds calcareous and argillaceous, and of argillaceous and 
calcareous marls, thick without fossils. The marine di- 
vision of the fourth formation consists of* yellow scaly 
marl, two feet thick, with a few shells ; of n potter’s 
earth without fossils; of marl in four or five beds; of 
yellow argillaceous marl with the bones of a fish; of 
marl beds, containing sea bivalve shells; of marl with a 
seam of very large oyster shells ; of whitish marl with- 
out shells ; of marl with several seams of small thin oys- 
ter shells; and of argillaceous sand without shells, 

5. The fifth formation consists of argillaceous strata: 
without organised fossils, and of siliceous freestone and 
sea sand, with numerous shells, of the same. s as 
those which occur in the coarse limestone of the third for. 
mation. 

6. The sixth formation consists of plastic clays ; of 
siliceous limestone, containing burr-stones, but no fos- 
sils; of argillaceous marls, and of freestone without: 
shells. 

7. The seventh formation consists of free stone 
withuut shells ; of loose sand used in the arts, rape vf 
freestone without shells. 

8. The eighth formation consists of kao idiie. 


stone, which decomposes and contains burr-stones ; it’ 


contains four kinds of fresh water shells, and in some parts: 
siliceous wood and vegetables. 

9. The ninth formation is alluvial, in putrid marshy 
vales, containing skeletons of large animals, trees, &c. of 
various kinds. 

10. The last formation consists of alluvial sand on the 
sees of Beauce, to the west and south of the basin of 

aris. 

In the fourth, or gypseous formation, the gypsum quar- 
ry of Montmartre occurs ; it is wrought to the depth of 
about 400 feet ; the strata are about two feet in thick- 
ness, and the lowest are considered the best ; about 200 
feet from the surface is a single stratum of argillaceous 
limestone, which breaks with a conchoidal fracture ; 
above the gypsum is an irregular bed of clay marl, about 
ten feetin depth. It is in this quarry that Cuvier found 
the fossil bones which have excited the attention of na« 
turalists so much. The. gypsum is calcined on the spot 
by a moderate heat, which expels the water of crystalliza- 
tion, and reduces it to. a powder. 

Though somewhat out of place here, we may mention 
other economical products, which are obtained in this 
basin: French burrs, which are used. in making: mill- 
stones, are found in Fontainebleau forest, in the S, S. E. 
district of the. basin; the covering of the siliceous lime~ 
stone, of which the burrs are composed, is: in some. pla- 
ces alluvia, or argillaceous marls; and in) other places: 
free stone without shells. Burrs are also found at 
Trappe, 14 milessouth-west from Paris, with shells suppo- 
sed to be of fresh water origin. At Meudon, six miles 
south-west from Paris, there is a stratum of coloured pot- 
ter’s clay, without fossils covering the chalk, which ex- 
tends in a south-east direction towards Gentilly; there 
are also in these two places, and elsewhere, quarries of 
excellent freestone. At Sevres, seven miles west from 


Paris, ea ec oe bearer: sands : 


and near the ve mass of chalk is cleva- 
ted near 50 above yrs ohm i enigen Livee’ 
highest part of it in the basin of Paris ; the stone is 
sibly inclined towards the river: this the only ‘inclining 
sre i ba a 

e shall conclude our account sin, with an 
enumeration of some of the most remarkable «  re- 


mains which have been found in it: Skeletons o 

birds have been found at Montmartre, in the first, or ups 
per gypsum mass: elephants bones in ‘the alluvium, 
ninth formation: fish, and fish skeletons, at rota 

and several other places; leaves and pers of reams 

changed into silex ‘in the alluvial sand: large ern of 
palm trees converted into silex, in the fourth or gypseous 
formation : skeletons of various quadrupeds are found, 


not only in pe same formation, but also in'the ninth fore - 


mation, or the valley alluvium. Sharks teeth are found: 
in the chalk, or first Rertansibes Tortoise bones at Mont- 


tion, in whigk Fae xives edmanialaae been found. 


Secestanea 
Oysters are found in the chalk strata, in the lower beds - 


of the coarse limestone, tiitiep Sroraroties and all over ant 
gypseous formation. 


Next in importance, in a geological point of vie ab Yas Basaltic 


the basin of Paris, isthe province » of. Auvergne. — 


has been cursorily referred to in mentioning the moun-' “urea 


tains of France; but it deserves more notice’ 
in this place. Proceeding northward from Autillac, 
a vein of chalk in a country Ma it nina nar be 
d, a mountainous tract t extent aie 

itiieorte the basaltic mountains vf ie ov 
vergne, the modern departments © per 
Cantal. The northern part of the chain is st ae ws 
de Dome, and the southern that of Cantal: the Monts 
D’Or form the centre. The chief elevation is that of the 
Puy de Sausi: this enormous assemblage 
vers an extent ofabout 120 miles. It is a most 
and interesting tract, independently of these high moun- 
tains: great part of it is extremely and unimpas 
sable, the whole surface being cov: with blocks of 
granite or basalt. A stratum of basalt scems to have 
covered a large part of this district, the remains of whieh 
are seen on every eminence, forming horizontal crests on 
the same level. There are about 100 cones, besides nu- 
merous longitudinal ridges, all of which are basaltic ; and 
at the base of some of cones, M. D’Aubuisson diss 
covered currents of the same substance. Near St Cha- 
mont some masses of basalt present the appearance of 
columns bent in’an extraordinary manner. Ofte of the 
most celebrated of these cones is called La Tour d'Au- 
vergne. Among the scorie, about three leagues’ from 
Clermont, are the charred remains of many trees. No 
appearance of a crater is to be observed any where. 

Such is a general description of the basaltie district of 
Auvergne; according to some it is of voleanic origin ¥ 
but a chain of volcanoes, such as on this supposition the 
cones would indicate, it has been asserted, Beam be too 
bold even for conjecture. It is foreign to 
of this article to cous this Poe fat y-ned 
fore only observe, that, according to Dolomieu, who ex- 
amined this district very elle the lavas of Italy and 
Auvergne are perfectly : is, however, 
a marked difference in the of the two volcanic - 
fields, In Italy the subordinate hills are disposed in, 


ae 


f 
age of rocks co= 


a 


; s, round the principal volcano; whereas -in Au- 
Sled elevations are detached, and seemed to have 
Prk ong ar ae In Italy, the ashes, scoriz, 
&c. have’ tions over an im- 


frequently approximated to each other, and that the 
of, granite detached by eruptions, are more 
or less calcined, ue, or deprived of their water of 

ization. Mr Birkbeck, one of the latest and 
most actite and observant English travellers in France, 
ts of opinion that the cones and longitudinal ridges of 
basalt in Auvergne, have been formed entirely by sub- 
sidence, and are the venerable remains of the ancient 
surface. ; 

The of the Pyrenees in some respects is in- 
emer Paella ever cre they pre- 
sent appearances, and even shells, near or 
age nye which are in the centre of 

he Abbé Palasso, in his Essay on - i 
panslogy of these mountains, gives a mineralogical 
chart inka! feoca with" Mppenet thatthe granite 
occupy one fifth of the horizontal surface on 
oning from one end of 


ite whatsoever ; 


a55 
He 
ea 
Jeo8 
: 


a few of the 


interspersed with vertical 
the latter primitive or , and 
marbles of and Antin, of beau- 

with white. The colour of the gene- 
mass is . The summit of Mount Per- 
the highest elevation of the Pyrenees, 
marine exuvie ; hence La Peyrouse infers, 
all that central and most elevated i 
of these mountains, which also include a profi 


3 


4 


z 


5 


HI 


stone, uniformly destitute of ic remains, alterna- 
eee ae abe yry, trap, -hornstone, 
petrosilex, all of the same fe , and a common 
igin ; and, 2. Limestone, containing vestiges 


animals, which is never bl with iis gignde 


different 


a 
3 
a 
z 
g 
2 
4 
Z 


inclination of the primitive beds is in a contrary direc- 


the followin 
strata. 5 


are the order and depth: 
, mud, and sand, 15 feet. 2. Earth 


FRANCE. 


consist entirely _ 


687 


pei. Pa 2 feet 6 inches. 3. Mud and sand, 3 feet. 
4. Hard marl, 2 feet. 5. Marly stone, 4 feet. 6. Pow- 
dery marl with sand, 5 feet. 7. Sand, 1 foot 6 inches. 
8. Marl and sand, 8 feet 6 inches. 9. Hard marl and 
flint, the same depth. 10. Gravel or mar] in powder, 
1 foot. 11. Eglantine, 1 foot 6 inches. 12. Marly 
gravel, the same depth. 13. Stony marl, 4 feet 6 inches. 
14. Sand and shells, 1 foot 6 inches, 15. Gravel, 2 
feet. 16. Stony marl, 3 feet 6 inches. 17. Powdered 
marl, 1 foot 6 inches. 18. Hard stone, 1 foot. 19. 
Sand and shells, 18 feet 6 inches. 20. Brown freestone, 
8 feet. 21. Sand, 22 feet 6 inches ;—in all, 100 feet. 
In the hills near Etampes, a considerable town in the 


Statistics. 


department of the Seine and the Oise, seated on the ri-. 


ver Loet, the strata are very different; exhibiting, 1. 
Vegetable earth, 4 feet. 2. Marl and turf, 135 feet. 
3. Freestone, marl, and shells, 12 feet. 4. Brown peb- 
bles, 4:feet. 5. Marl and shells, 6 inches. . 6. Sand 
and grit, 45 feet. 7. Sand and rounded pebbles, 18 
feet. 8. Sand and shells, 6 feet. 9. Sand and gravel, 
16 feet. 10. Tufa and shells, 4 feet. 11. Soft strata, 
4 feet. 12, Marly clay, 8 feet;—in all, 256 feet 6 
inches. 

Between Rouen and Louviers, the Seine has worn its 
channel through about 50 strata of chalk. The strata 
are from 18 inches to two feet in thickness, and are di- 
vided by flints. The chalk is soft and mouldering. 
These cliffs differ from the chalk cliffs of England, from 
their horizontal position, the number of their strata, and 
the thickness of the layers of flints, as well as the soft- 
ness of the chalk. To the south of Moulins, no more 
flint appears. At St Urban, near Vienne, there are 
pea pebbles in vast beds, 800 feet at least above the 

el of the Rhone. A few miles to the north of Va- 
lence, the mountains of ite give place to stratified 
rocks of sandstone and limestone. Opposite this town 
is a remarkable rock of crumbling sandstone, in hori« 
zontal strata. Between the same place and Avignon, 
the Rhone flows between mountains of stratified lime- 
stone. Avignon itself stands on a bold rock of lime- 
stone, of immense blocks, in vance nearly resem= 
pine erenie. In leaving the Pysetiies, and descend« 
ing Foix to Pamier, alluvial hills of quartzose sand, 
or of schist, assuming the character of clay, with some 


calcareous rocks, are found. At Caylus is a stratum 


of chalk between strata of limestone, which occurs in 
other of France, but is uncommon if not unknown 
in Britain. In a northerly direction from this is the 
volcanic country of Auvergne, which has been already 


noticed. 

Having given this cursory description of the geology 
and mineralogy of some of the: most interesting parts 
of France, we shall now proceed to offer some miscella~ 
neous remarks, which may serve to fill up any omis- 
sions of importance that may have occurred. 

1. With to primitive and secondary compounds. 
The principal localities of granite and gneiss have been 
already mentioned. J 


Primitive 


5 nd d- 
is found in the south of ar oa: 


France, reposing on granite. Porous porphyry, appear- pounds. 


ing as if it had undergone the action of fire, occurs in 
the mountain of Estirete in Provence, on the road from 
Frejus to Antibes. \ Primitive trap, alternating with 

nite and with gneiss, occurs near St: Maloes. 

limestone, in vast masses, irregularly rifted, in the Vi- 


varrais. The secon limestone of Mount Perdu has 
been already mention The gypsum of the quarries 
near Paris has also been noticed ; but it may be added, 


that lenticular gypsum is a curious variety, that seems 
peculiar to Montmartre; that crystallized gypsum is al- 


688 


Statistics. go found near Paris; fibrons ‘near Riom in 
=e Auvergne, i in'the volcanic district ; and ala- 


. q 

FRANCE — 
: 

baster in Franche Compté, and at Lagny on the Marne, 


about 20 miles from Paris. Fluor is abundant in 
France, occurring in almost inexhaustible mines, in a4 
primitive mountains of Gyromagny, in the Vosges, 
the neighbourhood of Langeac in Auy 
Forez ; it is also found in ag mountain of vergne, and not far 
from L ons. Basalt, or perhaps whinstone, worn aed 
with aesnsdicas occurs near Ville leneuve-de-Berg, a town 
in the department of the Ardeche, 12 miles north-west 
* of Viviers. The coal mines of France will be after- 
wards noticed : at present we shall confine our remarks 
to a singular dyke that has been discovered in the coal 
field in the district of Boulogne. It runs in the form 
of a crescent from north to west, and consists of a 8 
cies of marble, found in several quarries in the vicinity. 
This dyke has been traced to the dicular depth 
of 600 feet, where it is succeeded by a schistus rock, and 
this, following the same course and inclination, conti- 
nues to intersect the horizontal strata. Granite dykes, 
ste an inch to six feet in thickness,—the quartz, feld- 
, and mica of which are of larger size than are usu- 
ally found in the granite of mountains,—occur on the 
great road between Limoges and Cahors, traversing ho- 
rizontal strata of illaceous schistus, a ies of 
stone that has generally been considered of for- 
mation than granite. 

2. Metallic veins and ores. The economical account 
of the mines of France will be afterwards given. Our 
subject at present i meg mineralogical. Small quan- 
tities of native cinn silver ore, red silver ore, 
and corneous silver ore, are found in France; the last 


at Allemont, where black silver ore also occurs. Of 


the ores of copper, France possesses native copper, and 
yellow copper ore. Native iron occurs at Oulli, near 
Grenoble. The chromate of iron has been found in con- 


— abundance in veins and nodules, in beds of 


tine, in the department of the Var. Of the ores 

of lead, brown lead ore, a rare species, occurs in 
the lead mines of Brittany.’ 1 them also native bis- 
muth is found. Native antimony, a very rare species, 
striated sulphuretted antimony, and red antimonial ore, 
are found at Allemont in Dauphiny, where occur yel- 
low cobalt ochre, red cobalt ore, a sulphuretted nickel, 
It is worthy of remark, that antimony has been found 
at this place imbedded in a matrix of pit-coal. The 
mine at Romanésche, in the department of 

the Sone and ae Loire, is distinguished by the follow- 

ing parti 1. It nomen a very considerable 

uantity of sul 

mts; not of pate of tye mixed, but in a state of chemical 
combination. 2. The total ‘absence of iron from: its 
composition is the more extraordinary, because the af- 
finity between these ‘substances is so ‘great, that few 
iron ores are destitute of manganese ; and no other in- 
stance of manganese devoid of iron has been found. 
3. The hardness of those portions of the ore that con- 
tain the least quantity of oxygen is so considerable, that 
they not only scrateh t even xock-crystal, and 
fr bright sparks w ‘struck. 4. When plunged 
a minute in water, the variety that contains the 
mantity of ox absorbs. a certain quantity 

tthe iquid ; and when taken out of it, emits a very 
s odour, though no clay has been de- 

in its composition, 5. In the same circumstan- 

ces, that variety which contains a larger portion of oxy- 
gen, rapidly absorbs a great quantity of water, with a 
hissing noise, and disengagement of air. The odour 


, about one-sixth of the sand, 


Ci ei 
3. Y avide enumerated the most remarkable of 
compound rocks, and metallic veins and ores, we. 
now notice the other mineral mubetamces, not nein 
in these two classes. + 
Earths and stones. Of the genus. Zircon, the ] 
cinth has been found in the rivulet Expailly, in the 
partment of the Upper Loire. Of the siliceous gen 
Olivine is found in the Vivarrais ; 3 grenetite in 
ny; the emerald, of a bad colour and confused 
lization, however, has lately been discovered in 


cinity of Limoges ; the 1, in a large vein a 
traversing tyes tourmaline, ava 
zite, or glassy pool of Kirwan, in Teuihearase on 


the surface iy ens 


FE 


varies of common quartz, held in ape evens estima~ 
been found near Vastes, in the department. of 
sy Two Reverie De " form of sonnted ag 
are n 1 depattmnent ura, 
ses of flint occur, with cavities conifatiniine sittin 
Chalcedony, in thin layers, al with neem 3 ane 
agate, imbedded in granite, uot nodules of the 
same granite, and penetrated with iron pyrites, have 
been found near Vienne, in the department of the Isere; 
menilite, the pitch-stone of Kirwan, at Montant, 


near Paris ; veins of rehnite, i in Dauphin = 
or efflorescent pam in the lead sage roth fi 


was first Hapnvered A in the grani' 
the department of the ioc as and a Lone, A it ce 
pies a vein of common pe pale hollow spar, a subspe- 
cies of feldspar, is imbedd in 
the mines Brittany. 

Of the stidlleceoen Canes cath is 5 found ‘, 
at Limoges and Bayonne. ° ive slate forms consi- 
derable at Mewil Monten, in which beds the me- 


nilite already noticed is found. The mountain of A- 
verne, near Frejus, which abounds in mineral produc. 
tions, — Jargs kpeir patty a sort of pani 
resemb ver |, wi 

the ra: Sats the most brilent offecr 

So rich do these that a representative of 
the people, not versed in eae ees , CYOSS= 
ing this mountain in 1793, « collected a quantity 
of this beautiful sand, rise Gay it with him to the 
Convention, as a proof of the negligence of the adminis- 
trators of the department of the Var, who trod under 
their feet treasures og oe to sustain the expence of 
the war against all the kings of the universe.» Besalt, 
lava, indurated lithomarge, &c. are also found in 
France. 

- Snow ofa very bright red colour has stuetintietieen 
found on the summits of the mountains. The 
matter which colours it, burns with a smell similar to 
that of a great many vegetable substances, Saussure, 
who often collected suéh snow on the Alpé, was indu- 
ced, by this property, as well as by its being found in 
summer, and in places ta a great many plants were 


a 


———— eS —- - 


ett a ee” 


a 


Ee a my 


FRANCE. - 


Statistics, in flower, to consider the colouring matter as the farina 


Barytic 
genus. 


this , that Franee. , 
eee rier 


abound in 


“1” of some plant. Ramond, who found this dust on the 


Of the ian genus, fullers’ earth, though not so 
good in quality, nor so abundant as in England, is found 
There are also other species of this genus, 


_ but none that require particular notice. 


Of the ealcareous genus, the great body of chalk 
which traverses France from Champagne to Calais has’ 


already been mentioned, and also the marbles of the 
Paris, as well as the other most interesting species of 


ted mass ; it was about the of 15. or 16 feet in 


clay, which had been digging for some years before at 
Sonved hese Toul. " 


Petroleum and asphaltes are found in great abun- 
dance in Alsace, in a bed of sand, but upon two beds of 


organic remains found in the basin of Paris have 


already been noticed. They also occur in other 


of France; but we can only afford room for the follow- 
ing instance. At St Chaumont, near Lyons, is found an 


of some ferns, all of 
rance, but peculiar to the East Indies, or 
ee eee enna oe See tree 
which s on the coasts alabar Coro- 
por ply et hen 


uret of iron, 


some fine specimens of native gold ; 
it was not 


i rich to defray the expence of 
the ipcantal tian contain 
Rhine, the Doubs, the Garonne, 
Ardeche, and anes small rivulets which 
, - : - 


also a part of Al- 

; and at Allemont in ; but silver is most 

attached to the and copper ore; and the 

former metal in some parts of France is particularly 

rich in this respect, containing for evéry quintal.of lead 
nearly 16 ounces of silver. 

Tron is found in abundance, parti in the north- 

eastern The ore is not unfrequently found 


in large lumps on the surface, and the strata are most 

but a few feet below it: wenn 
large banks ining iron ore. ‘There is 
an iron mine of considerable repute at Vicdessos, situa- 
VOL, IX, PART I. 


= 689 


ted very high in these mounfains, about 15 miles to the _ Statisties. 
south-west of Tarascon, and not far from the frontier of ““~y” 


Spain. The “ chantiers,” or places where the ore is 
dug, are some hundred fathoms deep ; and the passage 
to them in re parts very narrow and steep. Up 
these passages the ore is brought with amazing toil, on 
the backs of the miners.’ Some 100 lb. some 
120 Ib. and some even more, according to their strength. 
The mine is the property of government. There are 
generally 400 persons at work in it, under inspectors, 
but paying themselves by the sale of the ore to the 
forge masters. It is miserably wrought, without a sin- 
gle improvement, Mr Birkbeck supposes, since the days 


of Julius Cesar. The ore is rich, and containing cal 


careous spar, is reduced without the addition of any 
other substance. It lies very irregularly, under lime of 
a schistose ce. The mass of ore is in some 
parts upwards of 60 feet in thickness, The miners are 
mostly proprietors of land. The whole surface of the 
mountain is divided in patches of different dimensions; 
all cultivated and watered with the utmost assiduity, 
and clothed with luxuriant v tion. There are also 
abundant mines of iron in Upper Languedoc, in the 
mountains of the Rouergue, which bound the western 
part of the province ; and in the county of Foix, which 
joins to the south, there is a mine of iron, 
so extensive, that it has supplied 40 founderies for up- 
wards of two centuries. In these , the furnaces to: 
the iron founderies, instead of being blown with bel- 
lows, are supplied with a current of air, by means of 
water precipitated through a vertical tube, to which is 
given the name of a trombe, the same word which is’ 
used in France for a water spout. This practice is of 
very ancient standing. There are also iron mines in 
Franche Compté, ine, Champagne, Berri, &c. 
Great attentior- has been paid to the working of all the 
iron mines, since the Revolution. The number of for- 
ges for the working of iron and steel are computed at 
nearly 2000; but included the forges in those de« 
ts in the north-east, which no longer belong to 

rance. Before the Revolution, France im iron 
tothe annual value of 11 or 12 millions-of livres, A 


great quantity of steel is still im from Germany 
into France. There are some ri per mines in the Coppez: 
Pyrenees, in the departments of the Rhone and the Up- 
per Alps, inthe mountains of Rouergue; in the depart- 


ments of the Loire, the Lozere, and the Ardeche, and 
in a near the mountains of Vos« 

The principal copper founderies are at Saint Bel 
Cicee, Avi , Bedarieux, Montpellier, &c. Former. 
] ‘almost all the copper used in France -was brought 
om Sweden. 


Two-thirds of the lead of Frarice are from Brittany, Lead. 


icularly the mines of Poullaoven and Huelgoet. 
here are also lead mines in the ent of the 
Channel; but they. have been re ly abandoned, in 
consequence of a deficiency of coal for working them. 
Mines of lead also occur in the ents of the Ma~ 
ritime Alps, the Lozere, Ardeche, &c. and in the Moun- 
tains of Most of those that are worked, yield 
silver at the same time. ; bich ‘ight 
France possesses mines of antimony, which mi, 
suffice for lying all Europe with that commodity. 
The. princi ores are those of Creuse, Cantal, the 
rm, poy La Vendée, the of the Ar« 
and Allier, and at Allemont in Dauphiny. 


Antimony. 


Zine is the most common of the French semi-metals. 71, 


It is found in three states in the mines; viz. in blende, 
458 , 


‘690 
white vitriol, and lapis calaminaris. The latter is very 
abundant at Saint Sauveur, in the Cevennes, at Pierre- 
ville in the department of the Channel, at Montalit near 

Saumur, and other 
Cobalt is found in the silver, and bismuth in the lead 
mines. The former is chiefly met with in the mines 
of Alsace ; and bismuth in the mines of Bextasly, Saint 
Sauveur, &e. 

Manganese. Manganese is in great abundance. ; The mine of this 

metal at Romanéche in the department) of ‘the Saone 

ms Loire, nants of te - bat were rsa pain ide in 
the departments e Loire an osges, and near 

Perigord, whence it is sometimes ae Pierre de Peri- 

rd. 

o" The only mine of mercury that is now wrought, is sat 

Menildot, in the department of Calvados. The quick- 

silver mines in the department of the Channel have 

been abandoned. 

Before proceeding to our economical account of the 
coal mines of France, we shall notice some particulars 
connected with their mineralogical and geological cha- 
ae which we thought it better to refer to this 


The coal strata of Provence are situated at the foot 
of the highest mountains of Lower Provence ; they run 
along a soil of a whitish red colour, and traverse a 
pretty uniform range of hills, whose internal structure 
presents nothing very remarkable to the ordinary ob- 
server. To the first layer of earth, a hed of stone suc- 
ceeds, of various thickness, and followed by a layer of 
earth of the same nature as the first, which in turn 
on new beds of hard stone. » This series con- 
tinues to a mane d “ee and then the earth layers 
are no lon hey are succeeded by those of 
coal, which are ; ceed included between beds of lime- 
sae org seldom va! any considerable orn 
vea texture, and in proportion as a 
proach to the coal, change ac sk from a lath 
shade ; hence the 
as schistose; thong 


Statistics. 
—\— 


Cobalt. 


‘Mercury, 


Coal strata 
in Pro- 
vence, 


Phite toa blue of li bet oF d 
might at first sight 
they are unquestionabl careous, and abound in: ma- 
rine and river shells; is disposition of the coal strata 
of Provence extends over a district of more than 20 
leagues in length ; but the thickness of the seams seldom 
exceeds two or three feet. This situation of coal is cu- 
rious, as it puts beyond a doubt the existence of coal in 
limestone, which been long denied. . The coal of 
Alais, a town in the department of Gard, near the foot 
of the Cevennes, presents a mixture of: calcareous mat- 
ter, and is often t for the express of ob- 
taining lime. The geology of this provincial district 
of France also furnishes an instance of the occasional 
interposition of layers of peat earth between those of 
coal, thongh: it dony-he bted whether the alleged 
peat may not more properly be classed with vitriolic 
or bituminous earth, ,or even perhaps with fossil wood: 
Many of the coal strata in France are encompassed: by 
— rocks ; while most. of those in ‘England and 

landers are insulated in secon soil, 

~Other coal The.other most considerable coal mines in France are 

canines, those in the Lyonnois at Forez, in the department of 
the Rhone and Loire, in Burgundy, Auvergne, and 
Franche Compté. The mines inthe Lyonnois, and 
those at Forez, are among the most important; they are 
situated in a valley extending from the Rhone ;to the 
Loire, in a direction from north-east to-sbathemest, be- 
tween two chains of primitive mountains, occupy- 
ing in length a space of six or seven leagues, from 

Rive-de-Gier to Firmine. In one part of the valley, 


FRANCE. 


equal ; sometimes amounting to 
ud sells ted thant dee gr om 
Ino neigh, 

bool of Rive Se eran 
work; and in one 2, 
tals of coal. Pears wel no longer 2 ee belies co Pause 
is not n to notice its: vie extendive and valuable 
pete tae g bet ves t 

In French H plinpairieitec sions fnipannentis 
villages of Fresne, Conde, Augin, &c. which have been 
wrought for a considerable of time: there are also 
mines in the Bourbonnois, Boulonnois, Ni 
coal is found within three feet of the surface ; tras 
meux ; between Beaune and Autun’ in the of 
the Cote D'Or; in several places in reer 
near Chapelle ;_Montrellois, and Niort ; ‘at Livry 
Lower Normandy; and in the neighbourhood of Paris, 

Buffon estimated the coal mines which were constant- 
] ee at 400 ; and added 

t 200 more were capable wrought. In 
1798, Lefebre published sopunt of the different coal 
mines in France ; the abetanse of which we uhall give; 


though of course it includes the mines in those departs 
ments, particularly those formed out nao the permed 


of Liege, which no longer to France. 
ea kees a -eoal -was-actually State ofthe 
wrought in 47 departments of the empire ; that indica- col mines 


ioe enema gsacrr er em traced in’ 16 others ; ® 179%- 
t the yearly produce mines of 84 departments 

had been fairly estimated at 77,600,000 quintals ; that 

p Sak monue anna number on quintals 
termin ents 

would be 81,700,000, ‘which, if converted into 

on the coal grounds, would fetch 38,280,000 francs ; 

and that more than 60,000 individuals earned their sub- 
sistence at the coaleries, independently of those who 


In the annual of the French government Of the 
Caniod tiie each t-tocp ceasilagharleaies totais is 
e,) a is drawn 
of the sheto of the aninee ta Rise for it was Somat 


put in requisition. | 
of course must be. 
Pm am there were, in 1814, 478 mines of 
actually working, which em 

17,000 men, and produced a raw material of the 

of 26,800,000 francs, and a revenue’ to the state of 
251,000 franes. From the small number of men em< 
ployed, as well as from the estimate of the value of the 


Fa mater oe expression raw materiai it- 
‘statement must as not 

coal mines, but only mines thedi Speamennitaat 
in Frances. . - Pitney paveePry 

on det. ia} found toi the of the Aube, the Jet, 
Garde, and the Ardeche ; principally in the i 
bourhood of. three ‘villagenj fn Ae’ t of the. 


Aube, in the south-west of Languedoc. It is in beds 


FRANCE. 


‘Statistics like coal, but not continuous, and is sometimes render- 
—r~ ed impure by a mixture of pyrites. It is for the most 


691 


that they proceed from some natural magazine of rock _ Statisties 
salt in the neighbourhood, Such are the mineralogical “—Y—" 


mm os 


Peat earth, peat earth along 


met in a kind of rusty earth, of an ash co- 

, and sometimes occurs in masses of the weight of 
50lbs. about 5 or 6 toises ‘under the surface of the 
ground. It has been manufactured from time imme- 
morial, in the three vi alluded to, into rosaries, 
crosses, buttons for black dresses, &c. being an article 
of great consumption, chiefly in Spain. in 1786, it 
employed more than 1200 workmen, and the annual 
supply of the mineral was computed at 1000 quintals. 
Besides » to Germany, Italy, and the Levant, 
Spain i these jet manufactures ‘to the annual 
amount of 180,000 livres. ‘Latterly, however, the mines 
in France seem to have yielded a diminished supply, as 
jet was imported from Spain for the manufactures. 
Solid bitumen, or asphaltum, is obtained chiefly in the 
departments of the Ain and the Lower Rhine; ghatinoos 
bitumen, called pisalphaltus in the ent of the 
*uy de Dome; liquid bitumen, called naphtha and pe- 
in Auvergne, (as has already been noticed,) and 


in the de ts of the Herault, and the Lower Py- 
 renees.. Rosin is along the banks of the Rhone 
from Seisal to Fort Ecluse. is found in consider- 
able quantities in the of the Aveyron. In 
the province of Berry, ochre, which is used for melting of 


metals, and in dyeing: Beside the extensive morasses of 
the Somme, and Essone, which seem 
to have been used for fuel at'an early period, there are 
many other situations, particularly in the north-western 
departments of France, where this combustible sub- 
stance is found in or less women oar Within 
these few years, in consequence of the increasing scar- 

i fuel, the attention of the government, well as 


of the mountains of the Rouergue,’ already 

»the principal mine is at Simoze. 
ies of animal, of which the teeth 
copper | the turquois stone, are found 


in the depart of the Ain. Vitriol, ochres, sulphur, 
and excellent argil for ies, are also found in these 


mountains. I sorts of earths and sands used 
in manufactures, as kaolin or in earth, arena-~ 
ceous: F &e. nd in France. Be- 


sided thd tquttsteerdll Sreadhinis:ta‘the tuitiedlate neipts 
deveyitioahefy anes Stevan rte Serta, a 
7 near , tow erne, 
along the Rhine. These aes afd hard nd slid 
stones of a surprising size, some being 24 feet long 
Gi feet broads and. quarrics: of kind - vt} mo inck 
Salins in Franche Compté, some blocks from which are 
large as.to be ca of making columns of from 12 
igh. The marble quarries of the Pyrenees 


ly mentioned. hos ae 
at Salins in Franche Compté, about 
ate eterna pnsa and as many east from 


mixed with clay, 


gypsum, ied in different placés.’ “There 
are three distinct. ings, the. strongest of which 
contains 23 per cent. of salt, and the weakest only one. 
As not only the quantity, but also the strength of these 
sources, is increased, very soon after rain, it is probable 


_city' wall, ‘Phe tem 


ciréumstances connected with these springs, as given 
by Hassenfratz, in his “ Observations on the Salt’ 
Springs of Salins.”) With respect to the economical 
circumstances relating to. them, we may observe, that 
the Great Salt-work, as it is called, isa strong place’ 
by itself in the middle of the town, surrounded with 
thick walls, round and adjoining to which are build- 
ings for the wheel-works, cranes, &c. which serve to 
raise the waters, and for the furnaces, &c. employed 
in the manufacture. In other places are three great 
stone reservoirs, which together hold ubove 25,000 
hogsheads of water: there is also a fourth cistern in’ 
the nd, which holds above 15,000 hogsheads. 

he whole extent of the subterranean caves is about 
400 feet in length, by 50 or 60 in’ breadth; the de- 
scent isby 61 steps. At the bottom of this cave, there: 
issue from the same rock, within the space of 14 feet, 
six springs of salt, and two of fresh water. In another 
part of the cave aré six'or seven springs of salt water; 
along with ten or twelve of fresh water : the waters, of 
course, are kept quite separate.’ The‘salt water is col- 
lected in a bason, whence it is raised by wooden pails, 
linked together about a t_ wheel, which is turned 
by a horse. These pails are filled in the bason ; and 
whilst some are filling; the. others’ empty’ themselves 
into another bason'that stands higher, and outeof which 
re ies oh runs into the crabeeg tas The ditferent 
springs have different degrees mess)! If 1 ‘ewt; of 
witabiddes hue ypevtlucs at least: 18 dr 20 lib>of salt, the 
profit will not answer the expence: ~The overseers of 
the springs try the strength of the waters once a week, 

upon their report, those who mix them may do 

it in'a wr Hise 3 ‘according to their respective 
degrees of saltness; “In the evaporating process, there 
is nothing that-requires notice: ‘The surface, or upper 
most part of the salt; which, for its whiteness, bright~ 
ness, and: i, is called sé/ trié, is sent to Switzer- 
land-in casks; sold at’ a’ moderate price ; the re- 
mainder is moulded into cakes of three or four pounds 
weight. The salt is manufactured at Monter and Arq, 
as well as at Salins. There are also salt springs at’ 
Dieuze and Chateau-Salins, in the province of Lorraine, 
and salt refineries at’ Moyenvie, in the district of the- 
Three Bishoprics, ‘as it is called. |’ 


. Sea salt is made in’ great abundance ‘on the coast of Sea salt. 


France, particularly on the coaste of Brittany, Sain- 
tonge, Aunis, Normandy, Poitou, and Languedoc. The 
salt marshes of Saintonge and Aunis produce the best 
salt in Europe. “In the department of the Channel,’ 
salt is prepared from sea sand on a very extensive and 
beneficial plam ©) [te rr 


The principal‘mineral waters ’in France are those of Mineral 


Aix, Bagneres, “and . The waters of Aix in 
Provenee must have’ béen' known to the Romans, as the 
name of the town ig derived from Aqua Sextea, from 
the baths established in it by C. Sextius Calvinius. The 
source of the baths; however, was lost, till the begin- 
ning of the last century, when it was discoy in 

@ forthe foundation of a house, just without the 
ature of ‘the water is about the 
same as that of the Queen’s bath at Bath; its contents 
similar to those of Aix la Chapelle, principally sulphur, 
carbonate of lime; and muriate of soda. Bagneres, in 
the eastern part of Guienne, derives its name from its 
baths, which were frequented by the Romans. The 
hottest spring raises: the mercury in Fabrenheit’s ther- 
mometer to 123°, while the most moderate causes it to 
ascend only to 86.- Two are exactly equal in heat to 


Statistics, 
—_——~ 


Natural cue 
riosities. 


La Crau. 


- 


Caves. 


692 


that of the human body ; ten are below it, and eighteen 
are above it. The waters of the ee ek a are 
strongly purgative ; those of Salut iure- 
tic pa acdns, The degree of heat in Salut is 884. 

is situated in a frightful chasm of a valley, 
shaded on both sides by rude, barren mountains, and 
the Baston, a foaming torrent, filling the hollow. The 
situation is such, that the inhabitants dare not stay 
here during the winter, but remove all their furniture, 
and even their doors and windows, to such houses as 
are most out of the reach of mischief from the floods 
and avalanches. The mineral waters issue out of a hill 
in the centre of the village, and are distributed into 
three baths: they are strongly sulphureous, and con- 
sequently i: Shaq Their degree of heat is from 
80 to 1123: are to the touch, and tinge 
silver black. The waters of St Sauveur, near Luz, 
are not so hot as those of Bareges, but their taste is still 
more nauseous. There are other mineral waters at 
Cauterets, in the midst of beautiful . The hot- 
test spring raises the mercury to 118° ; in the coolest, 
it falls to 69°, de may also be men- 
tioned: it is a town on the river Neste, complete- 
ly hemmed in by lofty mountains on the borders of 
Catalonia. The baths are at a small distance from the 
town, and near the springs, which issue out of a rock, 
and are three in number, ete y dhgor ge 4 their 

of heat, but all tepid. e of them is 
rated by a plank from a copious stream, which, fur- 
nishes the coldest and purest water in the valley. Their 
streams are suffered to unite soon afterwards, to fill the 
tepid baths. The other mineral, waters of any note in 
France, are those of Forges, Vichi, Bourbonne, Bala- 
ruc, and Plombieres, 

Of the natural curiosities in France, we shall 
cipally confine our attention to those. which are inte~ 
ing from their connection with ip paytcslgingrs: 
phy. In this point of view, the plai of La 
claims our first notice. It is ed on the east side 
of the Rhone, between ales ae Dee eee 
triangular ; it covers an area of al 20 uare leagues, 
or 136,780 English acres. Thia ava is coveted entirel 
with quartz of gravel, some of the size of aman’s head, 
but of all sizes less, and the shingle of the sea shore 
is not more barren of soil. The basis of the whole 
plain consists of horizontal layers of pudding stone; and 
as, on examination, the stones on lain- have been 
ascertained to be exactly of the same kind, there can 
be little doubt that on vast body pO re read over 
pe yee ager oan ie ge inatec e ction 
of layers of the same which may perhaps have 
risen a great height above what is now the surface. 


This is the opinion of Saussure, and is more probable 
than the suppositions, that the gravel has been brought 
down by Durance from Alps of Dauphiny ; 


that the Rhone has formed it ; or that,it is the work of 
the sea, This plain was known to the ancients by the 
names of the nay a Lapidius, or Campus Herculeus, 
The origin of the first name is sufficiently obvious ; the 
latter was derived from its having been the reputed 
scene where Hercules, fighting with the sons of Nep- 
tune, and being in want of weapons, was supplied from 
heaven with a shower of stones. , 

There are some singular caves in France, particular- 
ly that in Franche Compté, near the village of Beaume, 
and those of Roquefort ; the former is remarkable from 
its containing a glacier. This cave is at the bottom of 
a small valley, in the middle of a thick forest. The 


FRANCE. 


; 
i 


i 
tf 


high, and this a passage leads to the chamber 

taining the glacier, the descent to which i a 

of 40 feet, In this cavern are stalactites of solid 

which are in some parts nearly joined by 
a 


sf 
Hi 


i 
gs 


same material, rising from a magnificent 
floor. Reaumut's » which 
of the cave was at 20} fell within 
Penagennty) by mere 
among the a calcareous mountain. 
In the month of October, the thermometer of Reaumut 
cone in app 9 to 54°; net de 138° 
in open air; Chaptal, on the 2Ist of August 
1787, with a good thermometer, which stood at 23° in 
the shade in the open air, found the of a 
— current of air in one of the caves to be 4°. He was 
informed that the thermometer had been seen, in that ex 
position, as low as 2° above zero. The hotter the exters 
nal air, the cooler the caves are found to be, because the 
current is then stronger. These caves are used in the 
manufacture of a. i esteemed cheese. 
The fountain of Vaucluse, immortalized by Petrarch, Vaucluse. 
termina- 


: 
E 


i 


aes 
Az 
= 


tain of Vaucluse, The entrance to the cavern is 60 feet 
in height ; before it rises an immense rock, which qui 
conceals it : this rock the water filters, gushi 
out at its base in innumerable little streams. » is 
the ordinary state of the fountain; but when, in the 
ing, the snows of the mountains melt, the water rises : 
aentons age jana vinahe diocemsah Aispinn : 
e territory , in Aix, isa 
spring called the fountain of La Foux, which has the 
same periodical risings as the fountain of Vaucluse, but 
it is little known,’ 2 <A 
In the of Ardeche are several natural cu- : 
riosities ; the bridge of rock, under which the river of 
Ardeche passes; the grottos of Vallon; the gulf of 
Goule ; with many singular basaltic columns, &e. © 


II. In describing the dotanyof France, we shall be prins Botany. 
cipally indebted to the sketch of it given by Mr Aikin. 
Notwithstanding the pains that have hitherto-been . 
bestowed by French naturalists in ing the Flora 
of their native country, it still remains: in an 
state. Particular districts, as the environs of 
surveyed with consi- 


EE 


north ; the fertile plains on the Belgian frontier ; the ” 
rich vales of the ie Ame pore OR RE I 
towering ts w ie; exterior ridges: of 
the Alps Roney sine: wc: exposure of the 
di coast ; offer such -striking: differences: of 
soil-and tem , a8 evince at once a most abundant 


* So called from the celebrated Queen of Navarre, who. here lays the scene of her Tales. 


FRANCE. 693 


Statistics. vinces of France being those which have been the most dore, and martagon lilies ; Erythronium d. 3 , isti 

: have r r Z ronium dens canis, d Statistics. 
“=~ carefully explored, as well as containing-the most inte- tooth violet ; Bulbocodium Schewn vernal bilbocediaders ae 
; resting plants, are chiefly referred to in the following Veratrum album, white hellebore ; Narcissus poeticus, 


lists. ; and jonquilla, narcissus and jonquil. The shore of 
Compound The species belonging to the large class of com- Hieres adorned by the Pimtcratilom maritimum, sea 
movers. flowers, including nearly the whole of the class daffodil, growing Inxuriantly on the very beach. 


’ esia of Linneeus, are very numerous. Of these, Allied to the bulbiferous, are the tuberous rooted Tuberous, 
several are introduced at present into our flower-gar- plants, with sword-shaped leaves, several species of 
; . dens; such are Echinops een, globe thistle; which are found in France. The most beautiful and 
Onopordon oe: i ia woolly thistle; Carlina corymbosa, poe By notice, are Gladiolus communis, corn flag, 
racemosa, anata, all three species of the Carline abundant in the cultivated lands of the middle and 
thistle, and natives of Provence ; Atractylis cancellata, southern provinces ; the Iris Germanica, large purple 
distaff thistle; several species of Centaurea, among fleur de lis, in Alsace and on the German frontier ; and 
others C. benedicta, blessed thistle; Santolina incana, Iris pumila, and maritima, dwarf and sea fleur de lis, 
lavender cotton ; Artemisia rupestris, mountain south- two elegant little plants, that are occasionally met with 
ernwood ; and A. abrotanum, common southernwood ; in Provence and Languedoc. 
both of them plentiful on the rocks of Deatiny and . Of the papilionaceous plants that are natives of this Papiliona 
Provence. Tussi and Cacalia alpina, alpine colts« country, several deserve notice for their use or orna- 
foot, and cacalia, nding on the mountainous fron- ment. Lathyrus tuberosus, a vegetable of the pea kind, 
tiers of Savoy and Piedmont ; Catananche cwrulea and grows wild in Alsace, and is cultivated in many parts 
lutea, blue and yellow lion’s foot ; Aster alpinus and of France, for its large, esculent, tuberous roots; Lu 
amellus, Michaelmas daisy. A few esculent v es pinus varius, the lupin, varying with blue, white, 
that grow wild in Languedoc and Provence, but are or flesh-coloured. blossoms ; and Cicer arietinum, chick 
cultivated in our kitchen-gardens, arrange themselves pea, are met with in the southern provinces, growing 
under this class; for instance, Cynara scolymus, arti- spontaneously, but are more frequently cultivated in 
choke; Tragopogon porrifolium, salsafy ; and Scorzo- large fields, as food both for cattle and man. In Eng 
Rera scorzonera. Twoor three are used in land, the former is considered merely as an ornamental 
medicine, such as T'anacetum balsamita, costmary ; Ar- plant, and is found in every flower garden.  Trigonella 
nica montana, 's bane ; Anthemis hrum, pel- fanumgrecum, fenugreek, esteemed for its medicinal vir« 
litory of Spain, in the ce tan ae of Mont~ tues; and Astrag tragacantha, acanth vetch, 
ier. ; so named from the gum it yields, are both natives of 
The cucumber, the melon, the gourd, and other kin- Provenee and the vicinity of Montpellier. Many of 
dred gener, though cultivated largely, and with great our most ornamental shrubs belong to this class, such 
ease, in the south of France, are yet natives of hotter as Cylisus laburnum, great laburnum; C. nigricans, 
climates: only one of this natural family, the Momor- black cytisus; Colutea arborescens, bladder senna ; 
dica elaterium, squirting cucumber, ly belongs to Anagyris feetida, stinking bean, trefoil ; and Spartium 
the French flora :. it occurs in a truly state, on low junceum, Spanish broom. ; 
loose rocks, in Provence and Languedoc. Several succulent plants of the same natural class 
Ringent Of the rimgent or galiated plants, numerous species with the Sedum, are found on the dry rocks on the 


lowing. are almost the whole that are in an uest and villosum, ever-green ine, and hairy sedum ; 
i use, all of which are uncives of Lan- Sempervi jlobiftren, and aracknoideum, hen and 
guedoc, Provence, or Dauphiny. Acanthus spinosus chicken sedum, and cobweb sedum. 
and mollis, prickly and smooth Acanthus; Antirrhinum — The class Pentandria of Linnzus contains several Pentandria, 
Montpellier snap-dragon; Pedicularis well known plants that occur native in France, some of 
and incarnata, lousewort ; ok 8 Creticum, which have been introduced into our gardens and shrub- 
sn. offcinall ; 


cretan origany ; Melissa ; Hyssopus beries ; such are Primula villosa, and auricula, hairy 
7” gerien h ; Lavandula stechas, spike primrose, and auricula; Androsace maxima, and car- 
$ inate officinalis, rosemary ; and Salvia nea, greater and flesh-coloured androsace, all found 


sage. had Ne bow! hae of Provence ; yr cet ceerulea, 
The nearer, in general, country is situated to i suckle ; cium ‘opaum, box 
the tropics, the greater is the abundance and beauty thorn; Nerium oleander, a oleander ; Campanu« 
of the bulbiferous or liliaceous plants that inhabit it. a grandiflora, and speculum, great-flowered campanu- 
rous, The south of France is particularly rich in these splen- 1a, and Venus’ looking glass; Rhamnus r santioy: and 
did and fragrant vegetables, several of which ey alaternus, Christ’s thorn, and alaternus ; Tamarix Gal- 
naturalized in our and constitute their princi- ca, and Germanica, German and French’ tamarisk. 

pal ornament. the genus Allium, garlic, no lessthan Others of this class deserve notice for their use in va- 

36 species are natives of France, several of which have rious arts, and in medicine, as Pistachia terebinthus, 

been admitted, for their beauty, into English flower the turpentine tree; P. lentiscus, mastic tree; Celtis 

gardens ; of these the A. Ricemrn east Montpellier australis, nettle tree; Rhamnus infectorius, the berries 

ie, is perhaps the chief. .T branched aspho- , of which are used in dyeing, by the name of French 

i pile ramosus, a flower of great beauty and berries, or graines d’ Avignon ; Anchusa tinctoria, al- 

poetic is by no. means uncommon in Provence. kanet, another dyeing drug ; Rhus cotinus, and coria- 

is, fulva, tawny day. lily; Hyacinthus bo- rea, common and Venetian sumach, the most powerful 
iryoides, clustered hyacinth.; i i. vegetable astringents, and largely applied to leather 
dale, spiked star of ocmmaiaeh ane dressing and dyeing ; Salsola soda, glasswort, a plant 
diterranean provinces of France, as are also Lilium bul. ganna shore of the Mediterranean, from which 
biferum, pomponium, and martagon, the orange, pompa- barilla of commerce is prepared. Some esculent 


694 


Statistics. plants also to this class, which, if not strictly 
—Y~—" natives of France, have at least been long naturalized to 
the soil and climate ; these are Ceratonia siliqua, carob- 
tree; Pistachia Narbonensis, pistachia nut tree; Rham- 
nus zizyphus, jujube tree. 

But few species of the French flora need be men- 
tioned under the class Decandria, The-fraxinella, Dic- 
tamnus albus ; the yellow and Narbonne flax, Linum 
flavum, and Narbonense; the sweet William, Deptford 
pink, and carnation, Dianthus barbatus, armeria, and 
caryophyllus ; the ferruginous rhododendron, R. ferru- 
gineum ; and the strawberry ‘saxifrage, Saxifraga coty- 
ledon, are adopted into our, flower ens ; the rue, 
ruta graveolens ; and storax rue, Styrax officinalis, the 
former a native, the other naturalized at Hieres, are 
used in medicine. 


Decandria. 


Polyandria ~~ Many of the most beautiful plants of the classes Po- 
as ndria and- Icosandria, are to be met with wild in 
rance: such are Chelidonium corniculatum, scarlet 

horned py; Peonia officinalis, and tenuifolius, 


common and narrow leaved peony ; Ranunculus aconi- 
tifolius, mountain ranunculus ; Adonis autumnalis. aesti« 
valis, and vernalis, ae eye; Thalictrum aquilegi- 
folium, feathered columbine ; Aguilegia alpina, moun- 
tain columbine ; Nigella damascena, and_arvensis, fen- 
nel flower ; Helleborus niger, and hyemalis,, Christmas 
rose, and winter aconite ; Anemone alpina, hortensis 
and hepatica, alpine and scarlet anemone, and hepatica ; 
Delphinium elatum, 
monkshood. Several trees and shrubs, both ornamen- 
tal and useful, also arrange themselves: under one or 
other of these classes. Myrtus commniunis, the broad 
leaved —_— ws with great. luxuriance along the 
whole of the Wedifverranben coast. Capparis spinosa, 
the bush ; Cistus laurifolius, /and Monspeliensis, 
the laurel-leaved and Montpellier cistus, three low 
shrubs of exquisite beauty, hang from the summits, or 
cluster nui 

and Montpellier. In the same vicinity also, are found 
Rosa gailica, the Provence rose ; Mespilus pyracantha, 
the pyracantha; and Punica granaium, the pomegra- 
nate tree. 

A few trees and shrubs remain to be mentioned, 
which will be more conveniently taken together than 
separated into their botanical classes. These are Quer- 
cus wgilops, and Cerris, the greater and less prickly- 
cupped oak, two very fine species that are foand in 
plenty about Paris and Fontainebleau ; Quercus. cocct- 
Jera, Suber, and Ilex, the kermes oak, cork tree, and 
evergreen flax, growing chiefly in the southern provin-. 
ces ; Juniperus sabina, ot pa a and Phenicea, the 
savine, the brown and yellow berried juniper ; Osyris 
alba, s cassia; Phillyrea latifolia, and a i- 
Jolia, broad and narrow leaved phillyrea; and Erica 
arborea, tree heath ; all of them natives of Dauphiné, 
Provence, and Languedoc. 

Among the rare plants which the Pyrenees afford, 
may be noticed the following: Ranunculus glacialis ; 
Lt. parnassifolius ; Androsace aretia, (probably Carnea 
of Linnzus) ; Daphne calycina ; Saxifraga longifolia, 
and Arenaria fruticulosa, The plants found naturally 

wing on the best meadows in France, are exactly 
same as those which grow in the best meadows of 
Great Britain, viz. Lathyrus pratensis ; Achillea milli- 
Solium ; Trifolium pratense ; 
tago lanceolata ; medicago lupulina, this is yo a 0 
over the whole kingdom of France ; Medicago Arabica 

; Lotus corniculatus ; Poterium s i 
o these may be added another plant, found amply in 


Trees and 
shrubs. 


Rare plents 
in the Py- 
rences. 


Plants in 
the mea- 
dows. 


bee meq, rk Aconitum napellus, 


the sides, of the low rocks about Toulon 


rifolium repens; Plan-. 


FRANCE. 


the richest meadows in the south of F nd, whi 
is reraarkable, indigennte Engiead pansy. 


The botany of the rt of La Crau may 
be raspy erie fap gases Absinthiim os pamwanl 
ww, but so , as scarcely to recog 
poe There are also Centaurea ct ; 
solstitialis, and. Eryngium. Where this is wa- 
tered, however, clover, chicory, rib-grass, and avena 
elatior flourish, = 


III. The zoology of France, so far as it regards the Zoology. 
domesticated animals, will be afterwards given ; andom 
the other animals we must be brief, confining 
ourselves, indeed, to the pation sont of a very few. 
Bears are by no means uncommon in the vicinity of the 
Pyrenees, and Alps of Dauphiny. «There are both 
sorts, carnivorous and vege eaters; the latter are 
more mischievous than the former, though not so dread- 
ful, coming down in the night and prey hang corn, par- 

latter, 


Statistics. 
= 


ticularly buck-wheat and maize; and ead.to nied 
in choosing the sweetest ears of the 1: that they 
trample and _ spoil. infinitely more than they eat... The 
carnivorous bears wage war against the cattle and sheep> 
they attack the former by leaping on their backs, when 
they force the head to the ground, and thrust their 
petainte shew in a meee of a dreadful hug: _ 
ere are many hunting days every year for desttoy~ 
ing them, several parishes joining for that purpose, A 
bear never ventures to attack a wolf; but several.wolves 
ee her, when hungry, ul sew and 
Volves are very common in different parts of France, 
and very destructive to the sheep. "Ties 
also found in some parts. of this kingdom. _ The ibex, 
rock-goat, or bouquetin (or. bouctain, from bouc, a goat, 
because they resemble goats), are found in - 
nees, and in the Alps of Dauphiny. 
grey colour, with very long and strong 
mountains of Volni, near Rochecourte, in the mountains 
of Dauphiny, the chamois is found, of the antelope: 
class.. The Becca-fico, and the Cicala, of the Italians, 
are not uncommon in the southern provinces of France.’ 
The Cicala never ceases making its peculiar 


makes is said not to proceed from its throat, but from 
two membranes underneath the wings towards the tail, 
which it fills with wind, and blows tike bellows, os 

‘it. 


CHAP, IV. 


~ Agriculture of France. > 


the Agricultural 


- Berore the Revolution, agriculture in France wih 
nearly in the same > which it is still in almost 


i 


eS — 


Money rent. 


FRANCE. 


country in continental Europe. About two-fifths 
pp is land susceptible of cultivation, were in what is 
termed culture and and produced, on an 
culture, on the 
produced. 


at benefit and good must be looked for 
in the state of her landed property, and in the'condi- 
tion of her agricultural population. 

Before the Revolution, the land in France was held 
by various tenures, almost all of which were decidedly 
and extremely unfavourable to agriculture | The ma- 
nor rents of the clergy have been variously estimated. 
Condorcet, in his Life of Turgot, gives it as his opinion, 
that the cl enjo ednear & fish part of the property 
of the ki eckar calculated their revenue at 
180,000,000 livres ; but it is probable that their manor 
rents may fairly be estimated to have amounted to about 
120 of livres, or £4,800,000 sterling, exclu- 
sive of their tithes, which may be rated at about 
£3,600,000 sterling. The domains of the crown and 
of the princes of the blood, rented for about £1,200,000 
sterling ; the feudal and honorary dues paid to the no- 
bility, with corvées, militia, &c. amounted at least to 
£5,000,000 sterling. Besides, the government drew 
from the produce i the sum of £8,000,000 
sterling. In short, it has been calculated, that, exclu- 
sive of the rents of land paid to the lay-proprietors, 
and of the duties of excise, consumption, and the like, 
the uce of the soil was charged annually with up- 
wards of £21,000,000 sterling. } 

But agriculture laboured under disadvantages still 
more di ing and ive, previously to the 
Sra tnlotelster che‘ iicenk wtsioe ch-ictey> 

to ider the di t ° - 
ing land which then existed, some of which, ag 
ever, as we shall afterwards see, still remain. In the 
first place, there were the small ies of the pea- 
sants. These were to be found every where to a de- 
gree of which we have no conception in England, and 
which we should not ae See in the midst of the 
enormous possessions, and the oppressive privileges, 
of the nobility andthe clergy. Even in dante proces 
where other tenures prevailed, they were to be found ; 
but principally in edoc; Quercy, which now 
forms the department of Lot; the whole district of the 
a sg Bearn, Gascony, part of Guienne, Alsace, 
nders, and Lorraine. The condition of the peasant- 
ry, who possessed these small ren varied much 
in different parts of the kingdom. In Flanders, Alsace, 
on the Garonne, and more particularly in Bearne, they 
were in comfortable circumstances, and might rather 
be called farmers than ; and in Lower Britta- 
ny many of them were rich; but this character could 
by no means be applied to them ms geneaey. In fact, the 
minute division of property produced the effects 
which might be e from it; and poverty and mi- 
sery were too visible, especially in Lorraine, and the 
parts of Cham which are contiguous to it. 

The presto ee of possessing land, was 

rent. This, before the Revolution, was 
el in Picardy, Normandy, of Flanders, 
Artois, Isle of France, and the Pays de Beauce. It al- 
so existed in some of the southern districts of France, 
particularly in Bearn, and about Navareens, a town 
in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, These 


a mo- 
gene- 


— 695 


tenures were also found in other parts of France, scatters Statistica. , 


ed among those which were different and predominant ; 
but, upon a moderate estimate, before the Revolu-. 
tion, they did not exist in-more than a sixth or a se- 
venth of the kingdom. 

Feudal tenures were the third mode of occupying 
land. They abounded most in Brittany, Limosin, Ber- 
ry, La Manche, &c. but they were scattered in a great- 
er or less degree through the whole kingdom. These 
feudal tenures were fiefs granted by the seigneurs of 
the parishes, under a reservation of fines, quit rents, 
forfeitures, services, &c. As they formed the most op- 
pressive evil under which agriculture laboured previ- 
ously to'the Revolution, and from which that event 
must certainly be allowed the merit of having freed it, 
it may be proper to notice some of them. Even to 
enumerate the whole of these oppressions would far-ex~ 
ceed our limits ; and indeed, the English language does 
not supply terms by which many of them can be ex~ 
P 


Among the more mild and tolerable of these feudal 
tenures, may be mentioned the obligation the tenant 
was under, of grinding his corn at the mills of the 
seigneur only ; of pressing his grapes at his press only ; 
of baking his bread in his oven. The peasantry in 
Brittany were obliged to beat the waters in marshy 
districts, to keep the frogs silent, in order that the 
lady of the seigneur, during her lying-in, might not 
be disturbed by their noise. In short, every petty op- 
pression which could render the lives of the peasantry 


miserable, or interfere with the operations of agricul- 
ture, was authorised by these feudal tenures; though 


it must be confessed, that, before the Revolution, some 
of the seigneurs, convinced of their injustice as well 
as impolicy, forbore to exact them. Nor were the op- 
pressions of the feudal tenures the only ones to which 
agriculture was exposed. There were numerous edicts 
for preserving the game, which prohibited weeding and 
hoeing, lest the young partridges should be disturbed ; 
steeping seed, lest it should injure the game; manu- 
ring with night soil, lest the flavour of the partridges 
should be injured, by feeding on the corti so produ- 
ced ; mowing hay before a certain time, so late as ta 
spoil many crops ; and taking away the stubble, which 
would deprive the birds of shelter. These were op- 
pressions, to which all the tenants of land, as well as 
those who held under feudal tenures, and even the 
poet of land, in many cases, were exposed. The 

er, indeed, were dreadfully tormented by what 
were called the Capitainries, which, as affecting them 
in some measure, as the feudal tenures affected the 
farmers, may be noticed under this head. By this term 
was to be understood, the paramountship of certain dis- 
tricts, granted by the king to princes of the blood, by 
which they were put in possession of the property of 
all game, even on lands which did not belong to them, 
and even on manors granted long before to individu- 
als ; so that by this paramountship all manorial rights 
were annihilated. ‘The privileges thus conferred, were 
most grievous and oppressive ; for by game was under~ 
stood, whole droves of wild boars, and herds of deer 
not confined, but wandering over the whole country to 
the destruction of the crops ; and if any person presu- 
med to kill them, he was liable to be sent to the gallies. 
It may easily be conceived, that the minute vexations, 
as well as the more prominent tyranniés, to which 
the feudal tenures gave rise, would occasion frequent 
disputes between the seigneur and his tenants; but 
the latter preferred submitting to them, rather than ap- 


Feudal te- 
nures. 


Metayers. 


an engine of oppression ; for, under the pretence 
that the work might be done without in ion, 
those who were liable to the corvee had it frequently 
allotted to them at some leagues from their habitations. 
Besides these corvées, which were an ion to agri= 
culture over the whole of France, there were the military 
corvées, which fell noe erahae os. lying in the route 
of the troops ; the inhabitants of which were obliged to 
leave their occupation, however inconvenient and injuri- 
ous it might be, and repair the roads along which the sol» 
diers were to travel. Such area few of the i 
under which agriculture in France laboured, previously 
to the Revolution, arising either from the fi tenures, 
or from the more general o ion of the laws and 
measures of government, the privileges of the nobility 
and clergy, and the usages of the country. 

The fourth mode of occupying land, resembled that 
which is common fe Tavlomets and which is there com- 
plained of as a great grievance, and as the source of 
much misery and oppression. Men possessed of some 
P y, hired great tracts of land at a money rent, 

relet it in small divisions to metayers, who paid half 

the produce. This mode of occu land was most 
common in La Manche, Berry, Poitou, and Angoumois, 
but it was also met with in-other provinces. 

ra spogastf icine thes geobglp eliestet nthe 
are a species of farmers that ys to the 
slave cultivatory of ancient times, and who, in Latin, 
are called colont partiarii, have been so long in disuse 
in England, that there is no English name for them. 
They may be generally described, as supplying the la« 
bour n to cultivate the land, while the proprie- 
tor furnished yp bry Na gk 6p aE 
of husbandry, and, in short, w stock necessary 
for cultivating the farm. The common agreement was, 
that the produce should be equally divided between the 
proprietor and farmer, after setting aside what was ne- 
cessary for keeping up the stock, which was restored 
to the proprietor, when the farmer either quitted, or 
was turned out of his farm. F 

Before the Revolution, seven-ei of the lands in 
France were ane ae this tenure. It pervaded al+ 
most every part of Sologne, Berry, La Manche, Limo- 
sin, Anjou, Burgundy, Bourbonnois, Nivernois, Au» 
vergne, &c. and was found in Brittany, Maine, Pro- 
vence, and all the southern districts. In general, the 
half of the produce was paid to the ietor ; but in 
Champagne only a third. There were varia- 
tions: in some parts, the proprietor found half the cat- 
tle and seed, and the metayer the labour. and imple- 
ments, besides paying the taxes ; the last, in other dis- 
tricts, were partly paid by the proprietor. | In Norman- 
dy, a singular ies of this tenure prevailed, viz. on 
the farms which the proprietors kept in their own 
hands, 

1 


696 FRANCE. 
ing to the decision of judges, who were absolutely It is scarcely necessary to point out the miserable Statistics: 
cuiGesenlgatiols. state of agriculture, which must exist in a country 
SaaS hilet Re meats See Since, So pedlees i Saehaaae aan abla seanedtl 
taxes iarly oppressive and injurious to agriculture, place, it proves a agricultural 
: not confined to the tenure we are now consider+ > sear beret prog = omar 
ing. By the corvées, individuals were obliged tomend dency to perpetuate this and to keep the tenant in 
the by their 1 labour; hence it is evident the lowest, state of dependence, misery, and poverty. 
that this tax must have fallen exclusively on the poor ; pach prone senate or ns Bom a 
or if it was performed by those who kept labourers, it and consequently so dependent on thei , that 
must have deprived them of the means of fully attend- they were almost every year obliged to borrow from 
impolitic, in so much as it placed the repair ofthe | Such were the tenures of land before the Revolution. 
ape the care of those who were destitute Let us now enquire what effects that event has 
of the little skill requisite for such a task, but it was duced on them, -and-oti the condition of die wptishiae 


exposed to sale during the pecuniary the 

revolutionary government. For the ation of 

the lowest order of purchi they were divided into 

small portions, five years were allowed for com- 
; nd of yee de ae to aoe 
, an 

Ls Tarte ie eee a 
prietors, possessing from one to ten acres. They 

ease i by ree pers Notch 

at same time, neighbou 
mers. The number of small i Me ae ee 
creased from another cause, since the Revolution. Be- 


fore that event, it seems to have been the law, . 
least the invariable custom, in some of France, 
to divide the landed all the children. | 
inbtts eihiginonaeiens  --— 

ution, to w ingdom ; so the pre- 
seat law of Featon bends Of dandioth of bite ieee, . 
is divided, by the law itself, among his The 
deplorable consequences which must ‘ultimately result 
from this division and subdivision of little ies 
in a country like France, already so fully opri : 


ty has been affected by the Revolution ot 
n second place, hiring at money rent is much 
more genetal since the Revolution ; and if France con« : 
tinues quiet, and recovers from the injurious conse- : 
quences of the Revolution, it ma‘ be ex- 
pected that this species of tenure will become more and 


pay a es 2 
In the third place, feudal tenures are done away, as 


Pe apr rao he pach ~ ; ‘hired t 
is, ly, W men : 
ceeniiat Gnd na Gancoty-sent, aiovadne eR 
visions, and the system of metaying, still exist, 

not nearly to such an extent, or in such an 

and ruinous form, as before the Revolution. — a 
when we consider that these species of tenure were the 
unavoidable and necessary s of inadequate 
agricultural capital, we cannot expect that they should 
be abolished by the mere operation of law, or by’ the 
direct effects of any revolution, however wisely planned 
and carried into execution, If, however, we find that 


FRANCE. . 697 
of land of course is proportionally low. Before the Re- Statistics. 


1 die 
“ we may safely and rationally maintain, that. the Revo- 
lution, besides the direct benefits which it has bestowed 
on agriculture, by the abolition of feudal tenures, and 
partial and oppressive taxes, has indi } 


ferred on the agriculture of France, and which have 
manifested themselves, notwithstanding the military 
: a9 ae ing and ple? her 
or the purpose of enslaving the continent of > 
has at length ecnighaclowe ‘ene hewn jus veteilietica 
for her too ready acquiescence in its schemes. These, 
however, are only partial and tem evils ;- and we 
confidently predict, that when they are passed 
away, the agriculture of France, which, her ex- 
cellent climate and easily worked soil, must always be 
the staple branch of her national industry, and the prin- 
cipal source from which she must draw her political 
influence and military er, will be found to have 


5 


yine 5,000,000; in woods 19,850,000; in meadow and 
rich pasturage 4,000,000 acres; under lucerne, sain- 
foin, &c. 5,000,000 ; and the and wastes oc- 
eupy 27,150,000 ; thus making a total of 131,000,000 
acres, This estimate, however, as as respects the 
number of acres under wood, is certainly over-rated, 
— Mr Young on this point follows the authority 
of Neckar ; for a committee of the first National 
stated the whole extent of territory covered 
with wood at 13,100,691 arpents, of 100 perches of 28 
os French feet each; whereas, according to Mr 
man’ The puaeatctocpeion of he nti the xt 
‘occupation of the land in the north- 
Son poorliices of France, dante conceived, from the fol- 
account of the distribution of a small commune. 
Ww and meadows in the occupation of the propris: 
tor, 250 acres; two farms let, keeping two ploughs each, 
eight horses, 300 acres; 10 freeholders, keep- 
ing one pl each, together 20 horses, 750 acres ; 28 
freeholders, ing no horses, occupying 250 acres ; 
in all, 1550 acres, of which 1300 were arable. These 
are distributed as follows: under fallow 433, under 
wheat 433, under oats 433. Those who have no ploughs 
40 francs (33s. 4d.) per acre to their neighbours 
ed the team labour of the whole course, viz. four 
ploughings on the fallow, arid one ploughing for oats ; 
oads of dung per acre carted on the fallow, and 
ing. rietors who possess no 
ploughs are labourers, and in general work for the person 
who performs the ing of their land. The number 
of acres ploughed in this commune annually ‘is 21 65, or 
about 7} acres per day for 14 p , leaving sufficient 
time for harrowing, harvest, and ing of d 
The rentof land is low in most parts of 3 
fore the Revolution ree ety ~ roe pape 
land was averaged Mr Yo at 158. 7d.; e 
woods at 12s. ; Srxhe i uaniree £3:16:6; of the 
meadows at £2: 3:9; the wastes at 1s. 9d. At 
extremely good land in Normandy may be got 
30s. per acre ; 18s, and 20s, are more common. In 
other districts, it is even very much lower. The price 
VOL. 1X, PART IL 


away, which seems to be the case, | 


r] 


volution, the average price of all the cultivated land. in 
the kingdom, was estimated by Mr Young at £20 the 
English acre. In 1814, Mr Birkbeck mentions an estate 
near Cosne of 1000 acres arable, and 500 wood land, let 
on lease for nine years for £375 sterling, which might 
be bought for 22 years’ purchase, or £8333, It is pro- 
per to add, however, that one-third of the arable land 
of this farm’was poor cold clay, of little value; two- 
thirds pretty good wheat land; part dry enough for 
turnips. In 1807, Mr Pinckney states, that the average 
rents from Paris to Maine were about 15s. the English 
acre; and the purchase from £15 to £18. The value 
of lands in the vine districts of France, is much higher, 
amounting on an average to upwards of £60 per acre, 


according to some authors ; but others rate it only at Size of 
£41 per acre. The size of farms is’ in’ general small; arms, 


few, even in Normandy and the other provinces where 
agriculture is conducted on the best plan, and with the 
greatest capital and skill, reaching 300 acres. With re- 


spect to the capital employed by the farmers, Mr Young ©*Pi**" 


calculated it on an average of’the whole kingdom, not 
to exceed 40s. per’acre, In this, however, he was 
bably much mistaken. At any rate, at present, the 
average must be much higher. In French Flanders, 
it is calculated that a farm of about 250 English acres 
will require a capital of upwards of £1500 sterling, or 
about 26, 5s. per English acre. In this estimate, the 
live-stock is sup to cost £716:16:8; of which 
15 horses at £16: 13:4 each, 14 milch cows at £9 
each, and 180 sheep at 17s. 8d. each, form the chief ar~ 
ticles. The instruments of husbandry form the next 
division of this estimate, and amount to £138. Of 
these the large waggon is rated at upwards of £45; and 
the lighter wagyons, of which there are three at nearl 
£20; four ploughs at £2, 10s. each, besides a Du 
plough at £2: 12:6; the harrows, all of wood, at 8s. 
4d. each. The third branch of the estimate is the ser- 
vants’ wages for 15 months. The number is eight ; 
three ploughmen, one man to take care of the young 
horses, a shepherd, two women, and a swineherd ; their 
wages, one with another, being £4: 11:8 per annum 
each. The wages of the labourers are rated at from 8d. 
to 1s. per day. The maintenance of the 15 plough 
liorses and 10 young horses for 15 months, is estimated 
at about £150. It is probable that capital to the same 
amount is required in the other parts of France, where. 

iculture is well understood, and carried on with spi-- 
rit and success. In the other districts, where it is far 
behind, of course the capital will be much less. 


The prevailing opinion, that France is entirely an tnclosures. 


co’ , is very erroneous, It is certainly much 
toe inclowed than England. All Brittany, the fei 
part of Normandy, and the ‘northern part of that pro- 
vinee as far as the Seine, niost of Anjou and Maine, 
Lower Poitou, Touraine, Sologne, Berry, Limosin, the 
Bourbonnois, and a great part of Nivernois, part of Au- 
vergne, and Quercy, are inclosed. The whole district of 
the is thickly inclosed. This district of coun- 
SF rer 11,000 square leagues ; so that if the 
parts of France that are inclosed be added, they 
will raise the total to a full half of the kingdom. But 
though’so lange a portion is inclosed, the inclosures in 
coon are ill planned, and badly kept ; and their va- 
ue and utility so little understood, that the same rent 
is given for inclosed and fields, provided both are 
le. Perhaps the province of Bearn exhibits more 
attention to the proper ae of inclosures than 
T 


Imple- 
anents. 


_ 1-6th of the w 


698 FRANCE: 


Statistics. most other districts of France. There is not a 


in England closer, thicker, or better inclosed ; 
what is uncommon in France, the and stiles are 
in order. Commons are not met with in France, 
at ect ie tien.namne conse. i Weis AT AIE a 
England; but common fields abound, they are 
cursed with all the mischievous consequences w 
attend them in England, such as rights of common pas- 
turage commencing on given days when under corn, 
and throughout the fallow year. There is a great deal 
of common field land in Picardy, Artois, part of Nor- 
mandy, the Isle of France, Brie, the Pays de Beauce, 
and a ang whole neg aren Loire. E oatk aie 
district, ‘armers are in the practice ing an 
exchange with the poor, who have the right of common 
pasturage. This they buy. off, assigning an acre or 
more to every cottage in the parish. 

It is a singular circumstance, that some of the poor- 
est and least improved provinces, are precisely those 
which are best and most generally inclosed: hence it 
is easy to perceive, that the mere existence of inclo- 
sures is not in France, as in England, a proof of the 
advancing state of agriculture. The chief cause of new 
inclosures in France, is, that the communities in many 
parishes, in different parts of the kingdom, and more 
especially in the vicinity of the Pyrenees, being pro- 
prietors of the wastes, sell them to any person who ap- 
plies for the property, in absolute assignment ; in con- 
sequence of which, the purchaser has the power of in- 
closure: whereas, in the waste plains of Brittany, An- 
jou, Maine, and Guienne, the seigneurs are the sole 
and absolute proprietors, and they will not sell, but only 
feu their estates. Herice the waste lands remain un- 
changed and unimproved. The government of France, 
before the Revolution, took some measures to enforce 
or facilitate a general inclosure with respect to some of 
the provinces, more particularly with regard to Lor- 
raine, in 1764 and 1765; but the ular objections 
and prejudices against inclosures, such weight, that 
at the commencement of the Revolution, strong remon- 
strances were presented against them, and certainly the 
proportion of inclosed land has not considerably increa- 
he cereal vey lem eral F 

icultural implements in use in France 

are very rude and anetliek in seneiats as well as in 
construction ; the plough in most parts is almost entirely 
of wood, and scratches and pushes forward the soil, in- 
stead of penetrating to any depth, or turning it over. 
In the vicinity the Pyrenees, a light imperfect 
plough, similar to what the Romans , and drawn 
by a pair of weak cows, is not uncommon. In the neigh- 
pet of Toulouse, a better plough is seen, Keety 
good construction, to which two strong oxen are yoked, 
theploughman driving them by meansof along staff, that 
answers the double purpose of a goad and a paddle. 
TRS. se, Of Cease She AHeOw, te, PROC Sonn AR 
France, and are yoked in a different manner from 
what is ised in England: A piece of wood, of about 
ight of an English yoke, is put across 

the forehead of the cattle, the extremities of which are 
neatly hollowed out, so as to fit the mould of the head, 
and the hollows lined with a piece of woolly sheep skin, 
to answer the purpose of a soft pad or cushion. This 


light and yoke is braced to the horns with a small 
thong of leather, to the middle of which the beam of 
the h is attached; the animals are thus complete- 


ly eqnipped for their labour. It seldom that 
more than two oxen are yoked in a plough. In the 
north of France, as well.as in some of the eastern, 
western, and middle provinces, horses are more com- 


manner, some farmers havethree binotsto eight 
some two binots to five 
ploughs. Only one and two 
ployed ; the furrow which it makes is from five to si 
es in depth, Its operation is different from that 
the common plough, since it does not turn over 
land, but elevates it into small ridges, by which 
the weeds are exposed i 
the dry weather. After the binot, the land is ah 
det a for the seed furrows, The harrows, in ge- 
neral use, are eaeeny imperfect in principle and con- 
0 


E 
as 
By 


Ss 
4 
5 
2 
Fs 
z 
Picts 


i 


France, each drawn by a single horse, with about half 
a dozen drivers a’ 

in common use, consists principally of two parts—the 
carriage and the body ; dhe carriage Gurt vey GEN, 
being composed of two long shafts of wood, about 20 
feet in length, connected together 


sion may require: in the same manner, the sides, a 
front and back may be added at pleasure. The axle 
and wheels are in the usual place and form. The move- 
able body is fixed on this carriage ; it consists ofa simi- 
lar frame work, of two shafts, connected by cross bars. 
This body moves upon an axletree, and extending some 
feet beyond the carriage behind, it is let down with 
ease to recover its load, while the body, moving on a 
pivot, or axle, is easily purchased up from before. 


In France, before the Revolution, and even since that Roads. 


event, the construction and repair of the roads is 
lodged with the government. The great military roads, 
especially that over the Simplon, are excellent, with re- 
to the principle on which they are constructed, 
the materials of which they are formed, and the 
whole of their gn But so bare which were 
not n ‘or military purp ve in 
shaancnelly negl H although it was stated, 
in the year 1806, by the minister of finance, that 
more than thirty-five millions of francs were annu- 
ally requisite for the reparation of the roads and public 
works. - 1809, a nonere of laws was pri 
garding the management e roads ; in-which a lz 
passed in the time of the Republic, for establishing the 
use of broad te 1 ye wheels, is strongly enforced. 
According to this law, the wheels of heavy waggons 
were to be nine inches three lines broad ; and they are 
allowed to only a certain weight, which varies du- 
ring the five winter and seven summer months. It was 
also enacted, that in those parts of the kingdom where 
the roads were paved, the passing upon the pavement 
should be suspended during those seasons when they 


by cross bars, so as _ 
to form the bed ; on this the boards are laid; ‘as ocea- 


FRANCE. 


w 


. have been very partially enforced; so that some of the 
best roads in France, undet'the old government, have 
fallen into complete disrepair. This has 


boundaries of the ki 
ls have been established since the Revolu- 
| epee ache rece . 
state i in any country may gene- 
pon ie 7 -C Som puligaliiel, ediartheo-eole erat 
ich i : If these are conducted on 

agri vi 

on the contrary, if bad rotations are pursued, 
agriculture has made very trifling advanees towards 
perfection. If we judge of France according to this 
rule, we shall decide, that, though over by far the 
est part of the kingdom agri is ina misera- 
state, yet in some parts it is well understood and 


We have mentioned the divisions of France 
into districts, eomaee i ee ane e 
shall now note the principal rotations pursued in 
district. a. 
principally prevail, according to one of which, in Flan« 
Sieo-aaed gunvetAetold; there isino tallow, but a con- 
stant succession of crops. The most and pro- 
ductive rotation is found between Valenciennes and 
Lisle: it consists of wheat, and turnips after it the 
same year; oats, clover, wheat, hemp, wheat, flax, 
coleseed, wheat, beans, wheat. In the provinces of 
Picardy, Isle of France, Normandy, and the other parts 
of Artois, the usual rotation was not in 
pane of fallow, wheat, and 
a open comma Ate nem sete 
and in other i een Di 
Rouen, where the soil is a deep hazle dedi. wpon 
frog Saw mer pena src we 
tion being fallow, wheat, pease, vetches, flax, or 
seed ; wheat, clover, oats. In the rich plain-of Alsace, 
the fields are never fallowed ; the fallow crops being 
potatoes, poppies for oil, , maize, vetches, clover, 
beans, hemp, tobacco, ras err the Limagne 
of Auvergne, one of the richest districts of France, fal- 
lows are partially used; but the usual: rotations, in 
other respects, are so severe, that only such a soil and 
climate could bear them ; it is not unusual to sow rye 
after wheat, and wheat after rye. The latter grain is 
often sown on their best land; and wheat on ‘their 
worst: a common rotation is barley, rye, hemp, rye: 
wheat is grown also after beans: two crops in the year 
are not unusual. 

As soon as ever the maize district of France is enter- 


699 
ed upon, fallows disappear ; that grain being cultivated 
. insuch a manner as to preclude fhe necessity of a fal- 


low. In the plain of the Garonne, the usual rotation is 
maize, wheat; and here also is first found the culture 
of different species of vetches, which are sown both in 

ber and in the spring ; and, er with hemp 
and maize, assist ih banishing fallows. Yet even in 
this highly favoured district, rye is often grown where 
wheat might be cultivated with advantage. Turnips 
are a second crop after wheat and rye. ‘ The culture of 
the white lupin is common here. ; 

In the heath district great quantities of buck wheat 
are grown, and in some parts parsnips: but broom is 
the great object and source of profit; the common 
course being broom sown with oats. The broom is fed 
for three or four years, and then cut; after it wheat is 
taken, then rye, buck wheat, and oats, or broom. This 
last is cultivated for fuel, as the district has neither 
coal nor wood. When the land is exhausted by this 
mode of cropping, it is and burned, abandoned, 
and by time recovered, that a succession of crops may 
bring it once more into the same situation. 


Statistics. 


in the maize 
district ; 


in the heath 
district ; 


In Gascony, the usual rotations are maize, wheat, in Gascony ; 


and turnips ; maize, clover cut once, and then plough- 
ed up for maize again ; rye, millet, haricots or bhinoys 
beans ; maize, rye, millet; and maize, rye, clover. 

In the districts of the Pyrenees, where irrigation is 
practised with considerable skill, and on an extensive 
scale, ‘fallow is superseded by the culture of clover, 
millet, maize, and haricots. Maize, however, is not 
cultivated in such large quantities as in other parts. 
Two crops are gained every year ; but where irrigation 
is not practised, the ground is fallowed, and afterwards 
millet, haricots, or barley sown for forage, before the 
wheat is put in. In Dauphiny, buck wheat is sown on 
the wheat stubbles; and, such is the earliness of the 
climate, that it is frequently in full blossom by the end 
of August. At 

The rotation in the stony district is particularly dis- 
tinguished, by the introduction of potatoes in some 
parts of it, as a preparation for wheat. Where this 
root is not cultivated on a large’ scale, and as a in 
regular rotation, the common course is fidlow: wheat 
or rye, and barley or oats. In the district of chalk the 
rotation is in <ee very bad. In the province of 
Sologne it is fallow and rye: certainly the very worst 
and most unprofitable that can be practised on any 
land. In the district of gravel, especially in the Bour- 
bonnois and Nivernois, the same w: rotation is 
pursued. The district of various loams is chiefly dis- 

inguished by the introduction of turnips into the ro- 
tation ; but, as we shall afterwards have occasion to re- 
mark, the culture of this valuable root is ill understood 
in France. 

From this account of the most common rotations in 
various parts of France, it will be seen, that in general 
they are conducted on very erroneous principles ; and 
that, even where they are good, the climate ought to 
have the-merit rather than the skill of the agricultu- 
rist. In the south of France, the climate enables him 
to take two in the’ season. This advantage is, 
however, also derived in French Flanders, entirely 

the .atterition and skill of the farmer. The 
in that district being ‘carrots, turnips, 
spurry, and yellow clover. 

The following, perhaps, will give a sufficiently 


in the dis- 
trict of the 
Pyrenees ; 


in the stony 
district. 


jre- General re- 


cise and clear view of the general rotations practised “+ 


in France. The arable land, that comprises nearly 
the whole of the kingdom, with the exception of the 


Wheat. 


ore carrera: the 


700 FRANCE. 


Statistics. vineyards, and a few tracts of mountain, be divi- 
—r~" ded into dive clasune, with seapect 40 fixtility of eal 


The first class bears a crop every year, as in most 
chi Meands Flanders, seems purtset Nessandiyy Gadde 
neighbourhood of Toulouse, 
where maize is cultivated, or irrigation 
em second class, which is rather infe- 
rior in point of soil, but is still good land, is cultivated 
with the intervention of a fallow once in six years, as 
about Dieppe and Rouen icularly ; once in five 
years, as in some parts of French Flanders, and in a 
few other districts. The third class of land, of mid- 
dling quality, which embraces a large ion of the 
i , is on the old , of fallow, wheat, 
i land, is fal- 
low and wheat alternately ; and the last class of land, 
where the soil is in eral miserably poor, is cultiva- 
ted in the round of fallow, rye, rest without seeds. 
As it is probable that the three last classes of soil com- 
prise the cultivated surface, and as half of them 
are er, it appears that ——— of the whole 
country is lying in a state entirely unproductive. The 
best hhashendicy dey Eeshice, thim,te it the aouitt kad in 
the north ; in the former, the goodness of the climate 
enables the agriculturist to raise maize and wheat al- 
ternately, and to have second crops of millet, clover, 
lupins, &c.; and in the north, the skill of the agricul- 
turist has, in a great measure, banished fallow. On 
the whole, so far as rotation of 


ral not better conducted than the rotation. Before, 
however, we proceed to notice the culture of —- 
pike pot pale gp A that the ——— 
of to well under- 


ri three weeks or a. month sooner than the wheat, 
sristn the Intec fn romped, alenees ther whcke.of Genders 
mer is shed and lost. 

Different kinds of wheat are n in France; the 

incipal of which are the ‘tlh eta various spe- 
cies of the common winter wheat, and spring wheat. 
What in England is called hedge wheat, where it is of 
com tively late introduction, has been long known 
in north of France, particularly at Calais, Lisle, 
and Dunkirk ; it is known there by the name of pullet 
wheat (b/é pullet), or white wheat (blanc 612), and it is 
regarded as wheat of the first quality. One of the best 
kinds of spring or summer wheat known in France, is 
called blé tremois ; the real summer wheat, trificum @s- 
tivum,—it is sown with success so late as:the end of 
May, pan eed a large increase. ‘The straw, too, is 
excellent . The produce of wheat in France per 
acre is smal]: Even in the best cultivated districts, and 
on the best soil, it cannot be averaged at more-than)/18 
or 20 bushels per English acre. In most -places .it is 
reaped ; this operation being performed, like the other 
agricultural ions in France, chiefly by women. 
An ae Barge, however, it ta the — 
process of harvesting is care’ performed. In 
a good year, in Picardy, 40. sheaves pes sar ror nt to 
produce a septier of wheat of 240lb, The »principal 
wheat districts of France, are French Flanders, Artois, 


7 iy of Normandy, the Limagne of Auvergne, 
part Pa &e. Beauce, a province which lies be- 


i 


Loire, is so extremel forthe ‘of wheat as to 
the Granary of Paris. The wheat of Narbonne is in 


French call square , or of autumn, because 
th a a ter en i 
bro Thi the commana aon in Fane thy 
in to sow it tow. is grain 
sakcoouiateliates 3; either made into 
made heen peaked Sahpeiteeh needs 
into : { 
hm Vy le rec omer en i ede 
ent arne. 1s. 5 a 
Charenton, near Paris. ing the culture of oats 


there is nothing that calls. for yas Rye, as it may Rye. 


have been observed from the rotations which have been 
specified, is very generally cultivated, principally 


i 
iG 
i 
fe 

E 
: 
1h 
pau 
tetas 


or the cattle; and, if the weather proves 


t 
| 
i 
: 
: 


[ 
E 


which seems to be unknown here; and whi 
in those who eat the grain so affected, the, 
ful complaints. The average produce. of 


Hi 

; 

3 

i 
aft 
FRre 
sai 
a 


the annual produce of these grains was 59,175,000.sep- 
tiers of 12 Paris eae Mem y: Pot np _ Ac- 
cording to Quesnay, the father of the sect of the econo- 
amists, it was 45,000,000 septiers. In the opinion of 


at 


barley, oats, and rye, in France. The -proportions of 


with any probability 

and-mioet-ate certainly. ced in, by far the greatest 
roportions ; perhaps, in i 

fiona: Barley and Motginneanie 

scale ; the latter, especially, in the south, from the two 

great heat of the climate, are not so much grown as in the 


north, and eb ree Cap are in ral ene 
Beans, suchas we cultivate in, are principal- 
ly grown in French Flanders ; besides these, the French °°*"* 


grow what they call feves de marais, or beans of the 
a a a a ery hr oye and a. 
They also dry them, but in state, they serve only 
mmigeeniinn don them in, Lent, 


be < Fae the akin. off bey pli 
buyi em green, an ing 
dain erecnaaien in the air. 


open air. 8 
or kidney beans are pretty cultivated as a fal- 
a they are carefully hoed,. and are very pro- 

ctive, 7 


The limits of the maize district. have already been Maize: 


noticed, in wuene-eh the climate of a and me, 
importance of this grain in an agricult point. 
view, has also been sufficiently pointed out, in the ac- 


. 
7 


FRANCE. 


_ Statistics. count of the rotations pursued in the south of the king- 
-—_~" dom. It.is planted in rows .or squares, so far asunder 


that all n y tillage may be given between them. 

part of the summer it affords, as it were, 
a rich meadow, the leaves being stripped regularly for 
fattening food, 
the cattle in 


t -will-maintain four cows 


hausting crop, in the Pays.de 

suligheticieabond ietamedionnds a claedtidee 
i without: manure; and_ this 
e : mentioned by 


shelter of these 


Buck wheat, Buck wheat is cultivated to considerable extent, par- 


Turnips. 


ticularly on the poorer:soils ; and being of rapid growth, 
sufficient time i allowed to clean the land, belore the 

; wheat.or rye is sown, Jt is much 
en ey ee and, in some parts, as has been 
already noticed, as green-tood for cattle: in this case, 
it is a stubble crop. 

A very few years before the Revolution, considerable 
exertions were made es a a several 
provinces, to. introduce the regular general culture 
of turnips. They distributed seed, and published small 
treatises on the proper and great advan- 
tages of this root; but their exertions seem to have 
been in a great measure unsuccessful ; for turnips are 

little cultivated in any of France. Mr Birk- 

» who travelled in 1814 i ‘through Paris 
and Lyons to the paw pa end) back by the route of 
Toulouse, says, he did not see a single acre of turnips, 
or even of raves, in his whole journey. | Thatthey are 
not grown in the south of France, he ascribes to the 
extreme dryness of the climate. This undoubtedly 


701 


would render them a very precarious crop ; but when 
he assigns. the severity of the winter in the northern 
districts of France, as the cause of their not being cul- 
tivated there, his reason does not seem equally good. 
In fact, they ave cultivated in French Flanders, in Al- 
sace, Lorraine, and in other-districts:in the north and 
east ; and. it from Mr Young’s Tour, in 1787, 
1788, 1789, that at that period they were not entirely 
nknown even in the middle and southern districts. In 
the department.of the Lot, raves, that is a kind of tur- 
nips with a carrot root, long, thin, and poor, are culti- 
vated ; these are also grown near Caen in Normandy, 
in the road to Bayeaux ; and in: Bresse, or the : 
ment of the Ain, where. they are known under the de- 
nomination of navets. Between St Palais and Bayonne, 
many turnips are grown in a si hu ; the 
wheat stubble is either burnt by itself, or where it has 
not been left long enough, straw is spread over it, and 
then it is set on fire. The ground thus cleaned of weeds, 
as well as manured, is then. sown with turnips. On 
the whole, however, the culture of this valuable root 
is very partially known in France ; and where known, 
is miserably conducted, as no hoeing is ever given 'to it. 
Potatoes have not been long cultivated, even as a gar- 
den. crop, in France, and as a field crop to any extent, 
or under good. ent, they are yet comparative- 
ly little known. The Lyonnois was one of the first 
istricts in France where they were cultivated. At their 
introduction, they were called white truffles, from the 
root bling the truffle in form, and from their being 
dry, like a, out of the d. It is computed, 
that since this valuable root was brought into general 
use in the Lyonnois, the consumption of corn has been 
lessened one-third ; the inhabitants give them to their 
cattle and poultry, and the of this district is 
highly celebrated. Soon after M. Turgot was appoint- 
a , A.D. tL 
to his ity the cultivation of potatoes. ie peo- 
at aipnieaating root with apprehension, or dis~ 

in, as beneath the dignity of the human ies ; and 
they were not reconciled to it, till the intendant had 
caused it tobe served at his own table, and to the first 


* elass of citizens, and had introduced it among the 


fashionable and rich. At present, a ‘vast quantity of 
potatoes, of a tolerable good quality, are grown in the 
provinces of Poitou, Normandy, Limosin, Gatinois, 
and the Isle of France, aes in. less quantities in 
other districts. 

‘are cultivated in French Flanders, Alsace, 
and a few other districts. In the neighbourhood of 
Strasburg icularly, this plant is cultivated on a 
very extensive scale, but almost entirely for the con- 
sumption of Holland and Mentz, to which places it is 
calculated that cabbages to the value of above 30,000 
crowns are sent annually. In) French Flanders, the 
Brassica arvensis of Linnzeus, there called Colza, is cul- 
tivated in astonishing quantities by the farmers. ‘There 
are two kinds of colza,. one ‘called white colza, because 
the leaves of the flower are white ; the other, cold col- 
za, the leaves of which are larger and thicker. It has 
this name, because it supports better the rigours of win- 
ter. ‘This plant is cultivated on rather a strong rich 


‘soil, ‘There are two modes of sowing it; either in a 


nursery. to be transplanted, or in the usual mode. The 
white ‘colza requires less manure than the cold colza. 
The seed is commonly ripe about the end of June or 
July. The plant is cut -with a sickle, having a sharp 
edge. . Colza-intended solely for winter food, is sown in 
June in a field prepared for the purpose ; it is cut, and 


Statistics. 


Potatoes. 


Cabbages. 


Tape. 


Spurry. 


Parsnips. 


Lupins. 


Clover, 


702 FRANCE 


Statistics. given to the cattle in the course of the winter ; and af- 
—\— 


terwards the stalks are cut some inches above the sur- 
face of the earth, and they will furnish a second 

of leaves in the spring. Colza furnishes the best o1 
that can be extracted the soil of the north. In the 
central of France, the oil of walnuts supplies the 
want of the colza, which is but little cultivated there. 
The mass remaining after the extraction of the oil, 
makes a good winter food for cattle. The corn that is 
sown after — is generally both abundant, and 
of excellent quality. : r 

Rape is extensively cultivated in French Flanders, 
Artois, &c. but not in the other districts of the king- 
dom. ie mmm a small quantity of 
ground, that has been fallowed, well d , and’ work- 
ed repeatedly os ae binot or plough. is af- 
terwards transplanted into a field, that had formerly 
produced winter barley, or winter wheat. The young 
plants are put into the ground, either by the dibble, or 
by the plough. Rape is either as green food for 
sheep, or for the sake of oil. The latter is the more 
common, as well as the more profitable. In a small 
circle round Lisle, there are 450 windmills for extract- 
ing oil from the seeds produced in that nei urhood, 
In the year 1810, the produce was estimated as follows: 
Ist, 180,000 pictolitres of oil, at 109 francs each, in Eng- 
lish money £817,580; 2d, The cakes 'valued at one- 
sixth part, £ 136,260; the total value of the produce 
£ 958,840. The crops of wheat after rape in French 
Flanders, are reckoned to be better than those that are 
grown after fallow. Poppies are also cultivated in the 
northern districts of France for their oil. 

In the same district of France, where indeed the 
most spirited and successful agriculture is carried on, 
spurry (Spergula arvensis) is cultivated. After the 
crops have been , the grain is slightly ploughed 
and sown with it. In October, the cows are tethered 
on it. The butter from the milk thus obtained, is call- 
ed we ay butter, and it is employed for the use of the 
ki , a8 being both cheaper and more profitable than 
any other for that purpose. 

In some parts of Brittany, parsnips are cultivated. 
The seed is sown in F or March, and the par- 
snips are raised out of the ground in October or No- 
vember. They are chiefly employed in fattening cat- 
tle and hogs. Lupins ( principally Lupinus albus) are 
grown very extensively in the southern districts, either 
on the wheat stubbles, as winter food for their flocks ; 
or for the sake of the seed, which is eaten by the inha- 
bitants. Of all the species of clover, trefoil, or yellow 
clover, is most-abundant, especially in the south. It is 

erally sown as forage on the wheat stubbles.” In 
the district of the Pyrenees, these are ploughed in the 
beginning of A and the clover seed is harrowed, 
or rather rubbed in by-means ofa piece of wood fixed 
to the oa This clover produces much luxuriant 
and valuable food for sheep and -Jambs early in the 
spring, after which it is watered,-and produces by the 
end of May a full crop of hay.; it is then ploughed up, 
and haricots, maize, or millet:planted, either.of which 
is off in time for putting in wheat. The other kinds of 
clover, till very lately, were scarcely met with any where 
except in French Flanders ; but within these very few 
years, what the French call Praires artificielles, which 
were less pope een , have been introdu- 
ced into several districts, Sin these and turnips, the 
two grand distinguishing features of good husbandry in 
on Britain, are comparatively little known or v. 
in France, ~ 


became at length 


» sixteen, twenty, and even thi 


originally from Media; and ing through Persia, it 
ee 

it assiduously, and recommended it prs eran 
Greece it was transferred to Italy, and before the time of 
Cs ne pean ate i credit with the Ro- 
mans. It ished with them as long as their empire 
flourished. Before the destruction of the empire, it seems 
Oe Davis eve canes Sane ee eer 
troduced there by the Moors, with whom, during their 
abode in that country, it was in high esteem. ; 
the arts revived, it returned again into Italy, and was 
assiduously cultivated in that country, especially in the 
kingdom of Naples ; thence it advanced into the south« 
ern part of France; and from the place where it «was 
first or principally cultivated, it was called grand , 
trefle, or foin de Bourgogne. The era of its i Cc 
tion into France is not accurately known ; but as it 
passed from that country into the Palatinate, upwards 
of 250 years PM a ad as 
cultivated in France. It is now grown in Pi 5 

of France, Rousillon, * Gascony, Poitou, 


toa extent, and partially in other districts 
ieingdeen: It is invariably sown broadcast, and , 
rally without corn, sometimes with oats. It is 
cut for the first time, in the southern districts, about the 
Where iigation is pesotaed, i teswatseed every 
Where irrigation is i it is» every 
days after the. first cutting, to the extent of five cuttings 
in all, If the land be not watered, it is cut thrice with 
a full product, where the soil and climate are favour~ 
able, and the management good. The watering, how~ 
ever, brings it to maturity, or rather decay compara- 


tively quickly, since in this case its duration is not 


above seven or eight years, but on other lands twelve, 
years. In some parts 
of Rousillon, they take three crops of wheat after lu- 
cerne. This crop is apt to get weedy. In which case, 
in some of the southern districts, it is cleaned by means 
shay vng sty weather ‘This operation, perform 
8 wi , 

ed at this season, kills the weeds, but not injure the 
lucerne. Where the land is not very rich, or where it is 
not intended to crop it severely, the ice of sowi 


sowing 
wheat after it, is not pursued ; but oarley and oats cut, 


green, or made into hay, and not to ri are 
taken. By this the roots of the: ne, 
which are not easily or soon eradicated, and which 
would prove injurious to of corn, are turned to 
advantage, the shoots from with the fo« 
rage of the barley or oats. The pro 

varies considerably in weight. In 

of Liancourt, where it is well ; 
will yield 1600 bottles of hay, each of 12 1b. or 19,2001 
which is above seven tons the English acre. In general, 
the crop may be estimated at 12,000 lb. or rather more 
than five tons the English acre. The hay made from 
the two first cuttings, is 'y given to horses. The 
hay from the three cuttings to cows. We have been 
thus particular in our account of the lucerne husbandry 


.of France, since, as we have already remarked, it forms 
snouishine f , 


,one of its best and most di 

. Sainfoin is not nearly so 
eertainly by no means so, well nor so valuable 
a crop, either in its actual produce, or as a preparation 


ae aie 


we 


" ‘Tobacco. 


Carraway. 


FRANCE. 103 


"Statistics. for other crops, as lucerne is, In England, sain- 
—Y~ foin generally lasts from eight to twelve years. In 


France, it lasts more than four or five years. It 
is usually sown with a second or third crop of corn ; 
and, in some the farmers do not think of this 
cae their are so full of weeds, and so ex- 

, that will produce corn no longer. This 
management, the circumstance that their leases are 
generally short, seldom extending beyond nine years, 
sufficiently accounts for this crop not being kept in the 
ground pete in England ; for certainly with 
respect to soil, France is peculiarly favourable for 
this-crop ; and yet in some ofthe districts where it 
might be introduced with great advantage and profit, 
it is not grown: The culture of tobacco was formerly 
prohibited in France, ex in certain parts: as Pont 
de l’Arche ; Normandy ; Vertus, in the department of 
the Marne ; Picardy ;. Mont Auban; Tonnung, asmall 
town in the department of the Lot and Garonne ; Cle- 
rac, another town in the same department. Hainault, 


Artois, and Franche Compté, were canes exe a 
y 


but the soil of these provinces was deci e to 
the cultivation of the tobacco plant. At present, it is 
principally cultivated in Alsace. The average uce 
of France is estimated at twelve million pounds annu- 
ally but the quality is not good. 

t has ly incidentally appeared, that millet is 
cultivated to a considerable extent in the southern dis- 
tricts of France. \ In some of Gascony, it is sown 
on three feet ri with irregular rows on each 

i and ully hoed. In other parts, it is sown 
idge for ridge in the same fields with rye. In order 
to the millet from its chaff, the French d it in 
dap hep evtcinsait oumchaseo poven: Se pmlabeine 
eep su ly to ent the grai i 
crushed. In the southern unsafe. especially 
in the vicinity of Bourdeaux, they prepare from the 
winnowed millet seed boiled in milk, a very favourite 
mess, not unlike rice milk ; they also e the seed 
into cakes, pastry, &c. Millet is * grain, that thrives 
well urider irrigation, which is liberally bestowed upon 
- com = oe phertifall F 
way grows 'y in France, and is sent 
particularly fom Languedoc and Provence in large 
iti —— where pit ok consumption 
it among the druggists, ies, confectioners, 
distillers, &c. Flax is cultivated largely in many parts 
of France ; but more i ly in French Flanders, 
Alsace, in La Maine, jou, Languedoc, Brittany, and 
Normandy. It is also found in the garden, or small 
farm of every peasant, for domestic use. The flax hus- 
bandry is carried to the greatest perfection in the vici- 
nity of Lisle, where it is raised every six years without 
injuring the soil. Land that has carried a crop of 
w. or oats after clover, is preferred. Repeated 
ploughings, harrowings, and plenty of rape’ cake or 
night soil, are given. In every part of France where 
flax is cultiv: a good crop, that is, flax of fine quali- 


- ty, is to a large and res at Be 
ir 


haps obtain the fine stapled flax, of which 
cambrics and lawns. are made. Hemp is cultivated in 
Flanders, Picardy, in she. tornitcna at Rennes, St Malo 
and Dol in Brittany, bf ra at: by pita Om 
large space ; in Upper Languedoc, in Au- 
same ahemnshenel te peculiarly adapted to its cul- 


ture. But perhaps of all the provinces of France, Al- 
sace, i part of what is called the plain of Al- 
pc i lc ous for the culture of hemp. 


ly fam’ 
It is also. rown like flax in the gardens, &c. of the peas 
5 


sants, for their domestic use. Neither hemp nor flax Statistics. 
is -cultivated in sufficient abundance for home con- 
sumption. Previously to the Revolution, the naval 
consumption alone of hemp was 400 millions of pounds, 
more than one-third of which was imported. : 
Many plants used in dyeing are cultivated extensive- Madder. 
ly in France. Madder is grown in the vicinity of Avig- 
non, and in other of the south, but to a much 
greater extent in Alsace. Into this province it was in- 
troduced during the reign of the Emperor Charles V. 
and by the exertions of that sovereign himself; but the 
cultivation of it was not of much consequence till about 
sixty years ago, since which time the growers and 
makers of it have been able to rival the Dutch in 
supplying the manufactures of France. This extend- 
ed cultivation was. principally the effect of a decree of 
council in 1756, which promised privileges and ex- 
emptions to those who, in clearing marshes, should 
plant them with madder ; for though it was soon found, 
that this plant will not thrive nearly so well on marshy 
land as on a dry and kindly soil, yet. this measure of 
the French government directed the attention of the 
farmers of Alsace and other districts to this plant. Be- 
_fore the Revolution, it was calculated that 3000 acres 
were under madder in the department of the Lower 
Rhine, and principally in the vicinity of Haguenan. 
The Revolution was injurious to its cultivation ; for, in 
1796, 7, 8, and 9, there were only 600 or 700 acres in 
cultivation : in 1800, the plantations had increased to 
850 acres; and, since that time, the culture has ex- 
tended, though it has not nearly reached what it was 
before the Revolution. An.acre produces, in common 
years, 12 or 15 cwt. of dry madder. The crop of 
1778 was uncommonly abundant, being 50,000 ewt. ; 
in 1780, 34,000 cwt. was produced; in 1798, only 
8000 cwt.; in 1799, 10,000 cwt.; at present, about 
15,000 ewt, , 

After much trouble and repeated trials, the manufac- 
turers of madder in Alsace succeeded in rendering it near- 
ly equal in quality to that of Zealand ; and it is said, that 

ermany and Switzerland prefer it for their red dyes. 
On account of the smallness of the crops, the whole 
produce is consumed’ within the year by the circumja- 
cent manufacturers, except a 1 quantity that is ex- 

to Switzerland and Germany ; but from 1776 
to 1796, when Lower Alsace uced annually from 
40,000. to 50,000 cwt., about one half was used in 
France alone; the remainder went to England, Ger 
many, Switzerland, and even Italy ; houses at Genoa, 
Milan, and Leghorn, being supplied from Haguenau, 
There are nine fabrics or manufactures of madder in 
the department of the Lower Rhine, besides which 
there are five madder mills, and about eighty dyeing 
houses, : 

Weld is very common in many of the French pro- wy, 
vinces, pa a in the environs of Paris ; and in 


Normandy, ially about Rouen., It is usually sown 
in the fields harricots, hoed frequently, and. drie 
carefully after cutting, 


uedoc has long been nay es San Woag. 

of woad: the best grows in r loc, parti- 
cularly in the pom of. Alby. What we style a ball, 
they call cocagne ; and such a source of wealth was this 
t in former times, that pais de cocagne is still a 
rench phrase for a country of abundance. This arose, 
not merely from the great quantity of woad sold, but 
from its leaving the soil in an excellent state for grain, 
in consequence of the extraordinary culture which it 
required. At that period, it was the great staple of. 


Statistics. 
— 


Orchilla: 


French ber- 


Saffron. 


Turnsol. 


- pared by a long 


Sumach. 


704 
Languedoc ; but, by the decrease of the demand for it 


i" at home and abroad; the culture of it has comparative- 


ly declined, and given place to that of millet. In Lan- 
guedoc five are gathered in one year. Great care 
is taken both in the cultivation, and in the subsequent 
preparation of it. When the leaves become yellow, 
they are gathered and carried directly to a mill, much 
resembling the oil or tan-mills, and ground into a 
smooth paste. This is laid in heaps, pressed close and 
smooth, andthe blackish crusts, which forms on the 
outside, reunited, if it should happen to crack. In 
this state it lies for fifteen days, when the heaps are 
opened, the crust rubbed and mixed with the inside, 
and the matter formed into oval balls, which are 
ed close and solid in wooden moulds. These are dried 
upon hurdles; they turn black on the outside if ex- 
to the sun; if in a close place, yellowish, espe- 
cially if the weather be rainy. The’ dealers prefer the 
first. The balls are distinguished by their 
weighty, of an agreeable smell, and of a violet colour 
within when they are rubbed. 

Orchilla weed can scarcely be said to be cultivated : 
it however grows in abundance, and ofa good quality, 
in Aw e. There is also in this province a» kind of 
moss different from the real orchilla, known by the 
name of orseille de terre, orseille d’A e, which is 
used for dyeing, but it contains fewer and lighter co- 
louring ities! The real orchilla is prepared in 
France, for the purpose of dyeing, by being ground 
betwixt stones, moistened occasionally with spirits of 
wine, and somade up in a paste, which they call or- 
seille en piite. French berries, that is, the berries of 
the Riamnus infectorius, are grown abundantly in the 
south of France, particularly in the vicinity of Avig- 
non, whence they are called graines d’ Avignon. They 
aré used considerably in the south and middle of France, 
to give a yellow dye, chiefly for silk. They are ga- 
thered unripe; bruised, steeped, and’ then: boiled in 
water mixed with the ashes of vine stalks, to’ give a 
‘body, and then passed through fine linen. The’ colour 
they give is fine, but very evanescent, especially when 
ex to the sun. 

’ Saffron is cultivated about Toulouse, Angouleme, in 
the principality of Orange, near Avignon, in‘Norman- 
dy, Angoumois, and Gatinois. The best saffron in 
France comes from Boisne in Gatinois, where the soil 
is amere sand. The saffron of Angoumois is perhaps 
next in quality, and is grown there in great abundance. 
This plant seems to have been introduced into Spain by 
the Moors, and from Spain into France. The roots are 
liable to many maladies‘in France, which are unknown 
here. There is nothing’ peculiar in the’mode of cul- 
ture, except that sometimes, in the very height of the 
season, they pull the flowers in the evening as well’ as 


in the morning, instead’ of only in the morging, as is 
practised in En d. Turnsol, a valuable dyeing 
drug, is chiefly in the village of Grand Gar- 


largues, near Montpellier, from the croton tinclorum, 
which the French call marille. The flowering tops, in 
the latter end of July a. August, are pre- 
process, linen or ien-rags dip- 

te in their juice. ‘These are packed’ and sold under 
name of fournois en drapeaux. These’ shreds are 
chiefly used for tinging wines, cheese; linen, and’ { 
* Sumach is cultiv. in the neighbourhood of Mont- 
pellier, where it is called r2dout, or roudou; Its shoots 
are cut down every year quite ‘to the root, and, after 
they are dried, they are reduced to [se otey Pe a mill. 
Horehound is another plant used‘in France‘for dyeing. 

3 


FRANCE. 


To it the Frenclt manifieturers are chiefly indebted 
for the deep black colour of their cloths. 
But our limits will not allow us to enumerate all the 
lants raised or used in France for the of 
eing ; and we must also omit the 1 lants, 
of which there are not a few in the southern districts ; 
as well as the aromatic plants, which grow in t 
abundance all round’ M furnish 
mes for which ‘this place 
ler the eiptlletey (enuideaté bt) te partied 
er the capil (maiden’s hai abun- ; 
dant, and thas frby ands Reciriy is tn high repueaton °°? 


all over Europe. 
. Hops are also in France, but their cultivation Hops. 
is not distinguished by any peculiarity or excellence, 
nor are they grown in n such abundance, nor of 
so good quality, as in England ; the demand for them 
being much more limited, in consequence of the com+ 
paratively confined use of beer as a beverage. ©” 
Teasels are’ cultivated with ‘much assiduity in Lan- Teasels. 
guedoc, Normandy, and Picardy, for the same : 
‘or which they are in England. Those of Pi- 
cardy are esteemed the best that grow in France. Ac- 
cording to the trades in which they are principally a 
used, they distinguish them into chardon ‘bonnelier, ‘ 
chardon drapier, chardon foulon, in general chardon. 
niere, and smaller ones are called teles des li 
linnets’ heads, They commonly lant their tea- 
sels in France, in order to improve their heads, and in 
some places horse-hoe them. Before the Revolution, 
teasels were regarded as so essentially in the 
manufacture of woollen goods, that the 
them was prohibited, except by licence. now in 
France, as in England, their use is in a great measure 
yi taetege by improvements in machinery. 
parta, or s grass, a ies of fibrous grass, or Sparta 
junk, grows abucclately on the sea-shore in Provence, grass. 
edoc, and some other provinces of France. It is 
pet frat pe mage nee = ropes, but in 
that of mats, anda sort of carpet, which is looked’upon 
in France as being extremely ornamental to a room. 
Swallow-wort, a hardy plant that grows in the ‘south 


of France, contains in its seed- les ‘a kind of' silk, 
that is used for st pillows, and also for manufac- 
turing of a su quality: romtal > 
' The est in the south of ce” ‘com- Harvest. 


mences about the middle or end of June, in the cen+ 
tral provinces about the middle’ of July, and in the 
north of France about the beginning of August; but 
in the high grounds, especially in Auvergne, the har- 
vest is very late, oats aes unfrequently green in 
the middle of August. It has ‘already been mentioned, 
that women are pri employed in the harvest 
operations ; indeed, agricultural operations of all kinds 
are conducted more frequently, and on a more exten- 
sive and independent scale, by them in France than in 
most other countries. ‘The Hainault sickle is used in 
French Flanders, and in parts of the north and east’ of 
France: The sickle more generally, and’ the commen 
scythe in some districts, even for the wheat. The har- 
vest operations are by no means carried on with neat- 
ness or method ; and the excellence of the climate is 
such, in most of prother Foet that these: defi-« 
ciencies are seldom attended with much loss.” 
epson any corn ae orale to ae ent 
ar ‘the corn r er put 
into barns, the size Tewwhich, in‘ some Gin is enors 
y after harvest, in 


ing, however, can 


Thrashing. 


mous, or thrashed’ out imm 
the open fields ; this mode of th 


Statistics. be practised 


FRANCE. 


in the southern parts: of the kin. 
st cl he 


Ym" There harvest is not considered as finished. 


thrashingis done. Where it is performed by the flail in 
poe > cater ein, repo arermern family 
ner of it, ifthrashing-floors they may be called ; for all the 
ee eee shovelling aside the loose mould 
ind a good sweeping. The size of course is in propor- 
tion to the number of le, which is from two to 
twelve ; rarely more than the latter. They thrash and 
winnow about seven Winchester bushels in a day, 
Where the corn is trodden out, instead of bei a 
ed by thie flail, horses and mules are employed: oxen, 
which are used in most of the ‘other operations of hus- 
Eeieyaees weitons chSensonengiie adie tbs. The num- 
ber of horses or mules varies: sometimes there are four 
mules and four men ; sometimes only two mules and 
two men; Coe eae twelve or fourteen mules or horses 
Eo rim sometimes even as many as twenty-four. 
The mules or horses, as well as men, are hired 
at forty sous for each mule or horse, the same for 
each man: the latter have their boatd besides. With 
24 horses or mules, their drivers (who are paid in kind, 
grain ed,) ande15 

they can thrash of wheat from 
in tags args me a Gigi ie ge 
bags per day, it costs about per English. bushel. 
The common practice is to lay three or four: layers of 
wheat, barley, oats, &c. upon some of the field, 
under, a; central tree; the and: mules 

are then driven upon and round it, in all directions, a 
woman being in the centre, like a pivot, and holding 
the reins: horses, are sometimes driven. by little 


1 on in, the open air, through 
t any means of protection 
against a sudden change. Indeed a soaking rain could 
possibly do harm, as a day’s sunshine, or even the 
the night, would soon evaporate it. 
means used in France to improve the soil or par- 
See veer y paring and burn- 
and irrigation... In. most of districts, there is 
peculiar in the manures employed, or in 
managing them, The small towns and 


e 
5 


4 ie 
j 


‘ 


s. 
i 
Be 


RE 
£ 
i 
“8 sf 
= 
: 
8, 
& 
: 
3 


a 
E 


dong.af cattierand horvas withthe: tries ashes; lime; 
the urine of animals collected with care in brick cis, 


3 marl; refuse of horns, 


VOL. IX. PART I, 


705 


Although the price of this last article is only 3d. Statistics. 
ton —— scavengers, “the town 


-and 9d. to the farmers, the town 
of Lisle alone produces as much as would sell for about 
1.4200 a year. Besides these manures, Dutch ashes 
are extensively employed as a dressing for clover: these 
are the ashes of the peat or turf brought: principally 
from Friesland: by their application, great crops of 
clover are raised, and the subsequent crops are also im- 

ved.. From the nature of the soil and climate, drain- 
ing is requisite only in very few parts of France; and 
in the practice, there is nothing particular or commend 
able: The marshes in. some of the sea districts have 
been partially drained, but this improvement is by no 
means carried on with spirit, Louis XIV. made a pre- 
sent to Marshal Turenne of the marshes of Bourgoigne, 
in the department of Isere, on condition that he would 
drain them; but neither he nor his api is Be a 
accomplished it... In some provinces, a singular kind o' 
husbandry is practised ; thes nds are drained, and cul- 
tivated.for a few years, till they lose their fertility, 
when the water is again eniaed to: accumulate, and 
the same ois repeated. Respecting: paring and 
burning, which is very partially practised, and, scarce« 
ly ever for any other purpose, or at least with any other 
effect but to impoverish.and exhaust the land, itis un- 
necessary to enter into details. 


Irrigation is the most remarkable feature in the mode Irrigation. 


of improving land. in France, or, to speak more cor+ 
rectly, in the mode of increasing its fertility ;—and its 
effects are. wonderful, Irrigation, however;:is by» no 
means general: in trayelling from Calais to the Pyren- 
nees, Lo oe observes, he first met with it in La 
Marche, between La Ville au Brun, and. Bossie,: after 
he had passed oyer considerably more, than half the 
i ; thence. it is practised, with little interrup- 
tion, to the Pyrenees, and the whole, district,of those 
mountains from Perpi almost) to Bayonne: is wa- 
tered, Through all the north of France; comprehend~ 
ing every thing north of the Loire, there are only afew 
im traces of it in some of Normandy, and 
in the Beauvoisis. In Picardy, Flanders, Artois, Cham- 
e, Franche Compté, Burgundy, and the Bourbon- 
nois, it is unknown. In Alsace and Lorraine, it is par- 
tially practised for their meadows. .,On,the whole, hard- 
ly more than one third of the kingdom. can be said ‘to 
understand and practise irrigation... nT estibes 
. But where; it, is ised, it.is upon, a large scale, 
and. with wonderful. spirit. and: success. , By means of 
it, artificial fertility is conferred on some of the barren 


mountains, ef theCevennes,,, As the ‘waters that run In the Ce- 
considerable, quantities of earth vennes. 


down the sides 
into the ravines, walls, of loose stones are constructed, 
which it the waters. to pass when, they. are. clear; 
but when turbid, their load of earth is gradually de- 
posited inst the wall, and afford a quantity of ex- 
cellent Par Successive ramparts are thus erected to 
the very top of the mountain ; and the water having 
no longer.a violent fall, nourishes, instead of injuring 
the crops. In order to give security and consistence to 
the new acquisition of soil, fruit trees are planted at 
certain intervals. Perhaps the greatest exertion, in ir- 
rigation.to be seen in France, occurs in Lan, 
Raney of the. town of Gange: a solid. s 
timber masonry is, formed. across a considerable 
river between two rocky mountains, to force the water 
inte a very fine canal, in which. it is, on an average, 
six feet broad by five deep, and half a mile long, built 

on the side, of a mountain, and. walled in; a wheel, . 

AD 


, in In Langue. 
stank of 49% 


706 
Statistics. with a hollow peri , Yaises a ion of the-water 
—v~" of this canal to the height of $0 feet; an aqueduct cons 
across the river, 


Sener te tonne Onna 
to water the higher grounds; while the canal below 
carries the larger part of the water to the lower fields. 
Meadows are watered in some parts of Gascony, and in 
the vicinity of Avignon;—an unusual thiing in the South 


of France. 


But the most instances of irrigation; 
are to be met with in the si desert of La Crau, 
already described, and in the Pyrenees, In advancing 


from Salon into the Crau, about four miles before it 
commences, the road crosses the canal of Borsgelin. 
« The old canal of Crappone, at the same place; is seen 
distributing water in various directions, for the amelio- 
ration of one of the most arid tracts that is to-be met- 
with in the world.. The canal of Crappone takes its 
waters from the Darance at La Roche, and carries it to 
the southern part of it at Istres.. This»canal is 40 miles 
long. | That of Bois Selin receives it from the same: ri- 
ver at Malavort, and ing the other; divides it into 
three branches: one of which leads to the lands in the 
neighbourhood of Istres ; the second to St Saumus and 
Magran, and this part of the Craw; the third is a small 
one that turns to the left towards Salon. In conse- 

quence of water being thus conducted:to a region where 

it is so much wanted, some very capital improvements 

have been wrought. Some large tracts of the Crau have 
been broken up, and planted with vines, olives, mul- 

berries, and ‘converted into corn and meadow.’ The 
corn has not succeeded ; but the meadows, according 

to Mr Young, are amongst the most extraordinary spec- 

tacles that the world can afford, in respect to the ama- 

zing contrast’ between the soil im its natural and in its 

watered state, covered richly and luxuriantly with clo- 

ver, chicory, ribgrass, and avena elatior. 

In describing the irrigation of the eastern Pyrenees, 
we shall use the words of Mr Birkbeck, who, in his 
tour France in 1814, observed every thing re- 
‘lative to its agriculture with the eye of a most shrewd 
-and intelligent observer, and who has recorded his 
observations in the most clear and impressive man- 


ner, 

“ The copious and pure streams issuing from the 
P. Tee digit lnosed $6 thnie-unbes with the 
Medlaresens, are most economically and’skilfully di- 
rected to the p of irrigation. On the mountain 
sides, the streamlets, as they trickle fromthe rocks, 
are collected) into channels, above every little portion 
of arable ground, which they render surprisingly fertile. 
These rills uniting, form larger streams ; and these, with 
great labour and ingenuity, are kept up by artificial 
channels, and only ‘to descend as they 
the office of irrigation. The'same attention is paid to 
the larger streams united, which become’a considera- 
ble river in the lower lands of Rousillon. | This is di- 
vided and subdivided, unites, and is again divided, so 
that every portion of the surface seems to enjoy its 
due share. The soil of Rousillon is sandy, and appa- 
rently not very rich ; but, by the joint influence of wa- 
ter and sun, vegetation is vigorous beyond any thing I 
had ever before witnessed: Where a mountain side, or 
a portion of the land, is so situated, as to be inaccessi- 
ble to the water, it is planted with vines, to which wa- 
tering is not applicable, as it injures the quality of the 
wine, without increasing the quantity sufficiently to 
compensate, On the contrary, to olives, irrigation’may 
be with prodigious advantage, an instance of 
which came under my observation. This crop had ge- 


FRANCE. 
nerally failed, owing to the inary coldness of Statistic 
the early’ part of the tamiaans and one of a la m4 =~ 


olive ground was, like the rest of the country, 
out fruit ; the other half, which had been watered seve« 


irrigation, systematically arranged! for 
on nee . the whole, is a be ag ah have not heard 
i master’s hand seems to have planned and 
pt a all, before the iation of the soil, others 
wise private interest have interfered and marred 
the desi However that may have been; every man 
now finds a ‘ canal d’arrosement’ passing above hi 
field, and a ‘ canal de dessechement, at the bottom, 
which latter is the ‘ canal d’arrosement,’ in its turn’ for 
ss ecealaesei 
manner of ing the water is’ex 
ple. yep estar he, oad bade auth, om Seen 
which the water flows gently into a w made by the 
pine? sede higher side of the field, and in a few 
ours soaks : the whole soil, until it reaches the 
lower side, which jetes the op re 


&: 


i 
aL 
if 
it 
ree 
Ll 


ik 
f 
aS 
LE 
a 


P 
u 

i 
ig 


iE 


eat 
es the clods 
ing the surface. is is equi to our S 
dis splstehiing is to our plougting. The weeds a 
stubble are but little affected by this process 
ing and ing. However, that matters 
water is now introduced ; the trefoil starts .as | 
instantaneously ; and in October or November 
deep, and fed off by the sheep. Water is applied 
time to time; and in Jan or February it i 
again ; and lastly, in May it is mown for ha: 
crop. Immediately as the hay is 
gro on, eolren terpenes 
goes on, the crop is reaped, and 
four’ hings, as a preparation for 
tl er amd) irre or November.” 
the history of one year, under familiar and | 
ractice.” , 

4 The richest arable land, when watered, sells for nearly 
double what land of as good quality not capable of being 
watered will bring. Besides the districts already men. 
tioned, where i ion i 


z 


: 


é 
zg 


7 7 


> 
z 
z 


E 
22d 


i 


% 


i 
HI 


t 


very productive. Irrigation is applied ‘to the culture 
of hemp in Auvergne. a iol 

Besides e reg ug the mountainous districts 
in the centre an 


materials for a low wall around the edge. The int 
val is afterwards filled with earth, and’the barren moun 
tain is crowned with luxuriant terraces, 17 


=——) © 


FRANCE. 


thrown together without being trodden, it loses the Statistics, 
ce, whicha —_— sun acting on it, while “~~” 


Ir must have sufficiently. from the‘account 
already given of the agriculture of France, that the 
meadows and p of that country bear a very small 
Eprcton to the arable land, and that comparatively 

dependance is placed on their produce, for the 
breeding or ing of cattle or . Indeed as the 
cattle and of tracts of land are entire- 
ly ty agree edeyi lucerne, &c. and as the climate 
of by far the greatest part of the kin, is not well 


their husbandry. The 
calculates the meadows at 15,000,000: arpents ; is, 
at one-fourth of what he makes the arable land. But 
they do not amount to one- 

quantity, and estimates the meadows and 
at 4,000,000 English acres ; not 
arable land. This ‘seems a very small 


: can form a 
‘very small proportion indeed of the area of France. 
most extensive, and certainly the most fertile, 
oospes-orbidy ete are to be Sethi ganashe Goce 
moisture climate, aided by the generally 
and rich soil of this province, is extremely fevectitbble 


to ; and as the farmers here are certainly equal 
at in intelligence, capital, attention, and skill to 
those in other of France, those ad are 


turned to the best account. oA ne, Seat 
d’ Auge are i celebrated ; and of these, 

‘to be found in any country, In 1789, when Mr Young 
visited these pasturages, the rent of the highest was 
about £4: 7: 6 the acre, measured by the perch of 22 
feet; and the price about £87, 10s. the acre. In seve- 
ral of the provinces, there ate also salt marshes that are 
as meadows, to the fattening of cattle, particu» 

in Normandy, about Isigny and Carentan, in Poi- 

&e. 


tou, Sain’ itonge, 7] 

The of hay in is very slovenly. 
‘It is not unusual to see the produce of a field carried 
away in sheets and blankets, or even in the arms, ‘and 
one-fifth of the crop lying scattered in the roads and 
the fields. It is‘in al too much exposed to the 
sun. The women here, as in all the other of agri- 
cultural labour, the ipal part of the work, 
sa tin: hay into the cart. The fork they 
‘make use of for this purpose is a very awkward one. 
In the central and southern provinces, where the cli- 
‘midte is very steady, the farmer stacks his hay in small 
cocks, where it grows, and only carries it away at his 
leisure, - When -carried: to the hay loft, being merely 

3 


107 


little fi 
it was making, had left.it. The clover hay, however, 
especially in the northern provinces, is better mana-~ 
ged; after standing for some days in large cocks, it is 
tied with straw bands, in bundles of 14Ib. each. The 
lucerne also, in these districts, is with great care, so 
much, indeed, that the colour is beautiful; the green 
is often not in the least faded, but so vivid that it al- 
most appears improved in drying. 


Normandy, the Limosin, Auvergne, Brittany, Franche Horses. 


Compté, Poitou, and Burgundy, are most celebrated for 
their breed of horses. Normandy has long been noted 
for eters It is said moe liam I. won the’ deci- - 
sive le of Hastings, by the superiority of his caval- 
ry which he brought over with nek: The Norman hors - 
ses are in general low and thick, and very steady, sure, 
and strong. They will make a of 30 miles with- 
out a bait, and eat the coarsest food. They, as well as 
the horses in other of France, and also the cattle, 
are accustomed to feed aboutthe lanes, and in the com- 
mon fields, after the corn is carried off. The best sad- 
dle horses are those ‘of Limosin. They are seldom fit 
for riding till they are six or seven’years old; but then 
they are very useful, and last a long time. This breed 
has been lately much im , by crossing it with the - 
Arabian, Turkish, and English. Auvergne produces 
some good hacks for common use. ‘A great many foals 
are reared in Brittany, which are sent to the pastures - 
of Normandy. A t many horses are also bred in 
Franche Compté, especially in the hilly part of the 
country. One year with another, their studs produce: 
of 5000 colts, most of which are bought, when 
six months or a year old, by the horse dealers in Cham- 
pagne, Burgundy, Brie, and Berry. ' The’trade in hor- 
ses is an object of some importance and 
value in Franche Compté. In different parts of the 
i ; there have long been Haras, or depots de che- 
vaux for the supply of the royal studs ; and Bonaparte, 
sensible that cavalry is one of the main sinews of war, 
paid ee ere attention to the breed and supply of hor- 
ses; bu 


t, as in many other that he undertook, 
his plans were not calculated to produce the object he 
had-in view, in ence of the impatience, obstina- 


, and tyranny of ‘his disposition. On the whole, 
erefore, i balls of honed and probably the num- 
ber, are not equal to what they were previously to the 
Revolution. os the year 1802, the total number was, 
of plough horses 1,500,000 ; horses kept at Paris 35,100 ; 
in all other towns 200,000; in the armies 100,000: 
making in all 1,835,100. With respect to the Hie 
assigned for agricultural purposes, it may appear high, 
when we cobiled that Rs are v thy 9 oot fet 
only in the pl h, but in carts ; that where hor- 
ses are employed in the plough, there are seldom more 
yoked than two. The number of horses in Paris is sin- 
y small. Between 1802 and 1812, the number of 
, at least of those bred in the government studs, 
was probably much increased ; but during the Russian 
ign, ina few months of 1812 and 1813, the loss, 
according to the of-the year 1814, amounted ‘to 
230,000- , which, it is stated, could not be repla- 
ced at a less expence ‘than 105,200,000 francs. ‘The 
rice of farm horses in the northern districts of France, 
is about £17 sterling. 


Mules are much employed in the middle and south Mules. 


of France, especially ‘in the latter, for treading out the 
corn. Anjou carries on # particular trade for these ani- 
mals, known by the name of! Miredalais, In the de- 


708 


Statistics. partment of Aveiron, especially in the vicinity of Rhodez, 
—r— the princi earn, Chop teal 6 viata 


Oxen. 


in which the inhabitants carry on a considerable trade ; 
for it is said that during the two fairs that are ‘kept 
yearly at Rhodez, this trade rg in ‘above 300,000 
crowns. The breed of mules in Poitou, is particularly 
celebrated for their size and strength, and is in great 
demand all over France. 

The provinces in which oxen and cows ‘are princi- 
pally bred or fattened, are, Perche, ‘Cham e, Lor- 
raine, Alsace, Hainault, Flanders, Normandy, Brittany, 
La Maine, Anjou, Poitou, Berry, Nivernois, Burgun- 
dy, Limosin, Auvergne, Bresse, Languedoc, and Dau- 
phiny. ‘The prevalent colour of the cattle in France, 
trom Calais to the Pyrenees, is a reddish, or rather 
a cream colour. This is decidedly the colour of »the 
cattle of the Limosin, which are .an excellent breed, 
probably the best in France. From this district, num- 
bers of fine oxen, fattened in winter, are sent to the 
Paris market, which is also supplied by those fattened 
in Normandy during summer. » The cattle of the Li- 
mosin have short’ legs, ‘strait and flat backs, well arch- 
ed ribs, deep and h car¢ases, and their weight 
from 60 to 80 stone, 14 lb. to the stone. Tew thay 
singular circumstance ing them is, 
should be in excellent condition in the month of May, 
the season when they are usually driven from Limoges 
to the Paris market, as at this time of the year there is 
in most countries a scarcity of fat cattle, when they 
have not been fattened on spring grass ; and any 
which they could have in a climate not v erent 
from that of the south of England, could have but a 
small share in bringing them to the condition in which 
they reach Paris, The method by which they are brought 
into this condition is very extraordinary: they are put 
on grass till the beginning of November ; then on raves 
‘or turnips. When the turnips fail, they give them rye- 
flour, in a peculiar manner: the flour is mix- 
ed a. water, so as to make a’paste, which is suffered 
to stand till it ferments. In some instances the fermen- 
tation ene and accelerated by the addition of 
leaven. is ‘rye- is never given to the oxen till 
it becomes sour. .At first they refuse it; but when they 
-take to it, they prefer this acid food to any other. A 
large ox will eat in this manner about 22 Ib. of the 
paste a-day: it is given thrice a-day. The oil-cake of 
-walnuts is also given to oxenin the Limosin, with the 
greatest success, In some -of this district, boiled 
potatoes and chesnuts are given); in other parts, boiled 
maize rendered tender by pouring -boiling water upon 
it. 

In other parts of France; oxen are fed on leaves. 
This seems to- have been an established custom in the 
time of Henry IV. as it is particularly mentioned by 
Oliver de Serres, who wrote, under the auspices of that 
monarch, the Theatre d’ Agriculture. e ‘practice 
was formerly usual in England also, in Henry Eighth’s 
time, and even so late as the reign of Charles LI. as ap- 
pears from Evelyn. The leaves used in France are 
principally those of the beech. They are gathered when 


‘.on the point of falling, or immediately after they have 


fallen, and are* preserved as as possible by bein 
-covered with ero The _ t of ete of 
ing cattle is best understood .in Franche Com 
Auvergne. ; 
Where the Rhone divides’ between Tarascon and 
Arles, an island or delta is formed,called Camargue. This 
island is nearly an -equilateral triangle. of about seven 
leagues each way. It was formerly covered with wood, 


FRANCE. 
are 


computed to be bred annually, withoxen and sheep in 
proportion. The oxen are reserved cag le sup- 


a being a‘small black ‘breed, not: t 
e. They make excellent beef. . They are very. wild, 
of thers be Posen hip cob clscpecsivestetiion 
to T ne rare a 
go ick with a javelin in bi : 


i! 


ield. This provinee, y the 
Jagny in Lower Normandy, and Brittany, especially 


near Lanion, in the department of the North, and the 
Boulonnais, supply excellent butter, both fresh and salt. 
Gournay, a town in the department of the Lower, is 
particularly celebrated for its market of fine fresh but- 
ter, which is chiefly consumed in Paris. In the neigh- 
bourhood of Ma where cows are seldom seen, 
milk is furnished from sheep and goats : paces: | 
made from sheep’s milk: a kind of curd is also 


from this milk, erpabscerrepmeting 1 mgs is: 
into little pots, and brought tb country: 
ple for sale: . Chess latvengeBidle in France. . 
edoc, Provence, Brittany, Normandy, .Forez, and 
furnish it in the est qui Vi 


nk 


They are sent to very distant parts in little 


feeding 
young oxen, 1,456,000 ; cows, 1,016,000; making a 
total of 6,084,500. — i eeaeks lf Fo srapeteenert wi 

The native breeds of 


iS. 


carcases, and coarse wool ; t 
bad. The same characteristics prevail 
south, except in the north the sheep are larger. 
arse moc Pe es ¢ wever, 
nants om i daeaie vf fone 


Louis XVI. in 1786, first established.a flock of Me- Merinos. 


rinos at Rambouillet. .The produce, for some time, 
was given away. Recourse wan. gheo ee ew Bato 


sale. The sheep sold high, but weg My at a 
not giv roportion i i wool. 
this ‘crisig jai peace digs a on. There were | 
unl, theerot eckenlicen hibinalberaren, aed 
namely, ert if 
eoes - r; but the Revolution still farther depressed 


the demand for their wool. In 1811, Bonaparte pub- 


Butter, 


in France are, 1, The sheep. 


' 


FRANCE. 709 
Statistics. lished a decree, by which he intended and hoped.to flocks to the countries through which they pass, and Statistics. 


_ 


advised measure, the final blow was given'to the Me- 
rino breed. From that time they have been declining 
in France. In the exposé for the year 1814, it is as- 
serted that Bonaparte’s forced attempts to introduce the 
Merino breed of sheep, cost the government 200 mil- 
lions of francs; and that, after all, so far from succeed- 
ing, the breeds of native sheep were rather deterio- 


Sheep are kept in all of France, but principal- 
ly in Rousillon, Provence, Denghing, yea 
vergne, Guienne, Gascony, Bearn, Marche, Limosin, 
Poitou, Maine, Anjou, Brittany, Touraine, Cham 3 
Alsace, Franche Compté, Normandy, and French i- 
ders: In most of France, the sheep are shut up 
in stables at night, and sheltered from the sun at noon, 
during the summer. They are generally folded in the 
fields till November. . When the snow is deep, they are 
mom ee és fed on _ eet trees. On the whole, 
management of sheep is in France, especiall 

in keeping them too hot duri night in thee oases, 
sand too vetifined.in-theit: folds. he flocks are not 
— seldom reaching 400. j 

the mountains of the Cevennes, which run along 
the northern of the Lower or Eastern Languedoc, 
numerous are fed in the summer on the aromatic 
herbs with which they abound. During the: cold of 


Emigration the winter, they descend into the plains. But the most 
efsheep- extensive and singular emigration of sheep is that which 


takes anni , and as regularly as in Spain, from 
eaten Sondbden oft Rhonej:end. the desert 
of La Crau, to the mountains of Provence and Dauphi- 
ny, especially to the mountains of Gap and Barcelo- 
netta, and back again. The migration to the moun- 
tains takes place in May, whence they return again in 
October or November, and se earlier. The 
migration is not regulated by an er written laws, 
siecle anttaiad thagealinncatts limit their roads 
to five toises of breadth. If they do any damage be- 


The migration is conducted with all the order andregu- 
larity of the march of an army. The flocks belong to se- 
veral i who reside princi about the Crau, 


History of Provence, as well as other writers, calculates 


million. They travel in flocks of from 10,000 to 40,000, 
and are from meee: to thirty days on the journey. 
‘Among the that have the care of them, one 
-is chosen as chief during the season. He regulates 
every thing relative to the march, and is treasurer for 
the company ; all the money for the expences of the 

being lodged in his’ and he paying for 

sans wap bane! torr ape scene br AN or 
‘com; is i secretary. In his presence: all 
= etn pet and he enters them Jonmmediately 
in his book, The rest of the shepherds form a coun- 


lowed, each of whom has his, dog. «In. the centre:of 


the flock, a number of asses m , carryin the pro- 


visions and . . The chief also takes his station 
in the centre : issues the daily allowances of pro- 
‘visions, and transmits his orders, by his assistants, 


-this situation ; and if any irregularity is committed, he 


is found there to receive the complaint. He also ex- 
amines into any mischief which may be done by the 


—\~" cover France with fine-woolled flocks ; but, by this ill- pays the person who has received the injury: he next 


determines, whether it was occasioned by negligence or 
through accident: in the former case, the sum paid is 
levied on the offender; in the latter, it is taken from 
the common fund. 

Besides. the sheep, there are always a number of 
goats, which take the lead of the former. Some of the 
‘oldest he-goats have bells round their necks, The dis- 
—— in which these are kept, and the intelligence 
which they display, is remarkable. At the command 
of the shepherds, they either halt or proceed; and 
when the flocks rise in the morning, the moment these 
goats receive the order to proceed, they repair to their 


_ Stations in the foremost ranks with great regularity. 


If they come to a stream, they halt, till the word. of 
command is given, when they instantly plunge in and 
eross it, and are followed by the rest of the flock. 
When the flocks lie down at night, the shepherds and 
dogs still continue on the watch, relieving each other 
at stated intervals. When they arrive at the mountains, 
each shepherd has his particular district. allotted him 
by the chief. The feed is hired at the rate of 20 sous 
each sheep for six months; and the price for the win- 
ter feed in the Crau and. the Camargue is the same. 
During the whole time of their stay on the mountains, 
the —— live almost, entirely on bread and goat's 
milk, sleeping upon the ground. in the open air. 


The shepherds in France never inhabit a house: Shepher 


they go to the cottages in which their wives and fami- 
lies live, to take their meals, but sleep in their sheep- 
fold, in huts made of reeds and clay, upon a mat spread 
on the ground: these huts are placed on wheels. . The 


wages of the shepherds are in general high; and they © 


are a superior class of men, in all r to what they 
are in England, . The w: of the chief shepherd are 
about L.12 sterling: besides this, he is allowed a cer- 
tain sum, often three francs per head, for every sheep 
sold ; his board at one and a half francs a day ; anda 
cottage, rent free, for his family. The wages of the 
inferior shepherd is about L.8 sterling ; and he has.the 
same allowance for board as the chief shepherd. 


The Pyrenees. breed of shepherd dogs are particu shepherds 
larly celebrated. They are black and white, of the size dogs. 


of a large wolf, a large head and neck, armed with 
collars, stuck with iron spikes, so that-no wolf can at- 
tack them. But bears are more potent adversaries. If 
a bear can reach a tree, he is safe: he rises on his hind 
legs, with his back to the tree, and sets the dog at de- 
fiance. These dogs are fed entirely on bread and milk. 
In most parts of France, when it 1s necessary to catch 
a sheep, for the pu of examining it, the shepherd 
orders his dog to pa the flock round his master, 
which he does by going round them in avcircle, gra- 
dually decreasing, till the shepherd takes any one he 
wants, 


The average weight of the fleeces of the native sheep Wool. 


of France is about 24 or 3 lib. ; that of the. Merinos 
about 6 lib. The wool of the former, in general, is of 
an indifferent quality. The wool of Rousillon is the 
finest; that of Narbonne jis nearly as fine, but more 
ottony, and of a shorter staple. The wool of Bezieres 
is; next in quality ; that of Pesenas, in Languedoc, 
son the side of Montagnac, is somewhat less fine. The 
wool of the sea-coast is heavy and coarse: the wools of 
the mountains of Montpellier and De Somieres are of 
three sorts ;. the first. equal to the wool of Pesenas, the 
second less fine, the third very coarse. The wool of 
Berry is fine; that of Rheims inferior. The number 


Statistics. 
—— 
Goats, 
Pigs. 


Poultry, 


Honey and 
wax, 


Woods and 
forests. 


TLO FRANCE. 


of sheep in Franteis estimated at 30,307,728 : the total 
of the wool they yield may be rated at 106,770,000 lib. 
There are a vast number of goats in France, princi- 
pally, of course, in the mountainous districts. Pigs 
are chiefly fed in the neighbourhood of woods, or where 
grain abounds, as Normandy, Champagne, Limosin, 
&c. They are also fed on acorns; and, in the Limo- 
sin, on chesnuts. Aa Leptin all of 
Immense quantities are in all parts 
France ; to coh an one, ina that it is a question 
whether there is more weight of mutton consumed, or 
of poultry. They are of an excellent quality. Great 
ns are taken in rearing and fattenin In 
rench Flanders, as well as in other districts, they are 
fed with the flour of buck wheat, or rye, or potatoes: 
their food is frequently changed; and the vessel into 
which ape et as is washed hen: apkag Pon 
every repast. After feeding, are in darkness 
till the next meal.’ In een whet ies called ver- 
miculaires are expressly kept for them ; that is, places 
in which worms for their food are collected 
served. Capons are fattened in many parts of the 
dom : those which are fattened at ieuz, a town 
in the department of the Charente, are so much esteem- 
ed, that they are sent to Paris for those who keep the 
most delicate tables. 
Narbonne honey is much celebrated, but it is not the 
ce of the neighbourhood of that place ; at least it 
is seldom to be procured there: what is so called is 
more commonly, as well as much more abundantly, 
| - esne at Perpignan. The bees wax of Champagne, 
ormandy, Sologne, Languedoc, Auvergne, it- 
tany, is es the best. Bleaching wax is a busi- 
ness of. importance in France. The yellow wax of 
Brittany bleaches. with the most ease, and becomes a 
beautiful white: it is principally bleached at Chateau 
Goutier, about eight leagues from Angers. By some, 
this is esteemed the very best in the kin 3; by 
others, that of Champagne is preferred. wax of 
Amboise, and of Chaumont near Troyes, is of an infe- 
rior quality ; and that made at Rouen is esteemed the 
worst, on account of the large quantity of suet they 
add to it. At Montpellier, there is a large manufac- 
ture of bees wax, and the process is conducted with 
great attention and skill. 
d'asthey hav always been of great iportanee, bot 
and as e always im ce, 
on aceount of the fuel they supply, and of their appli- 
eation to other purposes, many ions and conjec- 
tures have been made with respect to the surface which 
they cover. The Marquis de Mirabeau ts them 
as 30,000,000 arpents ; in this opinion M. coin- 
cides. By the author of the Credit National, they are 
reckoned so low as'6,000,000 arpents. Mr Young en- 
deavours to determine this fact by two methods ; by 
the of Cassini and by the consumption of the peo- 
gato dhy the first method, he makes the extent of wood 
about 19,000,000 arpents, or one-seventh of the king- 
dom ; by the other method, he finds, that the quantity 
of wood is about 20,800,000 arpents ; the mean of the 
two results which he thus obtains is 19,850,515. We 
have already observed, however, that his estimate is 
—- , at least it is above that of the committee of the 
first National Assembly, which reckons the wood only at 
13,100,691 arpents. Mr Young, in his calculation, 
reckons the annual value of the woods to be about 
12 millions sterling, the rent being taken at 12s. per 


acre. 
Some of the forests are very extensive, particularly 


that is to say, the diocese of 

In another place he says, it extended from the 
of the Rhine, and the country of Treves, to that of the 
Nervii, that is Hainault, Cambresis, feeeth Seon 
ders, comprehending 50,000 paces in . | Thi 
rest has been cut down in a great many places, especially . 
towards itsextremities: however, it still extends over the 


greater part y 
ern of the bishopric of Liege, and of the 
ft icceenied since neni 

with sev i ions. It was re- 
nowned for events of chivalry. The forest of Fontaine- ,, , 
Oaadiana ot pout verbolng mareaiegten, am 
|,424 acres i I 
where the trees have been cut down. : 
The wood of France may be divided into six classes : 
1. For ship-building. 2. For the use of house carpen- 


Sg” 5 For nego bfec ta Cake they 
joi . §. For vine . For fuel. is chi 
ail REP oa for the.second, oak, fir, linden, 


and trees ; for the third, ash, oak, er a fe 

eci elm; for the fourth, fir, beech, a 
tree, cherry tree, cornil tree, aspen, poplar, i 
den, &c. ; for the fifth, osiers, and branches of different 


= that Seay are pele divided ge new an 
old, and is distingui names, bois perdu, boi: 
carnard, and bois pore aaA cork-tree flourishes on 
the French side of the Pyrenees, and produces very 
fine cork-wood. 

Under the old government, the national forests em= y,,:0.,.) 
braced 3,000,000 arpents, and gave about 12,000,000 forests, 
franks to the royal treasury. the Revolution, all 
the forests formerly held by the corporate bodies and the 
emigrants were annexed to those of the state, which 
thus were increased to upwards of 4,000,000 
These, added to the forests in Belgium, and on the left 


added to the national domains, and declared inalienable. 
In the year 1800 the national forests were thenceforward 
exempted from the land tax. The Revolution did not 
ish the laws under which the private 
—— ose woodlands epee be agi 2 to 
ws, vernment appointed persons, who were 
perjedgvexttuhip timber, to examine a Green: 
and to mark such trees as they deemed fit for their pur- 
pose, after which —_ etor durst not lay the axe 
to the roots of them. Besides, no individual proprietor 
of woodland could cut down his timber, or clear his land, 
under a hea ity, without making, six months 
previously, a tion of his intention to one of the 
conservators, whose report determines the government 
either to grant or refase permission to that effect. 


FRANCE, 


Statistics. _ To this general account of the woods in France, we 


| 


Orange 
trees. 


shall add some short notices of such trees as are sources 
national wealth, independently of the timber which. 

as an. aj ‘iate introduction to our ac- 
vine-hu » and the wines of France. 
turpentine. tree is found in the southern 
a aa fey gasy of Chio, and alga 

e juice is Chio, or Cyprus turpentine 

Considerable ‘quantities “of ntine are 


A 


Ee 
UW 


it is known by the name of Strasbu 


F 


pounded, is 
very common in some parts of France, i in the 
ent of the Aisne, and is used instead of butter. 

the oil has been extracted: from the mast, the 
marc, as itis called, is also used for food, in various 
as the extraction leaves it, in 


boutted ; or asa kind 


n Bur ly and Franche 
pté, marc of walnuts is made into this kind of 
JSromage, after the oil is extracted from it. Walnuts 
are grown very extensively in France, and a great deal 
of oil is made from them. 

Chesnuts abound in France, particularly in the Li- 
mosin, where. the land is almost every where covered 
with chesnut trees. The fruit serves for food to the 
country people, but not, as has been asserted, reduced 
into flour to make bread. Their manner of preparing 
chesnuts for food is as follows: they take off the first 

1 or rhind, when they are dry, then they boil thema 
ittle, to take off the second peel ; and afterwards they 
Thess tamper apres mh tralord pleco pa 

us pr « are said to a pleasant 
neeloe article of food - 


to the peasantry of the Limo- 

sn, and other of France. pane ip 
caper grows in great perfection in 

southern provinces, ially in the vicinity of Cuges, 

between 7S he Toulon, where an extensive val- 


ley is wholly devoted to the culture ofthem. The caper 
is not suffered to grow here, as it does in many places, 
into a bush ; but is made to creep on the in long 
runners; and being cultivated only for the trade, is 
never left to flower, it being the little bud of the flower 
that is used for pickling. The fruit also, which re- 
sembles a very small in, is pi ; but these 
have the name of corni , the French name for gher- 
kins: it is the flower-bud which has the appellation of 
> When suffered to flower, it is a very beautiful 
b, 
’ The islands of Hieres, not far from Toulon, were for- 
merly famous for their orange groves. In the year 
1565, Charles IX. visited these is in a progress he 
made the south of France: he was accompa- 
nied by the young King of Navarre, afterwards Henry 
LV. and the deans Sens and there was then an 
orange tree so large, that these three royal personages, 
taking each other by. the hand, could but just encircle 
the stem: it had produced in one year 14,000 oranges. 
But the climate even of the south of France, is not 
steadily warm enough for this fruit; the severe winter 
of 1789 killed every tree in the Hieres, down to the 
roots; and the trees at present there are only such as 
have shot up from their roots. Most of the oranges of 
Hieres are sent to Paris. In these/islands, and in some 
other parts of the south of France, the lemon, citron, 


Til 


date, and pomegranate, are not uncommon ; the lime is 
also cultivated, especially in Provence. . 

The trade of almonds carried on in France is con- 
siderable, both on account of. their oil, and the large 
quantity of them used in Lent, either shelled or unshelled: 
a great quantity of the sweet almonds are used in sugar« 
plumbs, and of the bitter ones in biscuits, confectionary, 
&e. The grocers and ists of France have both 
sorts from the provinces in the middle and south of 
France, especially Provence, Languedoc, Tourraine, the 
county of Venaissin, Avignon, &c. The best ave those 
of the county of the Venaissin ; those from Chiron in 
Tourraine are the worst. The environs of Aix are parti~ 
cularly noted of all parts of Provence, for the abundance 
of almonds they produce: they are an ‘uncertain pro 
duce ; a frosty night will sometimes come on, while 

are in blossom, which is commonly about the end 
of January, and in a few hours the greatest part of the 
crop will be destroyed. At the time when the almonds 
are gathered, it is a curious sight at Aix to see the wo- 
men ya at their doors cracking them for the mer- 
chants. The shells being an excellent article of fuel, 
great interest is made to get the almonds to crack, 
which is paid by having the shells: a certain measure 
in the shells is expected to: produce a certain measure 
without them. The person cracking them has a basket 
of fruit on one side of her, and another basket on the 
other side to receive them when cracked : she has’a flat 
iece of stone on her knee, and a bone with a knob to 
it in her hand; and laying the almond on the stone, 
she strikes it with the bone, which seldom fails to crack 
it at the first stroke : it isthen thrown shell and all into 
the receiving basket, and when,that is full, the almonds 
are emptied out upon a large table, and the kernels 
picked from among the shells. The whole process is 
performed with wonderful dexterity and rapiliog. 

Figs are another im t article among the pro- 
ductions of Provence, as well as of several other dis- 
tricts of the south of France.. The most celebrated is a 
very small green, or white fig, as it is often called, 
which grows only in the territory of Marseilles, whence 
it takes the name of the fig of Marseilles. Brignolles 
in Provence, a town about thirty miles from Marseilles, 
is one of the most famous places in the kingdom for 
the dried plums, which are so well known by the name 
of French plums. Prunes, or St Catherine’s plums, 
constitute a lucrative branch of traffic, almost exclusive- 
ly carried on at Tours and Chatelherault. These prunes 
are gathered at La Haie, Sainte Maurevaux, Maudion, 
&c. They are with the greatest care at the 
places where they are grown; and’ sent to the mer- 
chants of Tours and Chatelherault, who supply eve 
other of France, as well as foreign countries, with 
them. The grand purchases of this fruit are made at 
the commencement of the new year, and of Lent: du- 
ring the latter season, the demand is particularly great 
at Paris, and in other large cities and towns in France. 
Dried plums of excellent quality are also prepared at 
Agen, Cutroen, Toulouse, and Bourdeaux. 

Mulberries succeed best in the olive climate of France; 
Tours being the only place north of the maize climate, 
where they are cultivated for silk with any success ; 
the spring frosts being fatal impediments to their cul- 
ture im the central, and even sometimes in the southern 
districts of the kingdom, Considerable experiments 
have been made for introducing them into Normandy, 
&c. but without success. In ing from Paris to 
the south, they are not met with till we come to Cau- 
sade near Montauban ; there are a few at Auch; and 


Statistics. 
—_——— 


Almonds. 


Figs. 


Plums, 


Mulberries, r 


Smtistics. 


Olives. 


Vineyards. 


712 


even at Tours, the district in which are Le aege is 
of small extent, . Before the time - oe Vv. ay 
mulberry trees had been propagated for silk worms on 
im the Lyonneis, Dauphiny, Provence, and Languedoc ; 
but that king carried them as far north as Orleans ; he 
also planted them near Paris, and to breed 
silk worms at the Thuilleries, Fontain , and the 
castle of Madrid, but without success. In the Lyonnois 
the white mulberry succeeds extremely well, and a 
great many silk worms are reared: the worms are kept 
in houses, and the leaves conied to prem . a — 
lar cle to see whole trees stri of their 
ae § pay ot the appearance of wiiter when other 
trees are in full foliage. A second crop of leaves, how- 
ever, comes out, but not with the beauty and luxuriance 
of the first ; and the ee to paar 
sheep and cattle when other fails. The white 
mul! tree bears a more delicate kind of leaf than 
the black, for which reason they are always given to 
the silk worms, as the silk produced from them is of 
a much finer quality: the fruit is vapid meet for 
nothing. The leaves are purchased and ‘paid for ac- 
cording to the size of the tree, by those who keep silk- 
worms, but have not mulberry plantations of their 


own. 

The limits of the olive climate have been 
defined: They comprehend a very small portion of 
the south and south-east of the kingdom. In France; 
there is a great difference in the quality of ‘the oil pro- 
duced from them ; that of the territory of Aix is reck- 
oned the finest. Here the trees are very small, com- 
monly from about eight to fourteen or fifteen feet in 
height. About Toulon and Hieres the trees are taller, 
but the oil is of a less delicate quality. The tree re- 
sembles a pollard willow in its general appearance, and 
is by no means either beautiful or picturesque. The 
fruit is gathered. green for making the oil, but if left 
to ripen, it becomes almost black. When they are 
preserved, or pickled, they are salted first for a few 
days, and then put into jars with oil and yinegar. In 
most houses in Provence lamps are used in the kitchen 
instead of candles; and among the lower classes they 
are used universally, Olive oil is used in them. | The 
wood of the olive tree makes excellent fuel when a 
brisk fire is wanted ; but it partakes so much of the 

nature of the fruit, that while it burns very 

it also consumes very fast. The time of ga- 
thering the olives is soon after the vintage. In the 
hard winter of 1789, so many olive trees wese destroy-~ 
ed by the frost, and during the Revolution so few 
young trees have been planted, that Aix, which was 
the principal seat of the commerce in oil, has almost 
entirely lost this its first. and most lucrative branch of. 
trade; and as these trees are many years in coming to 
perfection, this loss is, not likely to be soon compensa- 
ted. 

As there were aides and, customs levied on the con- 
sumption and export of wine previously to the Revo- 
lution, it might have been supposed. that the quantity. 
of vineyards in the kingdom might have been estima- 
ted with a tolerable degree of certainty, yet there is an 
amazing difference of opinion: on this subject. M.de 
Trone, author of a work on the provincial administra- 
tion of the taxes, is of opinion, that their extent is 
1,600,000 acres. In this calculation M. Mirabeaw co- 
incides; but the author of Credit National, who pub- 
lished only one year afterwards, calculates the quanti- 
ty at 18,000,000 arpents. M. Lavoisier supposes. the 
produce. 80,000,000 livres. The economists in. the 


FRANCE, 


would give 2,857,1 
dering tue 
nion, that the vine is cultivated on an extent that con- 


Nismes ; in the vales of Dauphiny and the Loire ; and 
in short, on every sort of land in the wine provinces. 


bib oriig gsoge vey poe oe 


The general routine of cultivation is as’ follows = Cultivation 
The vines are planted promiscuously, three or four of the 
feet, or two and a half from each other. In the middle vine. 


of January they give the cutting, /ail/e; in March they 
dig the ground; in April May vient’ a 
provins ; in June tie hve the = are tied 
to the with small straw ,—the hoe which 
is used is crooked; in hoe again ; in October, 
or if the season has been le in September, 


a . To 

in en ee There are 8000 plants on an 
acre, 2400 seps. e pi cost 500 livres; to keep 
up the stock of props 30 livres ; » It is three 
years before the vines bear any thing, and six before’ 
the wine is . The amount of: labour per acre is 
about £2: 12:6. The net profit varies from 7 to 10 
pesneets Great attention is paid in the choice of the 
unches, and in freeing every bunch from each grape 
that is the least unsound. Sixty women are necessary 
to gather the grapes for four pieces of wine. Such is 
the general outline of the culture; &c. of the vine in’ 
France. The variations from this mode will be after- 
wards noticed, tle: boat hint rags 


I. The province of Champagne, which i now divide conn 
e Marne ‘Higher wines.” 


into the d ents of 
Marne, has long been celebrated for its vineyards. In 
this district there are two kinds of wine; the white 
wines, called Riviere de Marne wines; and the red 
wines, called Montagne de Rheims wines. ‘The white 
wines are produced from vineyards situated in the val- 
leys, and upon the sides of the hills in Epernay, Dizy, 
Avenay, Cramant, &e. It is a singular citeumstance, 
that the estate of Cumieres, in the midst of so ma 
vineyards celebrated for white wines, and under the 
same exposure, uces red wines only. The country 
wes 2c, J the white wine, is all contained in five: 
feaan ength. Among all the vineyards on the’ 
yar. the cantons of Hautvillers, Marcueil, Cumieres, 
pernay, are the most advantageously situated : 
They ra along the Marne; and it io vemathedl 
that the q of the wine falls off in- proportion as 
the vineyard is distant from the river. South expo- 
sures on the banks of this river produce excellent 
white wines. The slope which overhangs Rheims is 


divided ing tothe quality of its wines: Of these, 

3 wines of we Lee hfe earns ; 
e wine ' Clos. St Thierry, which is 

penrtdceds eat ths archbishopric of Rheims, is the only 


vies qa ae the rich colour and flavour of Bur~ 
iy. wit sparkling lightness of Champaigne. 
Clos St Thierry holds the a rank Cham: 
ne wines, that C/os-vougeot does among those of 
urgundy. Sillery wines, once so famous, were in a 
great measure composed of the wines ced in the 


‘wW 


Sa 


Statistics. 
—— 


FRANCE. 


territories of Verznay, Mailly, and St’ Basle. They 
were made by a particular process by the Marshal 
D'Estrees, and for this reason were long known by the 
name of Vins de la Mareschal ; but at the Revolution 
this estate was divided and sold. 

In Cham , and indeed in all the vine districts 
of France, the south and the east exposures, and the 
middle grounds, are preferred. In general, through- 
out this province, the soils proper for vines rest on beds 
of chalk: they are planted in November or December ; 


the plants are inserted into turfs, or in longuettes. Graft- 
ing is not in use. A plant will last 50 or 
60 years. is not much variety in the grapes of 


; the black are general] erred to the 
white. There are whole cantons, foveet anes there 
are very few black a aa their wine isin high 


estimation. In this province, the vine is pruned about 
the end of February or co | of March. It is 
never allowed to rise higher a foot and a half. At 


5. next trimming for the 
shoots. 6. Pared and tied in June. 7. Second trim- 


ming in July, 8. Third trimming in August. The 


vintage is in September or October. 
Many tions are necessary in making white wine; 
steeping before pressing makes red wine, be- 


ine- ing allowed to remain in the vessels till the first fermen- 


tation has in the colouring pellicle of the fruit. 
In making white wine, great care is taken to keep the 
grapes from the sun; ce ete ce 
i covered with cloths, from which they are 
not emptied into the press till after sun set: these 
are necessary to prevent fermentation. 

rom twenty to forty panniers are put into the at 
atime; the contents of two panniers produce half a 
piece of wine. Forty panniers yield nine or ten pieces 
of white wine, and each piece contains 200 bottles. 
The fruit is pressed by three successive and rapid turns 
polos py leekare: sy mugen’ 68 Bee hes 
others. The whole of the operation be finish- 
ed in less than an hour. When the three have 
been effected, the wine produced from the juice is cal- 
ad enero or choice wine ; after this vin d’elite is 
extracted, juice is out by ano- 
Cheenti ofthe bereers:ahde ts iere taille, the 
first cut, and is often added to the vin delile. Ano» 
ther pressure is given at a subsequent period, and the 
wine is called deuxieme taille, or vin de tisanne ; lastly, 
phe, yon moar epaemesgalio Orr. Bele 
duced by repeatedly pressing the husks ti are 
perfectly dry. The white wines are clarified with isin- 
glass; are generally bottled in the month of March. 


. About the middle of August, the fermentation in the 


bottles ins, and frequently there is a loss by the end 
iene of. Srouss va to ten pestlbdgt. by Une bots 
tles breaking. When the white wines deposit a sedi- 
ment in the bottles, very minute care is requisite to ex- 
tract it. The wines eheprernys vs oe Prey | put 
into circulation, preserve their good qualities for ten 
years ; but when they are kept in the cellars of their 
native province, which are superior from the nature 
of the soil, (being dug out of beds of chalk), they will 
continue good for 20 or 30 years, 
VOL. IX, PART II. 


713 


The price of an acre (100 rods and 22 feet to the Statistics. 


acre) of the best vineyard ground in Champagne, va- 
ries from 2000 to 6000 livres; the vineyards at Ay sel- 


ling as Pgh as 6000 livres. The price of an acre of yards, 
ni 


the second quality varies from 1000 to 3000 livres. The 
ordinary expence of cutting, hoeing, tyeing, and prun- 
ing the vines, is 80 livres the acre; of occasionally 
propping such as have fallen, 60 livres; of props, 16 
or 18 bundles, 50 in each bundle, 30 livres ; dung and 
carriage of the vines, 42; five puncheons for the’ pro- 
duce of an acre, 50 livres; expence of gathering, prun- 
ing, &c. 46 livres ; making a total expence per acre of 
308 livres. With respect to the produce of an acre of 
vineyard in Champagne, it is generally understood, that 
taking the average of 10 vintages, five pieces or pun- 
cheons of wine are obtained from every acre ; three of 
these are of the first quality, or choice wines, and two 
of them are ordi wines. Valuing the three pun- 
cheons of the best wine at 150 livres each, and the two 
others at 50, the total produce will be 550 livres ; from 
which must be deducted, besides 308 livres for labour, 
&c. the expence of bottling, cooperage, and fining, 30 
livres for the best wines, and six for the inferior ; the 
annual interest of the money laid out in the ground, 
100 livres; taxes, &c. 72; making in all, with the la- 
bour, 516 livres; which being deducted from 550, 
leaves 34 livres as the net produce of an acre of vine= 
yard in Champagne, on an average of years. This net 
produce, however, it is very difficult to fix, as the wines 
of Ay, Haut Villiers, Epernay, and Pierry, frequent- 
ly sell for 300 or 400 livres a piece, while some of the 
other wines do not bring more than 90 or 100 livres. 


It has already been mentioned, that this province is Red wines. 


equally famous for its red wines, and some parts of the 
rocess by which are made have been hinted at. 

o make red wine, the black grapes in general are on« 
ly picked and gathered. The juice is allowed to fer- 
ment, and the degree of fermentation is ascertained to 
be advantageous, when a lighted candle cannot be held 
over the tub without going out. When the fermenta- 
tion has entirely pao ap = puncheon is hermetically 
sealed. About the end of December, and if possible in 
dry weather, the wine is drawn off. About the mid~ 
dle of May, it is again drawn off. A puncheon of red 
wine contains 240 bottles. In general, the red wines of 
Haute Montagne are bottled in the month of Novem- 
ber, i. e. 13 months after the vintage. The-wines of 
St Thierry can remain three or four years on their lees. 
The best red wines of Haute Montagne, will:keep in 
bottles in cellars for six, eight, ten, or twelve years, 
These-cellars: (already alluded to) are regs to A feet 
in-depth. ‘Fheir temperature is 'y. five degrees 
of Reaumur below that of the anaes the varia< 
tions are seldom above halfa degree. 

The cost of an acre of vineyard, for red wine of the 
best quality, varies from 900 livres to 2000. That in 
Haute Montagne bears the highest price; the second 
class sells from 300 to 900 livres. The annual expence 
of cultivating an acre of red wine vineyard, including 
the expence of vintage and of pruning, is about 200 
livres. 

Such are the general details of the culture of the 
vine in Champagne. There are many vineyards, how- 
ever, and particularly in St Thierry, where the greater 
part of the vines are always raised to the height of 
about five feet, and supported by props of oak six feet 
high, and an inch in diameter. . i 

he following are the classes of the white and red 
wines of Champagne: j 
x 


714 
First class 
White Wines. Red Wines. 
Ay. Verzieto. 
ore Villiers Boa 
ierry. é 
Cramant. Faissy. 
Cumieres. 
Second class. 
Avernay. Mailly. 
E y- Damenay. 
Le Meuil, E Ye 
Avis. ly. 
Oger. Montbret. 
ti 
ierry. 

i Third class. ? mig 
onnere oigny. 
Chaldy Barna: 
Ludes, Chamery. 
Sadu. Ville Domage. 

Troispuits. Parguy. 
illiers, Safllecomte. 


The first class comprises those wines which have 
long been considered as luxuries at the French, E 
lish, and Dutch tables ; the second class comprehen 
wines, which are not much inferior in flavour and qua~ 
lity to those of the first class; in the third class, are 
comprised “es bios most commonly used in France. 

As many of the details respecting the managements, 
&c. of the vineyards and wines of Siiapheue are ap- 
gan to the other wine districts of France, we shall 

more concise in our observations ing them. 

II. The vines in the Bordelais, and generally in the 
higher Guienne and Gascony, are not suffered to lie on 
the ground like those of Provence and Languedoc, but 
are su poles, something like hops in Eng- 
land. The wines produced in this district, are distin< 

ished into Medec, Haut Brion, Valence, St Emilion, 

Grave, &c. The best Medoc wines, are Lafitte, La- 
tour, and Margouz. Those of Vins de Grave, are Haut 
Brion, Haut Valence, Morignac, Pessac, Laugon, Ville- 
nave, &c. The Vin de Laugon, so called-from a small 
town near which it is made, is reckoned the best of all 
the white wines of the Bordelais, which are included 
under the general name of Vins de Grave, from the 
sandy and gravelly soil in which the vines grow. It has 
very much of the claret favour. There are other sorts 
in different districts, such as St Julien, St Manubert, 
Pouillac, St Laurent, Ludon,; Macon, &c. Those which 
hold the first rank among the white wines, are Carbon. 
nieux, Serons, Barsac, Prigniac, Saulerne, Baume, &c. 
Of the white wine exported from this district, the total 
annual amount may be from 85,000 to 90,000 tons, 
From 20,000 to 25,000 tons used to go to the French 
colonial settlements in the East and West Indies. About 
an equal quantity was Soe ap to Normandy and Flan- 
ders. Those that are called crude wines of Medoc, are 
almost all exported to England. The red wines of Haut 
Brion, Valence, and in general those named De Grave, 
are sent to Holland, Hamburg, and the Hanse Towns. 
The best red wines of Montferant go to Holland. Those 
of inferior quality, used to go to the French colonies, or 
the western departments of the kingdom. The white 
wines of Grave, Carbonnieux, Martillac, Loegnau, &c. 
are sent'to Denmark, Sweden, and the Baltic; but the 
best of these go in bottles to Paris. The red wines of 
St Macaire, formerly went in part for the use of the 


FRANCE. 


rest to Bremen } 
III. Throughout Provence and the souche, 
or stem of the vine, is never to higher provence 


ength. The grapes grow in a cluster 
round pannel el poe pl oe ng. 

as by an umbrella. The cu of the vine 

into fi for fuel. The vintage 
middle ber. i 
pie caplet ca, erie apes ion ; but there are some of 
a superior ity, uscat wines in particular, which 
sre dite dolorioe to ee 

from Nans, is famous for Muscat 

tities are dried for raisins. i 


process. The Muscat wines are boiled in 
as are also all the eae a — pra 
making is very negligen’ ormed in Provence in 
general ; dias ‘athe sllectne of grapes; red, white, 
a and unripe, are pressed promiscuously % 
The method of pressing is very rude and simple. A 
man, and commonly two or three children, pull off their 
shoes and stockings, and jump into the vats, where they 
trample on the grapes till ihn sine oareeerne 
The only sort of grape used for drying, besides. the 
Muscat, is a large white grape called the Panse. Four 
or five bunches of the fruit are tied together, and ther 
dipped into a cauldron of ley of wood ashes and water, 
as it is boiling over the fire, till the grapes look streaky. 
Without this process, they would turn black and wither 
when laid out to dry, instead of retaining their sweet- 
ness and moisture. After the dipping, they are h 
upon a line for 24 hours, and then separated, and apres 
upon a sort of hurdle made of reeds, which is out 
in the sun all day, but taken in at night, to protect the 
fruit from the dew. An excellent sweetmeat is made in 
Provence, and in other of France, by boiling down 
the juice and 
and stones, till it TERESI ION or ony onee 
melon, lemon, , &e. are preserved in it. It 

by the name af confiture raisinée. yr 

IV. The province of Burgundy. 
many, produces the choicest of the French wines, 
best is made at Baom, Nuitz, Romanée, Premeau, Cham- 
bertin, Belz, Coulange, Chassane, Volenay, Macon, and 
Clos-Vougeot. 

V. Wine is also the prod 
France. A t deal of the wines made in the Beau- 
jolais, are under the name of Macon, The wines 
of Anjou and Orleannois are thick and heady. Auver- 
nat, yer called Casse Taille, is made at Orleans, 
and is a full good wine. Another Orleans white 


wine is Genetin. Poitou produces a tolerably good. 


white wine, which resembles Rhenish. H 
is the produce of a vine, which is grown w 


e 
banks of the Rhone, between Valence and St Val-: 


lieve, | Near this also, the Cole roti is made. It takes its 
name from the hill on which the vines grow, aap tally 
exposed to the warm rays of the south sun, which: con- 
tributes so much to the excellence of the wine. The 


avi year] “sen is nearly 1000 hogsheads, The 


true Vin de ors, which has a great reputation, is the» 


Ip of the grape, freed from the skins — 


in the opinion of of Burgun- 
1 ot a 


uce of many other parts of Of other 


a 


FRANCE. 


Statistics. produce of a range of vineyards rocky, on a ri 
—— of hills to the south of Cahors, ail ie enlled Vin de 


Grave, because growing on a gravelly soil. The wine 


of Condrieaux, a small town in the Lyonnois, on the - 


banks of the Rhone, about seven leagues from Lyons, is 
very much esteemed. The original plants from which 
this wine is made, were, to tradition, brought 
from Dalmatia, by order of the Emperor Probus. 
Luscious wines and liqueurs are common in 
of France, as well as Provence, of which those of 
> and St Laurent are the most esteemed. Frontig- 
niac, a town in the department of the Herault, is re- 
markable for its ane S95 tot wine jee are 
the most perfect, an best ada’ or keeping. 
Lunel, an old town in the meer ped Gand, i 
another place, in the vicinity of which muscat grapes 
are cultivated in great quantities, the soil being peculi- 
arly suited to them. The muscadine of Lunel is of a 
more delicate flavour than Frontigniac, but it will not 
keep so well. The muscat grapes grown here are also 
dried, and are sent all over Europe. They are called 
in the country passerilles. Aubagne, between Mar- 
seilles and Toulon, uces also muscadine wine. The 
Malvoisie d’ A , as itis called, is particularly ce- 
lebrated. The muscadine of Rivesaltes, a town in the 
of the Eastern Pyrenees, is richer than ei- 
 aapemaietincetie and comes very near the Cape 
wine, is of a quality inferior to Rivesaltes, 
Frontigniac, and Lunel. Liqueurs of various sorts are 
made in different parts.of France. Those of Montpel- 
lier are most esteemed. In the beginning of the 
, France exported, upon an average of five years, 
from the year 1720 to 1725, annually wine to the amount 
of 20,880,200 livres ; in 1778, the ion amount- 


- ed-to 24,570,170; in 1788, to 33,032,100. The Revo- 
shil 


lution nearly ted the exportation of French 


wines. 

The brandies made in ne Pe esteemed a 
best in Europe. They are distilled in every o! 
the kingdom where vines are 3 and in de dis. 
tillation, not only wines of an inferior, but also those 
uality, are used. The brandies most cele- 


brated, or made in the tities, are those of 
Bourdeaux, Rochelle, Ne en harente, Isle of Rhe, 
Orleans, the country of B: is, Poitou, Tourraine, An- 


Nantes, Burgundy, Cham , &e. Brandy is al- 
Scante atkatuianes at Montpellier. It A of a 
milder quality than most of the brandies of the south of 
France, and therefore better adapted for making the li- 

for which Montpellier is so celebrated. Of all the 
French brandies, those of Nantes, Cognac, and Poitou, 
which are nearly of the same quality; are the most es- 
teemed, because have a finer taste, and are strong- 
er. The English, 
ee ne ee e 
brandies of Anjou, Tourraine, Orleans, which are not of 
so good a as those of Nantes, &c. are most com- 
monly sent to Paris, and into Flanders. In the begin- 
ning of the Jast century, the value of the brandy ex- 
ported, amounted annually to 5,852,900 livres ; in 1778, 
to 4,660,221; in 1784, to 11,360,200; in 1787, to 
14,689,600 ; and in 1788, to 14,657,300. 

Vinegar is made in Provence, Guienne, the Orlean- 
nois, Anjou, Aunis, Brittany, &c. The Orleans vine- 
gar is esteemed the best. flavour of the vinegar 
made in Provence is also good, but cee A Fg 
lour, from the hue of the grapes from which it is pro- 
duced, it has a singular a’ to a person unused 
to it, The exportation of vinegar in the beginning of 


utch, Flemish, and Ham ers) 


715 


the last century, amounted annually to 34,400 livres; Statistics. 


in 1778, to 141,893 ; in 1784, to 124,400 ; in 1787, to 
130,900; and in 1788, to 201,700. 


Cider is made in most of those provinces, the climate Cider. 


of which is not favourable to the grape. Normandy is 
particularly celebrated for this liquor, where they also 
make brandy of it. 


We shall conclude this Chapter with a few words re« yyorticy). 
The fruit gardens at ture. 


specting French horticulture. 
Montreuil are a curious instance of the aceumulation 
of capital in a small space: ‘These gardens are said to 
be worth £400 sterling an acre. All the occupiers 
are proprietors. The environs of Lyons are celebrated 
for their excellent artichokes: They are carefully con~ 
veyed in great quantities to the tables of the rich all - 


‘over the kingdom. Vegetables for the table are also 


cultivated in great ection in Provence, and parti« 
cularly about Aix. The country for some distance with~ 
out the town, especi on the south side, is a conti« 
nued scene of kitchen garden. The vegetable for which 
they are_most famous, is what they called cardes: a 
plant very. much resembling the artichoke, but not 
growing to a head in the same way. The roots always 
make part of a Christmas dinner. Aix is so famous 
for them, that at this season presents are sent of them 
from thence all over the country. The salads of Aix 
also, particularly in winter, are esteemed uncommonly 

The tomato or. love apple, the aubergine or 

it of the purple egg plant, gourds, and capsicums, | 

are likewise much cultivated in the gardens of Pro« 
vence. The inhabitants of Roscoff; a town on the 
northernmost point of the department of Finisterre, par« 
ticularly apply themselves to the raising vegetables for 
the table ; and in this they are so eminently successful, 
that Brest, Morlaix, rer § several other towns, draw 
their supplies almost entirely from them ; and they are 
sometimes sent.as far as L’Orient and Quimper, in the 
southernmost districts of the department. Cauliflowers, 
brocoli, cabbages, turnips, asparagus, and artichokes, 
are ially produced here in amazing abundance, 
and of an excellent quality. 

But though France has made great advances in the » 
useful branch of horticulture, she is far behind in the 
ornamental: The strait avenue, the terrace, and: the 
parterre, with formal basons, and jets-d’eau, are still : 
the only objects which, in the opinion of the generali- 
ty of Frenchmen, can constitute real grandeur and . 


- beauty in a garden, ; 


CHAP. V. 


Manufactures of France—Historical notices of then + 
—their Situation and State previously to the Revo- 
lution—Effects produced on them by that event. 


Tue consideration of the agriculture of France -haS 
detained us long. The account of the manufactures 
and commerce of that kingdom will not occupy nearly 
so much space ; for France always has been, and pro~ 
bably always will be, more distinguished by the pro- 
ductions of her soil, than by the productions, of her 
manufacturing and commercial industry. : 


In considering her manufactures and commerce, We Manuface 
shall, in the first place, present some historical notices tures, 


respecting them,—pointing out their origin and their 
principal eras, so far as they can be ascertained. In 
the. second plage, we shall give an account of their 
state and condition previously to the Revolution : And, 
lastly, we shall notice, in most cases briefly and gene< 


= 


716 


Statistics. rally, but in some instances more particularly, the effects 


—_Y~ which that event has produ 


upon them. We are 
induced to dwell more fully on their state previously 
to the Revolution than since it occurred, from two con- 
siderations: In the first place, even if their state since 
could be accurately and impartially ascertained, it 
would afford no just and permanent picture of them, 
on account of the t fluctuations, or rather the 
depression, to which the Revolution must have sub- 
j them ; but, in the second place, it is impossible 
to gather correct details regarding the manufactures 
and commerce of France as they now exist ; for, al- 
though annual exposés have been published, yet the 
falsehoods and e ions which they notoriously 
contain, mptorily prohibit us from placing any 
faith in them. All that we know, in general, is, that 
by the revolutionary wars the commerce of France 
nes ope —— panies and that many branches 
of her manufactures have been tly depressed. As, 
however, her commerce will mes sce fm, ¥5 it revives, 
revert into the channels in which it flowed iously 
to the events which have nearly destroyed it, and as 
such also will probably be the case with her manufac- 
tures, we have deemed it ay to consider more par- 
ticularly their state previously to the Revolution, sub- 
joining what information we have been able to collect 
ing the effects that event has produced on them. 
And first, with respect to her manufactures : 
I. The earliest notice which we can trace fof any 
branch of the manufactures of France, occurs in the 


fourth century. It is afforded by St Jerome, in his 
second book against Jovinian, where he speaks of a 
* manufactory stuffs which was then at Arras, and 


which was much esteemed. But the first establishment 
of the cloth manufactures of that kingdom, a branch 
for which it has always been greatly celebrated, can~ 
not be accurately traced. That they were extensive 
and important in the beginning of the Mth century, 
is evident from some letters which exist from the King 
of France to the King of England, in which he ex- 
— great anxiety to procure English wool at St 
ers and Lisle. In 1346, the King of France attempt- 
ed to detach the Flemings from the interest of King 
Edward, by sending them the wool of France at a low 
price, and obliging his subjects to use no other wool, 
while their cloth made of French wool was to be u- 
red: Thus offering to sacrifice the woollen man 
of his kingdom. The next notice we have of the ma- 
nufactures of France occurs in 1453, at which period 
some branches of them appear to have flourished con~ 
siderably. This is evident from the account which 
her historians give of Jacques Ceeur, who, by his loan 
of 200,000 crowns, greatly contributed to enable the 
King to expel the English. This merchant, at a time 
when trade was scarcely known in France, is said to 
have employed 300 factors to his vast com~ 
merce, that extended to the Turks and Russians in the 
East, and the Saracens of Africa, at that period the 
most remote nations known to the merchants of Eu- 
rope. His exports consisted chiefly of woollen cloths, 
linens, and paper, then the principal manufactures of 
France ; and his returns were silks, (which proves 
that this manufacture was not then established, or at 
most only in its infancy,) spiceries, &c. Indeed we 
know, from other sources, that the first considerable 
and regular attempts to establish the silk manufacture, 
occurred in the eo ig of Francis I. in the year 1521, 
This monarch took great pains to procure workmen 
from Milan, while he ie that duchy. In this 


FRANCE. 


manufacture the French made a , princi- 
pally af Aipena; 4nd othe futenabahe Nachof rance, 


and soon supplied man »of Europe with silk goods; 
yet it was after time, as we shall afterwards 
shew, before she got into the methodof raising raw silk 


from the worms. In the reign of pop crs some at- 
tention was paid to manufactures. At this peri 

were neither numerous, nor advanced to a state of any 
perfection. Articles of elegance and luxury were im- 
ported from foreign nations,-and even such as were of 
gee consumption had not. attained beyond their ins 

cy. Leather and t, however, were pre- 

pared with some dexterity at Troyes in Cham 3 
and this place was likewise renowned for the 

of its dyes, in which occupation the inhabitants were 
principally employed. A manufacture of white paper 
was extablished at ray Re in Provence, about the 
beginning of Henry the Second’s reign; and there 
seems to have been others in the kingdom. In the 
manufacture of iron and steel the French were then 
very deficient, Their fire arms they procured from 
Lombardy. Charles 1X. indeed, endeavoured to intro- 
duce among his soldiers musquets made at Metz and 
Abbeville, where manufactures of arms were establish- 
ed, but they were so heavy and awkwardly made that 
the attempt was laid aside. The same monarch brought 
to Paris, Italian manufacturers, whe finished there the. 
morions, or head-pieces, which were manufactured and 
purchased at Milan. In the reign. of Henry III. gun« 
powder was made in France, but not in sufficient quan- 
tity to render the importation of it, as well as of saltpetre, 
unnecessary. Genoa, in particular, supplied the French 
with gunpowder, : 

But the first grand era of the manufactures of France 
must be fixed in the reign of Henry IV. The monarchs 
before him had occasionally encouraged particular ma- 
nufactures ; but their en t being partial and 
temporary, and not proceeding from any clear or pro- 
found views on the subject, went a little way in the 
completion of the object they had in view. Henry IV, 
on the con’ , maturely considered the best means for 
promoting and cherishing manufactures; and though 
we can hardly suppose that Sully, who greatly prefer- 
red agriculture to manufactures or commerce, entered 
very cordially into the views of his master, yet there 
can be no doubt that Henry profited by his penetration 
and sense. Before this reign, the silk-worm and 
mulberry trees had been propagated only in the Lyon- 
nois, Dauphiny, Provence, and Languedoc; and so 
certs =. Frenne of articles of ny that in 4000; 

issued an edict prohibiting importation 
foreign silks. The inhabitants of the city of Tours 
had fextorted from him this ition by their im- 

ities, un ing to supply all the national de-« 
mand for silk, as well as for gold and silver stuffs. 
But could not perform their engagement ; and in 
1603, the King was obliged to rescind the edict. Sully 
entertained great and t insurmountable prejudi- 
ces against the silk manufacture, and was impressed 
with the belief that the climate of France was unfavour« 
able to rearing the silkworm. Henry, however, was not 
to be disco As we have already mentioned, in 
1608, temporary buildings were constructed at Fon- 
tainebleau, at the castle of Madrid, and at the Thuille- 
ries, for silk-worms. Mulberry trees were planted in 
various provinces, in which they had not been previous- 
ly cultivated, especially in the vicinity of Paris, Or- 
leans, and Tours. The government caused pamphlets 
on the art of cultivating trees, and preserving the 


Statistics. 
—— 


In the 
reign of 
Henry IV. 


FRANCE. 717 


Statistics. silkworms, to be distributed. A council of commerce and Portugal; wi ich i isti 
| vorm aie gal; wine, which is sent to Flanders, Eng- Statistics. 
“=~ was instituted. In 1605, the king procured silkworms land, and the coasts ‘of the Baltic; salt, made by the a 


tee > ame 


bo] 


wer 


" 1s es hig stated, that the southern 


: admired over all Eu was 
the suburbs of Paris, under Mis Beoctioas 


| the art of making leaden pipes an 


from Valencia in Spain. These measures were success- 
ful, so far as they respected the southern and some of 
the central provinces of the kingdom. But Henry’s at- 
tempts to rear the silk-worm so far north as the capital 
proved abortive. Before his death, however, he wit- 
nessed the general good effects of his exertions and per- 
severance, Forei began to repair to Lyons, which 
city was soon enriched by the silk manufacture ; and it 
e vinees of Lan- 
gu Dauphiny, and Provence, ived from it, in 
course of only seyen bay from its establishment, 
greater profits annually, from the joint produce of 
ir oil, wines, and sweetmeats, the ancient and natural 
productions of the country. 
Henry did not confine his attention and his encou- 
ent to the silk manufacture, though this appears 
to have excited and retained his warmest interest. Gold 
and silver tissues, of various kinds, and of exquisite 
beauty, were manufactured at Paris, by workmen whom 
he brought from Milan, and induced to settle in the ca- 
pital, under his immediate protection. The Gobelins 
, of such unequalled delicacy, and afterwards 
n in one of 
artists from 
Flanders ; but as this manufacture seems to have sunk, 
and was not revived till a future reign, we shall after- 
wards have occasion to notice it more particularly. 
Looking. in imitation of those cast at Venice, 
and which had been formerly made in the reign of 
Henry IL. at St Germain, were again undertaken with 
success at Paris and at Nevers. Earthen ware, white 
and painted, was fabricated with the same beauty as in 
Italy. It appears from a passage in Sully’s Memoirs, 
that the art of enamelling had attained, before 1603, a 
very considerable of perfection. Crapes equal 
to of , were manufactured in the castle of 
Mantes, upon the Seine ; and the manufacture of linen, 
similar to that of the Dutch, was eo age In the sub- 
urbs of St Honoré and St James, the lower orders of 
the inhabitants of Paris found’ employment ; as there 
were there manufactories of gilt leather for the 
Cer aed epticby the hand ; bot valle’ thoes piatte 
cut and split e ; but mills for ! 
established on the river Estampes: pity og 


so mu 


heat of the sun on the shore of the Mediterranean, and 
also of the ocean as far north as Saintonge. The fourth 
consists of hemp and cloth, “ of which, and of cordage, 
great quantities are carried to Lisbon and Seville, for 
the shipping ; and the exportation of the articles of this 
fourth class is incredibly great.” 

It might have been supposed, that the civil wars, by 
which France was convulsed during the 16th century, 
would have been fatal to her manufactures, or at least 
would have depressed them for a considerable length of 
time. This, however, does not seem to have been the 
case. ‘ I remember,” says Brantome, “ in the first 
civil wars, Rouen was carried by storm, pillaged and 
sacked during several days; yet, when Charles IX. 
and his mother passed through it, about fifteen or six« 
teen months afterwards, to their astonishment all traces 
of that calamity had disappeared, and nothing but opu- 
lence was visible.” 

The Political Testament of Cardinal Richelieu gives 
us some insight into the state of the manufactures of 
France about the year 1635; and from it, it appears 
that even then she abounded with the finest and best 
of manufactures ; such (says he) as the serges of Cha- 
lons and of Chartres, which have superseded those of 
Milan. The Turks prefer the French draps de sceau of 
Rouen before all others, except those of Venice, which 
are made of Spanish wool. Such fine plushes are made 
at Tours, that they are sent into Spain, Italy, &c. ; also 
fine plain taffeties, red, purple, and spotted velvets, 
finer than at Genoa. France is the only place for silk 
serges. Mohair (camblet) is made as good here as in 
England, and the best cloth of gold, finer and cheaper 
than in Italy. 

The manufactures of France, however, do not seem 
to have met with much encouragement from the go- 
vernment during the reign of Louis XIII. The next 
im t era is the age of Louis XIV. His minister, 
Colbert, was extremely anxious to establish new manu- 
factures in France. The principal of those that were 
either introduced, or established and extended in this 
reign, were those those of Sedan, Abbeville, the Go- 
belins, and the glass manufacture of St Gobins. 

1. The manufacture of fine cloth at Sedan, both black 


and coloured, which has been so long celebrated, owes ment of the - 


In the 17th 


century. 


In the 
reign of 


LouisXIV. 


Establish- 


were now 
which had been previously procured from Piedmont, its birth and perfection to Nicolas Cadeau. This per- ‘loch M® | 
began to be man ed in the suburb of St Victor in son was a native of France, who had become acquaint 2'ja,. 


Paris. A native of Provence discovered a method of 
rigehgs ga agp kind of coarse linen, with the 
bark of the white mulberry tree ; and an inhabitant of 
St Germain carried to a perfection | gilda unknown, 

spouts for the con- 
ducting of water. Before this reign, white lead was 
always imported ; but it was now prepared and sold at 
a moderate price. Manufactures of gauzes, and thin 
linen cloth, as well as of woollen cloth and serges, were 
also and extended by Henry. 

Giovanni , an Italian author, who, in 1590, 
wrote a small treatise on the causes of the ificence 
and greatness of cities, represents France at this period 
as among the greatest, richest, and most populous king- 
doms of Christendom. According to him, it contained 
27,000 parishes, and 15,000,000 of people ; and was so 
fertile e nature, and so rich, through the industry of 
its inhabitants, as not to envy any other country. In 
another place he represents France as ing what 
he calls magnets, which attract the wealth of 


other countries, viz. corn, which is exported to Spain 


ed with the mode practised in Holland of manufactur- 
ing fine cloths. In 1646, he entered into partnership 
with John Binet and Yves de Marseilles, two rich mer- 
chants of Paris; and, in the same year, they obtained 
a patent for the manufacture, for twenty years, of woollen 
cloths, black as well as all other colours, that should 
be made after the fabric and manner of Dutch cloths. 
For their further encouragement, they had each a pen- 
sion of 500 livres for life, and their children were’ en- 
nobled in France; their foreign workmen declared to 
be denizens of that kingdom, free from being quartered 
on by soldiers, and from all taxes and excises. The 
directors were also allowed 8000 livres annually, for 
carrying on the manufacture during the term of the 
tent. 


2. The exclusive privilege of Cadeau and his part~ 


ners was on the point of expiring, when Josse Vanro- ,. 
roposal to set up 2 ville, 


bais, a Dutch merchant, made a e 
new manufacture of fine cloths at Abbeville in Picardy, 
in imitation of those of Spain and Holland. This pro- 
posal was immediately agreed to by Colbert, who 


t Abbe~ 


Statistics. brought Vanrobais from Holland, 
—Y~" tent, and settled him and his wor 


Of the Ga- 
belins ta- 
pestry. 


71s 
ted him a 
en at Abbeville. 
a this t, which was dated in October 1669, Van- 
is obliges himself to set on foot thirty woollen looms, 
with as many fulling-mills as should be necessary, -and 
procure fifty Dutch workmen to be employed in the 
manufactory. Encou ents and privilages: similar 
to those granted to C u, were bestowed on him. 
In 1681, having punctually fulfilled his ents, 
he obtained a renewal of his patent for fifteen * amy 
on condition of setting up fifty looms instead of thirty 
In 1698, a third renewal was granted for ten years, to 
the brothers and sons of the projector, who now 
eighty looms in their manufactory. In 1708, the looms 
exceeded a hundred ; and there were about six hundred 
men, women, and children, employed upon the spot, 
in picking the wool, winding, warping, weaving, shear~ 
ing, &c. At this time, a fourth patent was granted, 
in which the King gave permission to all noblemen to 
enter into partnership, without derogation to their titles 
or honour; and, to encou the sale of these and 
other French woollen in Turkey, he advanced 
money to the merchants of Marseilles out of his trea- 
nll to be repaid after the return of their ships from 
urkey. 

8. We have already mentioned, that Henry IV. esta- 
blished a manufacture of tapestry in the suburbs of the 
metropolis, but that it does not seem to have succeeded. 
This manufacture was revived with more success by 
Colbert: it obtained the name of Gobelines, because 
the house where the manufacture is carried on was 
built by two brothers, whose names were Gobelines, 
who first brought to Paris the secret of the beautiful 
searlet dye, which has preserved their name, as has 
also the fittle river Bievre, upon whose banks they first 
settled. Colbert purchased the ground from these bro- 
thers, for the purpose of establishing there a manufac- 
ture of tapestry, similar to that of Flanders. He was 
particularly anxious on this point, in order that he 
might procure suitable furniture for the royal palaces, 
which he had rebuilt and ornamented, particularly the 
Louvre and Thuilleries. With this view, he collected 

er some of the most able workmen in the cn i 
dom, in all sorts of manufactures and arts, particularly 
painters, tapestry-weavers, engravers, goldsmiths, and 
workers in ebony. The tapestry-weavers were pro- 
cured from Flanders ; separate superintendants of the 
raised and of the smooth tapestries were appointed ; 
and another Fleming was vested with the management 
of the wool-dyeing department. The manufacture of 
tay ies commenced in 1663, but did not flourish till 
1066, when it was endowed with many privileges, and 
denominated, in the edict, the Royal Manufactory of 
the Crown Furniture. At length, the celebrated ter 
Le Brun was appointed chief director of the Gobelin 
manufactures, to which he communicated that beauty 
and grandeur, which his admirable talents were so 
well calculated high pag pelted ta ies were 
brought to a high state of ection during the ad- 
Seinieerallag of Colbert and Louvois. "During the 
administration of the fomer, Alexander's battles, the 
four seasons, the four elements, and the history of 
the principal acts of Louis XIV. from his iage to 
his first conquest of Franche Compté, were wrought 
at the Gobelines, from the designs of Le Brun. Lou- 
Vois caused tapestries to be made, during his admi- 
nistration, after the most beautiful originals in the 
king’s cabinet of Raphael, Julio Romano, and other fa- 
mous painters in the schools of Italy, which were first 


FRANCE. 


as La Fosse, the two Coypels, Jouvenet, 
erson, &c. The at one pe- 
riod, adecline. Great abuses had into. 


it; to remedy which, and revive the establishment,. 
many committees were held at the house of M. Fagon, 
the ier, in 1787. At this time also considerable 
improvements were made in ing 


secon! see Pae nation, and are also 

— sree Bsns. sae 
used in the tapestries are d in a 

manufactory appropriated to that Lag 


riety of tints and shades, which are The ma~ 
terials are ready spun wools from the south of France, 
and the silks of Lyons. 


4, Louis XIV. seems to have been particularly anxious 


Venice, and the king, for their encouragement, 

the directors and proprietors many privileges Eaton 
munities, and supplies of money. He was not, however, 
disheartened by his failure at but by. verance 
at length succeeded to such a degree, that the glass 
manufactured at St Gobins was superior to that of 
Venice, both in quality and quantity. In order. to fa- 
cilitate and secure a good market for this manufacture, 


Louis, by an edict, laid a duty upon foreign glass im-— 


rted into France to such an amount, as nearly to pro« 

ibit it; and a few years afterwards, finding that the 
home manufacture had still need of further ion 
and encou ent, he absolutely prohibited the im- 
portation of foreign glass. One circumstance in par- 
ticular seems to have retarded the establishment and 
progress of this manufacture at first. We have already 
mentioned, that in the reign of Henry II. and Henry 
IV. it was ap oo in the ig stage 3 vicinity of the 
metropolis; the consequence was a sci 
wood was felt; and it was removed inte the neigh- 


bourhood of a large forest, with the advantage of a 
. This forest was. 
that of St Gobins, whence the manufacture took its_ 


river, to ease the expence of carriage. 


name. The whole is situated at the of a small 
hill, close to the vi of St Gobin, near La Fere and 
Chaumy, two towns in Picardy. The very white sand 
used in the manufacture is 
bourhood of Creil, a place 11 distant from Pa- 
ris: the glasses are sent by water to the 
af are polished and silvered.| 


those which we have just mentioned. By an edict 
of the 19th of October 1688, he granted to Noel de 
Varennes different immunities, to encourage him to 
on the manufacture of Drap de Londres, or cloth 

e in imitation of what was sent from London to 
Turkey, in the province of Languedoc, Afterwards 
that province was obliged to furnish Magi and his part~ 
ners with 30,000 livres to on the same manufac- 
ture at Clermont and Sette. It also appears by another 
edict that this Monarch yearly appropriated a million 
of livres, exclusive of ind: ces In the customs, to en« 
and reward skilful masters and artificers, who un- 

Pac to set up fabrics of cloth, silk, camel and 


pu , as it would 
be otherwise very difficult to procure the infinite va~. 


_ of. 


brought from the neigh- _ 
capital, where - 
V. encouraged other manufactures besides - 


Glass 
nufacture 
at St Gow 
bins. 


iJ 


i 


. 


| Statistics. goat’s hair, crystals, oP other eoménodities 


State at the 


In 1695. 
a patent was granted to Isaac Robelin, engineer, di- 
rector of the fortifications of Burgundy, for the exclu- 


sive privilege of settling a tin manufacture in different 
parts of the kin By an arret of 1703, it appears 


that the manufactures of bays, perpets, and serges, 

which had been a after the union between the 

crowns of France and Spain, had already attained such 
ection as to rival those of England. 


Holland received most of these articles, besides saffron, 
soap, wood, honey, &c. The revocation of the edict of 


7 felt cera ae Lesatulig; Goethe 
were gen > out 

ts, ariffiona; ead manufac- 
turers of that kingdom. Those who had most money 
retired into England and Holland; but the most indus- 
trious part of them settled in Brandenburg, where 
they eager serpent petinke megan . peat 
draggets , crapes, , stockings, also the 
dyeing of all sorts Stedlours. he goldsmiths, jewel- 
lers, watch-makers, and carvers, settled in lin. 
From this account, and from the additional fact that 
is indebted to the refugees for her silk manu- 
factures, and also for improvements in the manufacture 
, hats, glass, watches, cutlery ware, jacks, 

8, surgeon's Instruments, hardware, &c. we may 


* 


circumstance in the history of 
the manufactures of France, me ig | the 18th century, 
previously to the commencement of the Revolution, re- 
ig the establishment of the cotton manufacture. 
precise era is not accurately known ; but it was 
certainly carried on at Rouen in Normandy, a consider- 
able time before the middle of the 18th erg 2 and 

it is said to have been introduced by a Mr Holkar, 

probably an Englishman. Before the year 1747, the 
manufacture of cottons, or cotton-linens as they were 

then called, was established at Nantes in Brittany, 

where it was supposed it would succeed better than in 

Rouen, as cotton, wool, and indi, were cheaper. 

Such are the principal eras in the history of the manu- 

factures of France; we shall now to consider 

their state, before they were affected by the Revolu- 

Manufac- ‘IJ. It may be proper to premise, that they are con- 
tures at the sidered to have flourished most between the years 1650 
Revolution. and 1750 ; and that, subsequently to the last period, se- 
veral causes, but chiefly the rivalship of English manu- 

factures, acted unfavourably on them. The following 

are the principal manufactures which were carried on 

in France, before the Revolution, most of which still 


FRANCE. 


719 


exist, though several of them are now very much de- Statistics. 
ressed, —— 

1. The woollen manufacture. Cloths of different qua- Woollen. 
lities form the most important and extensive part of 
this manufacture ; and the finest cloths are those for 
which France has always been chiefly celebrated. 

The very superfine French cloths are made at Louvieres 

in Normandy ; those of Abbeville, in Picardy, though 

fine, are not to be compared with them in taalieh: The 
Londrines, made at Carcassone in Languedoc, which 

were formerly the most suecessful manufacture in 

France, so far as concerned the rivalry of England, and 

were manufactured expressly for the Turkish and Chi- 

nese markets, are also of fine quality. The cloths of 
Julienne, and the superfine fabrics of Sedan, as well in 

scarlet as in other bright colours, and in black, are fit 

only for the rich, Fine cloths are also manufactured 

at Rouen, Darental, Audelis, Montauban, and in va~ 

rious places in Languedoc and Champagne ; but these 

are of various “i. of fineness, and applicable to va« 

rious purposes. of Andelis in Normandy are fine 

mixed cloths, similar to such as are made at Abbeville. 

There are fabrics of a second sort of cloth at Elbeuf in 
Normandy, and at Sedan: those of Elbeuf are best 

suited for workmen and mechanics, Chateaurouge, be« 

fore the Revolution, furnished a great deal of live 

cloth. Romarantin, Issodoren, and Lodeve, furnis 

cloths for military clothing. There are still inferior 

coarser cloths, made for the wear of the paysans and 

country labourers. The fabrics at Rheims, before the 
Revolution, beside the sort called draps de Rheims, con« 

sisted of an imitation of Silesian drapery, called Silesies, 
imitations of our Wiltons, called wilions, and casimeres, 

which they called maroes. Ratteens were made at Roy=' 

bons, Crest, and Saillans; cloths and ratteens at Ro« 
mans; cloths for billiard tables at St Jean-en Royans. 
Cloths of different descriptions and qualities were also 
made at Grenoble, Valence, Troyes, St Leo, Bayeux, 
Amboise, Niort, Coutange, Lusignon, &c. In the rank 
of coarse cloths, may also be placed the woollen stuffs 
of Aix,.Apt, Tarascon, Oleron, Orthes, Bagneres, Pau, 
Auch, the valley of Aure ; the cloths of Cevennes, Som- 
mieres, Limoux, &c. The greater part of these cloths 
bear the names of the various places in which they are 
fabricated. Besides cloths, properly so called, camblets, 
callimancoes, baizes, kerseys, wool and hair plushes, are 
made at Amiens; ts, flannels, blankets, at 
Rheims ; blankets in the suburbs of Paris; flannels at 
Beauvais; serges at Aumale, Bicomt, &c.; camblets 
and plushes at Margny ; hosiery at Compeigne and 
Rheims. 

In endeavouring to ascertain the state of the woollen 
manufactures, previous] to the Revolution, other par 
ticulars regarding it will be noticed, as -well as other 
places pointed out, where the several branches were 
carried on with success. The above is only a general 
sketch of it. 

In the flourishing period of the manufactures of Pi- 
cardy, it was calculated, that, in the city of Amiens 
only, they made 129,800 ap of woollen stuff, be- 
sides 50,000 pieces brought from the adjacent parts, 
which for that reason were called etoffes foreignes. The 
value of the woollen manufacture at this place was 
computed to amount to nearly 1,600,000 livres annual- 
ly. e extent and value of the manufactures of Abbe- 
ville were little inferior to those of Amiens. At Beau- 
vais, 500 looms were employed in making the two sorts 
of cloth manufactured there, and 40 fulling-mills: 68,000 
pieces of cloth were manufactured of 745,000 pounds: 

1 


In Picardy. 


Statistics. 


Tn Cham- 
pagne. 


In Poitiers. 


In Anjou, 
&c. 
Tn Brittany. 


in Nor- 
mandy, 


In Langue- 
doc, 


In French 
Flanders. 


720 


of French wool, and 115,000 pounds of Spanish. The 
wool grown at this period in the province of Picardy, 
and used along with Spanish wool in their manufac- 
tures, amounted to 524 milliers. In that division of 
Champagne, which, previously to the Revolution, was 
called the department of Rheims, there were made, in 
the flourishing period of its manufactures, 84,000 pieces 
of stuff. In this department were included Rheims it- 
self, Sedan, Vervins. In the generality of Poitiers, 
principally at Poitiers itself, and Niort, were annually 
made from 25,000 to 30,000 pieces of stuff; in the Or- 
leannois, about 25,000 pieces of cloth. Romarantin, in 
this district, already noticed, made nearly 6000 pieces. 
In the provinces of Anjou, Tourraine,’and Maine, about 
18,000 pieces of stuff. In Berry, there were 34 places 
where cloth and other woollen stuffs were made 3 seven 
of which made from 3000 to 4000 pieces each ; six from 
2000 to 3000; and the rest ‘about 800 or 900 pieces, 
The tapestry made in this generality amounted to 
80,000 livres annually. In Brittany, 800 looms were 
employed, chiefly in making light stuffs. The princi- 
pal places, Nantes, Rennes, St Brieux, &c. In Nor- 
mandy, the woollen manufacture flourished extremely : 
in the generality of Rouen (that is, a division of the 

vince over which an i rx of the woollen manu- 
actures was placed), there —_ 12 looms, pon 
employed in manufacturi oth, serges, and tapestry. 
The chief places for cloth 5 were Darental, Elbeuf, and 
Louvieres, In the generality of Alencon, another divi« 
sion of Normandy, upwards of 60,000 pieces of eloth, 
and other drapery, were made: the princi places 
were Alencgon Aumale, in which latter 1200 
looms were employed in the manufacture of serge. Bur« 
gundy, mig: ah and Provence, were not very cele« 
brated for their woollen manufactures. There was, 
however, a considerable manufacture of i at 
Dijon: about 1000 pieces of cloth made at St Jean-en- 
Royans, and about éoo0 pieces at Romans. The manu- 
factures of Languedoc were very important and flou- 
rishing. ‘At Lodeve, 45,000 pieces, white and grey, 
were made ; at Bezieres, Sept, and Carcassone, the ma- 
nufactures were equally flourishing. In the middle of 
the last century, the annual product and manufacture 
of Languedoe, so far as it relates to our present topic, 
was as follows: sheep 1,000,000 livres ; fustians and 
basins 90,000 ; blankets 230,000 ; bergames and tapes- 
try 20,000 ; woollen stuffs, fine and coarse, 4,100,000 ; 
cloths, principally fine, 8,450,000; woollen stockings 
40,000 ; hats 400,000 ; making a total of 14,330,000 
livres. In French Flanders there were also pretty con- 
siderable manufactures of woollen goods, of various de- 
scriptions. At St Omer’s, 350 looms were employed 
in making cloth, dru , besides a great many stock. 
ing frames. At Lisle there were nearly 1000 looms 
employed in making camblets, besides several hundred 
in making’callimancoes, &c. ; and 200 frames in making 
stockings and caps. Above 800,000 pieces of stuff were 
made annually at this place. At gt Pour, between 
Marseilles ~ Toulon, there is a manufacture of red 
worsted caps, which are very much worn by the 
santry of Provence, and the fishermen of Marseilles, 
Hence arose the bonnet rouge during the Revolution. 
It was introduced by the Marseillois as the fashion of 
their country. To this account a few miscellaneous ar- 
ticles may be added. were made at Rouen, at 
Asa and at Felletin, a small town in the Lower 
Marche : these were called ta carpets ; those made 
at Tournay were called ag! moucade ; 


at Arras, as well as the other places mentioned a ve 5 


FRANCE, 


blankets in Normandy, Auvergne, and 


Languedoc ; 
Dartenat in N ly, the best and 


finest ; at Vernon, 


imperfect, 
€ manufactures of 
period of their most ishing state. 
Long before the Revolution, however, 
had declined to a considerable degree. A few years 
previous to that event, the woollen manufacture at Car- 
cassone was by far the most important. In 1786, the 
following is the state and balance of the trade in cloth 
Smcorporana to the Levant, manufactured at this 


. They manufactured every 
ieces of cloth, of which 800 only were sold in the king- 
Nae for home consumption : the remainder 
to the Levant. The whole amount of cloth exported. 
was worth 11,136,000 livres. The greatest of 
the wool used in that manufactory was wool, 
chiefly from Rousillon and loc. They used 
a vast quantity of.tin and cochineal in their dyeing, 
The cost of Nis ee estimated at 6 livres comk 
The price of the 300 bales of wool, 
from Spain to mix with the 
native wool, came to 270,000 livres. The price of the 


drugs to 284,000 ; making a total sum, paid for raw 
materials from abroad, 


654,000 livres, They sold’ 
to the merchants of Marseilles, for CF por into Tur. 
key, to the amount of 11,136,000: ving a balance 
for the workmanship, and the price of the raw mate- 
rials of the growth of the ki , Of 10,482,000 li. 
vres, or £458,587, 19s. sterling. In 1784, France ex- 
ported cloth to the value of 15,530,900 livres ; stuffs to 
the value of 7,600,000 ; and plush, &c. to the value of 
4,425,100. The exportation. of cloth, in the ojo 1787, 
had fallen to 14,242,400 livres; and that stuffs, in 
the same year, to 5,615,800 livres, The produce of 
the whole woollen manufacture was rated, in 1789, 
at 140,000,000. of livres annually. ; 
2. The next manufacture in im 
is the silk manufacture ; but of the state of this, when 
it was most flourishing, we cannot collect» such details 
as we have given relative to the woollen manufacture y 
because, fon the old government, the: of the king- 
dom, where there was any woollen man was can 
toned into several departments, or districts, called gene- 
ralities, with an in: r to each, and a superi: 
over the whole; and thus a particular,account of this 
manufacture might vA tan We so axetone, 
be obliged to specify the princi places w silk 
manufacture is pa a epee afterwards to give such 
estimates of its value before the Revolution as we can 
collect. The quality of French silk, and particularly 
that of Languedoc, is very good. It is made into 
woof, and even very beautiful i Since the 


- establishment of the silk mills at Vancauson, the French 


organzine has obtained a superiority over that of fo- 
reign countries. The woof-made in edoc and 
at Alais is preferred. The annual export of raw silk 
from the latter, in the most flourishing state of its trade, 
was 1,200,000 lbs. 

The most considerable manufactures of silk are those 
established at Tours, Lyons, Nismes, Avignon, Mar« 
seilles, and Paris. The silks of Tours Lyons are 
esteemed of the best quality: Those manufactured at 
Nismes are far inferior. Elorentine taffetas, English 
taffetas, and damask, are manufactured at Ss ay 
There are also silk manufactures at Rouen, ouse, 
Auch, Narbonne, Amiens, and several other places. 


Statistics. 
—— 
of 


year at Carcassone 64,800 At Carcas- 


sone in 
1786. 


extn Silk manu- 
and extent 


Statistics. 
—— 


FRANCE, 


The best gold and silver laces are made at Paris and 
poh ama edger: mean at Montmorency, 
Sarcelles, Estrepagny, &c. Ribbons are chiefly made 
in Paris and Lyons: There are also large quantities 
manufactured at St Etienne and St Chaumont. Silk 
stockings, gloves, and mittens, are manufactured at 
Paris, Lyons, Nismes, Montpellier, Dourdans, &c. 

ing the most flourishing period of the silk ma- 


~ nufacture of Lyons, it is computed that 18,000 looms 


were constantly and regularly at work, of which about 
12,000 were employed in the manufacture of figured 
silks. The state of the manufacture in 1786 was as 
follows: The Sa silks eel were < different kinds, 
independent of the silks of the grow teeter eo 
They imported at Lyons, chiefly by the way of Gene- 
va, raw silks from Piedmont to the amount of 668,850 
livres ; from Naples, to the amount of 263,400 3 and 
pm res on native silks to the amount of 447,300: 
ing the total value of the raw silks 1,399,550 livres, 
The fourth of this amount was sent to different 
parts of the kingdom to be manufactured ; the three 
parts were employed at Lyons,—which gives an 
amount of 1,049,661 livres. pon this computation 
it results, that they manufactured yearly in that ci 
349,887 pieces of stuff of all kinds. “ It was computed, 
that each piece t a benefit to the manufacturer 
of 36 livres, or 12 livres for each of silk ; which 
ives 12,595,932 livres. In the year 1787, the manu- 
of rate employed 15,000 looms ; in 1788, 


i 


14,777; and number of workmen was 58,500. 
In the most flourishing state of the silk manufacture, 
it was that nearly half the looms of the king- 


dom were employed at Lyons. There were besides at 
Nismes about 3000; at Tours from 1200 to 1500; and 
about 2000 at Paris. There were besides about 20,000 
used for the makin: of silk stockings, and 10,000 for 
that of ribbons, , and lace. In 1775, 


nity ef mative il tothe whole’ Hingiom at 
390,000,000 th t 


itappears thatthe native silk was worth 56,000,000 livres 


silk articles annually sent out of France were estimated 
as follows: Silken stuffs, taffetas, sattins, &c. 14,884,100 
livres; ditto, mixed, 649,600; silken gauzes, 5,452,000; 

handkerchiefs, 118,000; ribbons, 1,231,900; 
2,589,200; various other articles, 445,300; ing a 

total of 25,370,100 livres. 
5. Linen is manufactured in most of the provinces, but 
incipally in Brittany, Normandy, Picardy, Hainault, 
ambresis, Flanders, Maine, Dauphiny, Auvergne, 
Beaujolais, , Gascony, and Anjou. Brittany 
and some parts of Normandy are most celebrated for 
this manufacture. The principal articles of linen cloth 
made in Normandy are those called low cloths, made 
in the vicinity of Fecampe, in the department of the 
Lower Seine; h tow-cloths, made in the valley of 
Longueville, in the adjacent vi , and near Rouen ; 
cloths used in the formation of oil-cloths and umbrellas 
are made at Ourville ; a particular sort of linen, former- 
sent to the Brazils, at St "s ; toiles a veste in 
icinity of Bacqueville; strong flaxen cloths at 
VOL. IX. PART Ir. 


721 


Dieppe, Havre, Fecamp, &c. ; tickings at St Loo, Ev« Statisties, 


reux, and other parts in Lower Normandy ; coverings 
for mattresses at St Vallery, St Laurent, &c.; linen 
cloth with blue and white grounds, for sailors’ shirts, 
at St Laurent, Toqueville, &c.: damasked linen at 
Rouen, St Vallery, and Bolbec ; in the article of printed 
linens Snly, the sale at Rouen, when the manufacture 
flourished, was computed at from £20,000 to £25,000 
sterling per week. The quantity sold in the hall an- 
nually, averaged about 35,000,000 millions of livres. 
The principal linen manufactures of Brittany are sail- 
and canvass at Rennes, Angers, Agen, (also at 
Marseilles: and Mont de Marsan,) and what are called 
Crez and Bretagnes. In the middle of last century, 
6000 bales of Crez and Bretagnes, were annually export- 
ed from Morlaix alone ; 20 goats afterwards the expor- 
tation fell to about. 4500 bales; and at the commence- 
ment of the Revolution it fell below 4000. The annual 
value of these cloths made in Brittany, in the flourish- 
ing state of the manufacture, was about 1,200,000 livres. 
In several of the villages of this province, particularly 
at Vitry, the women and children used to be much 
employed in knitting thread stockings and gloves, which 
were sent to Spain, and even to the East Indies. They 
sold about 20,000 livres worth of them every year. Be- 
fore the Revoltition, France exported linen cloth to the 
amount of from 12,000,000 to 13,000,000 of livres; and 
lawn and cambric, manufactured principally in the 
French Netherlands, to the amount of 6,000,000. 

4, Though the cotton manufacture is of 
tively late establishment, yet it had begun to flourish 
considerably before the Revolution. The principal seat 
of it was then, and indeed still is, Rouen and its vici- 
nity which has not inaptly been called the Manchester 
of France. Here cottons, made from materials called 
tutacotin, brought to France by way of Holland ; cotton 
handkerchiefs; a sort of coarse cotton cloth, called 
siamoise ; besides fabrics of mixed cotton and thread, 
were manufactured. There were also small manufac- 
tures of cotton in some other parts of France, at 
the period of the Revolution, particularly in Beaujo- 
lais, edoc, and Flanders; but we are not acquaint~ 
ed with any data on which to estimate the value of this 
manufacture. The quilts of Marseilles, which are still 
as much in use as ever in that of France, where a 
blanket is a rare thing ; the muslin’ of Rouen, Nismes, 
Bezieres, and Rheims ; and the dimities and fustians of 
Alengon, Lyons, Troyes, and Toulouse, may be classed 
under this head. 


5. As the laces manufactured in France are made Laces. 


both of silk and thread, we shall consider them sepa- 
rately. Before the Revolution, they were a flourishin 
and important branch of trade. They are manufactu 
at Lisle, Valenciennes, Dieppe, Puy, Paris, Caen, Ar- 
ras, Alencon, and Argentan, in the greatest quantity, 
and of the best quality. At Paris are made black and 
white laces of thread; and also at Valenciennes, Dieppe, 
and Puy. At Arras, minionette and entoilage laces, 
eat quantities of which used to be brought to Eng- 
fand. The point lace of Alengon has long enjoyed a 
great tation France, England, Germany, 
&e. The point lace of Argentan, called point d’ Argen- 
tan, is also celebrated. 


6. In the beginning of the last century, there were Paper. 


seven provinces in France where the paper manufac- 

ture was chiefly carried on: Champagne, Normandy, ~ 

Brittany, An ois, Perigord, Limosin, and Au- 

vergne, At that period, a and other countries 
Y 


compara= Cotton, 


122 


Statistics. imported a great deal of paper from France; towards 
~~" the middle of that century, however, the paper trade of 


Hides. 


Hats. 


Nails. 


Steel, 


Jewellery. 


France declined, in consequence of these countries ma- 
king paper nearly sufficient for their, own consumption. 
Previously to the Revolution, the chief paper manufac- 
tures of France were at Annonay, in the department 
of the Ardeche, very fine paper is manufactured here; 
at Montargis, in the department of the Loiret ; at Es- 
sone, Courtalin; Rambervillier, in the department of 
the Vosges: Besancon, Ornant, Villafaut, Arbois, Ar- 
ches, Archettes, and St Bresson, The total number of 
manufactories before the Revolution was about 200. 
Three classes of white for writing and printing 
are made ; each class is divided into eight ar ten diffe- 
rent sorts : different coloured papers and pasteboards 
are also made ; and paper hangings, executed with con- 
siderable taste, at Paris. Before the Revolution, the pa- 
per manufactured in France amounted to the annual 
value of 8,000,000 livres ; 1,350,000 of which were ex- 
ported to foreign countries, and $50,000 livres to the 
colonies, 

7. The best hides are those of the oxen of Au- 
vergne, Limosin, and Poitou. Leather is p at 
Bayonne, Lectoure in the department of Gers, and St 
Germaine. The best tan-yards are at Paris, Dijon, 
Troyes, Coulommier, Rheims, Mezieres, Laon, Soissons, 
Rouen, Caen,. Bayeux, Verneuil, Perche, Chartres, Or- 
leans, Tours, ed Beauvais: leather for harness is ma- 
nufactured at Nemours, and Louviers.. Goat skins are 

ed at Paris, under the name of maroquins. Cha- 
mols leather is made, or imitated, at Niort, Strasburg, 
Grenoble, Annonay, &c. Buffalo hides are also ma- 
nufactured in France ; and parchment in Poitou, Lan- 
guedoc, Flanders, Alsace, and at Paris. The parch- 
ment made in France is esteemed the best in E 
and in time of peace is frequently imported into 


gt A ‘ 
8. Hats are chiefly manufactured at Lyons, Mar- 


> 


seilles, Rouen, and Paris. Before the Revolution, con- and 


siderable quantities were ex to the French co- 
lonies, and also to Spain and Spanish America, by the 
way of Cadiz ; at that time, there were about 70 hat 
manufactories in, the kingdom. 

9. Nails are. made in almost every province in 
France ; but the most considerable forges are in Nor- 
mandy, Cham e, and Limasin: at Limoges, great 
quantities of nails, particularly for horse shoes, were 
made, and sent to Paris, previously to the Revo- 
lution. Pins and needles are made at Paris, Rouen, 
Bourdeaux, Limoges, Evreux, and Aigle. Cutlery at 
Montargis, Chateaurault near Poitiers, where it is made 
with scarcely any division of labour, being in the hands 
of distinct and unconnected workmen, who go through 
every branch on their own account, and without assist- 
ance, exert from their families; at Cosne, Moulins, 
&c. Steel is chiefly manufactured at Amboise, where 
it was established by the Duke de Choiseul; at St 
Etienne, Colmar, and Grenoble. Works in bronze and 
or-moulu are carried to great perfection in Paris, Clocks 
and watches are made in different parts of France, par- 
ticularly at Paris, Cluse, and Carouges; the coarse 
movements are made at Di and its vicinity, The 
number of watches sold annually in France, before the 
Revolution, was supposed to be 200,000, At Paris 
and Lyons, at the same period, 70,000°workmen were 
employed in the manufacture of jewellery ; in the ca- 
ass: Sa ipmot eae pu kind, as well as all a 
expensive and tasteful toys, are carried to great perfec- 
tion, A few years before the Revolution, the art of 


FRANCE. 


casting cannon solid, and then boring them, 
troduced by W. Wilkinson, who i 
fi for that purpose, in an island in the Loire be- 
iow Nantes. ; 
10. China is principally manufactured at 
where io Pea lens Ween cercion Shame apeanae pee 
of ware, 


fection. Several manufactures chiefly 
of the coarse kind, are carried on at Aubagne and 
other places ; imitations of our Staffordshire ware are 


made at Chantilly and Paris ; they are called terre de 


pipe stone-ware is made at 


arseilles. 


11. The glass manufacture of St Gobins still retains Glass. 


its pre-eminence for and beautiful mirrors ; there 
are also glass manufactures at Moulins; at Baccarat in 
Lorraine, where three kinds were made, plate-glass, 
common glass for windows, and table-glass, the wood 
used in this manufacture amounted to between 8000, 
and 10,000 cords ; it was brought down the Meurthe, 
and in other parts of the kingdom. A considerable 
trade in curious works of enamel was carried on at 
Nevers before the Revolution. 


12. Under this head we shall notice all. the princi- Other arti 
pal remaining manufactures of France, which flourish- “** 


ed previously tothe Revolution. Soap of the first qua- 
lity is made at Marseilles, where, and at Paris, great 
quantities of wash balls were also made: inferior soap 
was manufactured at Toulon, Bourdeaux, Rouen, Lisle, 
Abbeville, Amiens, and St Quintin. The amount of 
this manufacture was 60 millions, only two of which 
were exported. The principal manufacture of starch is 
at Paris. The manufacture of tobacco and snuff amount« 
ed to 22,000 cwt._of the former, and 2000 ewt. of the 


latter. Verdegris, chiefly at Montpellier ; alum and 
Epsom salt in the neighbourhood of ezieres ; Glauber 
ts, which are esteemed of excellent quantity in the 


re- 
ing of sugar was principally carried on at Marseilles 
ropes 

Toulon, Abbeville, Dunkirk, and Havre de Grace. 
Bleaching is carried on toa governs eens 
principally in the vicinity of St Quintin, - he 
course is carried on at the seats of the principal 

woollen, linen, and cotton manufactures. The waters 


of the Saone are excellent for ing, containing, it 
is said, a soapy unlit; those of the Rhone fom hee 
purity, are equally adapted for dyeing; the waters of 
the Title river Sornin are also reckoned remar! 


Ill. Ps ution, such as that which for 


upwards Eiffeets of 
of 25 years has afflicted and the political and te Revo 
moral state of France, could not fail to press very se- i.) inu. 


iron te Way @rent Cegnee ; others Nore espe eenatee France. 


the trial not so much 


manufacture, which supplied that commerce, no longer 
being in equal demand, were no er made in equal 
uantities. Another cause of the 

ign, wine he ‘sought 
reign, m h 
in many instances, absolutely stript the manufactures of. 


FRANCE. 723 . 
Statistics. nearly all their workmen. But though the general fact the Aisne, and of the Somme, ‘and particularly at San- Statistics. 
- =~" is suffici well established, that the manufactures of -terre. Cotton hosi at Rouen, Troyes, y Pr dion 9 “thee 
| oy al France are at present, almost universally, far inferior to Aube, and Sens.. And in the-departments of the North, cs of 
tion upon what they were previously to the Revolution; yet the and of the Maine and Loire, thread stockings are ma- tion upon 
the manu- ise degree of deterioration cannot be ascertained, nufactured. Sweetmeats at Paris, Rouen, Tours, Or- the manu- 
facturesof even with respect to the most im t of them. We leans, Dijon, Sedan, Bourdeaux, &c. Cotton velvet at factures of 


. Amiens, Muslin, and other cotton goods, at Rouen. France. 


shall therefore be under the necessity of confining our- 
selves to a few brief and unconnected notices on this 


t. 

Phe silk manufacture seems to have suffered the most. 
The number of looms employed at Lyons in 1788, has 
been already stated at 14,777. In 1801, according to 
Peuchet, author of the Statistique de la France, there 
were but 7000 looms, and many of them were unemploy- 
ed. The exposé of the French government rates them 
at nearly the same number in 1814, The woollen ma- 
nufactures of Carcassone were languishing cco 
to the Revolution ; and that event has still further de- 
them. Mr Birkbeck visited the fine cloth ma- 
nufacture of Louviers, in 1814. He represents the esta- 
blishment there for spinning woollen yarn as being on 
a large scale; and mentions that their ing or 
shearing machines -were performing their office with 
are wide awake to mechanical improvements. 
it would appear, that whatever injury this important 
manufacture may have suffered from the Revolution, 
with respect to the demand for its goods, it has been 
advancing in improvements during that time. The 
cotton manufacture undoubtedly has extended during 
the last 25 years ; by the immense drain on 
the population which aparte’s wars with Russia, 
and from that period till the of Paris, occasioned, 
it has latterly in a declining state. Probably the 
searcity and the enormous price of the raw material also 
contributed to their depression. Mr Birkbeck visited* 
a cotton mill at Deville, near Rouen, which employs 
600 ; and he describes the machinery as good. 
Indeed, it is well known, that all the inventions and 
improvements in the cotton machinery with which we 
are acquainted, are used in the French manufactories at 
Rouen. Cotton manufactures have lately also been 
established at Chantilly, in French Flanders, &c. ; and 
it is worthy of remark, that the same complaint is made 
with to the influence of this manufacture on the 
morals of the work e, as has long been made in 
this country. The li manufacture of Brittany, and 
the manufacture of snuff and tobacco which is carried 
on there, ially at Morlaix, have suffered greatly 
during the Revolution. The Gobelin manufacture be- 
gan to decline before that event ; ta was not so 
much in fashion ; and that branch of it which was con- 
fined to the dyeing of scarlet cloth, is now almost en- 
tirely at‘an end, in consequence of cloths of that colour 
being very little worn in France, and theSwiss regiments, 
the officers of which formerly consumed vast quantities 
of cloth dyed of the Gobeline scarlet, being no longer 
employed. We shall conclude this C with a brief 
enumeration of those manufactures which at present 
are the most important in France. Mineral acids at 
Paris, Montpellier, and Rouen. Alum at Paris and 
Montpellier. Baracans, for lining pelisses, at Lisle, 
Amiens, and Valenciennes. Dimities, (éasins,) at 
Troyes, Lyons, Tou!ouse, Chaillot, and Alencon. Lawn 
and cambrics at St Quintin, from which place former- 
ly there were exported to Russia annually a million 
i and Cambray. Prussian blue at Paris. Silk 
Fosiry at Pas, Lyons, Nismes, Montpellier, Ganges, 
and ; worsted hosiery in the departments of 


Cutlery at Paris, Moulins, Langres, Chatelleraut, Thiers, 
Lisle, &c. Crapes at Lyons and Avignon. Gold and 
silver lace at Paris and Lyons. Silk lace at Fontenai, 
Purseaux, Louvre-en Parisis, Saint Denis, Montmo- 
rency, Gisors, &c. Lace made of flax, at Lisle, Valen- 
ciennes, Charleville, Sedan, Besancon, Dieppe, Havre, 
Caen, Puy, Arras, &c. At Dieppe, about 4000 women, 
chiefly wives and daughters of the seamen and fisher- 
men, are employed in this manufacture ; and at Puy 
about 6000. Cloth at Abbeville, Elbeuf, Louviers, and 
in Languedoc. Brandy at Bourdeaux, Rochelle, Cog- 
nac, the department of the Charente, Isle of Rhe, Or- 
leans, Blois, Poitiers, Angers, Tours, Nantes, &c, Imi- 
tations of Hollands gin at Calais and Boulogne. | Artifi- 
cial flowers at Paris and Lyons. Gloves at Paris, Ven 
dome, Grenoble, ‘Avignon, Blois, Montpellier, Grasse, &c. 
Olive oil in the departments of the mouths of the Rhone, 
of the Gard, Var, &c. Serges at Atimale, Seignelay, 
Gournay, Auxerre, Sedan, Abbeville, Beauvais, &c. 
Liqueurs at Montpellier and Rouen. Writing and print- 
ing paper at Angouleme, Montargis, Annonay, &c. 
Stained paper at Paris and Lyons. Perfumeries at 
Montpellier, Grasse, agen and Paris. Porcelain at 
Sevres and Paris. Ribbons adorned with gold and sil- 
ver at Parisand Lyons. Other ribbons at Paris, Lyons, 
Tours, St Etienne, St Chaumont. Ferret-ribbons at 
Amiens and other places in Picardy. Ribbons made 
of flax at Ambert. Bilks at Nismes, Lyons, Tours, &c. 
Silk and cotton stuffs at Rouen. Taffetas at Lyons, 
Nismes, Avignon, &c. Carpets at La Savonnerie, Au~ 
busson, Beauvais, Rouen, Arras, Felleton, &e. Linen 
cloth at Rouen, and other parts of Normandy, Brittany, 
Courtray, Arras, Beauvais, Compeigne, St Quintin, 
Noyon, Peronne, &c. Velvets at Lyons. Verdegris 
at Montpellier. Vinegar at Orleans, Blois, Angers, 
Nantes and Paris, Glass at St Gobins. 


CHAP. VI. . 


Commerce— Shipping—Coasting and Inland T'rade— 
Fisheries—Total Produce of all kinds of Industry. 


As the commeétce of France has been nearly annihi- Commerce. 


lated by the Revolution, we shall give a statement of 
it at the commencement of that event; and, in order 
that some estimate may be formed of its previous pro- 
gress, we shall prefix a statement of it as it existed at 
the end of the reign of Louis XIV. 


I. The importations from Spain into France, at the Between 
of Louis XIV. amounted to the value France and 
of 17,600,000 livres. Of this value, a great part con- SP2in- 


end of the rei 


sisted in specie. There were three methods princi- 
pally, by which the French, at this period, obtained 
part of the “ees or precious metals, which the Spa~ 
niards brought from their South American possessions. 
In the first place, French merchandize was carried to 
Cadiz, and exported thence in the galleons: in the se~ 
cond place, the productions and manufactures of France 
found a ready and extensive sale in ; and, lastly, 
the inhabitants of Auvergne, Limosin, and Gascony, 
annually went into Spain, — they assisted in 


Statistics. 


—_—\— 


Between 
France and 


Portugal, 


Between 
France and 
italy. 


724 


harvests, or in other occupations, and returned, when 
they had obtained a competency, into their own coun- 
At the period of the Revolution, the imports from 
Seeelideatbondionsann, btieenmreiamaiaaan 
vres in mi e alone, t 
&c. to the amount of 62,500,000 er The ot 
from at this consi 
Seaisine aime oil, ptt lemons, 4 
raisins, brandies, luscious wines, chincona, eae 
liquorice, dyewoods, inlaid work, ashes, iron, 
wool, silk, Lethate, hides, skins, i enchineal, 
vermilion, beasts of burden principally sedan, «sil 
handkerchiefs, toys, jewell » household and 
caane for i his value “7 33,300,000 
vres ma’ arranged into the 
classes : : 1. Raw materials, principally wool, ashes, a 
beasts of yas neg to the a of 20,000,000; 2. Eat- 
ables, as well animal as vegetable, to the value of 
‘7,000,000; 3. Wines and liquors, tothe valueof 4,000,000; 
and, 4, upwards of 2,000,000 in manufactured articles. 

The ex ions from France into Spain, at the end 
of the reign of Louis XIV. amounted to the sum of 
20,000,000 ; at the period of the Revolution, they had 
increased to the sum of 44,400,000 livres. In this lat- 
ter period, the exports chiefly consisted of the follow- 

articles : grain, vegetables, flour, cod, salted fish of 
a kinds, ions of various descriptions, bran- 
dies, wines, sheep, mules, pigs ; cinnamon, pepper, su- 
gars of all sorts ; pitch, tar, wool, cotton, silk stockings, 
hats, laces, woollen cloths, stuffs, handkerchiefs, gauzes, 
ribbons, linen, leather and skins, books, stationery, mere 
cery, ironmongery, household goods, wooden works and 
metals. The manufactured articles amounted to the 
value of 26,500,000 livres; the raw materials, and beasts 
of burden, about 5, 200,000 livres ; the eatables about 
11,000,000 ; and the wines and liquors about 1,500,000 
livres, 

II, The importations into France from Port at 
the end of the reign of Louis XIV. amounted to the 
trifling sum of 340,000 livres, and consisted chiefly of 
hides in the hair, Brazil tobacco, olive oil, and dried 
fruits. At the period of the Revolution, the value of 
the imports increased to the sum of 10,400,000 
livres. They consisted chiefly of olive oil, cocoa, le- 
mons, 0 , Sweet wines, cinnamon, pepper, cloves, 
cotton wool, ivory, uni goat skins, indigo, dye- 
woods, inlaid work of the East and West Indies, India 
cotton, and Brazil tobacco. ‘The exportations from 
France into Portugal, at the end of the reign of Louis 
XIV. amounted to the sum of ho ee and con- 
sisted of woollen goods, linen goods, earthen ware, paper, 
&c. At the period of the Revolution, the ex ont 
amounted to the sum of about 4,000,000, a: sh no 
chiefly of grain, vegetables, hams, cotton, woollen stuffs 
and stockings, laces, ribbons, paper, skins, hides, mer- 
cery, glass, books, &c. The manufactured articles 
amounted to about 2,300,000 livres; the raw produce 
and provisions to about 1,600,000 livres. 

IIl, The importations into "France from Italy, Pied. 
mont, Savoy, and Switzerland, at the end of the rei 
of Louis XIV. amounted to the sum of 10,700,000: 
at the period of the Revolution, they had increased to 
82,000,000, and consisted chiefly of corn, rice, vegeta- 
bles, flour, olive oil, lemons, oranges, raisins, figs, cheese, 
lemon juice, liqueurs, manna, opium, senna, fresh fish, 
silk, goats and camels nav hares wool, wood for fuel, 
aahes, a Ban | em ioe 8, shumacy tartar, saffron, 
indigo, n stuffs, gauzes, pene. 
essences, a yo ribbons, white 


FRANCE. 


was of raw silk: Sdk Batables othe smountof 28,300,000, 
of which 11,500,000 livres was for olive oil employed 
in the manufacture of fine soap at Marseilles 


The ex tions from France es at 
the end o 400,000 Iv 


tured articles to the amount of 30,800,000 livres ; 2d, 

Raw materials, or such as had undergone only the first 
ation, as cotton thread principally for Switzer~ 
to the value of 11,800,000 livres ; 3d, Eatables to 

the value of 10,700,000 livres; 4th, Wines and li 

5,000,000 ; and 5th, Colonial produce 20,000,000. 

IV. In 1686, the actual value of the i 
from England into France, amounted to-18,000,000. of France 


materials ; and 3,200,000 in other articles,. At the 
end of the reign of Louis XIV. the im 
England into ce, amounted to the sum of 13,876,000 
livres: viz, 6,000,000 in woollen and cotton goods, 
prepared skins, earthen ware, and other manufactures : 
4,100,000 in metals, coal and horses; 3,700,000 in 
eatables, &c. At the period of the Revolution, they 
amounted to about 58,500,000 livres; and consisted 
pone inelly of butter, salted meat and fish, colonial pro- 
uce, corn, flour, rice, coal, copper, iron, lead, pewter, 
woollen goods, cotton goods, ware, ware, 
leather, ivory, whalebone, alum, copperas, white lead, 
horses, leaf tobacco, saddles, glass, kc. They may be 
arranged under three classes: Ist, Manufactured arti« 
cles to the amount of 33,100,000 livres ; 2d, Raw ma- 
terials, particularly the metals, and coal, 16,400,000 
livres; $d, Eatables, &c. 

In 1686, the exportations of France into England 
amounted to 23,300,000 livres: viz. 1st, Manufactures 
to the value of 11,700,000; 2d, Raw materials about 
2,000,000; and $d, _ wines, liquors, &c. 
9,600,000. pat the - deci of Louis XIV, ie 
exportations greatly not amoun 
more than 18,000,000: viz. 12,000,000 of ailkigpade, 
cambrics, laces, &c, ; 1,000,000 in raw materials, prin- 
cipally leather, cochineal, and indigo ; and 5,800,000 
in eatables, wines, liquors, &c. The exportations from 
France into Great Britain and Ireland at the period of 
the Revolution, amounted to about 38,000,000 ; con- 
sisting principally of plums, salt, roe brandies, trea- 
pone hai matey ot = Se 
glass, perfumery, ‘gloves; millinery, vinegar, 
toys, Jewellery, They may be divided into four 
classes =* Ist, — articles to the value of 
7,300,000 livres ; 2d, Raw materials 11,100,000 livres, 
of which two-thirds consisted of cotton from the French 

5 / 


ui 


Between 
and 
livres: viz, 8,400,000 of manufaetures ; 6,300,000 raw England. 


| PRANCED 798 
Statistics: West Indiaislands; 3d, Wines, liquors, &c. 13,500,000; timber, hemp, iron, and other metals. At the period Statistice. 
4th, Eatables 5,500,000. " of the Revolution, these importations amounted to ™ 


Between 
France and 


Between 


France, and 


Germany, 


Prussia, &c. 


V. The importations from Holland into France, at 
the end of the reign of Louis XIV. amounted to about 
12 millions ; viz. 2,500,000 manufactures, 4,700,000 


$4,600,000 livres, and may be divided into three clas« 
ses: viz. Ist, About 5,000,000 of manufactured articles, 
principally those manufactured of flax and hemp, and 
India muslins, brought by the Danes from their pos- 
sessions in the East Indies ; 2d, 24,000,000 of raw ma< 
terials, particularly copper and lead, through the Hanse 
towns, timber from Russia and Denmark, iron, pitch, 
and tar from Sweden, and hemp ‘and’ tallow from 
Russia ;. 3d, 1,800,000 livres, are wis for dried and. 
salted fish from Denmark and Sweden. The exporta- 
tions from France to these places at the end of the 
reign of Louis XIV: amounted to the sum of 6,800,000 : 
viz. about 856,000 in woollen and linen goods; about 
480,000 in copper, cork, &¢c. ; and about 5,400,000 li- 
vres in eatables, wines, liquors, &c. At the period of 
the Revolution, the exportations from France to all 
these places, amounted nearly to the value of 80,000,000, 


the period of the Revolution, the toFrance and may be in five classes : viz. 1st, 3,600,000 
amounted to about 46,000,000 ; consisting’ of colonial livres in m: ize and manufactures, chiefly for the 
produce, corn, honey, rice, wines, brandies, plums, ju- 


Russian market and the Hanse Towns, and a small 


niper berries, hops, tar, quantity for Sweden and Denmark 2d, About 
baceo, galls, ochre, woad, | turpentine, silk stuffs, gau- 7,100,000 in raw materials, particularly indigo, and 
zes, cambric, paper, soap, glass, leather, gloves, milli- other drags for dyeing, and cotton, for the Hanse 


peeenien Germany, 
oland, and Prussia, into France, —— 

of 9,000,000, prir ncipall in three classes : Ist, 3,700, 

manufactures ; 8,000,000 rawmatecials: and 2,300,000 


towns, Sweden; and Denmark ; 3d, About 12,000,000 
in wines, brandies, &c. ; about one-half of this went to 
the Hanse towns, about a fourth each to Denmark 
and Russia, and only about one-eighth to Sweden ; 
4th, About 2,000,000 in v 3, minerals, and ani« 
mals; and 5th, About 55,000,000 in sugai 
fee from the French West India inds ;* of which 


> 


VIII. The commerce between the United States of Between 
America and France, owes its existence entirely to the France and 
rupture between them and Great Britain, which termi- A™*tica- 


13,700,000, princi : 
many and ex from France to 
these countries at the end of the reign of Louis XIV. 
amounted to the sum of 14,100,000 in three classes : 
Ist, 5,100,000 of manufactures ; 2d, 2,000,000 of raw 
materials ; 37,000,000 of eatables, wines, liquors, &c. 
At the of the Revolution, the exportations a- 
pedi | mm sum of 95,600,000 livres, and may be 
divided into five classes: viz. Ist, 39,100,000 livres for 
manufactures of various sorts, ially silk stuffs, em- 
broidered with gold and silver, for the different princes 
in Germany, and the rich nobility of Poland, lawn and 
woollen stuffs for the itary possessions of the house 
of Austria in Germany and Flanders ; 2d, 12,900,000 
livres in raw materials, principally wool and coal, a re- 
ion for Austrian Flanders and em 3d, 
Upwards of 10,000,000 in wines, brandies, and vine- 
, for Germany, Poland, and the Prussian ports of the 
Baltic; 4th, 22,000,000 of colonial produce, particular- 
ly sugar and coffee, for the states of Austria and Ger- 
many, and the Prussian ports in the Baltic; 5th, 
11,000,000 in vegetables and animals for Flanders and 


VII. Atthe end of the reign of Louis XIV. theim- 
into France from , Bremen, Lu- 
Denmark, Sweden, Russia, amount- 


Russia, &e, ed only to 300,000 livres, and consisted principally of 


nated in their independence. During the three first 
years after the treaty of amity and commerce between 
the United States and France, concluded in January 
1778, the im ion from them into France averaged 
annually the sum of 2,460,000 livres: viz..136,000 in 
rice and dried cod ; 357,000 in wood, indigo, skins, 
and other raw materials; and 1,900,000 in leaf tobac- 
co. The exportations from France at this period, as - 
mounted to 3,200,000: viz. 191,000. in spiceries ; 
79,000 in wines and liquors ; 33,000 in raw materials ; 
and 2,900,000 in manufactured goods, particularly 
woollen cloths, linen, silk, cotton velvet, hosiery, hats, 
mercery, earthen ware, East India goods, copper uten- 
sils, and warlike stores. The importations from the 
United States to France, from’ 1781 to 1783 inclusive, 
averaged 3,494,000 livres: viz. 69,000 in rice and salt« 
ed cod ; 192,000 in raw materials; and 3,233,000 in 
leaf tobacco. ‘The exportations from France at the same 
period, amounted to 11,500,000 livres, and may be ar- 
ranged under four classes: 1st, About 825,000 livres 
in previsions and groceries; 2d, About 457,000 in wines, 
brandies, &e. ; $d, About 378,000 ‘in raw materials ;. - 
4th, About 9,800,000 in manufactured articles, princi- 
pally of the same description as those uring 
the former period. ~— the average of the three 
years which preceded the French Revolution, the im< 
portations from the United States into France amount- 
ed annually to. 9,600,000 livres, and may be arranged - 
under four heads: viz. 1st, About 600,000 in rice, and 
other articles of food ; 2d, About 900,000 in raw ma- 
terials ; $d, About 700,000 in fish; and, 4th, About..; 


* Sratistics. 


Between 
France, 
the Levant 
and Bar- 
bary. 


726 


7,300,000 in leaf-tobacco. The principal articles were, 
besides rice, tobacco, _ fish, corn, maize, er of 
every sort for ship-buildin , undressed skins, tar, 
tach flax seed, &c. The a from France 
to the United States at this culpulndlinhinene 
1,800,000 livres, of which 1,200,000 were in -wines, 
&e. and the remainder in manufactures, 

IX. At the end of the reign of Louis X1V. theim- 

s from the Levant and the coast of 

to France, amounted to 3,400,000.) At the ‘period of 
the Revolution, the importations amounted to 37,700,000 
in three classes: Ist, About 1,500,000 in the stuffs of 
the Levant ; 2d, Avout 29,000,000 of raw materials, 
Heyer seg y cotton, silk, wool, goat’s skins, leather, é&c. 

t 7,000,000 in wheat, barley, pulse, olive oil, 

a Turkey coffee, The ex s from France ‘for 
the Levant and the States of Barbary, at the end of the 
of Louis XIV. were only 2,000,000; At the pe- 
of the Revolution, they had risen to the'sum of 
catbonbe livres. They'’may be under four 
heads: Ist, About 8,100,000 in West India coffee, su- 
gar, and liqueurs: 2d, About 3,200,000 in indigo, and 
other dyeing stuffs ; 83d, About 9,300,000: in woollen 
cloths, hosiery, silk goods, and handkerchiefs ; 4th; 
About 5,000,000 in specie, as sequins, piastres, &e. 
Nearly the whole of the cochensbdb hatnocasbh France and 
the Lannion Barbary States, was carried on at Mar- 
seilles.. From this port, were sent to the ports of the 
Levant the cloths of edoe, chiefly those manu- 
factured at Carcassone, ont, and Lodeve, dye- 
woods of various descriptions, sugars, coffee, indigo, 
cochineal, cinnamon, and other spices, lead, iron, 
pewter, tin, paper, liqueurs, syrups, fruits, ‘millinery, 
silken staffs, lace, linen cloth, toys, &c.; and in return, 
France received b Marseilles, raw and spun cotton, 
wool, gum, wax, silk, s, madder, opium, goat’s and 
camel's hair, raw and dressed hides, w, carpets, cof- 


FRANCE! 


X. The commerce between France Men 
China was established in 1694. At the end of the 
reign of Louis XIV., the ‘Prenchyporsesions in the 
rage and of little moment ; saileiietnige only 

some country houses at Pondicherry, , 
Mazulipatam ; an establishment at oF 


ployed in it ; their cargoes, however, viraie'bave tant 
valuable, since, at the end of the reign’ of Louis XTV., 
the importations from the East Indies amounted to 
6,368,000 livres, principally, Ist,’ 

and coffee, to the value of 2,757,000 ; 2d, of mus 
2,790,000 ; and lastly of gold in ingots, 200,060: ese 
The exportations from France to /at the same pe-~ 
riod, amounted to 2,852,000 livres, of which there 
were 2,173,000: in piastres, 542,000 of ste 
and 107,000 in-metals, &e. At the period 

volution, the from Asia into— end 
were valued at 34,700,000 livres, on the # ated 
1785, 1786, and 1787, mere Ist, of man 
commodities, § 


“— 


of about 26,600,000 livres: 2d, of cirmssmnots;' pepper; 
tea, and Mocha coffee, to the value of 6,000,000: 3d,’ 
of wood, raw silk, cotton, iv , &e. to the 
1,150,000 livres: 4th, of 

the value of 493,000 livres ; and, 5th, of di 
woods, to the value of» 367,000 livres. © 
tioris from France to! Aniayat the Maine : 
ed to 17,400,000 ; and consisted, Ist, o 
vres, in piastres: 2d, of manufactured articles, to the 
value of 654,000 livres : 3d, of wines and ior’ , to’ 
the value of 745,000 livres: 4th, of wood metals,’ 
to the value of 700,000; and, lastly, of various other 
articles, to the value of 72,000 livres. : ’ 


fe 
nea 


15,253,000 i= as, 


fr 


fee, incense, myrrh, rice, sal-ammoniac, tamarinds, sen- 


XL. "At the end of the reign of Louis XIV., thieton? Between 
na, ostrich feathers, grain, oil; &c.. Before the Revolution, 


into France, from the western coasts of Afri- France and 


Summa- 
ry of the 
commerce 


the trade to the Levant employed 400 vessels of the’bur- ca, amounted to about 500,000 livres, chiefl fy in gums, west of 
‘slaves an. Africa. 


den of about 47,000 tons, and the value of their cargoes 
nearly 41,000,000 francs. 

The importations of all the countries of Europe into 
France, at the end of the reign of Louis XIV. amount- 
ed to.the sum of 71,000,000 ; and at the period of the 


ana 4 Revolutionto 380,000,000, being an augmentation in the 


France an 


all thecoun- Proportion of nearly 54, The exportati 


tries of Eu- 
‘zope. 


ions from Franceto 
all the rest of F , at the end of the reign of Louis’ 
X1V.amounted to the sum of 105,000,000 ; at the period 
ofthe Revolution to 424,000,000, being an increase in the 
proportion of 4 to 1. The ex ae at both periods 
may be arranged under five The first compre- 
heude thee prodnctions of the soil,of France. ‘At the 
end of the reign of Louis XIV. these amounted to 
36,000,000 ; at the Revolution to 93,000,000. .The 
second class comprises the articles of French i y 
amounting at the first to 45,000,000 ; and at the 
Revolution to 133,000,000. The third class comprises 
the produce of the French West India islands re-ex- 

from France, amounting at the first period to 
15,000,000 ; and at the Revolution to 152,000,000. 


The fourth class. com the re-ex tions a Fn reer a 
produce brought b French from the East Indies, and North American possessions, in —_— 
amounting on the first period to 2,650,000 livres; and of Louis XIV. amounted to 16,700,000 livres, vi anes Wen 


at the Revolution to 4,460,000. The last class’ com- 
Pewbents foreign merchandise and manufactures re~ 
from France, amoun at the end of the 


py of Louis XIV, to 6,000,000; and at the Revolu-- 


tion to 40,000,000. 


elephants’ teeth, hides, &c. ; the number 
nually —_—, was about 2000. eee iednaee 
ported rance, at this period, to this Afri- 
ca, amounted in value to about "650,000 Tres At 
the period of the Revolution, the for the 
western coasts of Africa, amounted to 18 ,000,000," of 
pe a nearly eee on consisted of . commo- 

ies re-exported ; an about 8,000,000 of t uce 
or mannfactures of Fraivce: The im Ler 
average of 1785, 1786, and 1787, ° this part of 
Africa, amounted to about 1,400,000 livres, in gums, 
elephants’ teeth, and hides principally. At this period 
about 30,000 slaves were annu ‘bought. No trade 
was carried’ on to the isles of France and Bourbon, 
previously ‘to the year 1735, when La Bourdonnaie 
was sent out as governor. At the period of the Revo- 
lution, the exportations from France to these islands 
amounted to 4,600,000 livres, chiefly in metals, wood, 
wines, brandy ; and some manufactured goods, cloths, 
and gilt toys. The returns amounted to 2,700,000, 


ao in Bourbon coffee. 
XU. The im ions into France, from their West Between 


11,000,000 in sugar and chocolate ; 4,081,000 in indi- N. America 


g0; 775,000, in cotton, hides, ekins, &c.; and 200,000 
in tobacco. The exportations from France, at the same 
period, amounted to about 9,000,000 ; viz. 4, 160,000 
in manufactures ; 1,900,000 in provisions; 1 "564,000 


General 
summary. 


_ tures. 


FRAN CE: 


Statistics. in wines, brandy, &c.; and about the same amount in 
=~" timber for building, metals, &c. At the 


: period of the 
Revolution, France received from her West India and 
American possessions, about 185 millions; viz. Ist, 


. about 134,000,000 in sugar and coffee alone: 2d, about 


26,000,000 in cotton: 3d, about 11,600,000 in indigo, 
and other drugs for dyeing: 4th, about 10,000,000 in 
cocoa, chocolate, ginger, &c. The i from 
France, at this eigen were about 77,900,000 livres, 
which may be arranged in five classes ; 1st, 42,447,000 
in manufactured goods: 2d, about 19,611,000 in flour, 
pulse, salted isions, cheese, &c.: 3d, about 7,285,000 
in wines and brandy : 4th, about 6,513,000 in. wood, 
metals, &c. ; and, lastly, about 2,057,000. in articles of 
t must ious, perfect: accuracy respectin 

the value of the particular or total exportations an 
importations cannot be obtained ; we need not, there- 
fore, be surprised to find them estimated differently by 
different authors. - According to: some, the tation 
in 1787 amounted in all to 542,604,000 livres; of 
which, 311,472,000 were the raw produce of the soil, 
mines, and fisheries ; and 231,132,000 the produce of 
French. manufactures. , author of the treatise 
De la Balance dw Commerce de la France; is of opinion, 
that, about the same period, the value of the exports 
of the produce manufactures of France was 
SE ROREN sine Nai eamenes to be Unesssiyided 

the different the kingdom. The mari- 
time districts ok to the amount of 228,000,000 ; 
the frontier districts to the amount of 77,000,000; the 
interior districts only to the amount. of 11,000,000 ; 
the cidevant _ ity of Paris, to the amount of 
18,000,000 ; and the district round. Lyons, compre- 
hending the t of the Rhone and the Loire, 
tae epee ri, ai 

imports rance, upon an av of the 
— 1785, 1786, 1787, are: calculated. at 611,008,200 
ivres. In 1792, the average imports. amounted to no 


more than 319,000,000, ing tothe report of Ro- 
land to the Convention. By an official report laid before 
the Consuls, 22d 1800, it that the 


value of the imports was 325,116,400 livres: of which, 
114,190,100 was in isi liquors, &c.; 133,591,500 
in raw materials; upwards of 35,060,000 of this being 
cotton wool, and 39,265,500 was in foreign manufac- 
The exports that year amounted to 271,575,600 ; 
of which, 87,562,500 consisted of isions, wines, li- 
quors, &¢; 33,693,000 of raw materials; and 140,854,200 
of manufactured goods ; of these last, the silk amount- 
ed to 41,222,000, the linen and hempen cloth to 
34,866,000, the woollen to 23,146,000, and 
the cotton stuffs to 12,335,000. . In the same’year, the 
Spain were valued at 64,446,500; the 
ports from 


rian rep 
were 26,561,600; the exports 23,010,700: 


. The total imports from 
neutral powers were 84,783,300; of which, upwards 
of 82,000,000 were from Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, 
the Hanse towns; and only about. 2,000,000 
the United States. The exports tothe same 
ers were 33,527,400 ; of which, only 557,700 were 
to the United States, 

There are no data on which an estimate of the numr 


727 


ber or tonnage of the French shipping, at the end of  Statisties: 

of Louis XIV. can be formed ; but in 1669, —~~—— 
Amount 

of the ton-- 

nage of tlie” 


ed to much above 800 vessels, of from.100 to 250: shipping. 


the rei 
Colbert reckoned that France employed only 600 in 
foreign commerce ; and it is supposed, that at the be- 

of the 18th century this number had not in- 


tons burden. If this latter supposition be correct, they 
must have declined in the middle of this century; for 
the anonymous author of a pamphlet, entitled the 
Present Siate of the Revenue and Forces of France and 
Spain, compared.with those of Great Britain, 1740, as- 
serts, that in France there were not then more than 
600 sail of merchant ships at the most, of all sizes; 
and that, reckoning 25 sailors to each, one with an- 
other, all the seamen of France did not exceed 30,000, 
including 11,000 seamen elassed by the king, who had 
leave to serve aboard the merchant ships, till they were 
wanted for the king’s service. » At the period of the 
Revolution, the n of ships employed in.long voy~ 
ages either to: the East. and West Indies, or. to» the 
whale and-cod_fishieries, ‘amounted to 1000, ‘averaging . 
250 tonseach. The to different countries in Eu- 
a eg loyed, at this period, about 580,000 tons ; of 
which, little more than one-fourth, or 152,000 tons, 
were French. In 1792, an official report was made by 
Roland to the National Convention ; from which it ap-= 
pears, that in that year there entered inwards into the 
ports of France,7607 vessels, amounting to 639,225 tons; 
of which, 1823 vessels, or 147,821 tons, were French ; 
1940 vessels, or 145,012 tons, were lish ; and 33446 
vessels, or $46,402 tons, belonged to other nations: and 
in the same year there clea outwards 8618 vessels, 
amounting to 544,935 tons ; of which, 1940 vessels, or 
147,410 tons, were French; $111 vessels, or 90,662. 


tons; were lish ; and 3567 vessels, or 306,863 tons, 
belonged to other nations. From an official report laid: 
before the Consuls in 1800, it that at that time 


the. total number of ships employed in foreign com- 
merce, that entered inwards, amounted to 7581, or 
273,187 tons; of which, 2975 vessels, or 98,804 tons,. 
were French; the rest belonged to foreigners: That: 
the number of vessels cl outwards, amounted to 
8636, or 312,967 tons; of which, 3358 vessels, or 
104,687 tons belonged to France. That the coasting 
trade between res ee of France employed — 
26,000 vessels, (includi ee ») or about 
700,000 tons, A ree thawhe of hehe French. 
The colonial and fishing vessels entered inwards were 
71, or 4769 tons; and cleared outwards, 296 vessels, 
or 10,000 tons. 


The coasting and inland trade of France, before the Coasting 
Revolution, were both very considerable ; indeed, it has ~ inland 
the products of the “°° 


been calculated, that the bringi 
south parts of France along the coast, to: those of the 
north, for the supply of the capital. and. the northern 
provinces, constituted a ing trade only inferior in 
itude to the coal trade of England. The ships 

led at Bourdeaux, with wines and fruits of all sorts, 
used to set out in a fleet, and under conyoy in time of 
war; and stop. near. the:Isle of Rhe, where they were 
joined by the ships. from Rochelle, laden: with wine, 
fruits, and corn; hence they proceeded to the: coast of 
Brittany, where they: were joined by-another fleet from 
Nantes and St Maloes, laden with brandy, corn, &c. 
The fleet thus collected used» frequently to amount to 
160 or 200 sail. The very supplying of the city of 
Paris with wood for fuel, employs an immense number 
of boats, carts, &c. A large portion of the inland trade 

of .France is still carried gn by means of the numerous . 


Statistics, 
—— 


Pairs, 


Fisheries. 


Cod fishery. 


728 
fairs, which are in various parts of the kingdom : 
a if oe yn wanting, that this country is far 
ind Great Britain in commercial industry, habits, 
and capital. We cannot pretend even to enumerate all 
bee eral rma but the fair of Beaucaire 
must not 
was formerly 


over entirely without notice. It 

pt within the city of Beaucaire, in Lan- 

guedoc ; but, when the reputation of it increased, it 
was found n to keep it principally in the open 
country ; and the Revolution has affected it, yet 
it is still much frequented. It begins on the 22d of 


July, and continues three days, The conveniency of . 


the Rhone, on which Beaucaire stands, draws to its 

fair the merchandise of Bu dy, Lyonnois, Switzer- 

land, and Germany. The , from which it is but 
seven distant, brings the merchandise of the 

Levant, Italy, and Spain ; and by the canal of Langue- 

doe, it receives all that comes from Upper Languedoc, 

Brittany, and the ocean. Besides eptals from most 

parts of continental Europe, before the Revolution, 

there used also to be there Armenians, Persians, &c. 

The chief articles sold here are spices, drugs, hard ware, 

woollen and silk stuffs, Spaniah ‘ecth- Rathebeypcoeeel; 

French wool, &c. 

The French fisheries, as they existed previously to 
the Revolution, naturally divide themselves into two 
branches. The first branch comprehends the distant 
cod fishery on the banks of Newfoundland, Iceland, 
&e. and the whale fishery in the Greenland seas and 
the Southern Ocean ; the second branch comprehends 
the near fisheries, on the coasts of France, in the Me- 
diterranean, and inthe ocean. These consist of the 
fisheries of the herring, the mackerel, the sardine, the 
anchovy, the tunny, &c. 

The French government does not to have 
id any attention to the cod fishery on the banks of 
ewfoundland till the year 1660 ; and then a monopo- 

ly of it was granted. A few after the peace of 
trecht, that is to say, about the end of the reign of 

Louis XIV. the whole produce of the cod fishery did 

not amount to more in value than a million of livres. 

When France Jost Newfoundland, she established these 

fisheries at Breton ; and, in 1745, more than 100 

vessels arrived there from the mother country to 

inthem. There were, besides, at this period, from the 

Gut of Causo, down along the shore to Louisburg, 

and thence to the N. E. part of Cape Breton, annua 

employed at least 500 shallops, containing in all 2500 

men ; and 60 brigs, &c. containing 900 men; in all, 

3409 men. The total number of fish annually caught and 

salted at Cape Breton was estimated at 186,000 quintals. 

There were also cod fisheries at other harbours on these 

coasts ; so that, on the most moderate estimate, it was 

reckoned that there were 1,149,000 quintals of salted 
cod brought to France from all her North American 
fisheries ; the value of which, and of the oil made, was 
estimated at upwards of £800,000 sterling. The war 
of 1756 was ruinous to this fishery ; nor did the treaty 
of peace in 1783 quite re-establish it. ‘In 1786 there 
were cured 426,400 quintals of fish, and upwards of 
1000 tons of oil were made. In the following year, 
the quantity of both had greatly diminished, there ha- 
ving been only 128,590 quintals of fish, and 323 tons 
of oil. In 1788 and 1789, the quantity of both in- 
creased ; but, during the first years of the Revolution, 
both had fallen almost completely away. At the pe- 
riod of the Revolution, the produce of the French cod 
fishery was valued at 15,731,000 livres. In this sum is 
in the value of the sedentary fishery, as it is 


FRANCE. 
termed, of the inhabitants of the isles of St Pierre and , Statistics. 


os 


Maquelin, which is rated at 1,300,000 livres ; that of 
the inhabitants of Dunkirk, near Iceland, which is rated 
at 1,200,000 livres. — ‘ 
With to the whale fishery, it we 
in the begmning of the 16th cen pon. 


tants of Biscay, toa considerable with gr 

pre tye or oe ier and, corals thdentaaie 
of the 17th century, was very productive. The inha- 
bitants of St Jean de Luz, Bayonne, and Ciboure, sent 
there between 50 and 60 ships, the Dutch not having 
yet embarked in it. In 1690, it wore a different aspect : 
the Basques scarcely sent out 20 
Dutch gent out more than 
reign of Louis XIV. the 

to this 


i 


the South Seas ; which is 
nually sailed yee weber deem ! ' 
The produce was valued at 700,000 livres. In 1794, 
40 vessels were employed at Dunkirk in this fishery, 


= — afterwards it was totally aa by te re vt 
herring was pursued by French 
the 11th. cen , chiefly on the coasts of the ( 


never found in any of the rivers. They are met 
both in the ocean and the Mediterranean, especially in 


frequently cure their sardines in red wine, and when 
thus prepared, call them 
anchovied sardines. Fresh sardines are conveyed on 
horseback from the ports of France to the i iti 
and towns of that . Anchovies are fished for 
on the coast of Provence in the months of May, June, 
and July, at which season shoals of this fish come re- 


places in Provence. Vast quantities 

to foreign countries. Pilchards are taken on 
the coasts of Brittany, and employ annually about 300 
small vessels. The bom! of Dl om 
nean 1s a singular an important ustry : 
the manner in which this fish is t, has been 
called a sort of hunting at sea; the best and most cer- 
tain methods are the thonnaire and the . The 
former in many places is only an inclosure by 
nets for catching the tunny; but at St Tropez, and on 
the coast of Provence, the thonnaire is a net placed in 


the name of anchoisées, or . 


| 
; 
: 
: 


—! pee ee Ce een Ger 6 aes 


EEE (le eg pe 


Statistics. 


FRANCE. 


a spiral form, in which the tunnies, when ht, are 
almost always dead, because it closes their gills, and 
chokes them, for which reason the madrague is pre- 
ferred. This is, in fact, a vast inclosure, 
three large nets, divided by others into many cham- 
bers or compartments : before the net, towards the 

‘sea, is a large passage, formed by two parallel nets: the 
tunnies, running in between them, enter the madrague, 
and ing from chamber to chamber, they arrive at 
last at what is called Boa chenbe of death, or the 
corpou, or vi a eve ing has been made 
ready, the fiahenings draw w “ihe iets of each cham- 
ber, in order to force the 


The tunnies awe Sree force in their tails, so that much 
eaution is required in getting them into their boats. 
i i ight of the 

une, from 


a y 
25 lb. each ; but they have been known to weigh 50 1b. 


celebrated, as to be sent all 
When it is pickled, it is cut into slices, 


zt 


z 
a 


Are 
5 
| 

: 


e 
g 
F 


ashed, and which is pressed out when 
, is used by tanners. The tunny fish- 
been less gt ae since the war, for mi 
ight ; ing of the batteries on 

eee kane vege at a great distance. 
are four madragues at Marseilles, which are rent- 
paar compat fap town, at a considerable ad- 
There are two at St Tropez, which are 

by the government at 10,600 francs. Two nets 
to and each net costs about 3000 

For the net of the corpou, 250 Ibs. of cork are 
required. This net sometimes remains for a year or two 
in the sea ; but those which form the in pace nt Hi 
and the entrance passage, are changed every six months. 
The sea, in the spot in which the madrague is placed, 
is generally 40 fathoms deep. When Louis XIII. vi- 
sited Marseilles in 1662, he was invited to a tunny 
, at the principal madr of Margion, and 

the diversion so much to his taste, that he often 


Hitt 
ih 


u 


France, are the palamede, which, though much smaller 
ey es of the same species ; it is 
mentioned by , in his description of Constanti- 
nople, as, at the time of the foundation of that city, the 
variety of -excellent fish ta- 


most celebrated among the 
in the Propontes ;' the d'orade, the pageau, the 


799 


en cross, in the centre of which is a heavy leaden ball; Statistics. 


The divers =“ 


at_each extremity is fixed a round net. 
push one or two arms of the cross into the cavities of 


of such rocks as contain coral, and the boatmen draw it 


up. The other machine is used for drawing coral out 
_of the deepest waters. It is a long beam, at the end of 
which is fixed an iron ring, having a reticular bag, with 
two round nets at each side. The ring breaks off the 
small branches, and the nets entangle and retain the 
others. A company,has long been established at Mar- 
seilles for this fishery. There are seven or eight men 
to a boat, one.of. whom is the. patron or proprietor: 
When the fishery.is ended, which produces.on.an ave- 
rage 25 quintals of coral to each boat, it is divided into 
18 , of which.the proprietor has four, the caster two, 
the other six. men .one each; the remaining one 

belongs to the company. Coral is part of the traffic of 
Marseilles.. Bracelets and necklaces are made of it there 

and at Genis, and. sell very. well up.the Levant.. 


Oysters are found in various places on the coast of Oysters 


France. At the mouth of the Seine, they are few in 
number, but of excellent quality. On the coast of Caen 
in Normandy, there is a bank six miles in length and 
one in breadth, They are also found in the bay of 
Isigny, and in the neighbourhood of Cherbourg. Thiose’ 
in particular are highly*valued which are. collected at 
the mouths of some streams, where. the sea. water is 
sometimes thrown. entirely back, and which are. called 
huitres de pied.. Granville in Normandy gains 50;000 
livres by this fishery.. On the coast of Brittany:there: 
are very large oysters, particularly at Curcale, where a. 
great many. are preserved in places inclosed for that 
Pp . . The oysters of Roscoff. are also particularly 
ted; they are. brought in great abundance to 
Morlaix, and are by some preferred to those of Curcale. 
The bank at Painpol.is almost. entirely exhausted. At 
the mouth of the Loire, between the rocks on th coast 
of Poitou; on the coast of Aunis and Saintonge, where 
those who make bay-salt transplant.oysters to marshy 
laces, also d la.tete de Buch, near Bourdeaux, oysters are 
ound. In Languedoc, near Cape Leucate, there-is an 
oyster bed at the depth of 20 feet. There is also one 
at the mouth of the Rhone. At Paris, those oysters are 
most esteemed which come from Brittany, Rochelle; 
Bourdeaux, and particularly from Medoc, so celebrated 
for its claret. The incipal fish which the rivers of 
France yield, are nig, carp, frout, pike, and eels. 
The importance and value of all these branches of 
home fishery are very. considerable: At.the end of the 
reign of Louis XIV. their value was at least 1,700,000 
livres ; at the commencement of the. Revolution, it ha 
increased to 9,300,000 livres... > as 
Having thus given a detailed account of French in- 
dustry, as exercised-in agriculture, manufactures, com- 
merce, &c. we shall-conclude with laying before~our 
readers an estimate of the value of the annual repro- 
ductions in, these. branches,.or their gross: produce at 
the close of the 17th century, and at the commence. 
ment of the Revolution; premising, however, that such 
an.estimate must necessarily be only an approximation 
to the truth, and that it is pasting and important, 
not'so much from its general result, as, he com 
arison which, it he between the value of different 
Beaches of industry. : 


* In 1698, D’Avenant reckoned the general produce Génetai 
of the land, and of the interior and external commerce produce. 


of France,—in short, the produce of all the occupa- 
tions of her citizen$,—at 81,000,000 sterling, ,or 
: Vek ee 


‘ 


730 


Statistics. 1,984,500,000 livres tournois, or 36,750,000 marcs, at 
Y=" 54 livres to the mare, 


General 
produce, 


The economistes, some years previous to the Revolu- 
tion, valued the me reproduction at between 
8,134,000,000 and 4,000,000,000 livres. 

In 1789 there in France a memoir on the 
coramerce of that kingdom and her colonies, which sup- 
plies the following details on this subject. 


~ 


1. Agriculture. 
Livres, 
oe eee A ee + ++ 700,000,000 
Cattle, igevival is ys its beer: Syke + 400,000,000 
Hay andforage, . ..... + 60,000,000 
Wine, brandy, &. . 2. 1 « 850,000,000 
Oil, oiled Tah a6 |. 0) 4). Bitte Ae 60,000,000 
Wood, . ‘ . 146,000,000 
Wool, .. ‘ 35,000,000 
Silk, jhe e ‘ 25,000,000 
Hemp and flax, 50,000,000 
Total of agriculture, . . 1,826,000,000 
2. Manufactures. 

lie, Aptos be gyre 161,250,000 
Woollen, S) SRW Sees is ata 92,500,000 
Ss ey age id"? AE Sis ayes xe 41,600,000 
Millinery, . . 2 2 5,000,000 
Tapestry, , &e. - 800,000 
Mercery i eniries é 75,000,000. 
Leather, « .°. . . . 6,000,000 
Pazlery:* Lente 7,200,000 
Jewellery, &c. livres 2,500,000 
Glass, iron, earthenware, &c. 38,200,000 
Soap, . interes Lett t4 5 - 5,000,000 
i refineries, = - 4,800,000 
a Eee > 2 . 2,700,000 
Tobacco, . . u + 1,200,000: 
Starch, . 25. - ‘ - 1,200,000 
Fisheries, ... 20,000,000 
Different other branches of art, 60,000,000. 


Total of manufactures, &c. 524,950,000 
Produce of the agriculture of the colonies, 200,000,000 
Houses and other buildings, . . . . 300,000,000 


Articles omitted, . . 149,050,000 
Total of agriculture, manufactures, colo- 
nial produce, &c., . . . . . 8,000,000,000 


In this general result, M. Arnold, in his treatise De 
la Balance du Commerce de la France, M. le Trosne De 
U Administration Provinciale, 1788, and M. Dupont 
Lettre ala Chambre du Commerce de Normandie, near} 
agree : the first gives the total at 3,400,000,000 ;.M. 

rosne calculates it at 3,134,000,000; and M. Dupont 
at between 3,200,000,000 and 4,000,000,000, 


CHAP. VII. 


Population at different Periods—Wages— Poor—Fuel 
and Provisions—Religion—Finanees before and 
pond the ag) Meese 2 Navy — Weights, 

casures, and Money— Language and Literature— 
National Character. 


Tuere are scarcely any data, on which we can Cal 


. senatus consultum of the 4th of 


FRANCE. 
culate the extent of the population of France, previous- Statistics. 


ly to the Revolution; yet it may be to notice 
some of the conjectures on this 1577, the 
Duke of Nevers calculated that in- inions of 
France, there were 3,000,000 of hearths; 


each of them at si to pee ined 
at persons toa uy, , 
polation of only 18,000,000. Bat at hia period, nether 
tes Burgund , Rousillon, Ardagne, nor Bearn, 
ware included in the monarchy. In 1581, the whole 


the : 
not increased, sinceby themit is rated only at 20,093,000; 
and at this period great additions had been made to the 
territories of France. In the year 1754, the Marquis 
de Mirabeau rated the whole ion still 4 
viz. at 18,000,000, In 1772, the Abbé d’Expilly esti- 
mated it at 22,140,357 ; and nearly at the same peri 
Buffon estimated it at 21,672,777. In 1785, 
rated it at 24,676,000. In 1789, M. Bouvaliet-Desbro« 
ges estimated it at 27,957,267 ; and in 1791, the Com- 
mittee of the National Assembly, from a more accurate 
calculation, stated it to be 26,363,074. In 1798, ac- 
cording to M. Prony, the population of France, inclu- 
ding Corsica and the conquered countries; amounted to - 
$1,123,218 ;. viz. 26,048, 254 in the territories of an- 
cient France ; 3,511,055 in the Venaisin, Savoy, Nice, 
1,563,909 


7 


, Geneva, the Austrian Netherlands, &e. ; and 


in the countries situated 


the Rhine and the 
Moselle. In 1799, M. | 


whole repletion of France amount to 33,111,962. 
This number, however, does’ not include Piedmont and 
the Isle of Elba, From these and other data, we may 
safely conclude, that the population of the kingdom of 
France, within the limits now prescribed to it, is near 
ly 26,000,000 ; or, that if the destruction caused by the 
ambition of Bonaparte has reduced it below that amount, 
it will soon rise to it again. a yor , 
Of the 26,363,074 inhabitants which, 
the report of the committee of the National Ass a 
constituted the lation of France in the year 1791, 
5,709,270 orencinkabiaits of the cities, towns, &c, and 
20,521,538 were inhabitants of the country. From this 
it aj 8, that at this period Jess than one-fourth of the 
e inhabited towns; and from Mr Birkbeck’s..re- 
marks, it is evident that this is the case at errant, 
least to an equal .. His observations to - 
be quate. “ The Ce vest at Eien a to be 
us: a town (Moulins for instance) depends 


Ss 


nce on the lands i 
it. . The eg a as, wip een 
spare ; because, as theit is a sort of garden« 
ioe it country population, and has in 


ing, it requires a 
pai A Sag nity of produce... Tanade Soaaas 


saree: be ironght all from the country ; 
on pata is whom th me. 
loys is beyond tion. titudes, in, 
ploy th "ay | a ; 


cei t for his surplus produce in sous, and he 
poate parepeine, The tadetman is on par with 
the farmer ; as they receive, so they.spend. And thus 


FRANCE. . 


50,000 persons may inhabit a district, with a town of 
Fs net apg in the centre of it ; bartering the super- 
‘the country for the arts and manufactures. of 

the town. Poor from generation to generation, and 
i rs ef per as they increase in num- 

in the country, by the division and subdivision of 
property ; in the town, by the division and’ subdivision 
of trades and professions.” ; 


The following Table exhibits the population’ of dif- 


731 


ferent districts of France, a8 it existed at the end of the 
17th century, and a few years previous to the Revolu- 
tion ; with the number of people to the square league, 
at each period, and the increase in the latter period. . It 
may be proper to premise, that the population of the 
former period is taken from the’ of the Intendants, 
and that of the latter period from the book of the ad- 
ministration of the finances of France. 


maladie Square reat ry a he cme Nee rarer Inhabitants} y,_ 
e e [to the square|few befe th 
Leagues.) meh century. rade the Revolution! Teague. oo ¢ 
aritime districts, ...... . . | 10538|°8,775,000 832 |10,180,000| 966 |134 
rontiers, comprising Lorraine, . | 7848] 4,383,000 583 | 6,182,000 781 «+1198 + 
terior districts,.......0- 6991) 4,995,000 714 5,94 9,000; 850 |136 
istrict of Paris, ...... es 1157) 1,577,000 1368 1,782,000; 1540 |177 
istrict of Lyons, ........ |: 416} 863,000}. 875 634,000] 1522 |647 
26,950!20,093,000 782 24,677,000 915 1133 }. 
“Assuming the population in 1802 to have venth of its inhabitants, notwithstanding it is one 
$8,111,962, in all the territories at that time an- fifth of its extent. Thus it appears, that alt ough one 
nexed, except Piedmont and the Isle of: Elba, French third of France, as it existed in 1802, only Jay on 
and Austrian Flanders, which comprised the d the north of the parallel of Paris, yet the population of 
ments of the Scheldt, the Lys, and the North, con- the northern part, Paris included, was not much in- 


i 


1,748,669 inhabitants within a territory of 
41364 miles, which is somewhat more than 422 in- 
habitants per mile. The population of the 
country round Paris, notwithstanding the weight of 
that city in the scale, was inferior. If we take the 


two of the Seine, and the Seine and 
Oise, the d ent of the Marne, exclusive of the 
district of Fountainebleau, and besides the two dis« 


tricts of Beauvais and Senlis, which belong to the de- 
partment of the Oise, we shall find in 1802 only a po- 


pulation of 1,496,223 over an extent of 4198} square 
miles. Next to Flanders, Normandy is he dee popu- 


lous district in France. The five ents of which 
it is composed, exhibit a population of 2,465,507 souls, 


in 1802, over a surface of 9175% square miles, equal to 
268} inhabitants per mile. The population of the south- 
east of France, on the contrary, is very small. In the 
ete ay ant ere was not in 1802 more 
than 80 inhabitants per mile. The population of the Py. 
renees was also yery thin, though superior to that of t 
Alps. The three ents of the Pyrenees and that 
of the Arriege contained 900,167 inhabitants over ‘an 
extent of 65324 square miles, or nearly 138 per square 
mile. The most populous of all the departments, to the 
south of the 48 degree of latitude, is that of the Mouths 
of the Rhone, which, however, in 1802, contained only 
920,072 inhabitants over a territory of 1550} square 
miles, or about 205 inhabitants square mile. The 
tion of most of thie rest of the departments in this 
portion of France was very inconsiderable: if, for in- 
stance, the eleven departments of Aude, Aveyron, Cher, 
Drome, Indre, Landes, Loire and Cher, Logere, 
Nievre, Var, and Vienne, be taken er, their 
pas in 1802 will be found to be only 2,599,911 in- 
itants over 23,778 square miles; that is, 109 inhabi- 
tants per square mile, which islittle more than one-fourth 
of the population of Flanders. If the population of these 
eleven ents be added to that above stated of 
the Alps and the Pyrenees, it will appear that in 1802, 
there were only 3,017,320 inhabitants over a territory 
of 126,869 kilometers; whence it appears. that this 
southern part of France contained then only the ele« 


inferior to the southern division. Taking the whole 
population of France as it was in the beginning of 1802, 
when its territorial extent was 30,505 square leagues, 
it gives 1086 inhabitants for the square league. Esti« 
mating the acres at 131,722,295; and taking the popu« 
lation to be, as it was in the beginning of the Revolu- 


Statistics. 
—=—— 
Population. 


tion, 26,363,074, there will at present be nearly five: 


acres a head. 
In 1802, Paris was calculated to contain 546,856 in« 


habitants ; there were 3 cities, that contained above - 


100,000 each, viz. Bourdeaux, Marseilles, and Lyons; 
8, from 100,000 to 50,000; but in these were includ- 
ed Antw 


erp, Brussels, Ghent, and Liege; 12, from. 


50,000 to 30,000; but in these also were included: 
Cologne and Bruges ; 22, from 30,000 to 20,000; 24, . 


from 20,000 to 15,000 ; and 45, from 15,000 to. 10,000. 


In short, at this period there were calculated to be 500° 
towns in the French republic as it then existed, cone- 


taining 5,405,119 inhabitants. - « 
The annual number of births in France is as 1 to 
25: and of these every 47th child in 1780 was illegi- 


Births, 
M arriages, 


timate ; the proportion of illegitimate children since and Deaths. 


the Revolution has very much increased, the calcula~ 
tion being that évery 11th child is now illegitimate. 
The number of marriages is as 1 to 110. The number of 
deaths is as 1 to 30. The prefect of the de; ent of 
the Doubs, on comparing the accounts of the children: 
that died under 10 years of age in 1800, and. of those 
that died under 10 hae of age in 1802, found that 
939 more children had died in that single department 
in 1800 than in 1802, and ascribed the difference to the 
t progress which vaccine inoculation had made in 

e latter period. In 1801, M. Morgues published a 
statistical Essay, containing the result of 21 years ob 
servations on the relative and actual number of births, 
deaths, and marriages at pps st from 1771 to 
1792. The average of the whole population, during 
the whole 21 years, was 32,897: during the three au« 
tumnal months there were one-fourth more births than 
during the three spring months ; yet the greatest num- 
ber of births. was_in January, and the least in June. 
The average annual births were 1197 or 3*;, one-half of 


Condition 
of the peo. 
ple. 


Prices of 
labour. 


782 

the whole tion. The number of males'born was to 
that of es as 20 to 213. The illegitimate children 
formed 5th of the whole annual ction, whereas 


in Paris they formed }th. The number of 
was 282, which to whole population was as 1 to 
118: of these that were born, 1 in 2} was married. 
The number of deaths each year was 1112; and their 
proportion to the whole population was as 1 to 204: 
of these 546 were children under 10 years old. Win- 
ter and spring were the healthiest seasons. The bu- 
rials in August were to those in May, as $ito2, In 
1774, 1778, and 1783, the small-pox was epidemic, and 
in those years the annual cncetatity was increased by 
423 children. In the 21 years above mentioned, three 
men and 18 women died at the of 100 and up- 
wards; and one person in 74 arrived af the age of 70. 
The condition of the great mass of the people in 
France, with respect to their pecuniary circumstanees, 
since the Revolution, may be ess. as on the whole 
improved ; but at the mpg time, it WC oer a state of 
society by no means far advanced. ie in 
most places, as well as the small class of je 
eyen- the more extensive class of farmers in some eens 
of the kingdom, grow, or make within ‘themselves, 
nearly all that their families consume, or wear; the 
same comparatively little advanced state of society is 
indicated by the not uncommon mode of paying for 
labour by a part of what it produces or performs. 
With respect to pecuniary wages, they are nominally 
lower, not in fact. higher than they are in England ; 
for though the money given is less, yet from the cheap- 
ness of provisions, &c. it commands more of the ne- 
cessaries and comforts of life. In France, however, as 
probably in all countries, at least in Europe, not only 
the nominal but the real rate of wages has increased 
dually for a considerable length of ‘time, and _per- 
aps in a greater proportion, within these last 30 
years. In 1756, the price of labour at the places 
mentioned below, was as follows: At Lisle, the wages 


- of journeymen stocking and camlet weavers, was 


about 24 sous per day, that is about 13d. English: 
the journeymen weavers and cloth-workers at Abbe- 
ville gained, according to the nature of their work, 
and their dexterity, from 20 to 50 sous a day; 
whereas women, at the same place, engaged in the 
same manufacture, did not gain more than 12 sous a- 
day. Hedgers and ditchers in the country only 10 sous 
a-day. At Nantes, the journeymen ship nters, 
about 30 sous a-day. At Castelnandary, labourers, 
mending the canal of Languedoc, by the job, earned 
about 12 sous a-day. At Nismes, journeymen weavers 
in the silk and cotton trade, from 30 to 35 sous a-day. 
At Marseilles journeymen tailors 30 sous a-day.. At 
the same place, nters 30 sous; silk weavers from 
30 to 35 sous. At Toulon, journeymen carpenters, in 
the King’s yards, 30sous per day. At Lyons, journey- 
men workmen had several prices, according to the silks, 
velvets, gold stuffs, laces, &c. from 50 to 100 sous a-day. 
Land carriage of goods, from Marseilles to Lyons, 
230 miles, from six to seven livres, per 108 libs. - 
lish, (Tucker’s Essay on Trade, p. 75.) When Mr 
Young travelled in France, immediately before the Re- 
yolution, he averaged the earnings on all the fabrics 
manufactured in that kingdom, at 26 sous for the men, 
and 15 sous for the women ; the wages of the spinners 
being nine.sous. At the same time he calculated the 
wages of the men employed in the manufactures of 
England to average 20d. a-day, or rather more than 
40 sous ; the women 9d, or father more thay 18 sous; 


FRANCE. 


and the spinners 6}d. or about 13 sous, Ona 
sen of thuie quiets, scien that, at 
wages of the men in England was. nearly 
wages of the men in France, whereas the of the 
women in the former country was little more what 
it was in France. The pie geen gs ; 
out.the kingdom, employed in all sorts of work, — 
Young estimated at 19 sous; masons and carpenters, 
however, got $0 sous: He considered that the price of 
labour had risen about 20 per cent. in the course of 
25 years. The same author calculated the av rate 
of wages for all kinds of labour in England, to be, about 
1760, 1s. 3d. a-day ; and in 1789, when he travelled in 
France, about 1s, 43d. a-day. The result of his enqui- 
ries respecting the comparative price of meat and bread 
and the rate of w: in the two countries, in 1789, 
was, that labour in England averaged 33} sous, while 
meat was 84 sous, and bread 34 sous per pound; whereas 
in France, labour aver: 19 fur? and meat was 
7 sous, and 2 sous the poun: ence it appears, 
that the nominal price of labour was nearly 76 per 
cent. cheaper in France than in England ; the real 
price, considered with reference to its command over 
meat, was less, while its real price, considered with re« 
to its command over bread, was nearly the same 
in both countries. In 1814, Mr Birkbeck seems to 
have taken a good deal of pains to ascertain the com 
rative price of labour and provisions in France: He 
found that, at Rouen, women who attended the joass 
earned 15d. per day, equal to 11 pounds of bread ; 
labourers employed by a small farmer in the neigh« 
bourhood of that place, had 10d. whe by and their 
board ; and 20d. per day without . On this he 
remarks, that, “ as all provisions, every article of ex- 
pein, may be taken at something under half the 
nglish price, by doubling their wages, we may find 
the proportion they bear to ours.” In the south of 
France, near Vienne, the French labourer received three 
bushels and one-third for ing and thrashing, for - 
every 18 bushels thrashed ; the English labourer re- 
ceives for the same work only about a tenth: money 
wages are nearly in the same proporti About Lunet, 
the wages were 20d. per day for the men, and from 
10d. to 15d. per day for the women employed in agricul- 
ture; the former rate, considering the price of provi- 
sions, Mr Birkbeck considers as equal to 3s. 4d. in 


England. ° 

Before the Revolution, the poor 
versally sepporied, either by the ecclesiastics, or by poor. 
begging. Not long after the seizure of the ecclesias- 
tical estates, the National Assembly publily declared, 
that they would consider the care of € poor as one of 
their duties. They appointed also a commit- 
tee of mendicati, whose business was to enquire into, 
and re to the Assembly, the state of the poor, and 
the best means of extinguishing indigence in France. 
Of this committee the Duke of Lioncourt was the chair- 
man. Four reports were laid before the Assembly ; 
in their third report, the committee examine the ic 
of establishing a poor's rate, but with great wisdom ab-= 
solutely reject it. In their fourth report, however, 
they declare that the poor have a right. to pecuni 
assistance from the state ; that the National Assem 
ought to consider such provision as one of its first and 
most sacred duties; and that an expence, with this 
view, ought to be incurred, to the amount of 50 mil- 
lions of livres a-year. The unsettled state of France, 
however, seems to have prevented the execution of any 
plan founded on this report ; and, at present, the poor 


ae 


in France were uni- gate of the 


towns 


by aammaliciuty paid at the entrance of these towns, on. 


every commune are authorised to apply relief... : 
Wa i ghoat France, and in 
especially in Paris, isa very expensive arti- 
though, as we have already seen, it is by no 
means scarce, is seldom used, a prejudice existing 
against it: where turf or peat is found, it is used. The 
common in general consume but little meat ; 


i 


wine, even where it is and abundant. Their 
selves, are coarse, but are better especial- 
ly with linen, than the peasantry of England. To a 
person who has been accustomed to see nearly the same 
mode of dress in all parts of England, even the most 
remote, it seems singular to observe in France-such a 
diversity of fashions: so little is the intercourse even 


and the adjacent provinces, that, in 

dress are seen which have not pre- 

the former probably for, nearly a century. 

cottages of the peasantry are in general small; but 

in many parts of France by no means destitute of con- 
or 


i 
‘ 


E 


‘3 
& 
5 


venience or taste. In ty oy sien, - 
Vignerons inhabit cottages out sides o' 
chalk hills. 


and 112 bishops in France, besides 
number of parishes at that time was 
There were 800 convents of monks, 281 nun- 


has been variously esti- 
of course varied ; but the general opinion 


of 
su ported 
for the ministers of the reformed church, either of the 


adopted, 
archbishops and 51 bishops in France proper; 

As the constitution of France is yet unfixed, or, at 
least, is liable to alteration, we shall not pretend to give 
Sete.) pen ee be semngnenete Se iwnde 
ternal government of the country will probably be pers 


FRANCE. 


The number of religious of 


733 


mitted to remain, they may be shortly mentioned; 
premising, that there are ten ministers and one secre- 
tary of state, viz. a minister for the department of the 
administration of justice, called the Great Judge; a 
minister for the foreign department—for the home de- 
ent—for the financial administration of the king- 
om—a chancellor of the exchequer—a-war minister 
—for the administration of the war department—for 
the administration of naval and colonial affairs—for 
the’ general police of the kingdom—and for the reli- 
gious institutions of the country. ‘There is an inferior 
court of justice in every district, and a justicé of the 
peace in every canton, There are a number of courts 
of appeal, and two supreme tribunals, Each’ depart- 
ment is acininibeaabl ty a prefect, and as many sub- 
prefects as it contains districts. The details of the ad« 
ministration descend from the subprefects to the mayors, 
who are not chosen by the people, but by the govern- 
ment. 

The taxes paid before the Revolution may be classed 
under the five heads of direct taxes, monopolies, du- 
ties of excise, custom and transit duties, and stamps. 
The produce of the direct taxes amounted to about 
one-third of the whole revenue. One of these, the ca« 
pitation tax, which fell very lightly on the’ nobility, 
and not at all on the clergy, yielded about one-fifth of 
this sum. The other direct taxes were the vingtiemes, 
which nearly resembled the English land-tax—and the 
taille, another species of land-tax, so unequally levied, 
that it fell almost exclusively on the poorer proprietors. 
The monopolies were that of salt, which, under the 
name of gabelle, was levied by government on about 
two-thirds of the kingdom ; that of snuff, and that of 
brandy and other spirits, which was levied only in 
certain provinces. The excise comprehended taxes on 
leather, on the manufacture of starch, and of cards, on 
iron, oil, &c. besides other contributions. “The transit 
duties included not only the customs payable on the 
export and import of merchandise at the sea ports; but 
also those which were levied at the gates of the towns, 
and a variety of tolls of different kinds. The stamp 
oe were levied on almost all kinds + be nee and 

all changes of property. Un e old mo- 
narchy, according to Neckar, the expences of collection 
amounted to 10 per cent. on all the taxes paid by the 
people. At this period, the farmers-general, the ge- 
neral and particular receivers, and all the subalterns in 
the service of the treasury, advanced sums to the’ go- 
vernment as securities for the faithful discharge of their 
trust. For these securities they were paid an interest 
of 5 per cent. and in some cases of 7. 


» The following were the taxes on land under the old 
government, according to Mr Young. 


~ Paxes om Latid French Money. | English Money. 

Vingtiemes . . . | 55,565,264 | £2,430,980 
Taille. ... .» « «| 81,000,000}... 3,543,750 
‘Local impositions ... 1,800,000 78,750 
Capitation ... . «| 22,000,000 962,500 
Decimes . . « « «| 10,600,090 463,750 4 
Sundries} 0: {e sys cena 60,000 | - 26,250 
171,565,264 | £7,505,980 


FRANCE, 


734. 
Taxes on Consumption. Fame, Dgeite ‘English Money. 
Re sos es 58,560,000 | £2,562,000 
Wine, Brandy, &c. 56,250,181 | 2,460,444 
Tobacco. . - - 27,000,000. | 1,181,205 
Leither .”. 5,850,008 255,937 
Paper and Cards 1,081,509 47,315 
Starch and Powder . 758,049 $3,164 
ee eee 980,000 42,875 
Ral one adc 763,000 33,381 
Glass. . 150,000 6,562 
Soap... 838,971 |. 36,704 
Linen and Stuffs 150,000, 6,562 
Octrois, &e. . ss 57,561,552 2,518,317 
Cattle . arnt 630,000 _- 27,562 
Customs . .. : 23,440,000 1,025,500 
Tas... ; 5,000,000 218,750 
Stamps . , . |. 20,244,473 | 885,695 
Local duties 1,138,162" 49,575 
260,390,905 | £11,391,548. 
General Revenue. 
Taxes on land . 171,565,264 | £7,505,980 
Domaines . 9,900,000 433,125 
Consumption 260,390,905 | 11,391,548, 
Piast 44,240,000 | ~ 1,935,500 
Monopolies . 28,513,774 1,247,496 
Sundries . . . . .» | 12,580,000 550,375 
Taxes not received on 
account of govern- 95,900,000 4,195,625 
ment r Wir, 
622,999,043, | £27,259,649 


At the Revolution, the taxes of excise were com- 
pletely abolished, and all. the other indirect taxes ma- 

ially simplified. The present regular revenue is des 
rived from.a land-tax, which is about 15 per cent. both 
for landlord and. tenant;\a i} tax; a tax on moves 
ables and sumptuaries; on houses and windows; on pas 
tentees; on the penne of exercising any profession ; 
additional centimes or hundreds ; from the produce of 
the national domains and forests; customs, ‘post-office; 
lottery, salt mines, &c. All these taxes in 1803,) pro 
ref a total sum of 569,500,000 francs. The expen- 
diture the same year amounted :to 589,500,000 francs. 
The nce of collection was, between 15 and:16»per 
cent. It was calculated by the minister of finance, in 
this year, that the capital value of the real-property-of 
France was at least 30 milliards of francs. , 

Every village and commune of France has a collector 
or- tax gatherer, who pays over the amount of his receipts 
to a treasurer, called a particular receiver, of whom there 
is one for every district. There is also-a receiver-ge- 
neral for each department, into whose’ hands the parti- 
cular receiver pays the sums drawn from thé’ collectors, 
and who communicate directly with the treasury. They 
are all under the superintendance of an administration, 
entitled the Direction of the Taxes. In 1805, the num- 
ber of ory snes belonging to the direction of taxes, 
amoun throughout the empire, without including 
Piedmont, to 1044. ae 


‘It must be evident, that it is 7 atis 
evi ee eas Gee 


since the Revol 


ABPEEE 

Halal 

ee 
He 
i 
a 
24:9 


posidoas eclly-puve taka vcs yeciett 
gain an accurate knowledge of the real state of the. 
finances. Premising these reasons for caution, we shalt 


tS 


ed a deficit of 312,000,000. 


of the wat in the Peninsula, all were more 
than covered by foreign pillage: ; that, while the 
very 


the national debt’ of 1,645,469,000° 


ployed in paying off former debts. The whole o 
Venandable debt at the accession of. Louis, an ws 
to 759,000,000 franes : “at the time of the Re 


it exceeded three milliards, or 3,000,000,000 of francs. 
The receipts of 1814 were calculated by the minister of 


finance at 520,000,000 ; the ex at 827,415,000, 
leaving a deficit of 307,415,000. The ences of 
ie - 


a9 doriains, and woods, (the domainal forests still 
amounting to 1,400,000 hectares 3), 120,000,000 ; sts, 


(Aetresin' TIS shes 
lottery, salt-works,’ tolls’ on navigation, and inciden 
receipts,28,000,000; partes Ar 80,000,000; 
making a total of 618,000,000. We have given these 
calculations, though subsequent events.rendered it im-. 
—_ that they should be'realized, because they ex- 

»it a probable picture of what will be the resources 


and expenditure of France, when that kingdom is re- 
a rpm Few ht Eng 
‘The-amount of specie existing in France before the cireulating 


Revolution, was « ted 
francs, In the 1789, it is stated ws Bouvallet 

in his Tableau des Richesses de la France, 
at’ 2,474,254,960 livres, 350,000,000 of which consist- 


ed in’ Notes of the Caisse d’Escompte. In the year 
1807, Peuchet, in his Statistique de la France, su 
it to have amounted, within the limits of the old territo- 


, to 1,850,000,000. ' In’ 1789, it was calculated, that, 

in the maritime departments, the ch ‘fing medium 

amounted to’ 1,05$,838,350 livres; and the business 

transacted by ‘its means, to 4,485,600,000,000 livres. In 

those on the boundaries of France, the money in cir- 

culation amounted only to 885,227,000 livres, and the 
1 


by Neckar at 2,200,000,000 medium. 


Statistics. 


Bank of 
France. 


re 


it 


FRANCE. 


business done with it to 453,600,000. In the central 
departments, the circulating medium was 1,035,189,600 
livres; and the trade. carried on with it amounted to 


it gives recognizances bearing interest. Its general as- 
eembly.s composed. of 200 holders, .each of five shares 
or above, who elect fifteen directors and three censors, 
each of whom must be holders of at least thirty shares. 
Between 1783 and 1803, the bank of France was ex- 
posed to four tem y suspensions, viz. in 1783, 1787, 
Pa aca oot ee Sr ager Tree omer 
page 3 » in 1814, allies 
entered France, and just before left Paris, to 
put himself at the head of his army. 

The public funds of France consist of, 1st, Bank 
shares, or actions de la banque, as they are called ; and, 
2d, Third consolidated, or tiers consolidé,. The latter 
is a 5 per cent. stock. The bank stock is disposed of 
in shares, or actions of 1000 francs each. 

the Ist of ag! age the land forces of France 
amounted to more 520,000 men, including all de- 
Tita) of all renks Seinckens tata 

i Y enjoying half pay: in Prussia, Rus- 
sia, Austria, and England, there were 160,000 prison- 
ers. The pay of men. in active service for the-year 

to 202,000,000 franes; the half pay to 


735 


annually. }Each cohort-consisted of 7 great or superior Statistics. 
officers or dignitaries, 20 commanders, 30 officers, and. “"y"—" 


$50 legionarées.. The great officers had an annual in- 
come of 5000 francs; the commanders 2000 ; the offi- 
cers 1000, and the legionaries 250... The knights of 
eis apa honour amouht!to between 6000, and 


In the reign of Louis XIV. the French’ navy was Naval 
strong enough ‘to equip a fleet of 63 ships of the line, ‘7 force. 


frigates, 36 vessels armed en flute, and 14 cutters, under 
the orders of Tourville, in the year 1690. In 1704, the 
French fleet that fought the combined English and 
Dutch fleets consisted of 50) ships of the line, 8 fri- 
gates, and 9 fire-ships. In 1791, the French navy 
consisted of 73 ships of the line, 67 frigates, 19 
cutters, 29 armed brigs, 7 gun-boats, besides several 
rs ships, galliots, &c. But the war with Engs 
land ann 


ihilated the navy of France. The efforts of 


Bonaparte, however, were incessantly directed to its 
re-establishment. According to the exposé for 1814, 
the most absurd of Bonaparte’s schemes were those 
which related to the establishment of a numerous .and 
powerful saa! Paris itself saw a dock-yard formed 
within its walls. And what now remains of all these 
armaments? The wrecks of some of the vessels and ac- 
counts, which prove that for the successive creation and 
destruction of this monstrous and useless flotilla, up= 
wards of 150,000,000 francs have been sacrificed: since 
1803. The grand works executed at Cherbourg, and 
the fine squadron of Toulon, alone present useful re- 
sults.. All the arsenals are completely dilapidated ; the 
immense naval stores collected by Louis XVI. are squan- 
dered; and during the last 15 years, France lost 43 
ships of the line, 82 frigates, and 76 corvettes, which 
could not be replaced at an expence of 200,000,000. | In 
_ the total debt of the navy amounted to:61,300,000 
cs. . : ua ] 


During the republican government, a system of tints Weights’ 
form weights and measures was established upon a sim- a aie. 


ple plan. The elementary measure is connected with sures. 


tries ceded by France, in the treaty of Paris, cost, since the dimensions of the terrestrial globe. This ‘measure, 
the 1804, 115,000,000, — : which is called metre, ‘or mésure par excellence; is the 

we may now hope that the army of France, ten millionth part of a of the terrestrial meri- 
that engine by means of which. in- dian, that is; of ‘the distance of ‘the’ ‘from’ the 


flicted on E so many evils, is put beyond the power 
of farther mischief, pot Ta shag hoa tingoattedestil to 
Notice its constitution during the »period. of its most 
feeeieiinaten atin ddl beme-wrene mp eres 
try regimen ts, at 3230 men ; 27 regiments 

light infantry, at the same number of men each; 2 re- 
giments of carabineers; 12 regiments of cuirassiers ; 
30 regiments of dragoons ; 24 regiments of chasseurs ; 
10 regi of hussars ; 8) re 1s of arti on 
foot; 6 regiments of horse arti ; 22 battalions of 
the artillery train ; 16 companies of artillery labourers ; 
2 battalions of pontooners ; '9 companies of miners ; 
5 battalions of sappers ; 1 battalion of gardes du genie. 
These were commanded by 15 warshale of the empire, 
150 generals of division, 800 generals of brigade, and 
135 adjutants-commandants. The army was recruited 
by voluntary enlistings, and by a rigorous concription, 
which comprised all Frenchmen from the age of 20 to 
25, without any distinction of rank, fortune, or busi- 
ness. Every soldier might rise to the highest rank ; 
no commission could be sold. The military spirit was 
also animated by the decoration of a mili order, 
called the Legion of Honour, which is still retained. 
It was originally composed of 16 cohorts, each 
of nati domains to the amount of 200,000 francs 


pole; it is equal to 3:feet 11,44 inches, The are serves . 
to measure the surface of the soil, in' the same manner 


as the arpent ;-it lates to 100 square metres, or 
94833. square feet. e' stere is equal to a cubic me- 
tre, or’ £22 eubie feet! The oe is the measure of 
capacity ; it is equal'to a cubic decimetre, or 504% cua 
bis inches, or sth of the former pint of ‘Paris. “The 
gramme marks the weight ; it is equal to the weight of 
a cubic centimetre of pure water, at its maximumr of 
density. It has been found equal to 18.827 French 
grains, of which 5.76 make 472.5 nee ; and 489.5058 


pe make a pound of the stan 
‘aris ef i 


These five primitive measures are successively mul- 
tiplied or divided by 10, in order to form the greater 
or smaller measures, by analogy to the decimal system 
of arithmetic. The three divisors are deci, cent?, and 
milli, expressing the tenth, hundredth, or thousandth 
part ; thus decimetre is the 10th part of the metre, de- 
ciarc the 10th part of the arc, &c. The four multipli- 
cators are deca, hecto, kilio, and myria, denoting ten 
times, hundred times, thousand times, and ten thousand 
times: thus the decametre is 10 metres, the hectare 
100 arcs, the kiliometre 1000 metres, the myriagramme 
10,000 grammes, 


of the mint at , 


Comms. 


Language. 


Character 
of the 
French, 


736 
The standard coin of France is a piece’ of silver of 
the weight of five grammes, or five times 18), grains, 


pr vecve Be ag alloy and ,% ths of pure silver, and 
very ly the 24th part of the sterling metallic 
value, being nearly the same with the livre tournois: 
it is called a franc, and divided into decimes and cen- 
times. There are pieces of 5 francs, 2 francs, 3, } and 
} franc. The gold coins, like the silver coin, contain 
+sth of alloy and ,%,ths of pure metal. They are called 
Napoleons d'or or octo grammes: an octo gramme of 
gold is worth 25 francs. 

The basis of the French lan is Latin, on which 
are engrafted Celtic and Gothic words and idioms. It 
is more remarkable for refinement and precision, than 
for energy or dignity. Their writers have rendered 
their language amiliar to the lovers of literature 
throughout Europe; and in the value of their uc- 
tions, they have no equals am the moderns, with 
the sole exception of the English. Even the mathe- 
matical sciences have been cultivated by them with a 
success, certainly not inferior to that of any other na- 
tion. Their taste in letters is than in the fine 
arts, in which there is a cajeenisiBienes of ornament 


- and an affected manner. Before the Revolution, there 


were 21 universities, and 39 academies and literary so- 
cieties in France. During the Revolution a regular sys- 
tem of schools has been repeatedly decreed, ——— 
does not that they have been actually establi 
ed, or have.at least proceeded so su ly and use- 
fully, as the official reports represented. On the whole, 
however, education is more general now ‘than it was 
previous to the Revolution. : 

** The essence of the French character is an exube- 
rance of animal spirits, ‘producing excess of mobility, 
and a restless activity. They are quick, in- 
genious, fertile in expedients, buoyant against difficulty 
or raya ; but mutable, trifling, confident, vain, cre- 
dulous, and incapable of moderation. With: much that 
renders them amiable in society, as readiness to oblige, 
delicate attentions, kind sympathy, and lively ibi- 
lity, they are often of insecure commerce, from laxity 
of principle, unmeaning professions, jealous irritability, 
po tages propensity to intrigue. Their feelings of 
every kind v to excess ; and there is nothing either 
good or bad, of, which they are not capable, under the 
influence of their. impetuous ardour. No cabinet has 
excited so much disturbance among the neighbouring 
states, from ambition and the spirit of in ing; 
as that of France ; and we have seen, that no change 
af political system at home has made an alteration in 
their foreign policy. The French, beyond all people, 
are the creatures of society: by it their manners and 
sentiments are fashioned, and in it are centred. their 
chief pleasures and gratifications.. They would excel 


FRANCE. 


all nations in the art of conversation, were not the de- Statistics. 


sire of shining too universal. The love of glory ope- 
rates upon them with i force, and stimu- 
lates them to great exertions; but it is often attended 
_- CFP LMI se and vis 
ns les 102 » de ance, 

Bion . ei in & ne xe) par 

Voyage fait en 1787 ct 1788 dans la Haute et Basse 
Auvergne, par le Grand D’Aussy. 3 vol. 1795. — 

' Voyage les Departemens du Midi'de la France, 
par Millin, 4 vol. 8vo, 1807—1811. ar 
— - Mines, be as ‘84vol. 

‘etallurziques, jars. | 3 vol. 4to. : 

Atlas, et Disctigion "Meson de la France, par 


Statistique de la France, Peuchet. 1807. 
Analyse des Procés Ver des Conseils Generaux 
des i mit Mie pour Tan 8. ° 
De la Balance du Commerce, &c. de la France, par 
M. Arnould. 2 vol. 1791. , 
Du Commerce Frangais,dans 0 Etat actuel de ? Europe, 
par J. B. Dubois. 1806. 
De 0 Administration des Finances de la France, pax 
M. Neckar. 3 vol. 8vo. 1784. 
Memoires sur l’ Agriculture du Boulonnois, 1785. 
| L’Agriculteur du Midi, par A, L. Sinetz. 2 vol. 
1808. ; 4 
Mey seam d’ Agriculture, par Ollivier de Serres, reprint« 
1802. : y 
Instructions sur la Culture des Turneps, ow gros na« 
vets, par lés Intendans de Soissons, &c. ‘i786 ‘ 
Instruction sur les moyens de Pourvoir a ta dinette des 
Fourrages. 
Supplement. a? Insedelies &c. 1785. 


G 


Memoires d’ Agriculture, publies par la Societe Ro. 
d’ Agri te Paris, V761;) &e. Yay Sah er 


emoire sur le Mais, par Parmentier. “ 
preity wpa of France, by Tinseau, 1803 and 
Travels in France, by A. Young, 
Travels h several of the Mi and Western 
Hewuesle 2 France in 1802, by the Rev. W. 
Hughes. . 
Narrative of a three years residence in France, from 
1802 to 1805, by Anne Plum ROS Ag , 
Travels th h the South of France in 1807 and 1808, 
by Lieut.-Col. Pinckney: DB Sats 
Notes on a Journey through France in 1814, by M. 


Birkbeck. 
., Letter on the Genius and Disposition of the French 
Government, by an American (Mr Walsh) 1810. 


Sketches of ihe intrinsic Strength, &c. of France and 
Russia. Hague 1808, (oak ‘ wf 


a 


=F 


A 
Index. Abbeville, manufacture of fine 


—— 


‘cloth at, p. 717 
lture of France, 694. Va- 

By the produce of, 730 
Aix, mineral waters of, 691 
Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 616 
Alencon, Duke of, puts himself 

at the head of the malcon- 

tents, 579. Unites with the 

Protestants, ib. 
Almonds, trade, &¢. of, 711 
Alps, mountains of the, 677 
Alsace, its divisions, 675 


Artois, its divisions, by 
Augsburg, league of, a- 
gainst Louis XIV. 607 © 

Austerlitz, battle of, 646 
Austria prepares for war against 
France in 1808, 649. State 


* parte, 

Aavergne, its division, 676. Ba- 
saltic mountains of, 686 

Avignon, its wang 677 


jos taken by the British, 
pr 


ae ee Petts sets 


Bank of France, 735 ee 

Bareges, mineral waters of, 6! 

Barley, cultivation of, 700 

Barometer, state of the, in 
France, 684 

a district of Auvergne, 

Bastile destroyed, 626 

Bayard, the Chevalier, his cou- 
rage, 556; and death, 559 

Beans, cultivation of, 700 

Bearn, its divisions, 676 

Beech oil, 711 

Belleisle’s, Marshal, famous re- 
treat from Prague, 614 

or entered by Bonaparte, 


Berries, French, abundant in 
the south of France, 704 

“Berry, its divisions, 675 

Beza, Theodore, disputes with 
Cardinal Lorraine at Paissi, 
574 

Biron, Marshal, treacherous to 
the King, 587. Discovered 
and pardoned, ib. Resumes 
his ambitious projects, ‘ib. 
Enters into a conspiracy, ib. 
Delivers himself up to Hen- 
ry, ib. Condemned and ex- 
ectited, ib. 

Bisrnuth found in Brittany, 
&e. 690 


FRANCE. 


INDEX. 


Bonaparte appointed to the 
command in Italy, 637. His 
great successes, ib. Defeats 
the Austrians at Rivoli, 638. 
Compels the Pope to sign a 
peace, ib. Obliges the Aus- 
trians to make the peace of 
Campo Formio, ib. Returns 
from Egypt, and is declared 
First Consul, 640. Proposes 
peace to Britain, which is re- 
jected, ib, His extraordina- 
ry passage of the Alps, ib. 
Defeats the Austrians at Ma- 
rengo, ib. Grants them an 
armistice, ib. Extent of his 
power, 641. Re-establishes 
the Catholic religion, and con- 
cludes a concordat with the 
Pope, ib. Appointed Consul 
for life, ib. Declared Em- 
peror, ib. The vote for this 
carried by acclamation in the 
tribunate, 642. Commences 
hostilities against Germany 
in 1805, 646. Captures the 
Austrian army under Mack, 
and defeats the combined ar- 
mies of Austria and Russia 
at Austerlitz, ib. Makes the 
treaty of Presburg with Aus- 
tria, ib. Is recognised as 
King of Italy, ib. Defeats 
the Prussians at Jena, 647. 
Enters Berlin, ib. Defeats 


» the Russians at Pultusk, ib. 


Fights an indecisive battle 
with them at Eylau, ib. His 
operations against Sweden, 
648. Defeats the Russians at 
Friedland, ib. Concludes the 
peace of Tilsit with Russia, 
ib. Prepares for the inva- 
sion of Portugal, ib. His 
schemes against Spain, ib. 
His operations there, 649. 
Prepares for war with Aus- 
tria, ib. Holds a conference 
with the Emperor of Ruésia 
at Erfurth, ib. His ambi- 
tious and aggrandizing mea- 
sures in different parts of 
Europe, ib. Enters Vienna, 
ib. Fights the indecisive 
battle of Aspern, ib. De- 
feats the Archduke Charles 
at Wagram, 650. Makes 
peace with Austria, ib. His 
speech to the legislature, ib. 
Divorces Josephine, and mar- 
ries Maria Louisa, ib. His 

decrees, 651. Has 
ason born to him, ib. His 
measures in Holland, 652. 
Disputes with the Emperor 
of Russia, ib. Prepares for 
War with Russia, 653. Cros. 
ses the Niemen, ib. Enters 
Wilna, 654. Fights the in- 
decisive battles of Smolensk 
and Borodino, ib. Enters 
Moscow, 655. Dreadful si- 
tuation of his army, ib. He 
leaves Moscow, ib. His dis- 
astrous retreat, ib. ‘Quits his 
army, 656, Plot at Paris 


against hin, ‘ib. ‘Deserted 
by the Prussians and Aus- 
trians, ib» Prepares for an- 
other campaign, ib. De- 
feated at Lutzen, 657. De- 
feats the allies at Bautzen, 
ib. Sustains’ a terrible de- 


feat at Leipsic, ib. Arrives 


in Paris, 658. Tries in 
vain to rouse the French 
people, ib.- State of his af- 
fairs in Spain, ib, Leaves 
Paris to join his army, 660. 
Is defeated at La Rotherie, 
ib. His desperate attacks'on 
Blucher, 661. Attacks Blu- 
cher at Laon unsuccessfully, 
ib. Throws himself into the 
rear of the allies, 662. Is 
deposed by the senate, 663. 
Renounces the sovereignty, 
664. Departs for Elba, ib. 
Causes of his downfal, 665. 
Escapes from Elba, and lands 
in France, 668. His pro- 
gress, 669. Arrives at Paris, 
ib. His addresses to the na- 
tion and the army, ib.. His 
letter to the sovereigns of 
Europe, ib. Promises the 
French a free constitution, ib. 
His inadequate forees, 670. 
Joins his army, 671. De- 
feats the Prussians at Ligny, 
ib. Defeated by the Duke of 
Wellington at Waterloo, ib. 
Flies to Paris, and abdicates 
the throne, 672. Is sent in- 
to perpetual banishment in 
St Helena, 672 

Boniface VIII. Pope, interdicts 
Philip IV. 548 

Bon mot of Triboulet, the fool 
at Francis’s court, 561 

Bordelais, cultivation of the 
vine in the, 714 


Botero, G his t 
of France in’ the 16th centu- 
ry, 717 


Bouillon, Duke of, joins in the 
conspiracy of the Marshal 
Biron, 587. Is repeatedly 
pardoned by the king, ib. 

Boulogne purchased from the 
English, 564 

Bourbon, the Constable, con- 
Spires against Francis I. 558. 
Lays siege to Marseilles, 559. 
Marches against Rome, 560. 
Succeeds, but is killed in the 
attack, ib. 

Bourbonnois, its divisions, 675. 

Bourdeaux declares for the 


Bourbons, 662 

Brandies, quality, &c. of the, 
715 

Breda, peace of, 602 

Briare, canal of, 680 


-Brissot executed, 635 


Brissotines, the, 632 

Britain attempts to make peace 
with France, 646 

Brittany, its divisions, 675, Li- 
nen manufactures of; 721 


(735) 


Brunswick, Duke of, his mathi- 
» 631 


Balbiferoue plants, 693 

Burgundy and Orleans, Dukes 
of, quarrel, 551 

Burgundy, ‘its divisions, 675. 
Wines of, 77% 

c 

Cabbages, cultivation of, 701 

Cadeau, Nicolas, a great manu- 
facturer, 717 

Calais besieged by the Duke of 

» ‘Guise, 569. Reduces it, ib. 

Calonne at the head of ‘the fi- 
nances in France, 622. Pro- 
poses to assemble the Nota- 
bles, 623. His plan for re- 
establishing the finances, ‘ib. 
Resigns, 624. 

Caivinten pevigries of, in France, 
570, 571 

Calvinists send-a-petition"to the 
king, 573 

Camargue famous for feeding 
oxen and sheep, 708 

Cambray, league of, 555 

Campo Formio, treaty of, 638 

Canals of France, 679. Of Lan- 
guedoc, ib. Of Briare, 680. 

~ Of Orleans, ib. 

Caper shrub, the, 711 

Capillaire abundant near Mont- 

- pellier, 704 

Capitainries explained, 695 

Capital of the farmers, 697 

Carcassone, woollen manufac- 
ture at, 720 

Carlovingian race, 543 

Carnot speaks against the de- 

cree of the tribunate making 

Bonaparte emperor, 642 

Carraway, cultivation of, 703 

Catherine de Medicis, her cha- 
racter, 570. Her conduct du- 

» ring the minority of Charles 
TX. 574. Tries to unite’the 
Protestants on herside against 


- the Duke of Guise, 575. In- — 


trigues with the King against 
the Protestants, 577 

Catholic religion re-established 
in France, 641 

Caves, 692 

Cerignoles, battle of, 554 

Cerizoles, battle of, 562 

Cevennes, revolt of the Protes- 
tants in the, 600. Mountains 
of, 677. Fertilized by irriga- 
tion, 705 

Chalk district of France, 681. 

Chambres Ardentes, | courts: for 
persecuting the: Protestants, 
572 

Cha e, its divisions, 675. 
Wines, 712. Classified, 714 

Champ de Mai, por igene the, 
670 

Charlemagne, reign of, 543 

Charles the Bald’s reign, 544 

Charles the Fat disgraces him- 
self, and is deposed, ib. 

Charles the Simple deposed, and 
dies in prison, ib. 

Charles II. of England obliged 
by the Parliament ‘to make 
peace with Holland, 604 


Index. 


(736) 


Index. Charles IV. of France succeeds 


his father John, 550 
Charles V. of Spain a competi- 
tor for the Imperial dignity, 
557. Obtains it, ib. Endea- 
vours to gain from his pri- 
soner Francis I. by intrigue, 


certain conditions, ib. Has 
recourse to arms to enforce 
on him the treaty of Madrid, 
560. Invades France unsuc- 
cessfully, 561. Agrees to 
cede the Milanese to Francisy 
but breaks his promise, ib. 
attacked by Francis and the 


Protestant Confederates, 565. . 


Prepares to recover Lorraine, 
ib. Besieges Metz, ib. Qbli- 
ged to raise the siege, 566. 
Sustains great loss in that 
affair, ib. Invades France, 
ib. Makes a truce with the 
King of France, ib. Aban- 
dons his throne, 567. 

Charles VI. of France succeeds 
his father, 550 

Charles VIL. of France crown- 
ed, 551 

Charles VIII. of France suc+ 
ceeds to Louis XI. 552. In- 
vades ir ae Death and 


character, 

Charles [X. of France ascends 
the throne of France, 574. 
His person seized, 575. His 
character, 576. Enters into 
a treaty with the Protestants 
in 1570, 577. Intrigues with 
Catherine against the Protes- 
tants, ib. His cruelty at the 
massacre of St Bartholomew, 
578. Makes a new. treaty 
with the Protestants, ib. His 
death and character, 579 

Charlotte de Montmorency be- 
loved by Henry IV. 588. 
Married at the King’s desire 
to the Prince of Condé, ib. 

Chastel, John, attempts the life 
of Henry IV. 584 

Chateau Cambresis, treaty of, 
569 

Chatillon, congress at, 660. 
Rupture of the negociations 
there, 661 


Christianity renounced in the 
National Convention of France, 
635 

Cider, manufacture of, 715 

Cing Mars and De Thou execu- 

ted for a conspiracy, 597 
> pact medium #, France, 
Civic oath taken by the King, 
military, &c. 629 
Civil war in France, 551. The 
first, 575. The second, 576. 
~~ third, 577. The fourth, 
Clement, James, assassinates 
Henry ILI, 581 

Cleves and Juliers, senewtion 

for the duchies of, 

Climate of © France, oes. Its 


FRANCE. 


disadvantages in the south, 
ib. Its division into four 
zones, 684 

Clover, cultivation of, 702 

Clovis, reign of, 543 

Coal strata in Provence, 690. 
Other coal mines, ib. Their 


Coligny’s, the Admiral, brave de- 
fence of St Quintin, 568. His 
character, 571. Presents a 
petition from the Calvinists to 
the King, 573. Plot against 
him and the Prince of Condé, 
from which they escape, 576. 
Invests Poictiers, 577... Fights 
the battle of Montconcour, 
and is defeated, ib. Massa- 
cred on St Bartholomew's 
day, 578 

Commerce between France and 
Spain, 723. With Portugal, 
724. Italy, ib, England, ib. 
Holland, 725. Germany, &c. 
ib. Denmark, &c. ib, Ame- 
merica, ib. The Levant and 
Barbary, 726. India and Chi- 
na, ib. West of Africa, ib. 
West Indies and North Ame- 
rica, ib. 

Companies, France delivered 
from them by the policy of 
Charles V. 550 

Condé, Prince of, his character, 
571. Suspected and hated 
by the court, 572. Offers to 
vindicate his honour by sin- 
gle combat, ib. Accused of 
treason by the Duke of Guise 
and Cardinal of Lorraine, 573. 
Tried and condemned, 574. 
Saved by the death of Fran- 
cis, ib, “Asks satisfaction for 
the massacre of Viessy, 575. 
Begins the civil war, ib. De- 
feated and taken prisoner at 
Draix, ib. Enters into trea- 
ty with the court, 576. An- 
ticipates the hostile projects 
of the court, and has recourse 
to arms, ib. Attacked by 
the Constable Montmorency 
at St Denis, and defeated, ib. 
Prosecutes the war vigor- 
ously, and agrees to a Suspen- 
sion of hostilities, ib, ‘ A plot 
against him and Coligny, 
from which they escape, ib. 
Active in preparing for war, 
577. Taken prisoner, and 
killed in cold blood at Jarnac, 
ib. 

Condé, the young Prince of, 
breaks out into open rebel- 
lion, 691. Allows himself to 
be duped, is arrested, and 
thrown into the Bastile, ib. 

Condé the Great, Duke of Eng- 
hien, ee the Spaniards 
at Rocroy, 598. Defeats the 
Bavarians at Nordlingen, ib. 
Excites the jealousy of Car- 
dinal Mazarine, ib. 
to raise the siege of Lerida, 
ib. Arrested, 600. Defeats 
Turenne at St Antoine, ib. 


é pardoned 
employed by Louis XIV. 601. 
His operations in Flanders, 
604. Lays waste the Pala- 
tinate, ib. 

Conference. between the Catho- 
mn and Calvinists at Paissi, 
57 


Copper mines, 689 

Coral fishery of Marseilles, 729 

Corsica annexed to France, 618. 
Its divisions, 677 

Corvées, a tax oppressive to agri- 
culture, 696 

Cote roti, wine called, 714 

Cytton manufactures, seat, &c. 
of the, 721 

Council of Trent, 564 

Court of France extremely de- 
bauched in thereignof Charles 
VI. 55 

Cows of Normandy celebrated 
for milk, 708 

Crespy, treaty of, 562 

Crops, rotation of, 699 

a ae Pr engaged in by Louis 


D 
ry Marquis of, killed, 
D’Ancre, Marchioness, con- 
demned for sorcery, 592 
Dantzic surrenders to the 
French, 648 
Dauphiny, its divisions, 676 
De Thou and Cing Mars exe- 
cuted for a conspiracy, 597 
orca Executive, establish- 
6 


- 

Directory, the, declare war 
against Germany, 639. Sinks 
into contempt, 6 

Doria, Admiral, ungratefully 
treated by Francis I. 560. 
Resents it, ib. Delivers Ge- 


noa, ib. 

Draix, battle of, 575 : 

Dumourier deserts to the Aus- 
trians, 633 

Dunkirk surrenders to Louis 
XIV. 601 


E 

Harths and stones, 688 

Ecclesiastical state of France, 
733 > 

Edict of Nantes, revocation of 
the, 606 

Edward ILI. of England claims 
the throne of France, 549 

Emigrants, debate on the pro- 
perty of the, 667 

English lose most of their pos- 
sessions in France, 550. Ex- 
pelled from France, 551. Ad- 
vance within 11 leagues of 
Paris, but are driven out of 
France, 558 

Epernon, Duke of, enters intoa 
plot with Mary de Medicis, 

9: 


Erfurth, conference at, 649 

Etangs, in Proyence and Upper 
Languedoc, 679 

Executive Directory establish- 
ed, 636 


of France, 727 
Eylau, battle of, 647 
F 
Pairs of France, 728 
erdinand of Spain, his disho- 
nourable conduct to the 
French, 554 : 
Ferdinand of Arragon dies, 557, 


Flax, cultivation aoe 703 

Fleurus, battle of, 607 

Foix, its divisions, 676 

Fontainebleau, assem- 
bly at, 573, . Forest of, 710 

Forces, land, statement of, 735; 
naval, ib. 

Forests, numerous and exter- 
sive, 710, National, ib, 

Fornova, battle of, 553 

France and pe’, 
between, “ytd 


cial distress, 618. Suit or. 
at the accession of Louis 
XVI. 619. Favours the Re- 
volution in America, 620. 
Interferes in the affairs of 
Geneva, 621. Her financial 
embarrassments, 621, 

feres in the affairs of 
land, 622. Alliance between 
the two countries, ib. Com- 
mercial treaty with . 
623. Discontents in, i 
Emigration from, at the com- 
mencement of the Revolu- 
tion, 627. Commotions in 
different parts of, ib, Hos- 
tile pre against her, 
629. clares war against 
the King of Hungary and Bo- 
hemia, G31. Invaded by 
Prussia and Austria, i 
Their progress, 632. Obli- 


ged to retreat, ib. .At war - 


with almost all Europe, eg 
Le: of her enemies, ib. 
hey are at le unsue- 
cessful, ib. — Civi | war in, 
634 Drives out the _— 
in every direction, 635, I 
vades the United Provinces, 
ib. Causes of the establish- 
ment of military despotism, 
645. War between her and 
Prussia in 1806, 647. Its 
boundaries, 673. Extent, 


oo. ie 


i ie 


SS” 


en hi — email gia iC 
. 


4 
} 
" 
td 

4 
% 
, 
| 


ib. ts geogra- 
phy, ib. Its divisions in the 


ses it, ib. Nearly killed by 
4 torch, iB. Invades the 


VOL. 1X, PART IL 


FRANCE, 


Resolves to march ifto the 
Milanese, ib. His platy de- 
layed by a conspiracy, ib. 
Sends an army under the 
command of Botinivet, who 
partly succeeds, but is at 
length obliged to rétire, ib. 
Again invades Italy, ib. Loses 
the battle of Pavia, and is ta- 
ken prisoner, 559. Treat- 


conduct on re-enteringF rance 
_ 560. Evades the conditions 
of his release, ib. His troops 
invade Italy successfully, ib. 
Loses his advantages by mis- 
conduct, ibs Devotes some 
time to the internal regula- 


great ib. Sum- 
mons emperor to a r 
before the ietielel Pa 
ris, ib. a truce with 
Charles, ib. war on 


him, 662. His affairs des- 
perate, ib. Attempts to re- 
cover Boulogne 
English, ib. His death, and 
character, ib. , 


Francis IT. “ascends thre throne, 
570. His death, and cha- 
racter, 574 


‘Franks, account of the, 548 


French, under Louis XII. in- 
vade Italy, 554. Invade the 
Roman territories, 555, De- 
feat the Spaniards, Swiss, and 
Venetians at Ravenna, 555 

French ambassadors assassina- 
ted the Milanese, 562. 
The French defeated at St 
Quintin, 568. Consternation 


the Swiss, ib. To the Nea- 
politans, 639. Their love of 


, extent ofthe, in 1806, 
Population of, after the 
en ae of Holland, 651. 
her en » ib. 
Defiated Dy the allies. at 
Luneburg, 656; and at Ju- 
terbock, 657. Hatred excited 
by their tyranny, 665. De- 
feated at Waterloo, 671 
Friedland, battle of, 649° 
Fronde, the, 600 
Funds, public, 735 


G 
Gardette, gold mine at, 689 
Garonne, the river, 678 A 
waa rotation of crops In, 


Gaston de Foix, a celebrated 


French general, 555 

Gaul, ancient, sketch of, 543. 
Its extent, 673 

Genoa revolts from the French, 


fromr the | 


554. Expels the French 
troops, 558. Delivered by 
Admiral Doria, 560. Defend- 
ed by Massena, surrenders to 
the allies, 640 


General Assembly at Fontaine. 


bleau, 573 


Geneva, France interferes in her 


affairs, 621 

Geology of the Pyrenees, 687 

Ghiarrada, battle of, 555 

Girondists, the, 632 

ry gg of St Gobin’s, 
718 

Gobeline’s tapestry, manufac- 
ture of the, 718 

Gold mine at Gardette, 689 

Grain, produce of, 700 

Grand fares against Louis 
XIV. 


Gravel district of France, 682 

Gravelines, battle of, 569 

Guienne, its divisions, 676 

Guise, Duke of, defends Metz, 
565. His humane conduct, 
566. His character, 570. His 
servants massacre the Protes- 
tants at Viessy, 575. Defeats 
the Prince of Condeat Draix, 
ib. Assassinated, ib. Directs 
the massacre of St Bartho- 
lomew, 578. Takes the field 
in 1584 against the Protes- 
tants, 580. Invested with the 
supreme power, ib. Quar- 
rels with the king, ib. Is re- 
conciled to him, ib. Quar- 
rels again, ib. Is assassina- 
ted at the instance of the 
king, 581 

Guienne, rebellion in, 563 

Gypsum quarry of Montmartre, 
686 


H 
Hailstones in France, 683 
Harvest, time, &c. of, 704 
Hats, manufacture of, 722 
Hay, management of, 707 


Heath district of France, 681. . 


Rotation of crops in the, 699 

Helena, St, Bonaparte banished 
to, 672 

Hemp, cultivation of, 703 

Henry I. ascends the throne, 
545 

Henry EE. succeeds to Francis I. 

: Recals the ve 
Montmorency, ib. rns 
some Protestants, 564 Pur- 
chases Boulogne from the 
English, ib. r 
war with Charles V. 564. 
Sends an army into Italy, ib. 
Concludes a treaty with the 
Protestantconfederation, 565. 
Invades Lorraine, and seizes 
Toul, Verdun, and Metz, 
565. Forgotten by the con- 
federates in the treaty of Pas- 
sau, ib. Invades the Nether- 
lands, 566. His troops obli- 
ged to retreat, ib. Is unfor- 
tunate in Italy, ib. More 


successful in Piedmont, 567. 


Makes a truce with . 

ib. Breaks it, and renews 

his league with the Pope, ib. 

His army enters’ aa ib. 
A 


7187 


Makes a treaty with. Eliza 
beth of England, 569. His 
death and character, 570 
Henry ITI. ascénds the throne, 
579. His character, ib. Pa- 
/cifies the Protestants, and 
concludes a treaty with them, 
ibe He disgusts the Catho- 
lics, ib. Joins the League a- 
gainst the Protestants, 580. 
Held up by the proclamations 
ofthe League as debauched 
and heretical, ib. Concludes 
a peace on the most disho- 


nourable terms, ib. Attempts. 


against him by the Duke of 
Guise, ibs rrels with the 
Duke, ib. Retires to Char- 
tres, and appeals to his peo- 
Be ib. Is reconciled to the 

ke, ib. Quarrels with him 
again, ib. Assembles the 
States, ib. Procures the as- 
sassination of the Duke, 581. 
Is thereby subjected to the 
resentment and abhorrence 
of his subjects, ib. Enters 
into a confederacy with the 
Protestants and the king of 
Navarre, ib. Assembles a 
large army, and marches to 
Paris, ib. Is assassinated by 
a Dominican friar, ib. 

Henry IV. his birth and educa- 
o 581. — bt with 
the League, 582. Repulses 
the Duke of Mayence ay Ar- 
ques, ib. Marches for Paris, 
ib. Gains the battle of Ivri, 
ib. Blockades Paris, ib. His 
humanity to the people, ib. 
Is forced to raise the bloc- 
kade, ib, 
cond attempt to take Paris, 
583, Is declared a heretic 
by the Pope, ib. His ¢ool- 
ness and fortitude in the 
midst of difficulties, ib. “Be- 


sieges Rouen, ib. Forced 


Defeated in ase- _ 


Index. 
~ 


to raise the siege, ib. Re- - 


solves to renounce the Pro~ 
testant religion, ib. His con- 
duct does not satisfy the Ca- 
tholics, ib. Acknowledged 
by Meaux, and several other 
cities, 584. Is crowned at 
Chartres, ib. His life at- 
tempted, ib. Defeats the 
Duke of Mayencé, ib. Ab- 
solved by the Pope, ib. His 
trouble and difficulties, ib. 
Makes peace with Spain, 585. 
Passes the famous edict of 
Nantes, ib. Endeavours to 
improve the kingdom, ib. 
Takes into office the Marquis 
of Rosny, whom he’ creates 
Duke of Sully, 585. Patron- 
ises manufactures, 586. Un- 
happy in domestic life, ib. 
Indulges in amonrs, ib. Pro- 

to raise his mistress 
Gabrielle D’Estrées to the 
throne, ib. Is opposed by 
the Pope, ib. Proposes mar- 
riage to his mistress Henri- 
ette de Balzac, and is pre- 
vented by Sully, ib. Obtains 
divorce his Queen, 587. 
Marries Mary de Medicis, 
587. Returns to his amours, 


788 


ab. Betrayed by Marshal Bi- 

fon, 587. His lenient treat- 

ment of him, ib. At length 
ve him up to 

- trial, ib. vanees against 
the. Duke of Bouillon, ib. 
Pardons him, ib. Disagrees 
with the Queen, 488. His 
dishonourable attachment to 
Charlotte de Montmorency, 
ib. Causes her to be marri- 
ed to the Prince of Condé, ib. 
unworthy conduct in this af- 
fair, ib. Takes up arms a- 
gainst Austria, 580. His 
grand design, ib. Makes great 
preparations, ib. Is assassi- 
nated when preparing tojoin 
his army, 589. His charac- 
ter, ib. 

Henry of Navarre marries the 
sister of Charles IX. 577. 
Abjures the Protestant relix 
gion, 578 

Henry VIII. of England de- 
clares war against Francis I. 
and invades Picardy, 558 

Herring fishery, 728 

Hohenlinden, battle of, 641 

Holland invaded by Louis XIV. 
603. Its weak and divided 
state at the time, ib. Saved 
by the Prince of Orange, 604. 
Supported by the Emperor 
and Spain, ib. Subdued by 
France, 636. _ Louis Bona- 
parte made king of, 646, An- 
nexed to France, 651. 

Holy League, formed by Julius 
IL, 555. 

Boa of Narbonne, celebrated, 
71 

Hops, cultivation of, 704 

Horses, breed, &c. of, 707 

Horticulture, French, account 
of, 715 

‘Hugh Capet seizes the crown, 
545 


I ; 
AImperialists defeated at Hoch- 
stet, 609 
Implements of husbandry, 698 
Imports of France, 727 - 
Inclosures, state of, 697 
Iron mines, 689 
Irrigation extensively employ- 
ed, 705 d 
Isle of France, its divisions, 
675 
Atal Jeyeees by Louis XIII. 


Ivri, battle of, 582 

Jacobin party, its rise, 628. 
Their power established, 631 

Jacques, Coeur, his exertions as 
a manufacturer, 716 

Jarnac, battle of, 577 

Jemappe, battle of, 632 

Jena, battle of, 647 

Jet found in several depart- 
ments, 690 

Jewellery, manufacture of, 722 

Jews banished during the reign 
of Philip V. 549 

John, eldest son of Philip de 

“Valois, succeeds, 549 — 

Julius II. attempts to expel 
every n power from I. 

defeated by the 


“PRAN CE. 


Juterbock, battle of, 657 
g 
Raights Templars persecuted, 
F] 


L 

Lebrun, pieces of, 732 

Laces, manufacture of, 721 

La Crau, account of the plain 
of, 692. Irrigation in, 706 

Landed property, its state be- 
fore the Revolution, 695. 
How affected by that event, 
696. Its distribution, 697 

Language, French, 736 

Languedoc, its divisions, 676. 
Canal of, 679. Irrigation in, 
705. ‘ 

Laon, battle of, 661 

La Renaudie, the author of the 
conspiracy of Amboise, 572. 
Is killed in attempting to ex- 
ecute it, ib. , 

La Rotherie, battle of, 66 

La Vendée, civil war in, 634 


_ Lead mines, 689 


League, origin of the famous, 
against the Protestants, 579 

League of Cambray, 555 

League, Holy, formed, ib- 

League, the triple, formed a- 
gainst Louis XIV. 603 

Leather, manufactories of, 722 

Leipsic, battle of, 657 

Leo X. dies with joy for the 
expulsion of the French from 
the Milanese, 558 

Liberty of the press, debate on 
the, 667. 


Licenes alienates the affections — 


of the king from the Italian 
favourites of Mary de Medi- 
cis, 591. Is promoted, 592. 
Endeavours to secure popu- 
larity, ib. 

Ligny, battle of, 671 

Limosin, its divisions, 676 

Linen manufacture, state, &c. 
of, 721 

Liseux, Bishop of, prevents the 
massacre of Protestants, 578 

Lisle taken by the allies, 610 

Loam district of France, 680 

Lodi, battle of, 637 


Loigniac assassinates the Duke 


of Guise, 581 
Loire, the river, 678 
Lorraine, the Cardinal, his cha- 
racter, 571 
Lorraine, its divisions, 675 
ar ae contests of his reign, 


Louis le Debonnaire, his reign 
and death, 544 
Louis the Stranger’s reign, 544 


Louis the Gross succeeds his _ 


father, 545 
Louis VII. ascends the throne, 
ry Embarks in a crusade, 


Louis VIII. 547 

Louis [X.‘his character, ib. His 
expedition to Egypt, ib. 
Dies at Tunis, ib. 

ae succeeds to the throne, 
5 

7 XI. succeeds his father, 


55 
Louis XII. succeeds, 554. Mar- 
ries the sister of the king of 


England, 556. His death, 
and character, ib. 
Louis XIII. succeeds to the 


unsuccessfully, . ib. 
His cruelty to the Protes- 
tants at N esse, . ib. 
Makes a treaty with the Pro- 
testants in 1622, ib. Invades 
Italy, 594. Reduces Savoy, 


595. His death, 697. His * 


will set aside, ib. ‘ 
Louis XLV. succeeds, 597. En- 

ters Dunkirk in triumph, 

601. Resolves to govern by 


himself, ib. Cireumstances ~ 


in his favour, 602. Instan- 
ces of his haughtiness and 
ambition, ib. uses to pay 
the honours an the re 
England, ib.. Makes the 
peace of Breda, ib. His em- 
ployment during the peace, 
ib. Claims the Spanish Ne- 


therlands, ib. Invades them _ 


successfully, 603. Subdues 


Franche Compté, ib. The — 


Triple League against him, — 
ib. Detaches England from . 


it, ib. His rapid success a- 
gainst Holland, ib. Baffled 


by the Prince of Orange, and _ 


obliged to recal his forces, 
604. His operations in Flan- 
ders, 605. His operations 
by sea, ib. Gains the battle 
of Mont Capel, ib. His en- 
croachments after the peace 
of Nimeguen, 606. Besieges 
Strasburg, ib. His violent 
conduct in the Spanish Ne- 
therlands, ib. His attention 
to his navy, ib. Makes a 
truce with Spain and the Em- 
peror, ib. Insults the Pope, 
607. League of Augsburg 
formed against him, ib. He 
begins hostilities, ib. Again 
lays waste the Palatinate, ib. 
Makes the peace of Ryswick, 
608. Concludes the partition 
treaty with William of Eng- 
land, ib. Grand alliance a- 
gainst him, 609. His affairs 
desperate, 610. Unsuccess- 
fully attempts to negociate, 
ib. His astonishing efforts, 
ib. He again offers peace, 
and is refused, 611. Hiscir- 
cumstances bettered, by the 
change of the ministry in 
England, and the death of 
the Emperor, ib. Makes 
peace with England, Portu- 
gal, Prussia, Savoy, and the 
United Provinces, 612. His 
death, and character, ib. 

Louis XV. assumes the govern- 


mentof France,613. Invades . 


Flanders, 614. Obstinately 
continues the war, 615, Im- 
mense preparations against 
him, 616. He is successful 
in the Low Countries, ib. 


.. death, and character, ib, 
Louis XVI. succeeds his grand- 
father, 619. State of France 


629. Takes the civic oath, 
ib. Attempts to leave the 
kingdom, 630. Is stopped, 
ib, His attempt excites great 
abhorrence, ib. He and his 


Loos XVII, 

is XWIIL. chosen sovereign 
of France, 664. Enters Paris, 
ib. State of France when he 
ascends the throne, 666, His 
character and conduct, 667, 
Betrayed by the Marshals, 
668. His measures, 669. En- 
ters Paris again, and appoints 
new ministers, 672. , 

Louisa, regent in. the absence 
of teaness I. saves France, 
5 ; 

Lucerne, cultivation of, 702 

Luneburg, battle of, 656 

Luneville, treaty of, 641. > 

Lupins, cultivation of, 702 

Lyonnois, its divisions, 676 

Lage silk manufactures of, 


M 
Mack, General, capitulates te 
Bonaparte at Ulm, 646 . 
Madder, cultivation of, 703 
Maid of Orleans appears, 55%: 
Maine, its divisions, 675 
Maize, cultivation of, 700 | ; 
Malcontents, their origin in 
1574, 579 P 
Maltplaquet, battle of, 611 
Manganese abundant, 690 
Manifesto of the Duke of Bruns- 
wick, 63L — 
Manufactures of France, histo- 
rical notices respecting the, 
716. Patronised by Henry 
IV. 716; and by Colbert, 
717. The state at the close 
of the 17th century, 719. 
Effects of the Revolution on 


ee ae 


the, 722. Value of the pro- 


SS tear 190 


Manures, system of, 705 
Marat stabbed by Charlotte Cor- 
dé, 633 


Marche, its divisions, 676 

Marciano, battle of, 566 

Marengo, battle of, 640 

Margaret, Queen of Henry Iv. 
her character, 586. Divor- 
ced from the King, 587 

Marignaro, battle of, 556 


Marilla, Archbishop of Vienne, 


speaks against the errors and 
corruptions of the church of 


the King, ib. Is crowned, 
589. Made regent, 590. Be-. 
comes the dupe of her Italian 
favourites, ib: Her plan a- 


FRANCE. 


Millet, eultivation of, 703 

Mineralogy and geology of 
France, 685 

Mineral waters, 691 

Mines in France, 689. Ac- 
count of them in 1814, 690 

Mississippi scheme begun, 613 

Montauban, siege of, 593 

Mont Capel, battle of, 605 

Monteoncour, battle of, 577 

Monteleri, battle of, 552 

Montluc, Bishop of Valence, 
speaks against the errors and 
corruptions of the church of 
Rome, 573 © 

Montmartre, battle of, 663. 
Gypsum quarry of, 686 

Montmorency, the Constable, 
recalled by Henry II. 563. 
His character, 571. Has great 
influence with the King, 569. 


/ Killed in the battle of St De-” 


by Bonaparte, 
655. Burnt by the Russians, 
ADEA sii 


Most Christian, this title given 


by the Pope to Louis XI. 552 
Mountain party, the, 632 
Mountainous district of France, 


Nails, manufacture of, 722 

Nantes, edict of, passed, 585 

Nantes, revocation of the edict 
of, 606 


Naples subdued by the French,” 
639 


628. Discuss and negative 
the King’s veto, ib. Suppress 
hereditary titles, 629. 


National Convention assemble, 


632 

Natural history of Fsance, 685 

Naval force, 735 

Navarre invaded by the French, 
557. Saved by the rashness 
of the French general, ib. 
King of, his character, 571. 
Killed, 575 

Neckar succeeds Turgot, 619. 


unsuccessful nego- 
ciations at, 605. Treaty of, 
ib. 


Nivernois, its divisions, 675 

Nordlingen, battle of, 598 

Normandy, kingdom of, esta- 
blished, 544 


Normandy, its divisions, 674. 
R Sa" of, celebrated for milk, 


Normans, invasion of the, 544 
Notables, the, in France, as- 


sembled in 1787, 623. Dis-' 


missed, 624. 
bled, 625 
Noyon, treaty at, between Fran- 
cis L. and Charles V. 557 

: re) 


Again assem- 


Olives, 712 

Orange, Prince of, saves Hol- 
land from Louis XIV. 604. 
Rejects Louis’s proposals, ib. 
Reduces Naarden, ib. Re- 
fuses the mediation of - Eng- 
- land, ib. 

Orange trees, 711 

Orchilla weed found in” aus 
vergne, 704 : 

Orleannois, its divisions, 675 

Orleans, canal of, 680 

Orleans, Duke of, rebels against 
the regent Anne of France, 


Orleans, Duke of, regent of’ 
France after the death of 
Louis X1V. 612 

Orleans, Duke of, protests a- 
gainst a command of Louis 
XVI. 625. Encourages the 

~ revolution, 628. eee. 
635 


Orleans, forest of, 710 


' Orleans, States. General meet 


at, 574: 
Orthes, battle of, 662 
Orthes, Viscount, refuses- to 
massacre the Protestants in 
Bayonne, 578 
Oudenarde, battle of, 610 
Oxen generally used in the 
ee 698. Feeding, &c. 
708 . 
ote, fisheries of, 729 


P 
Paissi, conference of, 574 
Palatinate laid waste by the 
French, 604. Laid waste a-- 
gain by them, 607° 
Papal forces defeated by Fran= 
cis I. 556 
Paper, mauufacture of, 721 
Papilionaceous plants, 693 
Paris, the basin of, 685. Strata 
of, i. Organic remains in, 
686. Blockaded by: Henry 
IV. 682. IS relieved’ by the 
Duke of Parma, ib. Its 
’ dreadful situation during the 
faction of the Sixteen, 583. 
Meeting of the states there in 
1593, ib. Peace of, 618. In- 
fluence of, 644. Insurrection 
in, 626. Entered by the al- 
lies, 663. "Surrenders to the 
British and Prussians, 672 
Parliament, change of its con- 
stitution in the reign of Phi- 
lip de Valois, 549. Of France 
banished by Louis XVI. 625, 
And recalled, ib. 
Parliaments, origin of, 544 
Parma, war of, 564 
Parsnips, cultivation of, 702. 
Partition treaty, 608 
Passau, treaty of, 565 
Pastures, account of the, 707 
Pays d’Aunis, its divisions, 676 
Peat earth abundant, 691 
People, French, condition, 732. 
Their character, 736 


. 789 
Picardy, its divisions, 674 


Pilnitz, treaty of, 630 
le I. succeeds to the crown, 


Philip I. his reign, 546. Un. 
dertakes an expedition to the 
Holy Land, 546. Prepares 
to invade England, 547. War 
apnemeed him and the empire, 

Philip III. His reign, 548° 

Philip IV. his reign, ib, 

Philip V. succeeds ‘his’ prettier; 
549 


Philip Il. of Spain invades- 


France, 568. Loses the ad- 
vantage he obtained by the 
victory at St Quintin, 568, 
His reconciliation with the 
"Pope, 569 
Plums, 711 : 
Poitou, its divisions, 675 
Poltrot assassinates the Duke “g 
Guise, 575. 
Poor, state of the, 732 
Population of Sraleey view of: 
the, 730. 
Posts established in France by 
Louis XI. 552 : 
piece cultivation of, 701 - 
Poultry extensively used, 710 


Pragmatic ere: war of the, . 


613. 
Prague, siege of, 614 
Presburg, treaty of, 646. 
Property, landed, its state be. 
fore the Revolution, 695 
Protestants of Cabrieres and Me- 
rindo] massacred, 563. Their 
state in Germany, 564. In 
France, measures taken pre- 
’ paratory to their persecution, 
571. Severely persecuted, 
572. Increase in spite of 
Opposition, ib:- Makeva trea- 
ty of peace-with: the govern-- 
ment, 576. Have apprehen- 
sions of renewed persecution, 
ib. Defeated at Jarnac, 577: 
and at Montconcour, ih. 
Fight bravely in the battle 
of Jarnac, but are defeated, 
ib, Make a favourable trea» 
ty with the- government, ib. 
Massacre of, on St Bartholo- 
' mew’s day, 578. Origin of 
the famous league against 
the, 579. Hostilities between 
them and the Catholics in 
» 1681, 580. Alarmed by the 
plans of Mary de Medicis, 
590. Finally reduced, 594, 
Roused again by the Duke of 
Rohan, but soon crushed, 595. 
Persecuted by Louis XIV. 
607 
Provence, its divisions, 676. 
Coal strata in, 690 
Prussia, King of, makes peace 
with the National Conven- 
tion, 636. Declares war a- 
gainst France, 647 
Prussians desert Bonaparte, 656. 
Defeated at Ligny, 671 
Pultusk, battle of, 647 
Pyrenees, treaty of the, 601. 
Mountains of the, 677. Geo- 
logy of the, 687. Rare plants 
in the, 694. Rotation of crops 
-in the district of the, 699,. 
Irrigation in the, 706 . 


Index; » 


Index. , 


740 


Q 
worm Queen of France executed, 635 


Retz, Cardinal de, his character, 
599 

Revenue and expenditure’of the 
government, 734 

Revolution of France, causes of 
the, 642, Character of its 
first movers, 644. Effects of 


struction of the Protestants, 
ib. Cabals formed against 
him, which he ‘defeats, ih. 


and finally reduces them, 594. 
His plans to humble Austria, 
ib. His numerous and ac- 
tive exertions, 595. Brings 


Bingent plants, 693 
Rivers of France, 678 
Rivoli, battle of, 638 


_ Rousillon, its divisions, 676 


Rouvenis, battle of, 547 
Pay abolished in France, 


Russia, the Emperor of, pre- 


FRANCE. 


oare for war with France, 

6 

Russians, their mode of resist- 
ing Bonaparte’s forces, 653 

Rye, cultivation of, 700 

Ryswick, pe ws 608 


Saffron, cultivation of, 704 « 

Sainfoin, cultivation of, 702 

St Bartholomew, massacre of, 
578. Gives joy to the Pope 
and the King of Spain, ib. 
Occasions gloom at the court 
of England, ib, 

St Germain en Laye, treaty of, 
577 f 

St Gobin’s, glass manufactory 
of, 718 

St Jean de Luz, battle of, 659 

St Quintin besieged by the Spa+ 
niards, 568. Battle of, ib. 
Taken, ib. ’ 

St Sebastian, fall of, 659 

Saintonge, its divisions, 676 

Salamanca, battle of, 652 

Salic law enforced, 549 

Salins, salt springs at, 691 

Salt, common, 691 


Saone, the river, 679 

Sardines, fishery of, on the coast 
of Brittany, 728 

Savoy, Duke of, makes war on 
France, 587. Unsupported, 
and obliged to make peace, 
ib. Attempts to seize Man- 
tua, and is unsuccessful, 591 

Sea-coast of France, 679 

Sea-salt, 691 

Sedan, manufacture of fine cloth 
at, 717 

Seine, the river, 678. The ba- 
sin of the, 685. 

Sforza surrenders himself to 
Francis I. 557 

Sheep, breed, &ec. of, 708. E- 
migration of, 709 

Shepherds of France, account 
of the, 709. Their dogs, ib. 

Shipping, the, of France at dif- 
ferent periods, 72% 


Silver mines, 689 

Smolensk, battle of, 654 

Soil of France, 680. Divided 
into five classes as to fertili- 


ty, 700 

Spain, competitors for the throne 
of, 608, Attacked by Bo- 
naparte, 648 

Spaniards invade France, 597 

Spaniards and French enter in- 
-- <a treaty of the Pyrenees, 


ame grass grows abundantly, 
Spurry, cultivation of, 702 


besieged and 
by Louis XIV. 606 

Sumach, cultivation of, 704 

Suwarrow, his successes 
the French in Italy, 639 

Sweden, operationsoftheFrench 
against, 648. Convention be- 
tween them, ib. 

Swiss, the, defeated by Francis 
I. 556. Guard of, massa- 
cred by the mob at Paris, 632 

Switzerland, its independence 
overthrown by republican 

. France, 639 

Sully, Duke of, his character, 
585. Called into office by 
Henry, ib. His mode of pro- 
cedure, ib. Good effects re- 
sulting from it, 586. His 
freedom with the King, ib. 

- Retires ‘to his estates after 
the King's ae: 590 


Tapestry, manufacture of the 
Gobelines, 718 
Taxes of France diminished by 


‘Louis XII. 556. Before the . 


Revolution, 733. Since do. 
734 
Teasels, cultivation of, 704 
Las oo 9 of France, 684 
‘enures of landed property be- 
fore the Revolution, 695 
Thionville .capitulates to the 
Duke of Guise, 569 
Thrashing, mode, &e. of, 704 
Tilsit, peace of, 648 
Tithes abolished by the Na- 
tional Assembly, 628 
Tobacco, cultivation of, 703 
Toulouse, battle of, 662 
Tourraine, its divisions, 675 
Trade, coasting and inland trade 
of France, 727 
Treaty between France and 
Spain in 1503, 554 


Turgot placed at the head of 
the French finances, 619. Re- 
signs, ibs 

Turenne defeated’ by Condé at 


St Antoine, 600. His ex-. 


ploits in Alsace, 604. His 
death, 


ib, 
Turnips, cultivation of, 701 
Turnsol, cultivation of, 704 


Valois, direct line of the house 
of, ends in Charles VIII. 554 


555° : : 
Vent de Bise, account of the, 


Wax, produce, &c. of, 710 . 
Weights and measures, 735 


naparte at Waterloo, 671 
— peace of, in 1648, 
Whale fishery, 728 


Wheat, cultivation of, 700 — 
William of ‘concludes 


Woollen manufacture, 
condition, &e. of the, 719 


Sune 
Zinc found in three states, 689 
Zoology of France, 694 


— 


-_— 


France 
i 


—— 


FRA 


FRANCE, Ise or. See Mavritivs.. 

- FRANCHE Compre’, the name of one of the 
vinces i which France was divided béfore the Revolu- 
tion. It now forms the departments of Dovuns, Jura, 
and Saonr. See France, p. 676. 

FRANCIS. See France, p. 556—563. 

FRANCONIA, a circle in the centre of Germany, 
and anciently a part of Thuringia, is situated between 
48° 45’ and 50° 50’ North Latitude, and between 9° 20’ 
and 12°10’ East Longitude from Greenwich. It extends 
in some places 140 miles from north to south, and be- 
tween 90 and 115 from west to east. It contains 7744 
geographical miles, and 1,000,000 of inhabitants. It is 
distributed into different states or principalities, namely 
those of ecclesiastical princes, of secular princes, and of 
imperial cities. 

I. The states of the ecclesiastical princes are the bi- 
shoprics of Aichstadt, of Wurtzburg, of Bamberg, and 
the territories of the Grand Master of the Teutonic Or- 
der. 
The bishopric of Aichstadt, or ‘Eichsted, is situated 
in the south-east corner of the circle, and is a tolerably 
fruitful country, watered by the Altmuhl, Anlauter, 
Schwarzach, Sulz, and Retzat. Its principal towns are, 
Aichstadt (see Arcusrapt), the pal residence, 
about 45 miles south of Nuremberg, remarkable chiefly 
for a curious piece of workmanship, in the church, called 
the sun of the holy sacrament, made of massy gold, and 
enriched with the most precious stones; Nassenfells, a 
borough and citadel, three es west of Ingolstadt, and 
in the south-east corner of the country where the ancient 
Aureatum was situated; Abenberg, a small town and 
castle, where the counts of the same name formerly had 
their residence, and near which is at present a glass found- 

for mirrors; Herreeden, Ohrnbau, Spalt, and seve- 
other small towns. 

The bi ic of Wurtzburg, situated towards the 
west part of the circle, extends about 90 miles from north 
to south, and 50 from west to east, and contains 262,000 
inhabitants. It is watered by the Mayne, the Saal, the 
Tauber, and the Jaxt; abounds in grain, fruits, and 
pastures; and yields the best wine in Franconia. Its 
principal towns are, Wurtzburg, a well-built and well- 
fortified city, containing a cathedral, an episcopal pa-« 
Jace, an university, an o , several monaste- 
ries and and about 16,000 inhabitants ; Hey- 
dinsfeld, a little town on the Mayne, surrounded with 
vineyards ; Veits-Hocheim, a small place about four 


ap Men ne containing a palace of the 
bishop Kissingen, a little town on the Saal, having se- 
veral salt springs and medicinal waters in its neighbour- 
hood; Nunnerstadt, a small town on the oe 
containing a gymnasium, a cloister of the Augustine her« 
uaiiafiadt of the Teutonic Order ; Koen- 
p soeemBr em ified town on the Saal ; Gerolsho- 

» an ancient town on the left of the Mayne, near to 
which are the ruins of the citadel of Zabelstein ; Volkach, 
a town on the Mayne, four leagues north-east of Wurtz- 

which exports considerable quantities of wine ; 

, Kitzingen, Ochsenfurt, all celebrated for good 

and situated on the Mayne; Homburg, Dettel- 
bach, and a great rumber of small market-towns. 

The bi ic of Bamberg, situated east and south 
of Wurtzburg, stretches of 65 miles from south- 
west to north-east, is between 40 and 50 miles in breadth, 
and contains 195,000 inhabitants. It is divided into 

5 


741 
two equal parts by the river Rednitz, running from south Franconia. 


FRA 


to north, and falling at Bamberg into the Mayne, which 
waters the northern parts. The soil is generally fertile, 
producing abundance of grain, fruits, and wine; and 
near the capital there are so many trees of the lauret, 
fig, lemon, and orange, that it is sometimes called the 
little Italy of Germany. The principal towns are, Bam~ 
berg (see Bampere), or Bahenberg, the capital of the 
district, a tolerably well built city, containing a magnifie 
cent cathedral, a large episcopal palace, an university, se~ 
veral monasteries, &c. and about 16,600 inhabitants ; 
Forchheim, a fortified town, about 20 miles south of 
Bamberg, defended by a strong castle, and containing 
4000 inhabitants ; Schesslitz, a neat town with a castle, 
two leagues north-east of the capital; Cronach, a meanly 
built but fortified town, situated on an eminence, and con« 
taining 4000 inhabitants ; Lichtenfels, a trading place on 
the Mayne, 20 miles north-east of Bamberg; Upper 
Scheinfeld, Vilseck, &c. 

The territories of the Teutonic Order, or Knights of 
the Virgin Mary, would form a considerable principality, 
if lying contiguous; but their estates are scattered through 
out Germany, and consist of the masterdom of Mergen- 
theim, and 12 bailiwicks. The bailiwick of Franconia is 
divided into 15 commanderies, named from the places 
where the property of the order is situated, Ellingen, 
Wiernsberg, Nuremberg, Wurtzburg, &c.° 

II. The states of the secular princes are chiefly those 
of Bayreuth, or Culmbach; Ansbach, or Onolsbach ; 
Limburg, Schwarzenberg, Wertheim, Erbach, Henne-« 
berg, Hohenloe, and several others of trifling extent. 

The principality of Bayreuth or Culmbach, belonging 
to the house of Brandenburg, borders on Bohemia, and 
extends upwards of 30 miles eastward, and 28 from north 
to south. It is generally fertile and well cultivated, di« 
yersified with mountains and plains, but in some tracts is 
remarkably hilly, d, and barren. The elevated 
ridge of Fichtelberg, or Mons Pomiferus, nearly 16 miles 
in length, and one of the highest mountains in Germany, 
contains mines of iron, copper, lead, antimony, &c. crys« 
tals and marbles of various colours, and gives rise to a 
number of rivers, especially the Mayne, Saal, Eger, and 
Nab. The whole principality contains about 205,000 in- 
habitants. Its principal towns are, Bareith or Bayreuth 
(see Barziru), the capital, and’ the residence of the 
Margrave, a considerable town, containing a palace, cas« 
tle, academy, &c. and about 10,000 inhabitants; St 
George, a town situated on the small lake Weyher, 
and containing an elegant palace recently built; Culm-« 
bach, formerly the Margrave’s residence, a small town, 
P’ situated, slightly fortified, and _ containing 
2800 inhabitants ; Himmelkron, a large village, with 
a palace of the prince, in a pleasant valley on the 
White Mayne; Hof, an ancient town on the Saal, con« 
taining 4700 people; Wunsiedel, a neat trading town 
on the Fichtelberg, containing 2400 inhabitants; Weis- 
senstadt, a small town near the source of the Eger, in a 
wild-and barren tract, formerly much famed for its mines 
of tin and copper ; Creusen, a small place, remarkable for 
its fine earthen ware ; Erlangen, (see ERLANGEN,) near 
the influx of the Schwabach into. the Rednitz, eleven 
leagues south-west of Bayreuth, consists of two small 
towns, the most recent of which was built by the French 

after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and 
contains several handsome streets, an elegant palace of 
the Margrave, an university, manufactures of hats, stock 


742 FRANCONIA. 


Franconia. ings, &c. and 8000 inhabitants ; Neustadt, Bayersdorf, taining 6000 inhabitants ; Tlmenau, on the eastern bor- Franconia. 
—vY~" and a number of other market towns and large vill der, with several mines of copper and silver; Meinun- —— 


The principality of Ansbach, or Onolzbach, is bound- 
ed by the territories of Bayreuth, Bamberg, and Wurtz- 
burg, It is generally fertile ; but some parts are remark- 
ably monntainous and sandy. It is watered by the 
Jaxt, the Rednitz, and the Altmuhl ; and near the vil- 
lage of Graben, some remains may still be traced of the 
canal between the two last of these rivers, by ‘which 
Charlemagne opened a communication, in 798, between 
the Danube and the Rhine. The principality contains 
215,000 inhabitants ; and its chief towns are, Ansbach, 
or Anspach, (see ANspacu,) the residence of the Mar- 
grave, a well-built town containing 13,000 people, and 
situated in the centre of the country ; Schwabach, a mas 
nufacturing town, situated on the river of the same name, 
about 18 miles east of the capital, containing 6000 inha- 
bitants, and noted for its hardware, ‘stockings, and tap- 
estry ; Wendelstein, a handsome town, seven miles 
east of the last mentioned place; Cadolsburg, a consi- 
derable town surrounded with walls, and defended by a 
castle; Furth, a well-built and trading borough, about 
five miles north of Nurnberg; Roth, a little manufactu- 
ring town seven leagues south-east of Anspach, famed 
for its weavers of stocking and lace, and for an imperial 
asylum for persons guilty of manslaughter ; Uffenheim, 
a handsome and flourishing manufacturing town, with 
several good public buildings, about 25 miles north-west 
of Anspach ; Heilsbrun, Feuchtwang, &c. 

The principality, or rather lordship of Limburg, lying 
south-west of Nurnberg, extends about 20 miles from 
north to south, and 18 from east to west. It contains 
15,000 inhabitants ; and its principal towns are, Upper 
Sontheim, Gaildorf, Markt-Einersheim, defended by a 
castle, and Sommerhausen, fortified with a rampart and 
ditch. ; 

The-county of Schwarzenberg, north-west of Nurn- 
berg, and in the interior of the circle, is about’20 miles 
long and & broad. It contains 24,000 inhabitants ; and 
its principal towns are, Markt-Schainfeld, Geiselwind, 
Markt-Brait, &c. ; 

The county of Wertheim is situated between the ter- 
ritories of Mentz and the bishopric of Wurtzburg, and is 
traversed by the river Mayne. It yields a considerable 
produce of wine; and its chief places are, Wertheim, 
Remlingen, Freudenberg, Hochst, Helbach; and Bran- 
berg, formerly celebrated for its aqueducts, which were 
destroyed by Turenne in 1675. 

The county of Erbach, nearly surrounded by the territo- 
ries of the Lower Rhine, is about 20 miles in length and 
16 in breadth; mountainous, but well cultivated; provided 
with quarries of stone and marble, and several good mines 
ofiron. Its chief towns are, Erbach, an old town witha 
citadel and wall ; Michelstadt, which has an iron found- 
ery in its vicinity ; Freienstein, Furstenau, &c. 

The county of Henneberg, in the northern part of the 
circle, is about 40 miles from east to west, and from 20 
to 30 from north to south, and is traversed by the river 
Werra. There are several forests and mountains, mines 
of iron, salt, and mineral springs in the country. Grain 
and tobacco are raised in the more level districts. It is 
divided into several portions belonging to the electoral 
houses of Saxony, gece Weimar, Saxe-Gotha, Hesse- 
Cassel, &c. Its principal places are, Schleusinger, near 
the forest of Thuringia, containing 2200 people ; Suhla, 
a manufacturing town three leagues farther north, cone 

3 


, in the centre, seven leagues west from the last men- 
Goned: containing 3500 people ; Salzungen, near the 
north border, celebrated for its salt springs ; Schmalkal« 
den, a considerable manufacturing town, three 
northward from Meinungen, and famed in history for the 
league ofthe Protestant princes in 1531. be Iu,t 

The principality of Hohenloe, of a very fi- 
gure, is about 40 miles from east to west, and 25 from 
north to south. It is watered in the western part by the 
Kocher, and in the eastern by the Tauber and Wornitz. 
Its mountains afford various kinds of timber ; its vallies 
are covered with excellent pastures ; and its southern 
hills are clothed with vineyards. It contains 80,000 in 
habitants. Its principal towns are, Ochri » in the. 
south-west corner, containing 3900 péople ; Frankenau, 
a considerable manufacturing place near the’source of the: 
Wornitz; Kunselsau, situated. in a hilly quarter, and: 
containing 2100 inhabitants; Ingelfingen, Kirchberg,. 
&e. er 5asta-vens adnate 

Besides these, are the counties of Reineck and Castell, 
and the lordships of Hausen, Welsheim, Seinsheim, Rei 
chelsberg, and Wesentheid, which are of very little ex- 
tent, each containing only a’ small town, ora few villages: 

The imperial cities are Rothen an old and well- 
built town in the county of Anspach, containing 8000 
inhabitants, surrounded by walls and strong towers ;, 
Windsheim, a small fortified place in the same county, con« 
taining 2500 people ; Scheinfurt, a small fortified town on 
the Mayne ; Weissenburg, a small place in the bishopric 
of Aichstadt ; and Nurnberg, or Nuremberg, which will 
form the subject of a separate article. The more remark- 
able also of the towns here mentioned, will be found un= 
der their respective titles, _ : ic, iets ak 

The districts of Bamberg and Wut contain 
some of the best land in Germany, and abound in all the 
necessaries of life. The inhabitants are skilful in ogni 
culture ; but in manufactures, are very far behind their 
more northern neighbours. In the vicinity of Bamberg, 
the art of gardening is practised to a great extent ; and 
immense quantities of small pickled girkins, the best 
onions in Germany, and especially liquorice roots, are 
carried as far as Holland as articles of trade, The com- 
mon people believe that there is no liquorice in any 
other part of the world, and that the possession of this, 
root was given to them as an exclusive privilege by St 
Cunigunda, who is interred in their cathedral. . Notwith- 
standing, however, of the excellence of the soil, and the 
gentleness of their ecclesiastical rulers, the people in these 
two rich bishoprics are in general eee 3 and 
more s are to be seen among them in many 
of the less favoured districts. This has been ascribed 
partly to the dissipated and luxurious manners of the in- 


- habitants, and to the numerous acts and institutions of 


charity, which the Roman Catholic system be prevail~ 
ing religion of the country) is supposed to ace. Frnt 
An she territories of Bayreuth and Anspach, the boun- 
ties of nature are less liberally a eats “el 
spirit of industry prevails among people ; _ 
inhabitants though loaded with taxes, are in much better 
circumstances than in the fertile anne of wd a 
states. In the smaller principalities, e _in gene« 
ral are subject to great oppression, sha = those whose 
masters reside in the greater courts. They are not only 
thus deprived of the advantages which would arise from 


— 


v= 


a 


FRA : 


Franeker, the rents and revenues being expended on the spot, but 
Frankfort. are also 


aye oe 


subjected to the tyranny and exactions of despo- 
deputies. See Playfair’s Geography, vol, iv. and Reis- 
beck’s Travels through , Vol. iii. (gq) 

FRANEKER, a town of Holland in West Friesland, 
situated in the district of Westergo, and in the canton of 
Franekeradeel. It stands about two leagues from the 
Zuyder Sea, near the canal which stretches between Leu- 
warden and Harlingen. Franeker is the second town, 
and one of the neatest in Friesland, being adorned with 
very fine buildings, both public and private. It is cele- 
brated for its university, which s a fine library, 
and which was established in 1585 by the states, and by 
William Louis, Count of Nassau. It possesses also a 
castle, which was erected in the 15th century, and ser- 
ved as the residence of the governors of Friesland. Be- 
tween Franeker and Harlingen, there are many tile-kilns, 
where varnished tiles of a deep colour are fabricated. 
About a league from the town is Kleins-Lankum, the 
residence of the celebrated Camper, and where one of his 
sons continues to increase the splendid collection of mi- 
nerals and petrifactions begun by his father. 

The mean temperature of this town, according to five 
years observations, was 52° 6’. The maximum heat was 
82°, and the usual cold 12°. East Longitude 
&° 28'; and North Latitude 53° 11’. (w) 

FRANKFORT, on the Mayne, an imperial city in the 
circle of the Upper Rhine, is about 35 miles eastward of 
Mentz, and is situated in the centre of the finest district 
of Germany. It was anciently the residence of the 
Frankish monarchs, and is still the place where the elec- 
tors of the empire hold their meeting for choosing an 
emperor. The city is large, and contains about 60,000 
inhabitants, including the Jews. It is divided into two 


parts are planted with limes, and afford 
walks to the inhabitants. Most of the houses 


the antique form, having the upper stories projecting 
over.the lower; but they are kept in good repair, and 
have always a fresh The principal houses 
are built of red or white stone, and many of them are 

id edifices. The principal streets are wide, and 

are three spacious squares, which add greatly to the 
beauty of the place, and in which are situated the houses 
of the opulent merchants, and the palaces of the neigh- 
bouring princes. Considerable additions have lately been 
made to it, comprising asquare and 18 streets, which are 
filled with inhabitants. The public buildings most worthy 
of notice, are the cathedral church of Bartholomew, and 
the Rémer, or Stadhouse. The cathedral belongs to the 
Catholics, and is a ancient Gothic structure, said to 
have been erected by Pepin of France, and enriched by 
Charlemagne ; but it was completely plundered by Louis 
of Bavaria; and has neither statues, paintings, nor orna- 
ments. The Romer, or town-house, is an immense Go- 
thic pile, bearing the marks of antiquity, and con- 
taining various chambers for the transactions of public 
business. In the chamber of the electors, are several 
good paintings ; and the grand hall contains a reguler se- 
ries of portraits of all the German emperors, from the 
time of Conrad in the year 900. Among the archives, 
is deposited the famous golden bull of Charles IV. which 
contains the fundamental laws of the Germanic constitus 


TAS 


tion, written on parchment, in High Dutch, says Bishop Frankfort. 
Burnet, (who confesses, however, that he did not see it,) ~~ 


FRA 


but, according to Cogan, in the Latin 1 The 
Lutheran church of St Katharine, is = gore aname 
building, ornamented, says the prelate just quoted, with 
as much painting as any Popish church, and having a 
huge carved crucifix over the high altar. The pulpit is 
extremely fine, constructed of marble of different colours, 
nicely polished and joined. The city is not encumbered 
with suburbs ; but is surrounded with the country seats 
and pleasure gardens of the richer inhabitants, intermixed 
with public houses and tea gardens, for the entertain< 
ment of the ordinary citizens. No town in Germany, or 
perhaps in Europe, is more celebrated for excellent inns ; 
but there exists a very oppressive law, by which the inn- 
keepers, except. at the time. of the fairs, can prevent 
strangers from occupying private lodgings, and compel 
them both to eat and to sleep in the taverns. Franke 
fort is one of the principal commercial towns in Germany ; 
and many of its merchants are possessed of considerable 
wealth. Riesbeck reckons that there are 200 houses or 
companies, who have annual incomes of 100,000 guil« 
ders, or £10,000 sterling and upwards; and in furni- 
ture, equipage, and dress, there isa great appearance of 
affluence among the higher rank of citizens. . The trade, 
however, is of a description unfavourable to the country ; 
and Frankfort has been termed “ the great canal by 
which the gold of the empire runs out.” There are con« 
siderable manufactures of silk, cotton, linen, woollen, car- 
peting, porcelain, tobacco, iron ware, &c. ; but the prin« 
cipal traders are little better than brokers, commissioning 
articles of internal consumption. The export of German 
commodities from this channel, scarcely amounts to one= 
tenth of the imports from other countries, which consist 
of all kinds of spices, female ornaments, handkerchiefs, 
silks, and the various articles of luxury, furnished by 
Italy, France, and Holland. As the way to the princi« 
pal high roads of Germany lies through the direction of 
Frankfort, there is. always a concourse of fashionable 
company in the towns; and several thousands of strane 
gers are attracted to its great fairs, where the southern 
parts of Germany are supplied with various commodities. 
Of these fairs, there are two in the year, one in the spring, 
and another in the autumn season. _ Its situation on the 
Mayne, and its proximity to the Rhine, renders'it the ma- 
gazine of all the merchandize which is conveyed by these 
rivers, to the different parts.of Germany. Besides the 
number of traders (about 1600) and privatepurchasers, by 
whom these fairs are frequented, multitudes are attracted 
by the love of gaiety and amusement; and the city becomes, 
during their continuance, as much a scene of licentious- 
ness as a mart of business. The municipal government 

of Frankfort is of a very mixed and intricate description ; 

and warm contests are continually carrying on between 

the aristocratical and popular interests. The spirit of 
litigiousness is described as unusually prevalent in the 

place; and the annual expence of the law suits, in which 

the magistrates are uniformly engaged with the burghers 

of the city, or with the neighbouring princes, is estimated 

at 50,000 rix-dollars. The annual revenue is about 

600,000 guilders, or L. 30,000 sterling, which is raised 

chiefly from the customs and excise; but partly from the 

contributions of the burghers. There are two rates of 
contribution, one of 50 and the other of 25 guilders per 

annum. The former is imposed upon those who have 

an annual income of 30,000 guilders and upwards ; and 


FRA 744 


Yrankfort. the latter upon smaller incomes; but every person esti- 
—\——"_ mates his own property, and consequently taxes himself, 


very difficult for a man 
to disentangle himself from them without the help of a 


which it sometimes becomes the interest of the merchants 
to fix at the higher, rather than the lower rate. The ci- 
tizens who are not Lutherans, have greater taxes to pay, 
while they possess fewer privileges. The inists are 
wholly excluded from the rights of burgesses; and the 
Catholics, though admitted to that distinction, are not 
allowed to take any share in the government. Theinha- 
bitants of this city have a peculiar institution, called col- 


good stick ; and call to sti from the distance 
of three or four bene pacen** Sheneigatie of 
the city, however, was nearly toate fire, they 
have been dispersed over all the town, which they great~ 
ly prefer to'their old habitations, East Long. accord- 
ing to solar observations, 8° 36’, and North Lat. 50° 7’ 
29”. See Kiittner’s Travels through Denmark; and 
Guide des Voyageurs, vol. ii. p.75. Riesbeck’s Travels 


leges, or associations of persons of the same rank or pro- through Germany, vol. iii. 's Journey on the Rhine, 
fession, colleges of nobles, colleges of la , colleges of vol. iL Bishop Burset ‘Troveles and Letlers on a 
physicians, colleges of booksellers, colleges of allordersand Tour through 


artists; so that a stranger, upon being introduced into any 
of these, finds himself instantly acquainted with the most 
respectable persons of his own station. Many of the 
wealthier inhabitants possess considerable private collec« 
tions of paintings, and of natural curiosities. These they 
take great pleasure in exhibiting to strangers; but are 
apt to exhaust both the patience and politeness of the vi- 
sitors, by their tedious description of the minutest arti- 
cles. Many of the. principal literary characters of Ger= 
many, and well-informed men in every branch of the 
arts and sciences, may be found in Frankfort; but the 
low state of religious toleration, indicates a tardy pro- 
gress in the path of real civilization, and in the spirit of 
true Christianity. While in manners and conversation 
there is too great a degree of licence ; there are, in the 
exercise of public rights, many partial and preposterous 
restrictions. The established religion is the Lutheran ; 
but both the Catholics and Calvinists are nearly equal to 
them in number, and the Jatter rather superior in pvint 
of wealth. The Catholics enjoy their principles and ob- 
servances in full liberty, and have numerous chapels, mo- 
nasteries, and nunneries ; and the Calvinists, who about 
20 years ago were obliged to resort to Saxenhausen, a 
village on the opposite side of the Mayne, in order to 
observe public worship in peace and tranquillity, have 
now two handsome places of worship within the city, one 
German, the other French. Theie are 10,000 Jews in 
Frankfort, who have a considerable synagogue, and en- 
joy @ precarious toleration. They are found too useful 
to be totally eradicated, but are often subjected to such 
oppressions, as the self-interest of their persecutors will 
permit. The streets, to which their residence is re- 
stricted, were formerly inclosed with walls in such a man- 
ner, that, if thought necessary, they could be imprisoned 
in a body by locking the gates; and their habitations 
were so crowded, that in seven of the houses, which 
scarcely occupied a space of fifty yards, and which hap- 
pened to be burned down, there were found to have dwelt 
twelve hundred individuals. There is a law, which pro- 
hibits them from residing in any other part of the city, 
and even from appearing out of their own enclosure; but 
it is only oceasionally enforced, and sometimes in order 
to extort money for the exemption. At other times they 
are forced out of their retreat, to perform the more ser- 
vile offices, such as to carry water in cases of fire, &c. 
They are a most industrious people, and some of them 
possess considerable wealth. They are chiefly employ- 
ed in selling toys, and dealing in old clothes, of which 
they receive vast quantities from England ; but they re- 
fuse no kind of occupation, however degrading or dis« 
honourable. “ Those who go into their streets,” says 
Riesbeck, “are in danger of being pressed to death by 
them. They fall upon strangers by dozens, and compel 


Germany. ( 

FRANKFORT, on the der, a city of Germany, in 
the circle of Upper Saxony, and middle mark of Bran- 
denburg, is a well built and trading town about 18 leagues 
south-east of Berlin. It contains a cathedral, a bishop’s 
palace, two colleges, and several churches, The churches 
are large and well built, and the bridge over the Oder is 
about 280 feet in length. A simple monument hasbeen 
erected to the m of the poet Kleist, by the lodge of 
free masons in this city, in 1778; and the place where 
Prince Leopold of Branswick perished, in- at- 
tempting to save a fellow-creature from the waves of the 
Oder, is distinguished by a beautiful monument of white 
marble. In one of the churches, the same humane act 
is commemorated by a painting from the pencil of Rode. 
There is also an academy, a society for promoting the 
axts and sciences, and a Calvinistic university, which was 
established in 1506 by the Elector Joachim and his bro« 
ther Albert. There are three annual fairs in this city, 
and it draws considerable advantages from the naviga- 
tion of the Oder, and the canal of Muhlrose, by whichr 
it has an indirect communication with the Baltic. The 
number of inhabitants is 10,000. East accord= 
ing to sidereal observations, 14° 33’ 15’; and North 
Lat. 52° 22” 8". : 

FRANKING or Letters. See Post-Orrice. 

FRANKINCENSE. See Gums. 

FRANKLIN, Bensamin, the celebrated American 

litician and philosopher, was born at Boston in New 
England, in the year 1706. He was the son 
of Josiah Franklin, a silk dyer in Northamptonshire, who 
removed to America in 1682, where he embraced the 
occupation of a soap-boiler and tallow-chandler, reared 
a numerous family by honest industry, and was distin- 
guished among his townsmen as a person of sound judg- 
ment, and sober piety. His other sons were put ap- 
prentices to different trades; but Benjamin was destined 
for the church ; and, at the age of eight years, was sent 
te a grammar school. He was removed, however, at the 
end of the first year, toa school for writing and arith- 
metic ; and at ten years of age, was taken home to as- 


sist in his father’s occupation. From his earliest 

he discovered a passionate love of reading, oped tie 
accounts of voyages ; and he mentions Plutarch’s Lives, 
and De Foe’s Essay on Projects, as among the few books 
of general information to which he had aceess, This in- 
clination for books, and the strong aversion which he 
shewed to the occupation of his father, suggested the 
plan of binding him apprentice to one of his brothers, 
who had established a printing-house at Boston. In this 
situation, he had an opportunity of procuring better 
books, and pursued his studies with such avidity, that he 
frequently spent the whole night in reading. He soon 
began to commit bis own thoughts to writing; and’ by 


—_—— 


FRANKLIN: 745 
spending about 18 months in this: manner, and increa= Franklis. 
sing considerably his stock of knowledge by means of the ““\—™ 


much time for his favourite pursuits. . « When my bro- 

his workmen left the printing-house to go to 
longs, A.xtnbined behind :. and diepoching! tay Peon! 
meal, which frequently consisted of a biscuit only,.or.a 
slice of bread and a bunch of raisins, or a bun from the 
pastry-cook’s, with a glass of water, I had the rest of the 
time, till their return, for study ; and my progress there- 
in was proportioned to that clearness of ideas and quick- 
ness of conception, which are the fruit of temperan 


ce in 


eating and By perusing the works of Shaftes- 
bury and Collins, he became a sceptic in religion, and 
began to adopt the Socratic method of reasoning, es- 


fession, * merited.” 
Having sent to the newspaper, printed by his brother, 
several ae pieces, which were very favourably 
received by the critics of the place, he became a little 
more sensible of his own attainments, and could less easi- 
ly brook the severe treatment which he frequently expe- 
rienced as an apprentice. His brother, being of a pas- 
sionate temper, and his own impertinence sometimes ser- 
ving as a sufficient provocation, he was often punished 

blows. Having, besides, given offence, by the free- 
dom of some of his pieces in newspapers, both to 


to quit at once the service of his er, and the place of 
his nativity ; but, of being able to gain his fa- 


his books could enable him to raise. Being -disappoint- 
ed in his hopes of employment in that city, he proceeded 
to Philadelphia, where he arrived after a fatiguing journey, 
weary and hungry, without an acquaintance in the place, 
and with no greater stock of money than a Dutch dollar 
in his pocket. He soon found employment as a journey- 
man printer ; and his literary attainments having attract- 
‘ed the notice of the governor, Sir William Keith, he was 
eucouraged, by the flattering promises of his patron, to 
conceive the design of commencing business on his own 
aceount ; and at after a short delay, he accepted the 
offer of the governor to advance the necessary sum for 
his establishment in business, and sailed for London to 
purchase the materials of his intended printing-office. 
Upon his arrival in London, he found himself du 

ef false professions ; and discovered that his friend Sir 
William Keith was either unable, or had never intended 
to furnish him with those letters of credit.and recom- 
mendation upon which he relied. He therefore ie i 
ed himself as a journeyman printer in London, that he 
might improve his knowledge of the profession ; and ne- 
ver failed to recommend himself to those whom.he ser- 
ved, by his assiduous application to business, After 

VOL. IX. PART II, 


acquaintance which he made with several literary cha- 
racters, and the opportunities of reading which he en- 
joyed, he engaged himself as clerk to Mr Denham, a 
merchant of Philadelphia, and returned with him to that 
city in October 1726. But, in the beginning of the fol- 
lowing year, he was deprived of this excellent friend by 
death, and was once more obliged to resume his occupa- 
tion of printer, under his first employer in Philadelphia. 
In a short time, however, he opened a printing office in 
partnership with one of his fellow printers ; and, by in- 
defatigable.industry, soon acquired a sufficiency of funds 
and of friends to undertake the whole of the business. 
About this time, he mentions, in his Memoirs, that he 
had for several years been completely unsettled in his 
belief of religious principles, and even of moral obliga- 
tions ; but having witnessed in many of his companions, 
the demoralizing influence of such opinions, he became 
practically convinced of the importance at least of truth 
and probity in the transactions of human. life; ‘and, 
though uninfluenced by any respect for revelation, he 
was preserved by the good effects, it may be supposed, 
of his pious education, from gross immorality or injus- 
tice, and confirmed in a serious resolution to pursue a 
course of undeviating uprightness. He soon’ acquired 
the reputation of a most industrious and punctual trades- 
man, and his friends and employers daily increased. 
He instituted, in 1728, a literary society named the 
Junto, which subsisted during the space of 40 years, and 
became the foundation of the American Philosophical 
Society. At the same time, he published a new periodi- 
cal paper, to which he drew the attention of the public 
by his own ability in writing ; and particularly brought 
himself into notice, by a pamphlet on the Nature and 
Necessity of a Paper Currency. iegthr 
In 1730 he entered into the married state, and con« 
tinued to. prosper in business, to improye in knowledge, 
and to advance in public usefulness. He was chosen, 
first, printer, then clerk, and at length member of As- 
sembly, in which he represented the city of Philadelphia 
for 14 years successively. He was indefatigable in sug- 
gesting various useful improvements and institutions for 
the benefit of the community: and particularly contri« 
buted to the formation of a “ Library Company” in 1731 ; 
the establishment of an insurance office against damages 
by fire, in 1738 ; the enrolment of volunteers for the de- 
fence of the country in 1744 ; the foundation of an aca- 
demy and charitable school in 1749, which afterwards 
was erected intoa college or seminary of ee learning ; 
and the endowmentof the Pennsylvania Hospitalin 1750. 
He accomplished a beneficial reform in the police of the 
city; ministered to the daily comfort of his fellow citi- 
zens, by his improved plans of chimnies and fire places ; 
and essentially promoted the interests of frugality and in- 
dustry among the lower orders, by the publication of 
Poor Richard’s Almanack, In the midst of these hum- 
ble labours, he gave abundant evidence of his penetra- 
ting philosophical genius, by prosecuting a course of in- 
teresting experiments and discoveries on the subject of 
electricity, which, about the middle of the last century, 
hhad engaged so much of the attention of scientific en« 
quirers: (See Evecrriciry.) But, from the time that 
he became a member of the Assembly of Pennsylvania, in 
1747, his attention was so much directed to public af- 
fairs, that the greater part of the remainder of his life 


5B 


746 


were then carrying on between the Assembly and the 
i pe oa the provinces; and he soon became a 
4 in opposition to the Jatter.. He sel- 
dom spoke in the course of the debates which took 
place ; and when he did rise to address the house, his 
speeches often consisted only of a single sentence or 
a well-told story, and were always expressed in the 
most concise and simple style. But his judgment was 
unusually penetrating ; and he has frequently been 
known by a single observation, delivered in his plain 
manner, to decide the fate of an important question. 
In 1754, when a meeting of commissioners the 
northern provinces was held at Albany, in order to 
concert measures of mutual defence against the French 
settlements and Indian tribes, Franklin attended as 
delegate from Pennsylvania, and produced a plan which 
has generally been called the « Albany plan of Union.” 
Though unanimously approved by the commissioners, 
it was finally rejected both by the provincial Assemblies 
and the king’s council, upon principles which seem to 
establish its excellence as a just medium between poli- 
tical extremes. By the ministry of Great Britain, it 
was considered as giving too much power to the repre- 
-sentatives of the people ; while it was rejected by every 
assembly as giving to the president- general, the repre- 
sentative of the crown, a disproportionate and danger 
_ous influence. In the alarm which followed the defeat 
_of Braddock in 1755, Franklin introduced a bill into 
the Assembly for organizing a kind of voluntary mili- 
tia, and for some time acted as colonel of a regiment 
raised in Philadelphia; and, in 1757, he was chosen 
_agent for the province of Pennsylvania to present a 
ition on the part of the Assembly to his Britannic 
ajesty, against the measures of the rietaries. Af- 
ter much discussion before the Privy Council, the prayer 
‘of the petition was partially ted upon condition 
that Franklin would solemnly engage, that the assess- 
ment should be so levied as to bear equitably upon the 
estates of the proprietaries ; a proposal which testified 
at least the high opinion entertained of his honour and 
integrity. He still remained at the court of Great 
Britain as agent for the province of Pennsylvania ; and, 
in uence of the knowledge and fidelity with 
which he conducted the interests of the colonies, he was 
soon appointed to the same office for the provinces of 
Massachussets, Maryland, and Georgia. e€ was now 
in a situation where his merits were sure of being duly 
appretiated, and where his claim to literary honours 
was fully acknowl 
He was admitted a member of the Royal Society of 
London, and of similar institutions in.other of 
Europe ; and the degree of Doctor of Laws was confer- 
red upon him by the universities of St Andrews, Edin- 
burgh, and Oxford. He was soon en, in a cor- 
respondence with the most eminent philosophers of 
Europe, and never desisted entirely from philosophi- 
cal studies. I was during his residence in London 
that he direated his attention to the electrical proper- 
ties of the tourmalin, the effects of cold produced by 
evaporation, the causes of the north-east storms in 
North America, and the construction of the musical 
glass instrument the harmonica. But his time was 
chiefly occupied with political objects ; and a hlet 
which he published, on the’ importance of to 
Great Britain, is supposed to have suggested the ex- 
pedition under Wolfe for the conquest of that province. 
After his return to America, in 1762, the disputes be- 
tween the proprietaries and the Assembly were again 


FRANKLIN. 


Franklin. was devoted to political pursuits, Keen contentions 


ear, 
the party of the ietaries having gained a ; 
jority in the city of Philadel ia, Dr Franklin lost hie 
seat in the Assembly ; but his ds in that house still 


the expediency of the stamp act; ahd, on that occa- 


sion, Mae iin | roof of the accuracy of his in- 
fointalots, and the r i io 66 


every where 
literature and 


Britain and the 
to the utmost, both in his conversation and correspon- 
dence, to effect a change of measures, and to point out 
the evils which a verance in those that were adopt- 
ed must ultimate all his endea-« 


ce. Finding 
vours to restore |, he re« 


ony entirely i 
turned to America, in the year 1775, i after 
the commencement of hostilities, and continued to bear 
a leading in the memorable struggle, which termi- 
nated in dependence of the colonies. He 


About three years afterw he 
under all the infirmities of age, aggravated by a painful 


the Philadel- 
the miseries of public pri- 
ety for promoting 


livered in the Divan o' girs 
thearguments of the anti-abolitionists, and a striking evi- 
dence of the strength of intellect which he | 
the last. During the concluding twelve months of his 
life, he was confined almost entirely to bed, by a cal- 
culous complaint, which had afflicted him for several 
-years ; but died at last of an i ume in his lungs, 
in April 1790, in the 85th year of his age. 

The life of Dr Franklin affords a striking proof of 
the influence in society of a sound understanding, uni- 
ted with steady industry, and supported by candid in- 
tegrity ; and presents a useful lesson to all young per- 
sons.of unsteady principles and showy accomplishments. 
His wee and, discoveries also, on so many subjects 
of practi utility, produced, without any advantages 
of re; edueation, or literary society, forcibly illus- 
trate how far a vigorous and well-directed mind ma 
carry its possessor, without the minutie of learning, 
and the theories of science. He has distinguished him- 
self in various d ents of knowledge, in natural 
philosophy, in political economy, in general literature, 


and in practical morality. His physical speculations 
were almost uniformly niggested by views of utility, 
and are distinguished by th leled facility with 
which he conducts his reader from one step of the en- 


FRA 
His politi- 


tions, to be permanently i ing; but hi 

on Canada, and his papers on the “Albany plano Union,” 
have been recommended as valuable m 

soning and eloquence. On the general doctrines. 
of the principle of population, and the freedom of com- 
merce, and practical points of the corn-trade, and the 
ap money, his sentiments are considered as correct 
and ; but, on the more abstract subjects of the value 


of man and the éffects of © currency, he 
is thought to be inaccurate and su ial, not so much 
from any flaw in his deductions, as from the insufficiency 


efhis data, On subjects of morality, especially on those 
virtues which apply £0 the. great body of mankind, his 
compositions are irably adapted to accomplish their 
object, by their clearness, their soundness, their kindli- 
pem, her concies ion, and pointed illustrations. 


and 


rational of hers, never losing sight of com- 
mon sense in any of his speculations, or yielding up his 

either to enthusiasm or authority.* In 
his personal and moral character, he was istingui 
by industry Kk, 


« And here let me with all 
that to divine Providence I am 
indebted for the felicity I have hitherto enjoyed. _ It is 


yed, and that has crowned them 
y faith in this respect leads me to 
hope, I cannot count upon it, that the divine 
goodness will still be exercised towards me, either by 
pesos the Sarason of my happiness to the close of 
ife, or by giving me fortitude to support any melan- 
choly ie cha may happen to me as to many 
others. My future fortune is unknown but to Him, in 
whose is our destiny, and who can make our very. 
afflictions subservient to our benefit.”. See Life of Dr 
Franklin, written by himself, and continued by Dr Stu- 
ber ; and Eulogium on Dr Franklin by Dr Smith. (q) 

FRANKS. See France, p. 543. 

FRASCATI, the ancient Tusculum, is a town of 
Italy, in the Campagna di Roma, situated on the side 
of a hill about twelve miles from Rome, The modern 
town is situated much lower down than the ancient 
city, but still in such an elevated and airy situation as 


a klin ty to another, without, even seeming to be at y 
f i] or “on 


r to exert any labour in the ; 
——~— cal writings were poime e tem 


‘FRA 


visited by Mr Eustace, by long lines of walls, and of 
intermingled with’ shrubs and bushes, 
even to the summit, and Sack the sides of the moun- 
tain. From ‘this there is an extensive view in every 
direction, Towards the south-east’ is seen Monto Ca- 
tone and the Prata Porcia, once the property of Cato. 
At Grotto Fenata, about 14 mile distant, stood the fa- 
vourite Tuscan villa of Cicero. It is now an abbey of 
Greek monks, and stands on one of the beautiful hills 
which form the Alban Mount. In ition to the 
opinion of Dr Middleton and Mr Me , Mr Eus- 
tace maintains, that not even a trace of the ruins of 
this villa is to be seen. The principal, perhaps the 
whole of the building, says Mr Fuistine, still stood at 
the end of the 18th century, when St Nilen, a Greek 
monk from Calabria, fixed himself on the spot, and, 
after having demolished what remained of the villa, 
erected on its site, and probably with its materials, his 
monastery, which in process of time became a rich ab< 
bey, and as it was first founded, so it is still inhabited 
by Greek monks of the order of St Basil. At each 
end of the portico, is fixed in the wall a fragment of 
basso relievo ; one represents a philosopher sitting with 
a scroll in his hand in a thinking posture ; in the other 
are four figures supporting the feet of a fifth, of a 
colossal size, su pee to represent Ajax. _ These, 
with the beautiful pillars that support the church, 
are the only remnants of the decorations and furni- 
ture of the ancient villa. The church contains little 
remarkable, excepting the chapel of St Nilus, painted 
by Dominickino ina masterly style. The wall is se- 
into compartments, and in each compartment 
1s represented one of the principal actions of the pa- 
tron saint. The Demoniac Boy, near the altar, and 
St Nilus praying near the end of the chapel, are sw 
to be the two best.” See Eustace’s Travels. 


nw) 

. FRASERBURG, a town of Scotland, in the county 
of Aberdeen, is situated on the south side of the point 
called Kinnaird’s Head. The streets, which are spa~ 
cious, intersect each other at right angles; and the 
houses, which are neatly built, are covered with slates 
and tiles. The prison and town house stand near the 
centre of the town. The cross is a fine hexagonal 
structure, with three equidistant hexagonal abutments. 
The ground area is about 500 feet, and a stone pillar, 
12 feet in height, surmounts the whole, - In the west 
end of the town stands an old quadran, tower, of 
three stories, which is part of a large edifice, intended 
for a college, which Sir Alexander Fraser was em- 
wered to erect by a charter from the crown in 1509. 
The harbour of Fraserburgh, though small, is never- 
theless good, having from 11 to 16 feet of water, and 
admitting vessels of” 300 tons. There is Donn ma 
rage in a bay contiguous to the harbour, of about three 
es long, and one broad. Linen yarn is manufac- 
tured here to the extent of three or four thousand pounds 
annually, A light-house has lately been erected by 
government on the top of the old castle, situated on the 

promontory of Kinnaird’s Head. 


* The latest and most complete edition of the Works of Dr Franklin is that which was published in I.ondon, in 3 vols 8vo. 1806. 


FRE 748 FRE 
Frauenfeld, The following is an abstract of the population of the greater assiduity, and which probably contributed inno Frede- 
at town and in 1811: —_— cto his ature greatness In 1733, he was tick IIL 
Rees ts: * com; is "s ic command, to 
— — Taihabited houses... vets een SM the rineaae Of Branewick, Wolfen eee any 
1 eh moma PR OR LT Empress of Germany; but was so utterly averse to the 
fpr as gas tei con 9 i match, that, though he submitted to the 
Maks.” Crates and manufactures . + $87. received the lady into his palace; he refused to cohabit 
Females... .. SEE ERG ST Si Biehl Ap ner vere Pecks, vatioaacipie 
retirement by many li characters, i 
Total population ......... ++ 9271 Mde Sein, enivevaan eae thie Fl ys ns 
See Statistical Account of Scotland ; and Stark’s Ga- and in 1736 he commenced a with Vol- 
xelteer of Scotland. (w) taire, to whose writings he became iarly attached. 
FRAUENFELD is the name of a small town of In 1788 he accompanied his father on a tour to Holland, 
Switzerland, and the capital of the canton of Thi for the purpose of visiting the Prince of Orange; and 


via. Itis situated u the banks of the M , a 
river which rises in the mountains of Allmann, in 
a cou where there are only a number of low hills. 
The annual assembly of the Confederates was former- 
ly held in this town. There are here manufactures of 
silken stuffs; and about the end of the 18th century, 
there was discovered near the town a mine of pitcoal. 


(w 

PREDERICK III.* King of Prussia, generally dis« 
tinguished by the llation “ Great,”” was the eldest 
son of Frederick William II. of Prussia, and of Sophia 
Dorothea, daughter of G: I. of Great Britain. He 
was born at Berlin on the 24th of Jan 1712, and 
was ized by the name of Charles Frederick, but af- 
terw: entirely omitted the former of these names, 
both in his private letters and public state papers. He 
was committed, in his infancy, to the care of Mad. de 
Rocoule, who spoke only in French ; and this circum 
stance has been considered as the origin of his extreme 
partiality to that language. At seven years of age, he 
was provided with more appropriate tutors; but, as his 
father’s great object was to inspire him with a mili 
spirit, he seems to have received little instruction in li- 
terature or science. He applied himself, however, in 
early youth, to the study of the belles lettres, particu- 
larly to poetry ; and soon discovered a strong propen- 
sity to music, to which the king his father had an ex- 
treme aversion. He was strictly prohibited either to 
practise or to hear it, and was obliged to meet his mu~ 
sical instructors in a forest or a cavern. Harassed by 
the austerity and violence of his father,—di by 
the difficulties thrown in the way of his favourite stu- 
dies,—and ps moved by some other reasons which 
have never been distinctly ascertained,—he adopted a 
resolution, in the year 1730, secretly to quit the Prus- 
sian dominions, and to travel as a private individual in 
France or England. His intentions having been dis- 
covered, he was arrested, to; with his travellin 
eompanions ; one of whom, Lieutenant Catt, a yo 
of amiable dispositions, was condemned to lose his head 
on a scaffold ; and the young prince was compelled, 
his brutal father, to witness the untimely end of his 
friend. By the same paternal care, he was himself im- 

isoned in a dungeon for the space of six months ; and, 


1ad not the Emperor of Gertmany interposed in his be- 
half, would also have suffered death. He was then 
permitted to enj 


ter liberty, but was still requi- 
red to reside pa By till, about 18 months after his 
arrestment, a formal reconciliation took place between 
him and his father. But, as if only partially restored 
to favour, he seldom ap at court, and resided 
chiefly at the retired e of Rheins circum 
stance which enabled him to prosecute his studies with 


in uence of a conversation which took place at 
the table of their host, Frederick resolved to join the 
fraternity of free masons. He was then in the 27th 
year of his age, and is described by one of his biogra- 
phers, bed epee ede ceremony of his initia- 
tion, as possessing at age a very youthful appear- 
ance, — blue eyes, pleasing features, a sprightly 
look, anoble air, and the politeness of manners. 
He continued, with a number of sp and literary 
favourites, to spend his time at Rh in a succes 
sion of refined and studious pleasures; and the most 


flattering pi have been drawn by those who shared 
his pursuits, of the inte’ ce of his mind, and the at- 


tractions of his society. “All the em ” says 
Baron Bielfeld, «and all the pleasures of the Prince, 
are those of a man of understanding. His conversa« 
tion at table is charming. He talks much, and excel- 
lently well. His mind seems to be to all sorts. 
of subjects; and his imagination ces, on each 
of them, a number of new and just ideas. His genius 
resembles the fire of the vestals, that was never extinct. 
A Sonn and polite ie amemoeiye ene pot i a 
him. He possesses the rare talent i ing the 
wit of others, and of giving them Gobporteihitnes to Shih 
on those subjects in which they excel. He jests fre- 
quently, and sometimes rallies, but never with asperity, 
and an ingenious retort does not displease him.” He 
was much eniployed in exercising the under his 
command, in attendance at reviews, and in occasional 
joutities with the xing we — resumed his 
i uits with renew our, upon returning 
to ie tathaes at Rheinsberg, and often of his 
residence there, as the happiest period of his life, 
The greatest interruption of his tranquillity arose from 
the want of money, which his i ious father was 
always reluctant to grant ; and he was obliged to bor- 
row considerable sums from the E: of Russia, and 
Duke of Courland. On the Ist day of June 1740, he 
succeeded his father, as king of Prussia, and his acces~ 
sion to the throne was welcomed by the unanimous ac- 
clamations of his subjects. 

Immediately after the funeral of the deceased mo- 
narch, he applied himself to ee business with the 
utmost assiduity ; and, am ot PW gor pes insti- 
tuted a new order of kni itbaod, called “ the order of 
merit,” with the design of rewarding merito- 
rious individuals, without distinction of birth, religion, 
or Co’ . Soon after his accession, he invited many 
learned and scientific characters to his capital; and 
adopted measures for establishing an academy of sciences 
in that city. He next proceeded to visit different parts 
of his dominions, in order to receive the homage of his 
subjects ; and set out incognito to Strasburgh, that he 


* This Prince is frequently designated Frederick IJ. his father being in that case marked as a William, and not a Frederick. 
4 


—— SC 


Frede- 


_ Bick IIL ed to have 


FREDERICK. 


might take a view of the French frontiers, He intend- 


peror of Germany, an extensive field was opened for 
i ing the Prag- 
naatic Sanction, by which all the powers of Europe had 


guaranteed the Emperor's dominions to his 
eldest daughter the Archduchess Maria Theresa, he 


about the end of the year 1741. Early in the follow. 
- : iastieiahaicthtitsiemtn 5 apainad 
contested battle of Czaslau over the Austrian General 
Prince Charles of Lorraine ; seized the favourable mo- 
henge 2 mp Serna ako IS py roma 
a wi ueen 
Pr nen itcegen reread par 


ity, he went a. of his domi- 
pe iri ne te nee yee his reve- 
d ascertaining the condition of his troops. But, 


of the House of Austria, he issued the most artful mani- 
festoes, and at the head of 80,000 men suddenly entered 
the kingdom of Bohemia. He took the city of Prague, 


pushing his conquests with more than ordi- 
; bu 


and attacked in his at Sohr, by his enterprising 
sdviseiey sh Deindorel estainey bet thongh ta- 
ken at great disadvantage, and assailed by superior 


numbers, he took his measures with so m 
taleenmnien anes ee 
officers and men, that, besides repulsi attack with 
spirit, he routed the enemy with great A |. 
ing his army into winter quarters, he entered Berlin in 


* This work was first published in the German language, and afterwards in French, An English translation was printed at Edin-... 


gurgh, in 1761, in two volumes Svo. 


- ries; and 


749 


a triumphant style, with the cannon and colours which 
he had taken from the Austrians ; but, hearing that the 
Prince of Lorraine still continued his movements, he 
returned rapidly to the field; and, after a series of 
successes, entered the city of Dresden, where he con. 
cluded a treaty of peace in 1745, securing the posses- 
sion of Silesia, and receiving a million of German crowns 
from the Elector of Saxony. Returning to his capital 
with all the pomp of victory, he displayed the utmost 
affability towards his applauding people; and, while 
ing the circuit of the city in the midst of the illu- 
minations, he halted in his progress to take a last fare~ 
well of one of his early preceptors, who was lying. at 
the point of death. 
In the year 1746, a season of general peace among 
the powers of Germany, Frederick was wholly occu- 
pied with matters of domestic policy ; and adopted va« 
rious regulations for the prosperity of commerce, litera- 
ture and the arts. He directed his attention particu- 
larly to effect a thorough reform in the courts of jus- 
tice, especially to lessen the delays and expences of 
legal proceedings ; and at length produced the famous 
Frepericran Cops, which was adopted in all the Prus< 
sian dominions.* In concurrence with the President 
Maupertuis, he framed, about the same time, several 
additional rules for the Royal Academy ; but he treat- 
ed his philosophers rather like a regiment of soldiers, 
and attem too much to regulate matters of taste 


and opinion by kingly aay! During the same 
period of , he published his “ Memoirs of the 

se of Brandenburg,” and his “ Poem on the Art of 
War ;” the former, a work written with spirit, and full 
of valuable information, though not always free from 
mistakes and misrepresentations ; and the latter, a per- 
formance neither deeteate of poetical merit, nor _ - 
cient in sound principles of military 
markable for the extraordinary omission of the name 
of Marlborough, while the generals whom the British 
commander 
respective ons of fame. 
much in embellishing some of his princi 
among other measures, which he ad: for the bene« 
fit of his subjects, he asserted their right to navigate the 
seas without interruption from belligerent powers, so 


that he has been considered as the author of the system - 


of armed maritime neutrality. He.exerted himself by 
every method te increase the population of his domi~ 
nions; and, in this view, expended large sums of mo~ 
ney in clearing waste lands and forming navigable ca- 
oak j gave great encouragement to French Protestants 
and other industrious emigrants to settle in his territo- 

particularly succeeded by these means in peo 
pling and fertilizing the deserts of Pomerania. 


In 1749, he was visited by the celebrated Marechal . 


Saxe, whom he treated with every mark of distinction ; 
and in the year following, after various applications, he 
vailed upon Voltaire to reside at his court, whom 


Seovcldad one of his chamberlains, and provided with . 


an annual pension of 20,000 livres.. But their friend. 


ship was not of long duration ; and they were both too. ; 
cbiions of despotic power in the republic of letters - 


to exist harmoniously in the same circle. The king was 


disgusted by the familiarity with which the French . 
" to him in public, and with the sarcastic .. 


wit behav: x 
remarks in which he sometimes indulged even upon 


his royal person. His majesty also was much offended . 


science, but res ~ 


uently defeated are furnished with their - 
He employed himself « 
cities; and . 


750 


by a money transaction of rather a dishonourable de- 
seription, in which Voltaire had engaged with the aid 
of a Jew ; and the other wits at the. Prussian court, en- 
vious of his high favour, took care to report to the mo- 
narch’s ear the most offensive of his sayings. But the 
principal cause of their greatest misunderstanding and 
final separation, was the decided part which Voltaire 
took against Frederick in a dispute between Mauper- 
tuis and Koenig. Even this open dissension was in 
some measure composed, when his majesty having sent 
a message to Voltaire, requesting him to write an apo- 
logy to Maupertuis, the Frenchman burst into a violent 
rages and desired the messenger to tell the king that 
“he might go to hell.” Still, it is said, they had an- 
other interview, in which they were seemingly recon- 
ciled, and Voltaire received ission to go to Plom- 
bieres forthe benefit of his health; but the king ha- 
ving afterwards discovered, that Voltaire had written 
a satirical piece against him, he sent a letter dismissing 
him from his service, and requiring him to return the 
contract of their engagement, with a volume of poetry, 
with which he had been entrusted. Voltaire imme- 
diately left Berlin, but retained ion of the con- 
tract, which bound Frederick to pay him 20,000 livres 
a year, and of the poetry, which he considered as a 

t; but he was arrested at Franckfort on the 
Maine at the king’s instance, and treated in a most 
unworthy manner, till he made the required restitu- 


tion. 

In 1753, Frederick exerted all his influence: to pre- 
vent the election of a king of the Romans, which was 
considered as a measure highly conducive to the peace 
of Germany ; but which, as tending to aggrandize the 
house of Austria, he was anxious to obstruct ; and, by 
his persevering opposition, prevented its execution for 
many years. In 1756, he concluded a treaty with his 
Britannic Majesty, in which they mutually stipulated 
for the defence of their common country, to prevent all 
foreign troops from entering on any pretence into Ger- 
many. But thegreat army which Frederick maintain- 
ed, his indefatigable diligence in exercising his troops, 
and his well known enterprising spirit of ambition, ha- 
ving long excited a general apprehension among the 
neighbouring powers, an extensive confederacy, or pat- 
tition treaty, was at length concluded, between Rus- 
sia, Austria, Poland, the Elector of Saxony, and the 
court of Versailles, to restrain his projects and retrench 
his power. Dissatisfied with the explanations which 
he had demanded of Austria, ng her military 
preparations, which the Empress had assured him 
were entirely defensive, he resolved to commence hos- 
tilities without delay, and precipitately involved him- 
self in a long and war, in the course of 
‘which he acquired, indeed, a high degree of military 
fame, but reduced his kingdom to the eve of destruc- 
tion. In 1756, he published his declaration of war 
against the Empress of Germany ; entered the Electo- 
rate of Saxony with an immense army ; seized u 
its revenues, magazines and archives, and mom te 
administer its offices of government, by persons of his 
own appointment, as if it had already been in 
ted with his own dominions, By his active and -skil- 
ful manceuvres, he ferced the Saxon army to surrender, 
after defeating the Austrians under Marechal Brown, 
who had advanced to its relief; but he tarnished the 
glory of his victory, by cruelly oe gongs the Saxon 
troops to enter into his service, and to fight against 
their own sovereign. His ambitious and unjustifiable 
measures called forth the strongest declarations from 
the principal governments of Europe ; and, as Elector 


FREDERICK. 


of Brandenburg, he was, by a decree of the Aulic coun- _ Prede- 
cil, put under the ban of the empire. He opened the Mk ltt. 
campaign of 1757, with an army of'200,000 men ; and, 
though the Russian, French, ri united 


Austrians were aware of his approach ; and, joining 
his columns with extraordinary rapidity, unexpectedly 

completely defeated the enemy at Prague. 
By a strict block e, and destractive bombardment, he 


was on the point of com 
in its walls, to surrender, when his good fortune 
tained a fatal reverse, and his own impetuous confi- 
dence subjected him to a defeat. ing with an. 
inferior force to dislodge Marechal Daun, who had ad- 
vanced to Collin for the relief of he was rout- 


j 


service, having suffered some loss in 


ven- 
tured to remonstrate with Frederick upon the calami- 


treatment, to a state of the deepest melancholy, which 
terminated his life in the course of the following year. 

The difficulties of the Prussian Monarch sn. came 
to multiply with fearful accumulation. 
some of hi ae ARE ction of the Swedes 


with his enemies, the capture of Memel by the Russians, 
the successes of the French inst the Electorate of 
Hanover, the of the Austrians in Silesia, and 


ation of the most critical nature, and drove him at one 
time to form a design of committing suicide. He com- 
municated his intention to his most intimate confidant 
the Marquis D’Argens, in what he called his farewell 
letter ; par re aie Sesntoldeniabeiensierss 

, so expressive of affection, and convincing by its 
Pe minis, tot lis er eniesacheaighieanieiiea. 
mated to farther efforts. Collecting his troops, he at- 


's splendid victory over an army, 
which was double the number of his own. i 
by forced marches into Silesia, where his troops 
prec man Haas Austrians, he gave battle to the 
enemy at Le en, and, by a disposition of his line, 
coinciding with that which was made by Epaminondas 
at Leuctra, gained a most signal: victory, which put 
40,000 prisoners into his and gave him complete 
possession of Silesia. The resolute resistance which he 
maintained against his numerous enemies, the rapidity 
with which he recovered his losses, the of his 
en izes, the splendour of his victories, the military 
skill, mental fortitude, and which he 
had displayed in the whole of this and event- 
ful campaign, attracted the attention of surrounding na- 
ee ered him the applause ‘even of his oppo- 
nents. Aided by a large eae yee srw Britain, 
where the fame of his exploits acquired him extra- 
ordinary popularity, he agg era, Xa of 1758 
with the hap iest prospects. Entering Moravia, he at- 
tempted, wihont success, to reduce the city of Olmutz ; 
and hastening to the Oder, where the Russians were 
committing the greatest ravages, he routed them with 


| i 


; 
i 


FREDERICK. 751 


71 - + invaders. a 
In 1759, his operations were so extremely unsuccess- 
ful, that, had his enemies known as well how to im- 


ter several unsuccessful overtures i , in 
aetna gee age 
territories, and in which he was no farther sincere, ex- 


_cept in hoping to detach one or more from the confe- 


contest with his usual 


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- Joseph took 


irruption into Hungary, and 
pierre sete : 
was enabled to gai ground upon is enemies, and to 
dhereatehs‘theda- with invasion in their turn. Though 

ived of his Russian auxiliaries by a new 


ferers, more than half a million of combatants had fal- 
i thing was replaced on its ancient 
footing, and the gainful result was simply this, 
that Frederick Aad Prussia ty Boge furnished with an 
opportunity proving hi a consummate com- 
mander, animated by an unconquerable spirit of mili- 
heroism, and endued with one of the coolest heads 
hardest hearts in Christendom. 
_ Returning to his capital, after an absence of nearly 
six years, Frederick applied himself, with all his ta- 
lents and perseverance, to the internal improvement of 


his ; rebuilt the towns and villages, and remu- 
erated the nial who had suffered comes 
war ; afforded every encouragement to agriculture, 
manufactures, 


- pus 
re Meee ct tect Bebe ee | 
his regular force amounted to 200,000 men. Li 


suing base money, which he compelled his subjects to - 
take in payment; but which he ordered his commis- 
sioners to refuse in ing the taxes. For the pur- 
pose of peopling his own territories, he carried from the 
i ing provinces of Poland many thousand fe- 
ee ee eee Antirg 
prime mover and most active perpetrator in- 
famous partition press eee ihe dtee 6" He 
was not disposed, however, to similar acts of rob- 
bery, in which he had no share; and, when the Emperor 
possession of Bavaria, he resisted his un- 
just pretensions, and conducted in person the cam- 
paign, or rather armed negotiation of 1778, which was 
terminated by the peace of Teschen. The two last of 
his public acts were the establishment, in 1785, of the 
Germanic union for preserving the constitution of the 
empire; and a treaty of amity and commerce, in 1786, 
ith the United States of America. 
Frederick was now seventy-four years of age, in full 
ion of all his mental powers, but extremely debi- 
Fated in his comporel fame He began to suffer much 
from dropsy, without being sensible, (or at least with- 
out Being willing to allow,) that he was afflicted with 
that disorder. He nevertheless continued his attention 
to public business, withou Aenea cw mer é 
Rising at four o'clock every morning, he employed him- 
self several hours with his three principal seeretaries, 
reading dispatches, dictating answers, and directing the 
most minute transactions of his government. The go- 
vernor of Potsdam then attended about eight o'clock to 
receive his orders ing the daily duty of the gar- 
rison. He next admitted a physician for a few minutes 
3 


i y Frede- 
uired a zealous ally Py an ae: 


Frede- 
rick ILL 
-_— y= 


752 


to give direction respecting his health. He then con- 
versed with his friends until mid-day, when he gene- 
rally dined alone. In the afternoon signed the dis- 

and letters, which he had dictated in the morn- 
ing. He joined his friends again in conversation frony 
five to eight o'clock in the evening; and, after their 
departure, listened to from ancient authors till 
he retired to rest. In this course of labour he perseve- 
red till two days before his death ; although for several 
weeks preceding, he was so swollen with the dropsy, 
that he could not move without assistance, and was 
obliged to remain day and night in his chair. Though 
he suffered dreadfully, he betrayed no symptom of un- 
easiness or impatience ; but conversed with t com- 
posure on general subjects, and without ever alluding 
to his own state of health. On the 16th of August he 
was deprived of sense, while his friends were reading 
to him from Cicero and Plutarch; and on the morn- 
ing of the 17th, he expired without any convulsive 
motion, in the 75th year of his age, and the 47th of his 
reign. 

Frederick, in his person, was below the middle sta- 
ture, and of a slight form, but possessed of a vigoruus 
constitution. _ In his earlier years his figure was grace- 
ful; but in the latter part of his life, in consequence of 
incessant fatigue, or as some suppose of his incessant cus- 
tom of making extremely low bows, he stooped consi- 
derably, and his head was inclined to one side. He 
was short-sighted, and his eyes were of a fine blue co- 
Jour, but full of fire, and expressive of uncommon keen- 
ness and penetration. His tone of voice was extremely 
clear and agreeable; and he spoke with the utmost 
fluency and sprightliness. He was, especially in the 
latter part of his life, a great economist, or rather un- 


“commonly shabby in his dress, which was usually a 


plain suit of regimentals, consisting of a blue coat faced 
with red, and yellow waistcoat and breeches. He al- 
ways wore boots, which being rarely renewed, were ge- 
nerally of a dirty brown colour. His hair was simply 
queued, and he had no other mark of distinction than the 
order of the black eagle. His whole wardrobe, says 
Dr Moore, to whom it was shewn at Potsdam, consisted 
of two blue coats faced with red, the lining of one a 
little torn ; two yellow waistcoats a good deal soiled 
with Spanish snuff; three pair of yellow breeches, and 
a suit of blue velvet, embroidered with silver for grand 
occasions. I imagined at first, that the man had got a 
few of the king’s old clothes, and kept them here to 
amuse $ ; but upon enquiry I was assured, that 
what I have mentioned, with two suits of uniform which 
he has at Sans Souci, forms the entire wardrobe of the 
King of Prussia. Our attendant said he had never 
known it more complete. When residing at Berlin, 
and particularly on public days, he made a great dis- 
play of royal magnificence ; but his ordinary mode of 

iving was remarkably plain 
place of residence was the lace at Sans Souci, about 
a mile from Potsdam. His bed-chamber was beauti- 
fully furnished and provided with the ap of a 
rich state-bed ; but he always slept in a concealed bed- 
stead, upon a hard mattress. He rose generally at five 
o'clock in the morning, and sometimes’ earlier. He 
dressed his hair himself, seldom employing above two 
minutes for that purpose; and pulled on his boots at 
his bed-side, never using either shoes or sli As 
soon as he was dressed, the adjutant of his batta- 
lion of s brought him a list of all the who 
had arrived at Po or d d thence, with an ac- 


count of any occurrences in the garrison. Having de- 


and uniform. His usual « 


FREDERICK. 


ment of 
throughout the provinces were em 
manner. He then walked in the gai 
cipal officers, and the rest of the 
invited to dinner. At one, he sat down to 
dom with more than -four 

more than an hour, 

a 


i ome 
wi 

who were 
table, sel- 


him, who was generally one of his friends; and 

reading about two hours, he joined in a musical concert 
till nine. He was then attended by a few of his learn- 
ed friends, and favourite wits, whom he had invited to 


‘supper, and with whom he in in the utmost free- 
dom of conversation till twelve, when he went to bed. 
Afterwards he omitted these su and spent a long- 


er time at dinner, where he to eat with good 
tite, and was particularly nice in regard to fruit.’ He 
was not less fond of Spanish snuff, of which he was ac- 
customed to take immoderate ities; and used a 
large golden snuff-box, richly ornamented with dia- 
monds. He was much attach pO Pi Nae 
nerally beside him two or three I “greyhounds, 
which he often caressed, and even kept leather 
balls in his rooms in order to amuse them. He took 
little pleasure in the company of ladies, and rarely in- 
vited them to his private parties. His great and 
amusement consisted in musical concerts, at which he 
— on the flute; but he confined himself chief- 
to his own compositions, and those of his instractor 


ra His hates 


inndl'tb madiralacienes. > Sie little knowledge 
of the Greek and Latin 3 and his’ t~ 
ance with classical au was derived pri 


the works which have been already mentioned, he 
wrote letters on patriotism and on German literature ; 
and left behind him in manuscript, Memoirs of his own 
Time, the el 1740 to ma Peace o; fas y wy 
History of the War of Seven Year. “a 7) 

the tb Rest "fron the Peace of Hubersburgh ; w! AA 
were published after his death. His pi compo-~ 
sitions, consisting of his on the art of war, with 
a variety of odes and epistles, are collected under the 
title of Ouvres melées du Philosophe de Sans Souci. He 
displayed, in his capacity of a ruler, more of personal 
ability than of political wisdom. He was constantly 


* 


FREDERICK. 753 


Frederick. aiming at the aggrandisement of his dominions, which 
“1 he neyer hesitated to accomplish by the most unpro- 


voked hostilities and unprincipled usurpations. He 
devoted, nee the is. Sueuly years of his life to 
promote the p ity of his subjects; but always 
inci; of despotism, and 7" subserviency to 

. In attention to his army, his go- 
yernment, and the internal policy of his kingdom, he 
was probably the most indefatigable sovereign that 
ere existed. ae vigi rm was waren ting: his in- 
ustry unweari vi epartment vernment 
was under his own ainedinte aiepecdn - and the 
most minute particulars did not escape his observation. 
“He conceived himself capable of every thing, and de- 


spised the talents of others. His numerous nominal ~ 


counsellors he never consulted ; and to his various mi- 
nisters of state he delegated no portion of superintend- 
ing power ; but he would direct and almost perform 


“every thing himself. This intermeddling and controul- 


ing spirit was the great error of his administration ; 
and rendered many of his financial and commercial 


amend more icious than profitable to his le. 
' Sr taieaerdit oh cn-tn qedieiel pacteatticisrsan iterary 
“questions ; and made ‘himself the supreme reviewing 
tribunal in all matters of equity and taste. He intro- 
duced a kind of military ism into every de- 
partment ; and “ was constantly working mischief by 
-working too much.” It was at the head of an army, 
that his talents to the test advantage ; 
and he must be wledged to rae 
accomplished warrior of modern times., He possessed 
an extensive knowledge of military science ; and is 
ranked next to Maurice, Prince of Orange, and Gusta- 
vus Adolphus, as an inventor in the modern. art: of 
war. He introduced the use of flying artillery, and 
improved the oblique or ar order of battle, of 
which he profi y studied the principles, and_skil- 
fully illustrated the efficacy, in not less than forty-two 
engagements. He was eminently rang dep by 
the promptitude and energy with which he executed 
his plans; and was always sure to prevail wherever 
active age a could ensure success. , His personal in- 
idity, his astonishing presence of mind in the mo- 
a of danger, and his Bisa endurance of hardships 
and privations, could not be su ; and in all his 
severest reverses, he discovered a mind that could not 
be subdued. Yet, with all his great endowments, there 
was little in his character to make him either amiable 
as a man, or venerable as a rt Many of his 
faults may, no doubt, be traced to the despotic senti- 
ments in which he was educated, and the military ha- 
bits in which he lived; but there are traits in his cha- 
racter, which incontestably demonstrate, that his su- 
ior powers of intellect were united with a radical 
Fittlenese of mind. - His parsimony, ingratitude, cruel- 
ty, and injustice, are proved by a thousand instances. 
He examined every evenin bill of fare for next 
day’s dinner, squabbling with his domestics about the 
prices of every article, and paying with his own hands 
the of his kitchen, stables, &c. He never be- 
stowed one smile of favour upon the relatives of his 
friend De Catt, who-had sacrificed himself in his behalf. 
To the family of the Wrechs, who had befriended him 
in his imprisonment at the risk of their lives, he neither 
id the sums which they had pinched themselves to 
raise for his accommodation, nor distinguished them 
by any act of patron He broke the heart of his 
i brother, William Augustus, by harsh usage ; 
and ruined the health and happiness of. his youngest 
VOL, IX. PART It. 


_ Sarcastic raillery 


e been the most. 


sister Amelia, by his barbarous persecution of her lover Frederick 
y, the 
F 


Trenck. He lavished, with unfeeling prodigalit 
blood of his soldiers ; and dismissed in time of 
his bravest officers, because they were not of noble ex. 
traction ; though he had invited them to enter the army 
when he needed their services, He uniformly quar- 
relled with his most intimate associates ; and often dis« 
carded, with the harshest injustice, those who had most 
faithfully spent their lives in his service. He com- 
manded his favourite Secretary Galser to coin fifteen 
millions of ducats with an alloy of one-third of base 
metal ; and, when the matter was discovered, he pu- 
nished the unfortunate secretary with disgrace and ba« 
nishment, as the author of the fraud. 

He treated his literary companions and dependants 
with insolent familiarity, making them the butts of his 
; and, after enco ing them to simi- 
lar freedoms, suddenly silencing them with his kingly 
authority, or with the most passionate abuse, and some« 
times even with kicks and blows. He delighted to in- 
dulge in the most impious discussions ; and bestowed 
the highest marks of his favour upon the most atheisti- 
cal gre meet His general spirit in short was sel- 
fish and unfeeling; and, though he wished for the: 
praise of virtue, he was ready to sacrifice every consi- 
deration to the love of fame, especially to the attain~ 
ment of military renown. His intellectual powers, how- 
ever eminent, were at least of that inferior order, which 
can submit to be guided by profli of principle, and 
stoop to seek assistance from dishonourable means. 
His abilities thus often appeared much greater than 
they were in reality ; because, when wisdom failed, he 

recourse to wickedness, and accomplished objects 


which would have baffled others, not because they were 


weaker, but because they were better men. Such, in 
fact, is often the chief superiority possessed by those 
who have received the appellation of Great; a “title, 
which is the less honourable, that mankind have gener- 


ally agreed to bestow it, where gratitude was least of all 


due.” See Gillies’ View of’ the Reign of Frederick II. 
of Prussia; Tower's Memoirs of the Life and Reign of 
Frederick of Prussia; Thiebault, Memoires de Frederic 
le Grand; Johnson’s Memoirs of the King of Prussia ; 
Baron Bielfeld’s Letters ; Observations on the Military 
Establishment of the King of Prussia, with an Account 
of his private Life; the King of Prussia’s Campaigns 
written by an Officer, and translated from the French ; 
Anecdotes and Characteristics of Frederick the Great ; 
Riesbeck’s Travels in Germany ; Thomson’s Military 
Memoirs ; Voltaire’s Idée du Roi de Prusse, (q) 

FREE Masonry. See Mysrerins. - 

FREEZING. See Corp. 

FRESCO Parntine:. See Painrine. 

FRIBOURG, or Frisurc, a town of Switzerland, 


and the capital of a canton of the same name, is situa® . 


ted partly on. a horizontal plane on the banks of the 
Sarine or Saane, and’ partly on.the declivity of a ridge 
of rugged rocks, which form a singular contrast with 


the walls of the town and the towers of its convents . 


and-churches, When a stranger ascends the street of 
the Great Fountain in coming from the Baixs des trois 
Suisses, he can scarcely persuade himself that he is in 
the middle of a large town. The fortifications. of Fri- 
bourg, consisting of lofty walls and towers, are about 
four miles in circumference,. and inclose a large space, 
a great part of, which is occupied with ee and or- 
chards. The descent to the town is on all sides extreme« 
ly steep, and the street of the Great Fountain forms the 
roofs of the houses of the Court-chemin. A communica~ 
5c 


i] 


FRI 


Fribourg tion is made between the two parts of the town by three 


4 
Friendly 
“Islands. 


bridges, from which there are very picturesque views. 
The most advantageous stations, from which an idea may 


——~— be formed of the extraordinary situation of Fribourg, are 


‘ing among their inhabitants, and the courteous 


the top of Schonenberg ; the meadow situated beyond 
the crucifix, which is seen in guing out by the gate of 
Bourguillon ; and the meadow which extends behind the 
Place @ Armes, near the gate of Romont. 

The houses of Fribourg, which are raised above each 
other in regular gradation, are built with a grey sandstone 
from an adjacent quarry, and are in general neat and 
well built, though the town has a dull appearance. 
In the middle of the principal square, is the celebrated 
limetree, of great size and beauty, which is said to have 
been planted there in the 22d June 1476, by a soldier, 
on his return from the battle of Merat. For some years, 
this venerable tree has been losing its vigour.. The town- 
house is an ancient edifice, which was built on the spot 
where the palace of the Dukes of Zubringul formerly 
stood. The cathedral church, dedicated to St Nicholas, 
was founded in 1283, Its tower is 356 feet high, being 
the highest in Switzerland. The bells are reckoned the 
finest in the country. The ci-devant college -of the Je- 
suits, situated in the highest part of the town, affords, 
from its lofty towers, some of the finest and most exten- 
sive views. The other objects of interest at Fribourg 
are, the gate of Bourgillon, situated between two preci- 
pices ; the principal altar of the church of the convent of 
Augustins ; the great reservoirs situated near the college 
of Jesuits ; the mill of Motta, opposite to the convent of 
Maigrange ; and the defile of Gotteron. The cabinet of 
natural history belonging to M. Fontaine; the library, 
pictures, minerals, and philosophical mstruments belong- 
ing to M. Joseph Praroman ; the collection of books and 
MSS. relative to the history of Switzerland, belonging to 
M. Ignace Gady ; and the small botanic garden of M, 
Odet, are worthy of the notice of travellers, 

There is at Fribourg a seminary of priests ; a gym- 
nasium ; schools for young persons in the convents of 
the Ursulines, and the Visitandines, and other inferior 
schools kept by the Franciscans and the Capuchins. 
There are 28 public fountains in Fribourg, of which the 
water is excellent. The inhabitants of the lower town, 
however, were formerly much. afflicted with the goitre 
necks, but the disease is now less general. 

The line of demarcation between. the German and 
French Janguages passes through Fribourg. The inha- 
bitants of the lower parts of the town speak German, and 
those in the higher part French, while the two langua- 
ges are confounded in the middle of the town. 

The principal manufactures of Fribourg are hats, ean- 
dles, beer, earthenware, cotton cloths, &e.. The chief 
promenades are in the square, planted with limes and in 
the Place d’Armes. Population 6,000. East Long. 
6° 48’, and North Lat. 46° 50. 

FRIBOURG, ‘Canton or. ‘See‘Switzer.anp. 

FRICTION. ‘See Mecuanics. 

FRIEDLAND, Barrie or. See France, p- 648. 

FRIENDLY Istanps, are situated in the eastern 
of the Pacific Ocean, and lie between 163° and 21 4°South 
Latitude, and between 176° 30’ and 185° 50’ East‘Lon- 
gitude. Their name expresses the firm alliance gubsist- 
havi- 
our which they testify towards strangers. Their num- 


754) 


be i 
fish, old wives, parrot fish, soles, leather jackets, albicores, 


FRI 


ber exceeds 150, but the gr part are mere rocks and ° 


shoals, or barren and desert spots. Nearly one half, 

however, are of considerable size, but the situation and 

extent of a few only have been ascertained. Sixty-one 

are marked on Captain Cook's chart, and t pa peiecipel in 

formation concerning them is to be found in his es 
The most important are, Tonga, Tong + 


wor ae 


sterdam, discovered by Tasman in 1 $i n 
21° 9’ South Latitude, and 175° 1’ West Longitude. It 
is rather of an oblong form, bearing some tere 
to an isosceles triangle, stretching in length from east to 
west, broadest at east end, and about 20 leagues in 
circumference. It is a low Jand, nearly all of an equal 
height, never rising more than 80 feet above the level 
of the sea; and is surrounded by a reef of coral rocks, 
extending about 100 fathoms from the shore, and break« 
ing the force of the sea before it reaches the land. A 
deep lagoon on the north coast, forms a secure and capa« 
cious harbour with a good bottom, but there is gr 

scarcity of good fresh water in all these islands. 
kind of rock appears also to be the basis of the island, as 
scarcely any other stone is seen either on the coast urin 
the interior. The rock projects in many places above 
the surface, but the soil is generally of a considerable 
depth, and in the cultivated parts is a loose black mould, 
apparently produced by decayed vegetables. The surface 


..at-a distance appears to be clothed with trees of diffe- 
‘rent sizes ; but the tufted heads of the cocoa palms pro- 


duce the most striking effect. The largest tree is a spe- 
cies of fig; and the most common bushes on the uncul- 
tivated spots, are the pandanus, saitanoo, and several 
sorts of hibiscus. Though the climate is more variable 
than in countries farther within the line of the tropic, 
yet the foliage is only shed by degrees, every leaf as it 
falls being succeeded by another ; and th the couns 
try exhibits little of that landscape beauty, which is pro- 
duced by a variety of hills and vallies, yet it is well laid 
out in plantations, and altogether presents the appearance 
of perpetual spring, and exuberant fertility, It abounds 
in the richest productions of nature; cocoa nut trees, 
bread fruit, plantains of fifteen varieties, bananoes, shad- 
docks, sugar-cane, a kind of plum, fig, and nectarine, 
yams white and black, the latter of which weigh from 20 
to 30 pounds, gourds, Jesuits bark, bamboo, &c. and an 
innumerable list of uncultivated plants. The only qua- 
drupeds are hogs, dogs, rats,and small lizards.* The land 
birds, besides large domestic fowls, are pigeons, turtle- 
doves, parrots, parroquets, cuckoos, king’s fishers, rails, 


.coots, fly-catchers, swallows ; large bats, measuring from 
.three to four feet between the tips of the wings when ex- 


tended ; a kind of green-coloured thrush, the only sing- 
ing bird observed in the island; and several smaller 
birds.. The water fowl are ducks, tropic-birds, herons, 
noddies, terns, small curlew, and large spotted plover. 


. Nearly fifty different sorts of insects have been noticed, 


particularly very large spiders, and the most beautiful . 
moths and butterflies; and of the reptile tribe, sea 


-snakes about three fect long, scorpions, centipedes, and 


guanoes. The variety of fish is not so great as might 
magined ; and the most common aré mullets, silver 


botinelos, -eels, pike, and devil fish; but there is great 
abundance of shell fish about the reefs and shoals, espe- 
cially huge eockles, pearl shell and some other oysters, 


* M. Dentrecasteaux was informed in 1793, that the horses’ and cows left by Captain ‘Cook were all dead ; ‘but found that the hogs had 
been greatly improved by the cross with those of Europe, some of them weighing not less\than 200. poundsy.» F 


FRIENDLY ISLANDS 


Friendly (but none of the common sort,) cones, crabs, cray fish, 


‘Islands. 


tie 


sea curious kinds of star fish. There are no towns 
on the island, and the houses are built in the 
midst of separate plantations. These plantations are in- 
closed by fences of reeds:about six feet high, and these 
inclosures called Abbeys, frequently contain four or five 
houses. Smaller spaces round each habitation, are call- 
ed Ladores. : uci : Sell 
Eooa, named by Tasman Middleburgh, lies to the 
south-east of Tongataboo, in 21° 24’ South Latitude, 


_ and 174° 30’ West Longitude. It is of an oval form, 


Anna- 
moka. 


Hapaece 


Mayorga 


about 12 leagues in circuit, of greater height than any of 
the neighbouring islands, and presents a more varied and 
delightful. aspect. The coasts are shaded with a variety 
of trees, among which the houses and plantations are 
scattered ; but the interior parts are little cultivated, and 
possess a high degree of natural beauty. The. south- 
east side rises immediately from the sea with great ine- 
qualities, and is rather hilly, though not mountainous. 
The plains and meadows lie towards the north-west, ow 
are covered with | interspersed with groves o 
trees at irregular giao with sional dee tions 
and numerous paths, in every direction, and in beautiful 
disorder. Thisisland, like Tongataboo, and indeed most 
of the tropical isles in the Pacific Ocean, is surrounded 
with coral rocks; but there is good anchorage, called by 
Cook, English Road, on the north-west side, with conve. 
nient landing for boats.at all times of the tide. , 
Annamooka, named’ Rotterdam. by Tasman, lies in 
20° 46’ South Latitude; and 185° 12! East. Longitude, 
It is a small triangular island, each side of which is near- 
ly four miles in length, and is the most known of a clus- 
ter called Arbai. . All the rocks and stones are coral 
except in one place, where a large mass of calcare- 
ous stone, of a yellowish colour, was observed. . In the 
centre of the island, is a salt water lake about a mileand 
a half in breadth, which has no apparent communication 
with the sea; but there is not a single stream of fresh 
water to be found in any part of it, and only afew brack- 
ish springs too small for watering a ship. There is a 
considerable proportion of waste land on the island ; and 


-its inhabitants are much affected with a kind of leprosy, 


or scrofulous disorder, which chiefly attacks the face ; 
but in its productions, and in other respects, it greatly 
resembles Tongataboo. 

Hapaee islands, namely Haanno, Foa, Lefooga, and 
Hoolawa, lie in 19° South Latimde. They are very low 
land, extremely similar to each other in appearance, and 
each of them about six or seven miles in length. Le- 
foogu, which lies in the centre, is superior in point of 
cultivation to Annamooka, and many of its plantations 
are inclosed in such a manner, that the fences running 
parallel to each other form spacious public roads. These 
islands are joined to each other by a reef of coral rocks, 
which are dry at low. water, when the natives can walk 
on foot from the one to the other, 

Mayorga, a group of islands about 100. miles north- 
west of Hapae, were discovered in 1781 by the Spanish 
navigator Maurelle ; and were visited by, Captain Ed- 
wards in 1791, who named them Howe’s islands. The 
Jargest is nearly as extensive as Tongataboo, fertile and 
well cultivated, affording all the vegetable productions of 
these latitudes, and particularly stored with the cloth 
plant. 


755 


Neootabootaboo, and Kootahé, situated in South Latis 
tude 15° 55', and 173° 48’ West Longitude, were disco- 
vered by Schouten and Lemaire in 1616. The former is 
one of the larger islands in these seas, fertile and populous. 
They were visited by Captain Wallis in 1767, who call« 
ed them Keppel’s and Boscawen's islands; and in 1787: 
by Perouse, with whom the natives traded very fieely,: 
but had a more ferocious appearance than the more south=: 
ern islanders. ; 

Toofoa, or Amattafoa, is situated about 12 leagues: 
north north-west from Annamooka, and is about five. 
leagues in circumference. It is thinly inhabited, but was 
reported to afford excellent water. It is chiefly remark- 
able as containing a voleano, the smoke of which was 
seen by Captain Cook at ten leagues distance ; and which 
was described by the natives of the adjoining islands, as 
having been observed to ascend without intermission as 
far back as their memory and traditions could reach. 
They added, that it sometimes threw up large stones. It 
was at this island that Captain Bligh, after the mutiny of 
his crew, attempting with 18 of his people to procure a 
supply of bread, fruit, and water, was attacked by the na- 
tives, who killed one man, and wounded. almost: every 
individual of his company... 

Three very considerable islands, or rather groups, 
were described to Captain. Cook, Jarger than any yet 
mentioned, but they. are still very imperfectly known to 
Europeans. Their names are Hamoa, Vavaoo, and Fee- 
jee. Hamao, which is two days sail north-west from 
Vayaoo, is: said to be the largest of all the islands, afford+ 
ing safe harbours, good water,. and all the refreshments 
produced in the other places. Vavaoo, or Afootouou, is 
the name not of one but of a group of islands, of which 
little is known, except that they are abundantly stored 
with hogs. Feejee, which is three days sail from Ton- 
gataboo, in the direction of north-west by west, and 
which is surrounded by a cluster of islands, abounds. in 
hogs, dogs, fowls, and all the fruits and ether vegetables 
found in these islands. Its breed of dogs are very nu- 
merous, and from them had been procured the few which 
were seen at Tongataboo, where they were not introdu- 
ced till after 1773, and from which they had not,been 
sent to any of the other islands in 1777. The natives 
of Feejee * are of a darker colour than those of the other 
Friendly islands ; more formidable in war, by their dex- 
terity in the use of bows and slings ; more savage in their 
manners, especially in the practice‘of eating the enemies 
whom they kil) in battle ; and more ingenious in their ar- 
ticles of workmanship, of which Captain Cook saw several 
specimens ; such as variegated mats, earthen pots, beau- 


-tifuly chequered cloth, and clubs and spears covered with 


great ingenuity. These islands of Feejee appear to. be 
the same which Tasman named Prince William’s Isles, 
and were explored both by Captain, Bligh in the Provi- 
dence 1792, and by Captain Wilson in the Duff 1796. 
They reach northward as.far as 15° 33’ of Latitude, and 
south to 19° 15’, and lie in 178° West Longitude. 
Captain Barber in the Snow Arthur, visited the western 
part of the group in 1794, and was attacked by a num- 
ber of the natives in canoes, who attempted to board the 
ship, and wounded several of the crew with their arrows. 

All these islands which have been described, and all 
those which form the archipelago named Friendly, are 
under the government of one king, excepting Feejee, 


% ‘The most recent account ofthe Feejee islanders, is furnished by an extract from the Sydney Gazette, published in the Scoteh’ Maga, 


aine for 1810, page 601. 


Friendly 
ae 


Neootaboo~ 


taboo. ~ 


Toofoa. 


Govern - 
ment. 


756 


Friendly which is supposed to have become but recently known to 


Islands. 


the others, and whose warlike inhabitants, scarcely yet 


Govern Subdued, are greatly dreaded, and their friendship care- 


ment. 


fully cultivated by the other islanders. The capital and 
seat of government is Tongataboo ; but the king resides 
decasionally on the other islands, particularly Hamao, 
the inhabitants of which appeared to be held in great es- 
timation. The king was said to possess unbounded «u- 
thority, and to have the absolute disposal of the lives and 
property of his subjects ; but there appeared rather to be 
a kind of subordination, similar to the feudal system 
which formerly prevailed in Europe, as the more potent 
chiefs acted the part of petty sovereigns among their re- 
spective followers, and frequently counteracted the mea- 
sures of the monarch. ‘Tongataboo is divided into nu- 
merous districts, each of which has its proper chief, who 
dispenses justice, and decides disputes within his own 
territory, and who generally possess estates in the other 


- islands, from which they receive supplies of provisions. 


This island is called by the natives the Land of Chiefs, 
while the subordinate isles are stigmatized withthe ap- 
pellation of Lands of Servants. Its ordinary name also 
Tongataboo, signifies the Sacred Isle, because it is the 
residence of the Duatonga, the head of a family, suppo- 
sed to have come originally from the sky, * and who seems 
to hold the station of high priest. ‘The king bears the 
title of Tooe Tonga, according to Cook ; but according 
to later narratives, Duganaboota. The utmost order and 
decortim are observed in his presence, and in that of the 
other chiefs! Whenever he sits down, all the attendants 
seat themselves before him in the form of a semicircle, 
leaving a sufficient space between them and him, into 
which no one, unless he has particular business, presumes 
to come. When any person wishes to address his ma- 
jesty, he comes forward, and’ seats himself before him, 
delivering in a few words what he has to say. In direct 
opposition to European manners, it is accounted the 
greatest rudeness for any one'to stand while he speaks to 
a superior ; and even when the king is walking along, all 
who méet him must sit down till he has passed. hen 
it is intended to do homage more directly, either to the 
sovereign or tlie chiefs, the person who pays the obedi- 
ence squats down before the supérior, bows his head to 
the sole of the prince’s foot, which he touches with the 
under and upper side of the fingers of each hand, and 
then rising up retires. The crown is hereditary ; but it 
was mentioned to Captain Cook by the reigning king, 
that if he were to fail in his duties, the collective body 
of the chiefs and the people would authorise the comman- 
der of the forces to depose him, and put him to death. 
This very ‘prince dying before his son was of age, the 
sovereignty was wrested out of his family by a powerful 
chief, after it had continued about 140 years in one line. 

The king seems to be considered as lord of the soil, 
and upon him devolves the landed property of ‘every 
subject at his death ; but it is customary for the sove- 
reign to grant the estate to the eldest son of the decea- 
sed, upon condition of providing for the other children. 
The different classes of the chiefs are very numerous ; 
but few of them possess extensive districts of territory. 
They are called by thie people, * the lords of the earth,” 
and exercise a despotic authority over their respective 
vassals, The most profound silerice and respectful at- 


* The missionaries were in like manner called by the natives of T 
peared to touch the ocean in the distant horizon, and i 
come through the sky to arrive at their island. 


FRIENDLY ISLANDS. 


tention are observed, when any of them addresses a body 


Friendly 
of their dependants; and ns of dissatisfaction Islands - 
pen no symptoms 


or disobedience were ever perceived the latter, 
Every ——_ their possession is sictinden belong« 
ing to the chief, who takes from them without ceremony. 
whatever he may need. However scanty their supply 
of provisions, they are required to cook a: portion of it for 
his use; and, in a time of scarcity, he often:sends his 
attendants round the district, with orders, for a certain 
quantity to be prepared in.a limited time, which he stores 
up for himself and his household, while the wretched _ 
people are reduced to subsist on the coarsest roots, or to 
beg back a little of their own fruits, to keep them from 
starving. Nor do the lower classes merely labour for 
themselves and their respective chiefs, but are free 
quently sent, as a species of tax or tribute from their 
lords, to work on the lands of the sovereign ; and, inad« 
dition to all these arbitrary exactions, they are treated by 
their superiors with the utmost harshness and brutality. 


The inhabitants of the Friendly islands acknowledge Retigion. 


a supreme divinity residing in the heavens, and directs 
ing the elements ;. but worship at the same time a 
plurality of deities, each of whom has a peculiar admi- 
nistration, one presiding over the wind, another over the 
sea, another over the rain, &c. They ascribe earthquakes 
to the motions of a giant, who supports their island on 
his shoulders ; and, as. they imagine the shaking to be 
occasioned. by his becoming drowsy, they hasten to shout 
as loudly as possible, and to beat the ground with sticks, 
in order to rouze him, lest by his stumbling through 
sleep, he should throw the island from his shoulders. 
Each district also worships its appropriate god; and 
even every individual is supposed to have a particular 
spirit attending him, who sends afilictions and maladies 
when he is displeased, and, when. irreconcileable, occa 
sions death itself... To render him propitious, the rela- 
tions or dependents of the patient frequently wound them- 
selves, or cut off their little finger, and sometimes even 
‘some of his wives, children, or domestics, are put to 
death. They consider the power of their deities.as con- 
fined to the present life, and their evil deeds as meeting 
always with punishment upon earth, Hence they em- 
ploy every method to render them. propitious, applying 
to them for a continuance of plenty, and supplicating 
their aid in time- of suffering. They solemnly implore 
the blessing of the supreme divinity when they plant their 
crops, and express their gratitude when they gather them. 
Hence there is an annual assembly of the chiefs of Ton- 
gataboo, and of all the neighbouring islands, at the dwel- 
ling of Duatonga, the high priest, to offer the first fruits 
of their fields to him, as the minister and representative 
of the god who causes fertility. They do not appear to 
worship any visible part of creation, or any idols formed 
by their own hands; nor do they offer any animal vic- 
tims, although on certain occasions they sacrifice human 
beings. : : 

They have no priests, but every man presents his own 
offering. They discover a wonderfully just idea of the 
immortality of the soul, and in some degree also of :its 
immaterial nature. They believe, that, immediately af- 
ter the death of the body, the souls of the chiefs are 
swiftly conveyed to a distant island, where are no 
longer subject to death, where every kind of is spon« 


. “ The men of the sky ;”” because observing that the sky ap- 


knowing that they came from a great distance, they concluded that they must have 


FRIENDLY ISLANDS. 757 


tandcusly produced, and where they ‘enjoy perpetual’ before his house, a stranger passing by’ will sit down. Friendly 
\. peace and abundance, under the protection of the sus among them without ceremony, and expect a share of _[slands. 
—“Y~"" preme divinity. ‘The lower. élasses,- howévet,- are sup- the meal, siedtinnaeptatanae 


posed'to have no share ‘in this future bliss; and seldom ~‘The houses of the natives are- constructed with little. Habita- 


ingenuity or taste, and are, properly speaking, nothing tions. 


ng these superstitious 
practices, may be mentioned the“ taboo,” although it 
may probably be nothing more than a political regulation. 
The word is used with. great latitude of meaning, but 
seems to signify “prohibited,” or set apart from common 
use. A house becomes tabooed by the king’s presence, 
and can no longer be inhabited by the owner ; and hence 
there are 'y houses provided in every quarter for 
the use of his majesty. A space of ground may be ta- 
booed, and all persons are then interdicted from passing 
overit. Any article of food may be tabooed by the offi- 
cer who has the proper authority, so as to be withdrawn 
from use for agiventime. By assisting at a funeral, or 
consid deutitendidy the hands are tabooed, and can- 
not be employed in taking 


and is applied to the ki 
is called Eree-taboo, to the residence of the king of 
the Friendly Islands, Tonga-taboo, * - + - 

As cultivated roots and fruits form the chief subsist- 
ence of these islanders, they are all employed in hus- 
bandry, in which they have attained a considerable de- 
gree of skill. Their plantations are generally surround- 


dispersed without any order, and soon require little até 
tention; the sugar-cane, which is usually crowded into 
small spots, without any order; the mulberry, from 
which cloth is made, which is allowed an open space, and 
kept very clean; the pandanus, planted in close rows at 
the sides of the fields; the yams and plantains, which 
are put into'the ground with great exactness, so as ‘to 
form squares in every direction. The instruments used 
for the purpose are nothing more than wooden stakes, 
flattened and sharpened at one end ; and sometimes the 
largest have a short piece fixed transversely, by means of 
which press the implement into the ground with the 
foot. With these stakes they make small holes for the 
reception of the roots, and then dig up the surrounding 
grass. Notwithstanding, however, the fineness of the 
climate, and the fertility of the soil, there generally oc- 
curs a period of scarcity before the gathering of the new 
fruits, which may be owing to the improvidence of the 
natives, the deficiency of the produce, or the difficulty 
of preserving it; and sometimes to the prevalence of in- 
surrections, preventing cultivation, so as often to pro- 
duce an actual famine. 

Though there is no community of goods among them, 
it is the custom to apply freely for provisions to those 
who have plenty; and it would be accounted a gross 
breach of hospitality to refuse, while any stores remain- 
ed. Should any one be sitting with his family at meat 


more than thatched toofs or sheds, supported by posts and, 
rafters: ~The floor is raised with earth, smoéothed and 
levelled, and covered with thick matting. |. Some of them 
are open on-all sides, but generally they are enclosed om 
the weather side with strong: mats, or branches of the 
cocoa-nut tree interwoven with each other. » A thick mat, 
about three feet: broad, bent into a semicircular form; 
placed edgewise, and sometimes fastened to the beams, 
encloses a ‘space as a bed-room for 'the master of the fa- 
mily and his wife ; while the rest sleep upon any part of 
the floor, the unmarried men and women lying in differ+ 
ent places ; and if the household is large, there are little 
huts adjoining for the children and servants. . The: habi« 
tations of the lower class are only wretched hovels, scarces 
ly sufficient to shelter them from the weather; but those 
of the chiefs are more comfortable and commodious, their 
ordinary dimensions being about 12 feet in height, 20 in 
breadth, ‘and 30 in length. The house of the second 
chief in Tongataboo was 50 feet in length, and of an 
oval form. One large and lofty post was fixed in the 
centre, and an oval ring of lesser ones were planted round 
it at equal distances, forming the sides of the building. 
Upon those posts, layers were fixed, and from these, rafs 
ters were extended to the pillarin the middle, thus unite 
ing the wliole edifice. The inside of the roof wasyornas 
mented with beautiful matting, which was protected by 
an outer thatch of plantain branches, interwoven like bas« 
ket work. In rainy weather, screens of matting, made 
of the cocoa tree, were fastened to the outer posts, but 
the door-way was left open night and day. The floor 
was covered with beautiful matting, of so close ‘a texture 
as to be impervious to insects. The furniture generally 
consists of some wooden stools, which are used as: pil- 
lows ; two or three wooden bowls for holding their fa« 
vourite liquor kava ; baskets of different sizes, into which 
they put their tools ; fish-hooks, &c.;'a bundle ‘or two 
of cloth, a few gourds, and cocoa-nut shells. 


They discover more ingenuity in the construction and Canoes. 


ornaments of their canoes, which are the most perfect of 
their mechanical productions, and which surpass in neats 
ness of workmanship all others in the South Sea. They 
are built of several planks of the bread-fruit tree, sewn 
together with ¢ocoa-nut line in so neat. a manner, that 
they appear on the outside as if they were composed of 
one solid piece. The fastenings are all on the inside; 
and pass through kants or ridges, wrought on purpose on 
the edges and ends of the different boards. They are of 
two kinds, double and single. The single canoes are 
from 20 to 30 feet in length, about 22 inches broad in 
the middle, and 18 inches deep, with the head resem-- 
bling the point of a wedge, and the stern terminating in 
a blunter point. At each end is a kind of deck, extend- 
ing one third of the whole length ; but they are open in. 
the middle. They have all out riggers, and are some- 
times navigated with sails, but more generally with pad- 
dles, the blades of which are short, and broadest in the 
middle, The double canoes are composed of two vessels, 
about 60 or 70 feet long, 4’or 5 broad in the middle, 
and 3 deep, exclusive of the deck. These are fastened 
together, about six or seven feet asunder, by strong cross 
beams, secured by bandages to risings on the open mide 
5 


Friendly 
Islands. < 
, 


758 


dle spaces, and over these is laid a boarded platform. 
They are rigged with one mast, with a 
form, which can easily be raised or taken down ;.and are 
navigated by a latteen or a triangular sail of mat, ex- 
tended by a long yard, a little bent or crooked. ,On the 
platform is generally erected a little shed or hut for the 
master and his family ; and these frequently contain a: 
moveable fire-hearth, composed of a shallow _ square 
trough, filled with stones. These vessels are capable of 
carrying about 50 persons, and sail ‘at a great rate. They 
are fitted both for burden and distant navigation, and 
can scarcely sink in any circumstances, so long as they 
hold together, 

The only tools which they possess are hatchets or 
adzes of a smooth black stone; augers made of shark's 
teeth; rasps composed of a rough fish-skin fastened on 
flat pieces of wood ; and knives made of sharp shells ; yet 
with these defective instruments they produce many ar= 
ticles of neat and curious workmanship, which at once 
testify their ingenuity and patience. 

Their weapons, such as clubs, spears, and darts, are 
made of hard wood, ‘curiously carved and ornamented. 
Their stools or pillows, which are made of brown or black 
wood, are finely polished, and frequently inlaid with 
ivory. Their cordage is made of the fibresiof the cocoa- 
nut husk, from which they form four or five-inch rope, 
laid exactly like those. of Europe ; and fishing lines as 
strong and even as the best cord. Their small hooks are 
made entirely of pearl shell, but the larger ones are only 
covered with it on the back ; and the points of both kinds 
are generally of tortoise-shell. They have small nets of 
the most delicate texture; and their baskets, made of 
the same cocoa-nut fibres, are at once durable and beau- 
tiful, being generally composed of different colours, and 
studded with beads made of shells or bones, Their ma- 
nufacture of cloth and mats, which is the chief employ- 
ment of the women, is executed with wonderful skill. 
The cloth is made from the slender stalks and trunks of 
the paper-mulberry, which rarely grows above seven feet 
in height, and four fingers in thickness. » From these 
stalks they strip the bark,’ which, after scraping off the 
exterior rind, they roll up and macerate in water. It is 
then beaten with a square wooden instrument, sometimes 
smooth, and sometimes full of coarse grooves. This 
operation. is frequently repeated ; and the pieces, which 
are generally from four to seven feet in length, and half 
as broad, are then laid out to dry. These pieces are.join- 
ed together with the glutinous juice of a berry, and, be- 
ing then placed over a large piece of wood with a sort of 
stamp beneath them, are rubbed hard with a bit of cloth 
dipped in the juice of some bark, which gives to.the sur- 
face a dry brown gloss, while the stamp at the same time 
makes a slight impression. This glazing renders the 
stuff both more durable, and capable of resisting rain, 
The finer sorts, in addition to this operation, are dyed 
of different colours, and stamped of different patterns, 
In this manner they proceed, joining and staining, and 
gluing spare bits upon any holes or thin spots, till they 

ve produced a piece of cloth of the requisite length and 
breadth. The mats are of seven or eight different sorts, 
and excel those of most other countries both in,texture 
and beauty. Some are intended merely for ornament, 
and are made from the tough membranous part: of the 
plantain tree; others are worn as a part of dress, and 


are generally prepared from the pandanus ; and a coarser 
1 


FRIENDLY ISLANDS. 


kind for beds and sails is formed from a plant called 
evarra. id 4 Biba hen nal 
The food of these islanders consists principally of ve 
getables, such as cocoa nuts, bread-fruit, plantains, yams, 
and tarros, a root resembling a carrot. . Their chief ar~ 
ticles of animal food are hogs, fish, and fowls, which are, 
however, only occasional dainties, reserved for persons 
of rank; but the common frequently eat rats, 
which abound in all the islands. Their food is generally. 
dressed by baking, and they make several palatable 
dishes from different sorts of fruit. imes boil’ 
their fish in the green leaves of the plantain tree, tied up 
so as to form a bag, which holds both the fish and the 
water, thus producing a kind of fishsoup. Hogs are ge~ 
nerally baked whole, in holes dug in the earth, having 
the bottom covered with red hot stones about the size of 
aman’s fist. Some of these stones, wrapped in leaves of 
the bread-fruit trees, being at the same time introduced 
into the belly of the hog, and the carcase having been 
placed on cross sticks, and covered with leaves, the whole 
is closed around with earth, and left, without farther-at« 
tention, wo the influence of the Neat. They are not-very 
cleanly, either in their cookery or manner of eating ; and, 
except in families, seldom sit down in companies to a so« 
ciable meal. Their usual drink at meals is water, or the 
milk of the cocoa nut ; but they use at breakfast, orvas 
a morning beverage, a favourite liquor named kava, which: 
is prepared in a manner sufficiently disgusting to Eu- 
ropean feelings. The kava is a species of pepper, which 
is carefully cultivated around the habitations, and which 
generally grows to the height of a man. The-root of 
this plant, after being properly cleaned, is split into small 
pieces, which are distributed among the young people 
who have clean teeth, to be chewed. Each of these has 
a leaf placed before him, on which he lays his portion of 
the masticated root; atid, when it is all chewed, the cons 
tents of the leaves are emptied into a large bowl. It is 
then mixed. with a proper quantity of water, and,squeezed 
hard with the hands, to préss out the liquor’; then. put 
three or four times t h a fine strainer, made of the 
inner bark of a tree. It is ncxt served out in, cups, 
made of plantain leaves, and about.a quarter of a pint is 
put into each ;.but they often continue to drink in con- 
siderable quantities. When taken by some of Captain 
Cook’s sailors, it operated like spirits, producing. intoxi- 
cation, or rather stupefaction ; but seemed to have very 
little effect upon the natives. 
The ordinary dress of both. sexes of the better. class 
eonsists of a, piece. of’ cloth or matting, several yards in 
length, wrapped round the body, and fastened below the 
breast by a peculiar kind: of knot, from which it hangs 
loose. down to the knees ;- and, being tied close with a 
belt, is sufficiently long for the upper part.to be thrown 
over the shoulders. This, however, is a costly dress, and 
is not always worn even by the. chiefs. That which is 
more generally in use, is made of the leaves of the gee 
plant, which are very broad and strong, and which, being 
finely shredded, are thickly entwined in a belt; and fas- 
tened round the waist, from which they hang down to 
the middle of the thigh like a full fringe. This, with the 
addition of a few strings of flowers, is: commonly, the 


- sole dress of the women in their festive dances.. The 


inferior class, however, often wear only the maro, which 
is a belt about four or five inches broad, passed between 
the thighs, and fastened round the waist; and, especially 


Islands. 


Fool.” 


Dress. 


Friendly 
Islands. 


PRIENDLY/ ISLANDS! 


en, in war, in fishing, or any active occupa~ 
this covering composes the ‘whole of their dress. 
and women occasionally defend their faces 
sun with little bonnets, made of different mate- 
The ornaments, also, as well as the dress of both 
is the same, and consist chiefly of necklaces made 
‘the fruit of the pandanus, and various odoriferous 
or of small shells, sharks’ teeth, the wing and 

of birds pendant on the breast ; rings of tor- 
toise-shell on the fingers, and several of these joined to- 
gether, forming bracelets, on the wrists; a polished mo- 
-of-pearl shell, or a ring, on the upper part of the 
arm ; and cylindrical bits of ivory, or of reed stuffed 
with a yellow pigment, as ear-rings. They dye their 
hair of different colours, brown, purple, or orange, and 
wear itin a great variety of ways, sometimes growing to 


REESE 
He 


iz 


z 
d 


the other, sometimes entirely cut away except a single 
lock on one side, or on the top of the head.. The beard 
is cut short, and sometimes shaved close with sharp shells. 
Both sexes pluck the hair from their arm-pits, and 
anoint their especially the head and shoulders, with 
cocoa-nut oil, women ruv a fine yellow powder 
like turmeric over the whole of their bodies, and have a 
few blue lines tattooed on the inside of their hands.. The 
men are stained or punctured with these lines and figures 
from the middle of the belly half way down the thighs ; 
and are also partially circumcised, or rather supercised, 
by cutting off the upper part of the foreskin, They are 
all peo deck cleanly in their persons, and bathe fre- 
quently in the ponds, which they prefer to the sea, as 
they reckon the salt water injurious to the delicacy of 
their skin. 

Polygamy prevails among the Friendly islanders with- 
out any apparent limits ; and-the power of divorce seems 
to be equally unrestrained. Every man may take as 
many wives as he can maintain ; and also dismiss them 
when he pleases. The part of the commonalty 
content themselves with one ; but the chiefs have gene 
rally from four to eight. The young women have no 
liberty of choice in their matrimonial connections, but are 
disposed of by the fathe: or his representative. They 
pride themselves much upon their virginity ; and, as.a 
token of that state, wear their hair uncut till they are 
married. The daughters of the chiefs are, from. their 
birth, placed under the care of women, who may be cal- 
led duennas ; and, even after marriage, similar. atten- 
dants are provided by the husband. The forms of 
courtship and marriage ere sufficiently simple. The 
intending husband makes known his wishes. to the pa- 
rents of the other party, sending at the same time a. pre- 
sent of provisions. If the present is accepted, whichis 
not always done at the first offer, his proposal is consi- 
dered as favourably received ; the affair is then commu- 
nicated to the daughter, who, having no power, never 
attempts to refuse. Upon a day being fixed, the bride 
is brought in her best apparel, at the head of a large 
company of females, one of whom, taking her by the 
hand, places her by the side of the bridegroom; who is 
waiting with his friends before his house to receive her ; 
and the ceremony concludes. with a feast and, a dance. 


"59. 


Sometimes’ marriages are contracted, like the Jewish Friendly 


espousal, many years before the consummation of the 
nuptials. Where there are several wives, the children 


take the rank of their respective mothers ; and, in all Domestic 
cases, probably owing to the frequency. of divorce, and life. 


of illicit intercourse, family dignity descends through 
the female. Their mode of domestic life, especially 
among the chiefs, is much after the patriarchal. form ; 
and the younger and inferior branches surround the head. 
of the family in one household, and in the greatest har« 
mony. There is much- social intercourse among. the 
members, of the family, especially in the evenings, when 
they’ retire to their matti which is commonly done 
about seven o'clock ; but instead of then going to sleep, 
they are accustomed to converse till ten or eleven with 
much cheerful pleasantry and shrewdness of remark ; 
and so fond are they of chatting in this familiar manner, 
that, should one chance to awake during the night, and 
find another in the same predicament, they will renew. 
the conversation for.an hour, and perhaps. rouse, some 
of the rest to join in it. Yet, with all this freedom of 
intercourse, there is a strict observance of proper re« 
specty-and even of ceremonious politeness ; and the beha« 
viour and language of the higher classes are thus refined 
and improved above the lower, in the same proportion 
as in civilized countries. * This may be exemplified by 
the orderly manner in which the household of a chief is 
arranged and served at. breakfast, which consists in 
drinking kava, and eating baked yams, &c. and is ta« 
ken at day-break, as soon as the family rise from bed. 
The company forms. a large circle, sitting cross-legged 
before the chief, on each side of whom stand the princi« 
pal servants to direct the preparation of the kava, by ~ 
the younger persons, while the rest of the company are 
silently forming their temporary cups of plantain leaf. 
Persons appointed to the office, then rising from the cirg 
cle, approach the bowl with those plantain’ vessels; and 
when the distributor of the liquor has filled one of them, — 
he asks, «* whose kava is this?” The principal domes< 
tic replies, * take it to such a one;” and the person, 
whose name is pronounced, claps his hands, as a signal 
to the waiter where to convey it.. These waiters conduct 
themselves in the most becoming and regular manner, 
arranging their apparel with the greatest neatness, walk- 
ing with all possible grace, and presenting the cups with 
ceremonious politeness. Other servants, during the pre- 
paration of the kava, are busily employed in baking the 
yams, which are brought in as soon as the liquor is dis- 
tributed, and placed before. the company, who eat, their 
portion, and talk together as they please ; and,-in all 
the different steps of the process, the word of command 
is given and observed with an exactness and attention 
resembling a regiment at parade, At this entertain« 
ment they often continue from day-break to noon, and 
then lie down and sleep two or three hours. It is a fae 
vourite luxury of the principal. people, to have their bo-« 


dies and limbs, while they are asleep, thumped or beaten 


with.the fists of women, who relieve each other during 
the operation. After rising, they proceed, like too many 
of the higher, ranks in most countries, to contrive amuse 
ment)for the day. 


5 ‘ 


* Their manner of bestowing a present, as Mentioned by the English Missionary, who resided among them at Tongataboo, shews 


a high degree of refinement, and may be 


idered as a parallel to.the complimentary style ofthe Orientals. ** If he sent me a pig, 
_them, for Mulk Aamair’s sake, to accept of.it,” Compare 1 Sam. ixv. 27 


those who brought it would say, they had brought a pig, but it was very small, and intended for the, servants, if I, would permit 


Friendly 
Islands, 


Amuse- 
ments, 


760 


One of their most favourite amusements is bathing, 
in which they generally indulge two or three times a 
day ; and they have different water games, in which 
both sexes join. ‘Two posts are fixed about a hundred 

distance from each other, in a depth of water about 

four feet; and the company, dividing into two parties, a 
large stone is placed between them: »'The contest ‘is, 
which side shall first drag the stone to their own post ; 
and the divers generally remain a considerable time 
struggling around the stone, at the bottom of the water. 
Another bathing diversion consists in going out at high 
water, when the sea rolls in on their flat shores with 
great force, and then ride in on the swell, steering them- 
selves on the top of the wave with the utmost dexterity, 
stretching out one hand like a prow, and guiding them- 
selves with the other like a rudder. When a ‘spectator 
would apprehend that they must infallibly be dashed 
lifeless on’ the beach, they will turn on one ‘side with 
surprising agility, and darting through the ‘next: wave, 
swim out to sea to renew the sport; or, if tired of the 
amusement, will shoot through the refluent surge, and 
Jand in perfect safety. ‘another favourite diversion, ese 
pecially of the chiefs, is rat shooting. The cocoa nut 
roasted and chewed, is strewed by the servants near the 
holes of these animals; and the sportsmen take their 
stand with bows and arrows. By making a squeaking 
noise like that of the rats, they entice them to come out, 
and, while they are feeding on the nuts, they take aim 
alternately, and whosoever kills most in the same num- 
_bver of shots wins the game. Wrestling and boxing 
matches furnish another source of entertainment ; in both 
of which exercises they have been’ generally conquerors, 
when engaged with Europeans, and are particularly re- 
markable for the good’ humour’ which they preserve 
when worsted. » Though a very active people, they fre- 
quently spend whole days in luxurious indolence, walk- 
ing among’the plantations, or collecting in one another's 
houses for the sake of conversation ; but these:more se- 
dentary days are generally concluded by dancing ‘and 
singing, which is their most favourite amusement. The 
chief sends through his district, collecting about 40 or 50 
young persons, ‘of both sexes, to ‘dance by toreh light 
with his regular attendants. The women, on these oc- 
casions, are clothed with a thin drapery, having their 
necks and shoulders encircled with wreaths of flowers, 
and their dark ringlets bespangled with the whitest and 
most aromatic blossoms. Their dances are said to be 
beautifully diversified, and to be performed by compa- 
nies of eighty or a hundred, with the greatest prompt- 
ness, regularity, and gracefulness of movement. This 
amusement is frequently continued till midnight, and 
sometimes till morning, ‘one set retiring to rest, while 
another rises to dance. It is their great pastime on all 
occasions, and pers concludes even their ceremonies 
of mourning. It is however too often performed with 
little regard to decency, and is generally an incentive to 
the most licentious excesses. Their music is very sim- 
ple and pleasing, but extremely monotonous. (Their 
songs are lively and ‘melodious ; but their instruments 
are very defective. One, composed of unequal sized 
reeds, resembles Pan’s"pipe. Another is a flute of bami- 
boo, about 18 inches in length, closed at both extremi- 
ties, with a hole near to each end, and four others in the 
middle. Into this instrument-they blow with one nos- 
tril instead of the mouth, and, with’ only three notes, 
produce a pleasing simple music. The principal instru« 


FRIENDLY ISLANDS: | 


ment is a kind of drum, formed of a log of wood, hollows 
ed throughout with a long narrow aperture, laid length. 
wise upon two solid pieces, and beaten with bamboos of 


different lengths, so as to yield a sound accordi ; 
Seiwateek: eo en ama 
have a variety of ceremonies to express their 
ief for the dead; but they are of such a fatiiresiithat and fanseat 
it is difficult to decide, whether they give. r proof rites. 
of humanity or barbarity. When any of them dies, he 


is wrapped up in mats and cloth, and interred in burying 
places called Fiatookas. These are large inclosed “spas 
ces, having in the middle a lofty Rnebil ile, of a pyras 
midal form, around which the bodies of the chiefs,. (for 
the inferior people have no particular spot’ of interment 
are collected for many ‘generations, and e | 
style of rude but solemn dignity. When the deceased 
is a person of distinction, some of his wives, or other rea 
lations, are strangled at the moment that his corpse is 
deposited ; and the nearer relatives, in every case, in- 
flict upon themselves many bloody marks of sorrow. 
The most common way of testifying grief, is ‘to strike 
their faces and breasts with thei chai pas any uf 
them have scars on their cheek bones,” Abtiig a:chele 
produced'by burning, occasioned by the frequent’ abra- 
sion of the skin. At other times they strike a shark's 
tooth into their foreheads, beat their teeth with’ stones, 
and even thrust Spears through their cheeks, or into 
their sides and ‘thighs. Around the graves of theit 
kings and principal chiefs, they often mangle one ano« 
ther in a kind of bacchanalian frenzy, of which 'the fol 
lowing account is given by one of the missionaries, who 
resided lately among them for several years, “ The 
space round the tomb was, on this occasion, a palestra 
for savage gladiators. Hundreds ran about it with fero- 
cious emulation, to signalize their grief for the venerated 
chief, or their contempt of pain and death, by inflicting 
on themselves the most ghastly wounds, and exhibiting 
spectacles of the greatest horror. ‘Thousands, ere the 
period of mourning was over, fought with each other, 
and cut themsélves with sharp instruments. It was an 
awful scene indeed! Night after night we heard, for 
some weeks, the horrid sound of the conchshell rousing 
these deluded creatures to these dreadful rites of mourn- 
ing for the dead ; and shrieks and clashing arms, and the 
rushing and: violence of the multitude, re-echoed round 
our abode, and rendered it a scene of continual horror 
and alarm.” : 
The natives of the Friendly Islands 
stature the common size of Europeans ; and are generally 
strongly built and well proportioned in their figure, their 
shoulders are broad, and their whole form conveys the 
idea of strength rather than of beauty. ‘They have good 
eyes and teeth, and are free from that uncommon thick« 
ness about the lips, which is found among the inhabi- 
tants of the other islands in the Pacific. ‘Their hair is 
thick, straight, and strong, though sometimes bushy | 
and frizzled ; and its natural colour is black,’ but many 
of them stain it of a white, brown, purple, or orange 
hue. There is obscrvable among them a great variety 
of features, many Roman profiles and E ‘faces ; 
and the only general likeness which characterises them, 
is a fulness at the point of the nose. The general co- 
lour of their skin is a cast deeper than copper) brown ; 
but several of them have a true olive complexion. The 
greater part of the people have a dull hue, and a d 
of roughness on the surface of the body, especially where 


seldom exceed in Natives. 


& eho li 


FRI 761 FRI ¢ 
it is uncovered ; but, in the hi » there i iti ; catachs i. 
t ae Sees isa essing woniaere wits Milded em naling a child ‘tartar’, Paasiend- 


utmost mildness and good nature is depicted on their 
countenances ; and they preserve a degree of self-com« 
mand in their conduct, very unusual in the state. 
They are, at the same time, chearful, open, and good 
humoured ; and the females particularly are unusually 
merry and talkative. They were described, in short, by 
their first European visitors, as a le not only adorn- 
ed by all'the virtues, but also as possessing many 
of the most estimable qualities of human nature; but 
more recent information proves them to be capable of 
the most feroctous cxeoccos, and overturns all the decla- 
mations, founded upon their character, in favour of unci- 
vilized society. In their wars, particularly, they present 
all the features of barbarians ; and the fiercest savages of 
America are not more merciless towards hostile tribes, 
than these Friendly islanders are to one another in their 
intestine commotions. . One of the common, modes of 
warfare among them is to “ lootang,” as they express it, 
that is to come upon the adverse party by surprise, to 
massacre in secret, to carry off plunder, to cut down the 
plantains and cocoa-trees, and to commit every species of 
devastation. Women, children, and prisoners, are mur- 
dered without merey ; and the dead bodies, after being 
exposed to the most bruta] indignities, are roasted and 
devoured with voracious satisfaction. Their cruelties 
are perpetrated with the most wanton levity ; and more 
than ordinary barbarism was witnessed by one of the 

ish missionaries, who had adopted their customs, 

joined in their expeditions. * Speetacles too shock- 
ing for humanity to contemplate,’ soon sickened my 
sight, and sunk my spirits: I beheld, with’shaking hor- 
ror, large stacks of human bodies piled‘ up, by being 
Jaid transversely upon each other, as a monumental tro- 
phy of the victory. Proceeding a little farther, a horrid 
spectacle shin Toes my blood, It was a woman in a 

WOL, IX. PART 1. 


- attitude.” 


breast, as in the act of suckling it. Upon approachin 
them, I found both the Sa at child « cold and sti 
with ates rin killed them while in this 
posture, and in their ‘savage rev in amusin 
themselves with Sane the dead bodies in this affecting 
In the course ‘of the civil war to which this 
extract refers, several of the missignaries stationed in 
Tongataboo were cruelly butchered, while harmlessly 
looking upon a victorious party, who were passing their 
habitation ; and while the facts above related clearly 
shew how unadvisable it is to establish Christian teachers 
where their persons rice sigh lawless violence, they 
prove, at the same time, how much the humanizing ins 
fluence of their doctrines is needed, by those who have 
been most highly extolled as the inoffensive children of 
nature. See Cook’s Second Voyage round the World, 4to. | 
vol. i, p. 211; Cook’s last F eooat round the World, 
vol. i. p, 141, 267, 285; Authentic Narrative of four 
years residence at Tongataboo ; Wilson's Missionary 
Vi nes tr the Ship Duff... (q) 

-ERIESLAND, West, in ancient times called Frisia, 
one of the seven united provinces, is bounded’ on the 
north by the German Ocean ; on the south by Overyssel 
and the Zuyderzee ; on the west by the Zuyderzee; and 
on the east by Ommeland, Drenthe, and Overyssel. » It 
lies between 52° 45/ and 53° 30’ of North Latitude, and 
between 5° 8’ and 6° 5’ East Longitude from Greenwich ; 
extending from 10. to 13 leagues from north to south, agd 
nearly the same distance from west to east. It is divi- 
ded into four quarters ; namely, Oostergo, Westergo, 
Zevenwolde or Seven Forests, ‘and the islands on the 
north coast. It contains about 100,000 inhabitants ; 
and sends five of the, 55 representatives, who compose 
the assembly of the states-general. Oostergo, the north« 
east quarter, is divided into 10 districts ; Leeuwerderdeel 
containing 14 villages ; Ferwerderodeel containing 11 ; 
‘West Dongerdeel 14; Kollumerland 6;. East Donger« 
deel 14; Dantumadeel 12 ; Tzetjerksteradeel 15 ; Small~ 
engerland 7 ; Idaarderadeel 8; Aauwerderahem 6. Wes- 
tergo is divided into nine districts ; Het-bilt, containing 
9 villages ; Harlingen 8 ; Wonseradell 27 ; Waterland 
9; Wymbritzerdeel 28; Hennarderdeel 12; Baardere 
deel 16; Menaldumerdeel 12; and Franekerdeel. 11. 
Zevenwolde is divided into 10 districts ; Gaasterland.con= 
taining. 8 villages ; Haskerland. containing 7 ;, Utingers 
deel 7; Doniawerstal 14: Opsterland 13 ; Angwirden 5; 
Schoterland 18; Stellingwerf-Oosteinde 10; Stelling. 
werf-Westeinde 20 ; and Lemsterland 5. The largest.of 
the islands on the north, coast of the province is 
Ameland, which is about four leagues in length, and 
one in breadth, and. contains» several villages; Hols 
lum, Ballum, Nes, &c. - The principal ‘towns: im Fries« 
land are situated on the north-west coast, namely, ‘Leeu- 
warden, the capital of the province, a well built town, 
about 25 leagues N: E. of Amsterdam, and containing 
2000 inhabitants; Franeker, a small but handsome 
trading town, the seat of an university, and about 
leagues west of Leeuwarden ; Harlingen, a fortified an 
populous place, with a convenient harbour, byt of dif 
ficult access, about 20 leagues north-north-west of Am-« 
sterdam, and containing 7000 inhabitants ; Dockum, 
an ancient and neatly built trading town, situated in a 
fine corn country, containing 3000 inhabitants, and about 
four leagues north-north-east of Leeuwarden ; Bolswert, 

5D 


_ 4 veel ” 


762 ii 


of baize or light woollen stuffs, containing 2000 inha- 
hitants, and about 44 leagues south-west of Leeuwar- 
den; Workum, a small open town, surrounded by a 
ditch, and celebrated as the birth-place of Lambert de 
Bos, about 7 miles south-west of Bolswert; Staveren, 
anciently the residence of the Frisian kings, now an 
inconsiderable place in. a. marshy country, near, the 
south-west point, of the province, and about. 7 leagues 
south of Harlingen ; and Slooten, a small, but regular, 
and trading town, surrounded by. lakes, and. 4, leagues 
east of Stavereme oop iin oy po oat toa! , 
The ancient inhabitants of. Friesland ‘were: distin- 
guished by the obstinate defence which they made of 
their liberty, against the power of the Roman emperors, 
and by their repeated attempts to shake off the yoke of 
their conquerors. After the death of Drusus, by whom 
they had been compelled to submit, and after having 
been 40 years in subjection, they expelled the Romans 
from their province, and even made encroachments on 
the territories of the empire. ‘Their ambassadors re- 
paired, with the utmost boldness, to the court of Nero ; 
asserted in his presence that they were excelled by uu 
nation in equity and valour ; \professed’ their’ desire to 
live in friendship with the Romans, but not’ in subjec- 
tion; and even demanded a place in the publie thea- 
tres, to which they understood they had a right as am- 
bassadors. . Though driven back by the Romans, and 
obliged to confine themselves within their ancient boun- 
daries, they continued for:a long series of years to main- 
tain their independence asa state; but, towards the 
decline of the empire, they fell under the dominion of 
the Franks, About the beginning of the 8th century, 
Adalgise, who is considered as the first Christian, ki 
of Friesland, refused to pay homage to the Franks, an 
a war ensued... Radbode, his son, was defeated, by Pe- 
pin ;. but so recommended himself by his valour to. the 
esteem of the conqueror, that he received, his daughter 
in marriage. Charles Martel, afterwards attempting to 
reduce the Frieslanders, was routed with great slaugh- 
ter, and Jeft them for a time unmolested. Returning, 
however, with a numerous army, and wearing them 
out by a succession of bloody battles, he compelled them 
at length to acknowledge his superiority, but not his 
sovereignty. Under Charlemagne they were still far- 
ther subdued, and obliged by pay an annual tribute of 
thirty pounds of ‘silver, As now a proyince of the 
Franks, the country was governed wy counts or lieute~ 
nants, with the title of Potestas or Podestad ; but, un- 
der their first governor Forteman the Great, they ren- 
dered such essential services against the Saxons, that 
Charlemagne exempted them from every mark of ser- 
vitude, and left them free to choose their own form of 
government. » They made no alteration, but continued 
Forteman in his office. About the middle of the ninth 
century, the province» was repeatedly ravaged by the 
Normans and the Danes; but'the valour of the people 
finally prevailed, and cleared their coasts of every in- 
vader. In the year 935, William, Earl of Holland and 
King of the Romans, bestowed many valuable privi- 
leges upon the inhabitants of Friesland, in hopes. of 
ing their affections, and persuading them to ac- 
nowledge his sovereignty. But the Podestad Sier- 
dama, fepported by a powerful body of his country- 
men, d that they would never betray their coun- 
try to Bratify an. emperor, and struck a medal expres- 
sive of their determination to be free. This was con- 
strued as an affront by William, who twice led his ar- 
my into the province, and was slain in his second ex~ 


_ 


FRIESDAND. 
Friesland. g small but ancient town, celebrated for its manufacture 


ray 


pedition: One of the most warlike of the Friesland Friesland. 
‘odestads was Martena,.from whom many of the noble ““~" 


families in the province trace their descent, This ac- 
tive chief baliane. a exertions -e the Hollanders to 

a puhanneinen cif stzins 4 
ie wekatmhesmedats sha toe aicion the invaders. 
After his.death, the election of a suecessor rise to 
two mulevcleraenes mere euaeeniene> _ the coun« 
try with.confusion,; i er wi pressure of 
a war with Albert of eg reduced the province to 
so low a state, that several persons to accept 
the office of Podestad. At length, to. please both par- 
ties, He Rovere dg eae yan’ ue each fac- 
tion; but this measure, instead of prom reconci i. 
liation, served only to aggravate their arlehpce till 
at last they had recourse to arms, and seemed to be 
bent only upon extirpating one another. These dis- 
sensions reduced Friesland to the verge of destruction, 
and were the means of its becoming subject, in 1417, 
to Sigismund, Emperor of Germany. At the termina- 
tion of a long war between Joan of Bavaria, and Phi- 
lip the Good ‘of Burgundy, the province of Friesland 
was gained by the houec uf Dourbon. It became sub- 
ject afterwards to the house of Austria ; and never re- 
covered its freedom till the general revolt in the Ne- 
therlands gave birth to the republic of the United 
States,:of which, since that period, it has formed one 
of the seven provinces. The inhabitants are said still 
to retain that ardent love.of freedom, by which their 
ancestors: were so distinguished, with ma 
of their ancient customs and modes of living. E 
their dialect and accent are said to be peculiar, and 
the language of the peasantry, in’ particular, is. often 
unintalgili to the other inhabitants of the Low Coun- 
tries. brik: ideo zt 

The proyince of Friesland is a flat country, and the 
north-west coast particularly being. below the leyel.of 
the sea, is, secured against the encroachments of, the 
ocean by very. strong dikes, constructed and preser- 
ved at a vast expence. In former times, when the 
care of these dikes was left to the proprietors of the 
adjoining estates, they were often, suffered to fall into 
decay, and the most destructive inundations were fre« 
quently the consequence of this neglect. In order to 
preserve themselves and their effects in such calamities, 
the inhabitants, in the want of matural sand hills, con- 
structed circular eminences about twenty or twenty- 
five feet in height, upon which at length they gradual. 
ly built their habitations, so that many of the towns 
and villages of the province are now situated on these 
artificial mounds. | Since the year 1570, when the 
dikes were all raised and strengthened at the public 
expence, these irruptions of the sea have been less fre« 
quent and fatal. : her 

Friesland very much resembles the provinces of Hol« 
land in its climate and soil. The country has been ori- 
ginally full of marshes ; and many lakes are still found 
in the south-west districts; but in the south-east are 
several extensive heaths and woods, The whole coun- 


Be yp tpn tne agree which at once carry _ 
oO 


the superfluous water to the sea, and facilitate the 
intercourse of traffic. One of them extends from Har« 
dings to Lieuwarden, and thence by smaller branches 
to Groningen ; and another from Slooten to a 
small on the south coast. The north-west dis- 
tricts-abound in excellent h paabanness and, in these quar- 
ters, immense quantities of butter and cheese are pro- 
duced. The cow-pock is said to have here been known 
among the peasantry from time immemorial. Besides 

4 


FRI 


excellent cews, sheep, and oxen, number of large horses 
are reared in these pastures, and ‘sent for sale to Ger- 
my and other countries. In the more elevated parts 
corn land is found, and the wheat which it p 

uces is greatly esteemed for the whiteness of its flour, 
Barley, pease, and potatoes, also are commonly raised; 
but oats and hemp are the principal ucts, , The 
inhabitants, however, derive their chief support from 
the fisheries, which are numerous’ al the coast. 
Friesland is famed for its woollen stuffs, and still more 
for its linens, which are said to be the finest in Europe. 
The fuel princi used in the country is or turf, 
but of an inferior kind to that which is found in Hol- 
Jand. See Modern Univ. Hist. vol. xxxi. ; and Playfair's 


CORTESE AND, East, ae in the circle of 
Ww ia, is bounded on the north by West Friesland 
and the German Ocean, on the east by Oldenburg, and 
on the south by the bishopric of Munster, and on the 
east by Groningen. It lies in 53° 20’ North Latitude, 
and 7° 20’ East Longitude, extending 40 miles from 
Soh sa remteand nae. Ces lame Gennes Hops: west 
to east. It contains sev towns, about 103,000 
inhabitants, The aes Aurich, in’ the 
centre country, a castle, surrounded 
by a marshy territory, and by forests full of game, for- 
gs hot ir ao residence, and containing 2000 inha- 
bitants. Norden or Noorden, an old, unfortified town, 
near the north-west extremity of the country, about 
three miles from the coast, and 17 north of Embden, 
has a tolerable harbour and a little trade. Embden, a 
flourishing sea- near the mouth of the Ems, and 
28 miles east of Groningen, is the largest town of East 
Friesland, tolerably well built and fortified, situated in 
a fertile tract of country, and containing 8000 inhabi- 
tants. The harbour is excellent, and the trade of the 
place considerable, ially in cheese, linens, and 
wines. Frederick the Great of Prussia exerted himself 
anxiously for the extension of its commerce ; and, in 
1750, established an East India company. But his 
forcing system did ‘not comport with the republican 
spirit of the people ; and many of his schemes were very 
ineffectual. a Se i , which he laboured 
to encourage, succeeded well, and brings in t 
sums annually. Jengum, a wealthy town on the Fiver 
Ems, about 11 miles south-east of Embden, is remark- 


able chiefly for gains. ber scene of several battles. . 


Leer or Lehr, a well t manufacturing town on the 
Seda above its confluence with the Ems, and 15 miles 
south-south-east of Embden, is situated in a marshy 
bat fruitful country, and contains 4500 inhabitants. 
Strickhausen, a citadel built shan city of Hamburg, 
about 9 miles east of Leer on the river Seda, is 24 miles 
south-east of Embden. Friedburg, a fortress on the 
frontier of Oldenburg, 26 miles east of Embden, is si- 
tuated in a heathy and marshy soil, and is now ina 
ruined state. Essens, on the sea-coast, 21 miles north« 
east of Embden, is a tolerably well built town, with 
an old citadel. Witmund, a small burgh and citadel in - 
the north-east corner of the principality, between Es- 
sens and Friedburg. There are many small islands 

the north coast, viz. Juyst, N , Baltrum, 
&c. The country of ar Friesland is el ta 
generally marshy or territory. tracts along 
a cami eaden Gotankoahake rivers, have a bot- 
tom of clay or mud, and are extremely fertile, abound- 
ing in excellent pastures; but the inland are 
chiefly sandy, heathy, and marshy, in which great 
quantities of ‘pest sre dog for fuel. The climate. is 


768 


“heavy 


appearance ; small round figures, yellow complexions; 
and flaccid bodies. The fowls, cattle, sheep, eA mt 
on the contrary, are of a large breed; numbers of. 
the latter animals are exported. for heavy cavalry and. 
coaches, even to Russia and Italy. There are few corn, 
fields in the country, and butter and. cheese.are the 
principal, products of the farms, One third of the 
whole is uncultivated, and there is abundance. of 


PRO sel 


cold, the seasons late ; and the inhabitants have a stunted. 


Frodsham, 
Frome... - 


——— 


game. The river Ems traverses the south-west dis. - 


trict ; and contributes essentially to the trade and pro- 
sperity of the country. The chief articles of com- 
merce are horses, horned cattle, cheese, butter, oats, 
beans, rape-seed, and fine linen. The prevailing reli- 
gion is Lutheran, but’ the Catholics, Moravians, Jews, 
&c, are freely tolerated. See Riesbeck’s Travels in 
Germany, vol. iii.; and Playfair’s Geography. (g). 


FRODSHAM, a small town of England, in. the 


county of Chester, is agreeably situated on a risi 
ground near the confluence of the rivers Weaver 
Mersey, and beneath the hills which form ‘the north- 
ern extremity of Delamere Forest. The town, cons 
sists of. two wide and well, paved streets, intersect- 
ing cach other at right angles ; and. at the upper extre- 
mity of one of them, upon very high ground, stands 
the church, which is an old and handsome building, 
It was repaired and beautified in 1790. Near the 
church is a school, with an excellent house for the 
master, having a cupola for the p of erecting an 
observatory. ‘ Beacon Hill, which stands behind the 
school, commands a fine pros of the estuary of the 
Dee and the remote parts of Lancashire. The hill is 


now cut out into walks, which lead gradually to the - 


summit. There are butts for the practice of archery 
at the foot of the hill. Frodsham Brid 
Weaver, is about a mile to the east of the town; 
and at some distance from it, on the river side, are 
works for the refining of rock salt, which giye some 
employment to the inhabitants. There is a small cot~ 
ton man in the town, anda graving dock 
and yard have lately been erected for building and re- 

iring vessels. One ofthe springs which supplies 
the town with water discharges 1700 gallons in a mi- 


nute, and is used as a cold bath.. Great quantities of: 


potatoes are cultivated in the parish, amounting some- 
times to 100,000 bushels, of nearly one hundred weight 
each, annually. P 


The following is the population of the township and : 


lordship together for 1811. 
Number of houses . .. . o*e 888 
Do. of families ... . . « «eth 5G 
Do. employed in agricul! Pe er ee 
Do. in trade, &e. wre ot 9h% 72 
Males 1.2 as MES AG 1037 
Females a $ ee 1068 
Total population eoplan gos TERS 


See Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii. i 

FROME, or Frome Setwoop, a town of England, 
in the hundred of Frome and county-of Somerset, is 
situated on several abrupt hills, at: the bottom of one 
of which is the principal entrance: to the town, My a 
good stone bridge of five arches across tlte river. The 
town is irregularly. built; and the streets, which are 
numerous, are narrow and ill paved. The houses are 
built of small rough stones, and are covered with 
stone tiles, dug in the adjacent quarries. The 
church of Frome, situated in the east of the town, is 


, over the - 


FRO 764 FRU 
Frome. a large and handsome building: it is 150 feet long and the banks of the river erate eh =| 
aw 56 tecelh, Wiel tenidlata ofa nave, w claastel, ‘ngedlt wie and wool cards, are made. There are in 


south aisles, and four chapels. A quadrangular tower, pm rye get Bem wath ph en an 

neat stone spire 120 feet high, stands of é le 

on the south of the entrance to the nave from the ted fer its fine strong beer; and, at the of ‘the 

chancel. The chancel is very elegant, the area round Bell, a kept | ich cor 10 

the communion table being paved with black and white less than 600 puncheons. The position of 

* marble. The altar piece is placed if a fine oval win- Meepl, according to twigonometita observations 

r Snes ee ae ee pind ee ae i AAG ther 
all superbly gilt. organ at the west is i population parish, in 

waty hahuane? aside the ceeds are are me. 1811. 7 COP ties 

ing-houses for the Baptists, Independents, Presbyte- Number of houses, .. + «+ «+ +++ 1722 


Number of families, et eee e's eee 1909 

There are at Frome several alms-houses and other Harmslics eipnliwed is auneu x0: 

charitable institutions. Among these is a charity school, Ditto in trade A pis emia Sera vag 

which stands near the bridge, and is a large and hand- ace Fi s 4179 

some building of freestone. There is also a free-school, Haenatees Co roe sip my Ne aE Eg ia 
founded by Edward VI. Vallis House, the ancient TR RC OI ed Tai? 

seat of the Leversedges, stands on the west skirts of Pop Dotter s 1 0498 


the town, and near it is 2 beautiful romantic vale, cal- See Beauties of Exetond and Wales, vol. xiii. p. 462, 
is Botto ine di i istory of Somersetshire. (w) 
tion to Mells. FRONTINUS Sextus Junius. ‘See History of 
The principal manufactures of Frome, are broad HypropyNamics. m7 
cloths ana kerseymeres, which are made to the cacent FROST. See MrerzoRroLoey. 
of nearly 150,000 yards annually. There are several © FRUCTIFICATION. See Borany. 
mills for falling, and for the rolling of iron, &e,on |§ FRUIT Trees. See Gardenine. 


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